URBAN TRANSPORTATION AND PLANNING 17CV751

MODULE -5 TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT

1. TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT: Traffic assignment is the stage in the transport planning process where in
the trip interchanges are allocated to different parts of the network forming transportation system.
In this stage:
i. The route too be travelled is determined.
ii. The inter-zonal flows are assigned to the selected routes.

2. APPLICATIONS OF TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT:

i. To determine the deficiencies in the existing transportation system by assigning the future trips to
the existing system.
ii. To evaluate the effects of limited improvement and additions to the existing transportation system
by assigning estimated future trips to the improvement network.
iii. To develop construction priorities by assigning estimated future trips for intermediate years, to the
transportation system proposed for those years.
iv. To test alternative transportation system proposals by systematic and readily repeatable procedures.
v. To provide design hour traffic volumes (DHV) on highway and turning movements at junctions.

3. THE MAJOR AIMS OF TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT PROCEDURES ARE:

i. To estimate the volume of traffic on the links of the network and possibly the turning movements at
intersections.
ii. To furnish estimates of travel costs between trip origins and destinations for use in trip distribution.
iii. To obtain aggregate network measures, e.g. total vehicular flows, total distance covered by the
vehicle, total system travel time.
iv. To estimate zone-to-zone travel costs (times) for a given level of demand.
v. To obtain reasonable link flows and to identify heavily congested links.
vi. To estimate the routes used between each origin to destination (O-D) pair.
vii. To analyses which O-D pairs that uses a particular link or path.
viii. To obtain turning movements for the design of future junctions.

4. DIVERSION CURVES:
One of the frequently used assignment techniques is the diversion curves. These curves represent
empirically derived relationships showing the proportion of traffic that is likely to be diverted on a new
facility (bypass, new expressway, new arterial street etc) once such a facility is constructed.
The data collected from the pattern of road usage in the post serve to build up such curves. Diversion
curves can be constructed using a verity of variables such as:
i. Travel time saved

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ii. Distance saved

iii. Travel time ratio
iv. Distance ratio
v. Travel time and distance saved
vi. Distance and speed ratio
vii. Travel cost ratio

Fig. Simple diversion curves using one variable.

The equation for diversion curves used in India for estimating the traffic that gets diverted to expressways
are:
Expressway
Cost ratio =
Existing highway

The above equations expressways are given in table.

Item Cost Ratio Interval Equations

< = 0.634 % Div. = 98.75 – (CR/0.634) * 8.125
Cars 0.634 < CR < 1.465 %Div. = 90.625 – (CR – 0.634/0.831) * 84.375
1.465 to 2.000 %Div. = 6.25 – (CR – 1.465/0.535) * 5.25
Trucks < = 0.750 %Div. = 100 – (CR/0.75) * 5
& 0.75 < CR < 1.25 %Div. = 95 – ((CR -0.75)/0.5) * 90
Buses 1.25 to 2.000 %Div. = ((2 – CR)/0.75) * 5

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Fig. Diversion curves for Expressways in India.

A well known example of diversion curves using travel time ratio to determine the traffic diverted to expressway is
the Bureau of Public Road (BPR) curves. The curves is “S” shaped.

Fig. Bureau of Public Road (BPR) curves.

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The following formula has been fitted to this type of curves.

100
P=
1 + t6R

Where, P = Percentage of traffic diverted to new system

Travel on new system
tR = Travel time ratio =
Time on old system

Another well known example using two variables, distance and travel time saved using a motorway is the
California diversion curve.
50 (d + 0.5t)
P = 50 +
[(d − 0.5t)2 + 4.5]0.5
Where, P = Percentage of motorway usage.
d = distance saved in miles via the motorway.
t = time saved in minutes via the motorway.
Diversion curve assignments have the drawback that only two alternative routes for each pair of
zones are considered. The technique is, therefore, eminently suitable for new bypasses, new motorways and
such new facilities, but is of limited use in a complex urban network. Diversion curves reflect the travel
resistance as measured by present day travel, but their use for future travel when the pattern can undergo
radical changes is doubtful.

CALIFORNIA DIVERSION CURVES:

These curves used travel-time and travel distance differences between two alternative paths to
estimate the percentage of trips that would use the freeway. The formula for determining percentage usage
of the freeway in route between two points is given by
50 (d + 0.5t)
P = 50 +
[(d − 0.5t)2 + 4.5]0.5
Where, P = Percentage of motorway usage.
d = distance saved in miles via the motorway.
t = time saved in minutes via the motorway.

Fig. California diversion curves.

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5. BASIC ELEMENTS OF TRANSPORT NETWORK:

In order to understand the demand of mobility it is necessary to represent transportation
infrastructure in formal, simple and sufficiently detailed way. The method adopted to represent the
transportation infrastructure is by a set of links and a set of nodes. The relationship between the links and
nodes are referred as network topology.

A transport network, or transportation network is a realisation of a spatial network, describing a

structure which permits either vehicular movement or flow of some commodity. Examples include but are
not limited to road networks, railways, air routes, pipelines, aqueducts, and power lines.

COMPONENTS OF BASIC TRANSPORT NETWORK ARE AS DEFINED BELOW:

1. Routes-- Pathways through a network. Routes are composed of links and nodes.
2. Node – Any location that has access to a transportation network.
3. Link – Physical transport infrastructures that enable to connect two nodes.
4. Flow – The amount of traffic that circulates on a link between two nodes and the amount of traffic
going through a node.
5. Gateway – A node that is connecting two different systems of circulation that are usually separate
networks (modes) and which acts as compulsory passage for various flows. An intermodal function is
performed so that passengers or freight are transferred from one network to the other.
6. Feeder – A node that is linked to a hub. It organizes the direction of flows along a corridor and can
be considered as a consolidation and distribution point.
7. Corridor – A sequence of nodes and links supporting modal flows of passengers or freight. They
are generally concentrated along a communication axis have a linear orientation and connect to a
gateway.

6. ASSUMPTIONS IN TRIP ASSIGNMENT:

i. A time period of substantial length, compared with the duration of trips, in which the level of
congestion in the network is relatively large.
ii. An input trip table giving the flow per hour from each origin zone to each destination zone.
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iii. A road network description consisting of nodes, links and link travel a time-flow function.

a) OBJECTIVES OF TRIP ASSIGNMENT:

i. Explain the concept of an all- or-nothing assignment.
ii. Explain the concept of an equilibrium assignment.
iii. Identify the Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) formula.
iv. Identify the source of the input data to the BPR formula.
v. Explain the application of the BPR formula in an equilibrium assignment.
vi. Explain the meaning of the volumes from an all-or-nothing assignment.

b) APPLICATIONS OF THE TRIP ASSIGNMENT:

i. The route to be travelled is determined and
ii. Inter-Zonal flows are assigned to the selected routes.

7. SHORTEST PATH-MINIMUM TREE BUILDING:

What is a tree?
If for each origin node, at the completion of a pass through the algorithm all other nodes in the
network are arrived at by one link only, the set of path from ‘h’ to the nodes is called “a tree”.
The process of determining the minimum cost path is called “tree building”.
The tree together with the minimum path costs from the origin node to all destination nodes is referred to
as “Skimmed tree”.

8. NETWORK SKIMMING:
Network skimming is a process of identifying the route or travel path on the transportation network
that has the lowest “cost” for the traveller. The “cost” can be the travel time, distance or some monetary
value. In the Lincoln MPO Model the cost used is travel time. This minimum path value is stored in a
matrix called the impedance matrix. This minimum path value results from the “skim tree” that is

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developed. The skim tree is a table that shows all the possible combinations of links or paths that could be
used to go from one zone to another.

9. ROUTE ASSIGNMENT TECHNIQUES:

The various assignment techniques are
i. All – or - nothing assignment (Free assignment or Desire assignment)
ii. Multiple route assignment.
iii. Capacity restraint assignment.
iv. Diversion curves.

i. ALL OR NOTHING ASSIGNMENT:

This is the simplest technique and is based on the premise that the route followed by traffic is one
having the least travel resistance. The resistance itself can be measured in terms of travel time, distance,
cost or a suitable combination of these parameters. The first step is network description and tree-building.
The next stage is to assign the traffic flows to the minimum path tree.
Thought simple, all or nothing assignment suffers from certain disadvantages. It is found to be the least
desirable techniques when compared with more accurate techniques. If the travel time or cost is the sole
factor, the all or nothing assignment might not reflect this tendency.
i. Small differences in journey times by different routes between the same origin and destination can
result in unrealistic journey paths.
ii. Because of the very principle on which the technique is based, too many vehicles tend to be
assigned to more attractive routes. This may cause increasing congestion on these routes and the
techniques take no account of this factor.
iii. If time alone is used as the governing factor for the choice of the minimum path, other equally
important factors such as cost, real ability, convenience and safety will be neglected. But a drive
may attach more value to these neglected factors, thus causing errors in the assigned flow.

Step-1 Step-2 Step-3

Find shortest route Assign all trips to links Continue until trips between
between the traffic Compromising shortest all TAZ pairs have been
analysis zones (TAZ) route. assigned.

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Advantages of All-or-nothing assignment:

 Simple.
 Inexpensive.
 Results easy to understand.
Disadvantages of All-or-nothing assignment:
 Assumes all traffic will travel on shortest path.
 Creates unrealistic flow patterns.

ii. MULTIPLE ROUTE ASSIGNMENT:

This method consists of assigning the inter-zonal flow to a series of routes, the proportion of the
total flow assigned to each being a function of the length of that route in relation to the shortest route. In an
interesting approach, it is assumed that a driver does not know the actual travel time but that the associates
with each link a supposed time. This supposed time is drawn at a random from distribution of times, having
as its mean the actual link time. The driver is then assumed to select the route which minimizes the sum of
his supposed link times. Multiple route models have been found to yield more accurate assignment than all-
or-nothing assignment.
A network with the correct travel time along with the distribution of supposed travel time, and plus or
minus 20%. Correct travel time is presented below. In this case, the following three routes are considered:
i. Through nodes 1-2-3
ii. Through nodes 1-4-3
iii. Through nodes 1-5-3
A dice which has six sides can be tossed to generate a random number, pertaining to the supposed and
correct travel time. For example,
 A throw of one or two simulates the correct travel times.
 A throw of three or four represent the supposed travel time with minus 20% of correct travel time.
 A throw of five or six represent the supposed travel time with plus 20% of correct travel time.

A network for multiple route traffic

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Assumption 1-2 1-4 1-5 2-3 2-4 4-3 4-5 5-3

Correct 20 20 40 40 20 30 20 20
Minus 20% 16 16 32 32 16 24 16 16
Plus 20% 24 24 48 48 24 36 24 24
To find the shortest path between zone 1 and zone 3, the following are the alternatives:
Alternative 1:
This includes zone 1 to zone 3 via zone 2 which finds that the dice throws 3 and 6 = 16 +48 = 64
Alternative 2:
This includes zone 1 to zone 3 via zone 4 which finds that the dice throws 4 and 1 = 24 +36 = 60
Alternative 3:
This includes zone 1 to zone 3 via zone 5 which finds that the dice throws 4 and 1 = 32 +20 = 52
Therefore, we set the first traveller links to be assigned on the route i.e. 1-5-3

iii. CAPACITY RESTRAINS ASSIGNMENT:

It is a process in which the travel resistance of a link is increased according to a relation between
the practical capacity of the link and the volume assigned to the link. This technique has been developed to
overcome the inherent weakness of all-or-nothing assignment technique which takes no account of the
capacity of the system between a pair of zones.
The capacity restraint system, on the other hand, clearly restrains the number of vehicles that can use and
any particular corridor and in fact, the whole system, if the assigned volumes are beyond the capacity of the
network and redistributes the traffic to realistic alternative paths.
Some of the methods of capacity restraint are given below:
a) Smock Method: In this method, the all-or-nothing assignment is first worked out. In an iterative
procedure, the link travel times are modified according to the function:
V
( −1)
TA = T0 e c

TA ≤ 5T0
Where, T = original travel time or the travel time on a link when volume equals capacity.
TA = adjusted travel time.
e = exponential base.
V = assigned volume.
c = computed link capacity.
b) The Bureau of Public Roads Method: The formula used to update the link travel time is:
V 4
TN = T0 [1 + 0.15 ( ) ]
c
Where,
TN = link travel time at assigned volume.
T0 = base travel time at zero volume (equals 0.87 travel time at practical capacity).
V = volume
c = capacity

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iv DIVERSION CURVES:
One of the frequently used assignment techniques is the diversion curves. These curves represent
empirically derived relationships showing the proportion of traffic that is likely to be diverted on a new
facility (bypass, new expressway, new arterial street etc) once such a facility is constructed. The data
collected from the pattern of road usage in the post serve to build up such curves.
Diversion curves can be constructed using a verity of variables such as:
i. Travel time saved, v. Travel time and distance saved
ii. Distance saved, vi. Distance and speed ratio
iii. Travel time ratio, vii. Travel cost ratio
iv. Distance ratio

v. EQUILIBRIUM ASSIGNMENT:
Equilibrium assignment is based on wardrop’s first principle, “which states that no driver can
unilaterally reduce his/her travel costs by shifting to another route.”
If it is assumed that drivers have perfect knowledge about travel costs on a network and choose the best
route according to wardrop’s first principle, this behavioural assumption leads to deterministic user
equilibrium. This problem is equivalent to the following nonlinear mathematical optimization program,
tfk (tck - tu) = 0……………i
tck - tu ≥ 0……………….ii
Where, tfk = traffic flow on path ‘k’
tck = travel cost on path ‘k’
tu = minimum cost
Equation 2 can be the following two states:
i. If (tck - tu) = 0, then from (i), t fk = 0 this means that all used path will have the same travel time.
ii. tck - tu > 0, then from (i), t fk is not equal to zero. This means that all unused paths will have the
minimum cost path.

ASSUMPTIONS:
i. The user has a perfect knowledge of the path cost.
ii. Travel time on a given link is a function of the flow on that link only.
iii. Travel time functions are positive and increasing.

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Step-1
Find Shortest Routes

Step-2
Assign trips to shortest route

Step-3
Update link travel times V
( −1)
using capacity restraint TA = T0 ec

function

Step-4
Compute now shortest
routes using new travel
times

Step-5
Assign trips to shortest route

Step-6
Average trips for last two
assignments V
( −1)
TA = T0 e c

Step-7
Update link travel times
using average trips assigned
and capacity restraint
function

Step-8
Go back to step-1

Step-9
Continue until volume and
travel time on links are in
equilibrium
Flow Diagram of user equilibrium assignment

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10. INTRODUCTION TO LAND USE:

Land use means the humans use of land that includes how humans are using land for example,
Agriculture, Residential, Commercial, Industrial development etc.

a) CLASSIFICATION OF LAND USES:

The representation of this impression requires a typology of land use, which can be formal or functional as
explained below:
i. Formal land use representations: are concerned by qualitative attributes of space such as its
form, pattern and geographical aspects and are descriptive in nature.
ii.Functional land use representations: are concerned by the level of spatial accumulation of
economic activities such as production, consumption, residence and transport and are mainly
socioeconomic descriptions of space.

b) SELECTION OF LAND – USE TRANSPORT MODEL:

i. Simplicity: The model should have a simple casual structure which should easy to compare. A
simple model will generate consume less of time and resources.
ii. Modest data requirement: Data requirement must be modest in fact some of the good models
make use of data routinely available with the planning departments.
iii.Adoptability: The model should be adoptable to any given location.
iv. Comprehensiveness: The model should be comprehensive and should synthesis the relationship
between activities. Housing and transportation adequate well.
v. Operationality and Rapidity: The model should be operational, capable of easy interpretation and
should be able to tests rapidly a wide range of policy options.
vi. Computer Cost: The model should be operational at relatively cheap computer cost.

11. LAND USE AND TRANSPORTATION CYCLE:

Land Use Change

Increased land value Increase traffic generation

Land use
Increased Transportation
Cycle
Increased traffic conflicts
Roadway Improvement

Deterioration in LOS

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12. FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPORT LAND USE RELATIONSHIP:

i. Urban land development.
ii. Dominance of private vehicle ownership.
iii. Context of land use and transportation decision making.
iv. Different time contexts for response.

13. FLOW CHART OF FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURE OF LOWRY MODEL:

Lowry presented his model in 1964 for the spatial organisation of human activities in a
metropolitan area.
In the model, the spatial distribution of basic employment is allocated exogenously. The spatial
distribution of households and population serving employment are calculated by the model. The zonal
allocations rules for both household and service employment are specified within the model structure.
Constraints on the maximum number of household for each zone and the minimum population serving
employment thresholds for zone are also specified. The allocations achieved by the model represents and
equilibrium situations which would eventually come to pass if all other factors had remained constant
while equilibrium was being achieved. Consequently, the model is not an forecasting procedure. This is
because it is not possible to associate point in real time with the model solutions since it is not clear if and
when such an equilibrium solutions would come to pass. It has been observed that the solutions produced
by the model bear a strong resemblance to reality or to anticipated reality.
The fundamental structure of the model is:

Exogenous allocation of basic employment

Employment to Home Allocation function

Endogenous Allocation of Households

Population serving employment allocation function

Endogenous Allocation population serving employment

Check constraints on population & service employment

Total employment Work home trip

Vector vector

Household vector Home service trip

vector

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The principal components of the urban area are:

 Population
 Employment
 Communication between population and employment.
Three broad sectors of activity are identified in the urban form:
i. Employment in basic industries.
ii. Employment is service (population serving) industries.
iii. Household or population sector.

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