UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING

NFHS POTENTIAL DEBATE TOPIC 2022-2023

July 1, 2021

Submitted by:

Ryan Nierman
Wylie E. Groves High School
Beverly Hills, Michigan

Ruth Kay
Detroit Country Day School
Beverly Hills, Michigan
 Background
The United Nations (UN) was founded as an international organization in 1945. It is made up of 193 Member States.
Over a 72-year period, more than 1 million individuals from 125 countries have served in 71 peacekeeping missions. As
of 2021 there are approximately 90,000 peacekeepers in 12 operations around the world (UN 2021).

The number one goal of UN Peacekeeping is to protect civilians. In addition to their main goal, the UN identifies a total
of six objectives of their Peacekeeping operations: Protecting civilians, Preventing conflicts, Building Rule of Law and
security institutions, Promoting human rights, Empowering women, and Delivery of field support. Of late, the UN has
made a commitment to include more women in peacekeeping roles. Ultimately, the deployment of women as
peacekeepers is up to the member states. But the UN has established a global effort to increase the role of women.
According to the UN, “The 2028 target for women serving in military contingents is 15%, and 25% for military observers
and staff officers. The 2028 target for women serving in formed police units is 20%, and 30% for individual police
officers.”
Main Organs
The main organs of the United Nations (UN) are the General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council,
Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat.

The General Assembly is the main organ of the United Nations. All 193 Member States are represented in the General
Assembly, which meets each September in New York for their General Assembly session. At these annual meetings
multiple topics are discussed, including focus on peace and security, admitting new members, and addressing budgetary
issues. These issues require two-thirds majority, while other issues that may arise only require a simple majority.
Additionally, each year, the General Assembly elects a President to serve a one-year term.

The second Main Organ is the Security Council, which is responsible for maintaining international peace and security and
determining the existence of peace or aggression in various geopolitical situations. The Council has 15 members, five
permanent members and 10 non-permanent members, which each receives one vote. The Security Council has the
ability to impose sanctions and/or impose the use of force. All Member States much comply with the decisions that
come out of the Council. The Security Council also has a President, but that President changes every month.

The third Main Organ of the United Nations is the Economic and Social Security Council. This Organ is focused on the
coordination, policy review, dialogue, and recommendations in regard to economic, social, and environmental issues.
This group is focused on implementing internationally agreed upon development goals while addressing issues of
sustainability. There are 54 Members in this Organ elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms.

Next is the Trusteeship Council, which was established in 1945 by UN Charter – Chapter XIII with the goal of providing
international supervision for 11 Trust Territories placed under the administration of seven Member States. The Organ
was vital in ensuring the necessary steps were taken by the Territories to achieve self-governance and independence. By
1994, all of the Trust Territories had attained self-governance or independence. The Trusteeship Council suspended its
operation on November 1, 1994 after amending its rules on May 25, deciding that annual meetings were no longer
needed. Now meetings are held only when determined necessary by the President or upon request of the majority of
the members of the General Assembly or Security Council.

The International Court of Justice makes up the United Nation's principal judicial branch. Its seat is at the Peace Palace in
Hague (Netherlands) making it the only one of the six principal organs that is not located in New York. The Court is
focused on issues of international law and legal dispute submitted by the Member States.

Comprised of the Secretary-General and tens of thousands of international UN staff members, the final Main Organ of
the United Nations is the Secretariat. The Secretariat carries out the day-to-day functions of the UN. The Secretary-
General is the chief administration officer of the organization, which is appointed by the General Assembly on the
recommendation of the Security Council. The Secretary-General serves a five-year, renewable term (United Nations).
 Principles of Peacekeeping
There are three principles of peacekeeping as articulated by the United Nations. The first is the consent of parties. UN
peacekeeping operations require a commitment by the parties to the political process – this gives the UN freedom of
action, both political and physical. Without consent, a peacekeeping operation may become a party to the conflict. It is
important to note that party consent does not always mean that there is local level consent or support.

The second principle of peacekeeping is impartiality. This is distinct from neutrality or inactivity. Think of a referee;
impartial but has the ability to inflict penalties for infractions.

The final principle of peacekeeping is the non-use of force except in self-defense and defense of the mandate. UN
peacekeeping operations are not to be used for enforcement, but force may be used with authorization of the Security
Council. These include tactical level self-defense or defense of the mandate(s). Additionally, peace enforcement does
not require the consent of the main parties – it can involve the use of military force at times. This is normally prohibited
for Member States under Article 2(4) of the Charter – it requires authorization of Security Council. Robust peacekeeping
which the use of force at the tactical level needs authorization of the Security Council (United Nations Peacekeeping).

Peacekeeping vs Counterinsurgency
Peacekeeping is not the same as counterinsurgency. It differs from other forms of intervention due to its three doctrinal
rules: 1) consent of warring parties, 2) impartial treatment of belligerents and limited use of force, and 3) peacekeepers
don't take sides. Counterinsurgencies defy all three of those doctrines. They do not deploy troops with consent of the
insurgents, they side with the government, and they use military force as their main avenue to achieve change.
Counterinsurgency success rates have been declining over the past 100 years; peacekeeping success rates are far higher
(Howard 2019).

Current Operations & History Info

Since the first UN troops were deployed in the Middle Eastin 1948. Since then, there have been more than 70
peacekeeping missions/operations authorized by the Security Council. These missions have included the deployment for
more than 1 million peacekeepers from 110 nations to help countries achieve peace. Today there are about 95,000
peacekeepers serving in 13 operations worldwide.

The UN faces a cash crisis right now – member states own more than $1 billion in unpaid dues (about two-third of which
is owed by the US). Since 2017, the US has accumulated over $900 million in arrears, including $776 million to
peacekeeping budget (Long and Thomas-Jensen 2021).

There are 12 current peacekeeping operations: MINURSO, Western Sahara; MINUSCA, Central African Republic;
MINUSMA, Mali; MONUSCO, D.R. of the Congo; UNDOF, Golan: UNFICYP, Cyprus; UNIFIL, Lebanon; UNISFA, Abyei;
UNMIK, Kosovo; UNMISS, South Sudan; UNMOGIP, India and Pakistan; UNTSO, Middle East (United Nations
Peacekeeping). Four of the five most complex missions are in Africa. They are Malia, the Democratic Republic of Congo,
the Central African Republic, and South Sudan (Twardowski, 2021).

The first of the 12 peacekeeping missions is the United Nations Mission for the Referendum (MINURSO) in Western
Sahara. This mission was established by Security Council Resolution 690 on April 29, 1991. Established in accordance
with the settlement proposals of August 30, 1988, the mission provided for a transitional period. Western Sahara to
choose independence of integration with Morocco. On April 29, 2016, the Security Council adopted Resolution 2285,
which called parties to show political will and deepen negotiations. This mission involved 462 personnel (230 civilians,
191 experts on mission, 1 police officer, 7 staff officers, 20 troops, and 13 UN volunteers) and 245 uniformed personnel.
Countries which contributors the top number of troops are Bangladesh, Egypt, Ghana, China, Pakistan, Honduras,
Russian Federation, Malaysia, Brazil, and Austria. The mission received $61,740,000 in financing via the General
Assembly.
The second current mission is the Multidimensional United Nations Peacekeeping Operation (MINUSCA) in Central
African Republic. Established on April 10, 2014, the mission sought to assist with security, humanitarian, human rights,
and political crisis in Central African Republic. There were 14,943 personnel involved in the mission (1,162 civilians, 140
experts on mission, 2,065 police, 299 staff officers, 11,018 troops, and 259 UN volunteers) and 12,870 total uniformed
personnel (11,650 military personnel and 2,080 police personnel). The top troop contributors are Rwanda, Bangladesh,
Pakistan, Egypt, Zambia, Morocco, Burundi, Cameroon, Nepal, and Mauritania.

The third mission is United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission (MINUSMA) in Mali. Established
with Resolution 2100 on April 25, 2013, the mission's goal is to support the political processes occurring in Mali. With
Resolution 2164 (June 25, 2014), the Council decided the mission should focus on duties, ensuring security, stabilization,
and protection of civilians, supporting national political dialogue and reconciliation, and assisting in the reestablishment
of State authority, rebuilding the security sector, and promoting and protecting human rights. There are 15,916
personnel involved in the mission (1,421 civilians, 9 experts on mission, 1,692 police, 465 staff officers, 12,149 troops,
180 UN volunteers, 15,209 Total uniformed personnel, 13,289 military personnel, and 1,920 police). The major troop
contributors are from: Chad, Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Egypt, Togo, Niger, Cote d'lvoire, Guinea, and Germany.
There are also notable police contributing members, including Senegal, Togo, Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Egypt, Benin,
Nigeria, Niger, France, and Cote d'lvoire. The mission has received $1,270,104,400 in financing.

The fourth current mission is the United Nationals Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the
Congo (MONUSCO), which took over an earlier UN peacekeeping operation (United Nations Organization Mission in
Democratic Republic of the Congo - MONUC; July 1, 2010). This mission is carried out under the guidance of Resolution
1925 (May 28, 2010). The goals of the mission are to focus on protecting civilians, humanitarian personnel and human
rights defenders un imminent physical violence and support of the Government of the DRC in stabilization and peace
consolidation efforts. There are 17,467 total personnel involved (2,970 civilians, 172 experts on mission, 1,403 police,
283 staff officers, 12,303 troops, and 336 UN Volunteers). There are also 18,316 total uniformed personnel (16,215
military personnel, 60 military observers, 391 police, 1,050 personnel of formed police units). Top troop commitments
have come from Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, South Africa, Morocco, Uruguay, Nepal, United Republic of
Tanzania, and Malawi. The top police contributions are from Senegal, Egypt, Bangladesh, India, Niger, Djibouti, Burkina
Faso, Tunisia, Jordan, and Benin. The peacekeeping mission has received $1,154,140,500 in financing.

Another current mission is the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) mission in Golan. The situation
in Israel-Syria was becoming increasing unstable (March 1974). The UN Disengagement Observer Force was established
May 31, 1974 by Resolution 350. Since then, UNDOF has remained in the area to maintain the ceasefire between Israeli
and Syrian forces. During Syrian conflict – violations of the ceasefire with escalation of military activity occurred. On June
29, 2017, Resolution 2361 renewed the UNDOF's commitment until December 2017. The resolution condemned use of
heavy weapons by Syrian armed forces and armed groups in the area of separation. The mission involves 1,224 total
personnel (125 civilians, 53 staff officers, and 1,046 troops). Top Contributors are Nepal, Uruguay, India, Ireland, Fiji,
Czech Republic, Bhutan, and Ghana. The mission received $67,574,300 in financing.

The sixth peacekeeping operation is the United Nations Peacekeeping Force (UNFICYP) in Cyprus, which was set up in
1964 to prevent fighting between the Bree Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities. UNFICYP has remained on the
island to supervise ceasefire line, maintain a buffer zone, and undertake humanitarian activities and support good
offices mission of Secretary-General. The mission involves 1,028 total personnel (151 civilians, 67 police, 52 staff officers,
757 troops, and 1 UN volunteer). The top troop contributors are the United Kingdom, Argentina, Slovakia, Ireland,
Paraguay, Hungary, Russian Federation, Bosnia and Herzegovina, India, and Pakistan, while the major police contributors
are Ireland, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovakia, China, India, Romania, Russian Federation, Ukraine, Italy, and Jordan. The
mission received financing in the amount of $55,206,800.

The next ongoing mission is the United Nations Interim Force (UNIFIL) in Lebanon. It was created in March 1978 to
confirm Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon, restore peace and security to the area, and assist the Lebanese Government in
restoring its authority. The mandate has been adjusted twice, first in 1982 and again in 2000. Following the July/August
2006 crisis, the Council enhanced the force – they needed to monitor the cessation of hostilities, accompany and
support the Lebanese armed forces, extend assistance to help ensure humanitarian access to civilian populations.
10,830 total personnel (830 civilians, 305 staff officers, and 9,795 troops) and 15,000 total uniformed personnel are
involved in the mission. Top troop contributors are Indonesia, Italy, Ghana, Nepal, Malaysia, India, France, Spain, China,
and Ireland. Financing of $480,649,100 has been established.

Another current mission is the United Nations Interim Security Force for Abyei (UNISFA). Under Resolution 1990 (June
27, 2011), the Security Council responded to the situation in Sudan's Abyei region with concerns with violence, tensions,
and population displacement. The operation focused on the border between north and south using humanitarian aid
and authorized force. This came after the Government of Sudan and the Sudan People's Liberation Movement reached
an agreement in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and to demilitarize Abyei and let Ethiopian troops to monitor the area. There are
4,841 total uniformed personnel involved in the mission (217 civilians, 124 experts on mission, 24 police, 113 staff
officers, 3,167 troops, and 34 UN volunteers) and 4,841 total uniformed personnel (4,791 military personnel and 50
police personnel) involved. The top troop contributors are Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Namibia, Nepal,
Rwanda, Peru, Burundi, and India. The top police contributors are Ethiopia, Rwanda, United Republic of Tanzania, Egypt,
Jordan, and Fiji. The mission's financing came in at $283,114,300.

The next peacekeeping mission is the United Nations Interim Administration Mission (UNMIK) in Kosovo, which was
established by Resolution 1244 on June 10, 1999. It authorized the Secretary-General to establish an international civil
presence in Kosovo to help those in Kosovo enjoy autonomy. The Declaration of Independence of Kosovo and a new
constitution occurred on June 15, 2008. The mission focused on security, stability, and human rights in Kosovo. The
mission includes 350 Total personnel (312 Civilians, 8 Experts on mission, 10 Police, and 20 UN Volunteers) and. 4,756
Total Uniformed Personnel (4,718 police personnel and 38 military liaison officers). The top troop contributing countries
are the Czech Republic, Ukraine, Republic of Moldova, Poland, Romania, and Turkey, while the largest police
contributing countries are the Russian Federation, Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Turkey, and
Ukraine. The missions financing totaled $42,487,700.

One of the most notable peacekeeping operations is the United Nations Mission in the Republic of South Sudan known
as UNMISS. On July 9, 2011, South Sudan became newest country in the world. This occurred as a result of a six-year
peace process, which began with the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement in 2005. In 2011, Resolution 1996
was adopted, because the situation constituted a treat to international peace and security in the region. A crisis broke
out in South Sudan in December 2013, which resulting in the Security Council invoking Resolution 2155 (2014) to protect
civilians, monitor human rights, and support delivery of humanitarian assistance. 19,195 Total Personnel were involved
(2,275 civilians, 224 experts on mission, 1,653 police, 417 staff officers, 14,228 troops, and 398 UN volunteers) and 7,900
Total Uniformed Personnel (7,000 military personnel and 900 civilian police personnel). The top troop contributors are
Rwanda, India, Ethiopia, Nepal, Bangladesh, Ghana, China, Mongolia, Thailand, and Republic of Korea. The top police
contributors to the mission are Rwanda, Nepal, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Sierra Leone, Zambia, Ethiopia, Uganda, Fiji, and
Gambia. The missions funding is $1,264,877,800 (United Nations Peacekeeping).

The 11th mission is the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) mission. The first group
of UN military observers arrived in the mission area in January 1949, more then 70 years ago (United Nations
Peacekeeping; Jett 2019). Their goal was to supervise the ceasefire between India and Pakistan in the State of Jammu
and Kashmir. Following the hostilities of 1971, the group has remained in the area to observe developments pertaining
to the ceasefire of December 17, 1971. There are 117 Total Personnel involved (72 civilians and 45 experts on missions).
The top contributing countries are Croatia, Republic of Korea, Philippines, Thailand, Sweden, Switzerland, Uruguay,
Chile, Romania. Financing totals $10,519,800 (United Nations Peacekeeping).

The final ongoing peacekeeping operation is the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) mission in the
Middle East. Set up in May 1948, UNTSO was the first peacekeeping operation established by the United Nations and
has been ongoing for more than 70 years (United Nations Peacekeeping; Jett 2019). Military observers have remained in
the Middle East to monitor ceasefires, supervise armistice agreements, prevent isolated incidents from escalating and
assist with other UN peacekeeping operations in the region. 365 total Personnel are involved in the mission (222 civilians
and 143 experts on mission). The top contributors are Finland, Netherlands, Switzerland, Australia, Ireland, Norway,
Denmark, New Zealand, Sweden, and Austria. The mission's financing, $36,501,000 (United Nations Peacekeeping).

Troop Commitments
The United States has never been a strong contributor of peacekeeping troops, evidenced by the 12 current missions.
During the Clinton administration, an executive order known as the Presidential Decision Directive (PDD) 25 was
adopted, which placed a cap on US troops for peacekeeping. This cap has never been seriously challenged (Institute for
Policy Studies 2019).

While the United States only provides a few dozen troops out of a more than 85,000, their seat on the Security Council is
vital in maintaining a decisive role in determining where peacekeepers should be deployed, how long those deployments
should last, and what the goals of the peacekeeping operations are. Their seat on the Council has helped the US push for
sanctions, including freezing assets, imposing travel bans, imposing arms embargoes, invoking trade restrictions, and
carrying out other measures, especially against terrorists and rogue states (Skullerud 2020).

UN Peacekeeping Operations - Effectiveness

The United Nations has had an effective track record over the years, despite criticism from Bolton and other right-wing
American foreign policy professionals over the years. Despite criticism, UN peacekeeping missions have had significant
success over the years, especially compared to American interventions. In a meta-analysis of 13 quantitative studies,
which sought to investigate the effectiveness of peacekeepers and their ability to protect civilians, all of the studies
showed peacekeeping forces were associated with decreased levels of violence. Adequately-staffed missions were
associated with lower combatant deaths. A deployment of 10,000 peacekeeping soldiers was associated with a 73%
reduction in combat deaths in instate conflicts within Africa between the years of 1992 and 2011. Peacekeeping has the
ability to restrict the geographic size of conflict zones and is able to limit instability. Even deployments as small as 1,000
troops is linked to decreased conflict zone size. The United States holds a permanent member seat on the UN Security
Council, and therefore wields incredible influence over peacebuilding operations. This is particularly important, since the
success of UN peacekeepers is vital to American national security. Violence, even violence far away from the US borders,
still threatens Americans (Olbert, 2021).

Additionally, UN peacekeeping operations are distinct from those of NATO or US led military options. They are more
cost-effective; according to a 2018 GAO review, it is eight times cheaper to support a UN mission than to deploy US
forces. But, regardless of this evidence, the US government allocates only 0.03 percent of its federal budget to UN
peacekeeping. This provides a great area for the United States to step up its commitment to the international
community and invest additional funds into current and future missions (Long and Thomas-Jensen 2021).

Costs of Peacekeeping
The approved budget for UN Peacekeeping operations for the fiscal year 1 July 2020 - 30 June 2021 is $6.58 billion. For
some perspective, the UN annual budget for peacekeeping is less than 0.5% of global military spending. The budget
initially comes from member nations. The UN utilizes a complex formula drawn up by the member nations that each
nation will contribute according to their size (UN 2021)

The Security Council manages all aspects of Peacekeeping except funding, which is the responsibility of member states.
The General Assembly apportions peacekeeping expenses based on a formula that Member States themselves have
established. The formula calculates for the relative economic wealth of Member States. Permanent members of the
Security Council required to pay a larger share. According to the United Nations, the top 10 providers of assessed
contributions to United Nations Peacekeeping operations for 2020-2021 are:
1. United States (27.89%)
2. China (15.21%)
3. Japan (8.56%)
 4. Germany (6.09%)
5. United Kingdom (5.79%)
6. France (5.61%)
7. Italy (3.30%)
8. Russian Federation (3.04%)
9. Canada (2.73%)
10. Republic of Korea (2.26%)

Since the United Nations has no military troops of their own, member states provide troops, on a voluntary basis for
each peacekeeping operation. Peacekeeping soldiers are paid by their own Governments. Countries volunteering
peacekeepers are reimbursed by the UN. The UN has a standard reimbursement rate, but in many cases, the member
state’s reimbursement does not cover what it pays its own soldiers. Member states are also reimbursed for
providing equipment, personnel, and support services (UN 2021)

One perpetual problem facing UN Peacekeeping missions is that members states don’t always pay their bills, which
severely compromises UN operations. The UN Dispatch identifies the issue:
These arrears are having a deleterious impact on the ability of the UN Peacekeepers to carry out their missions
in several hotspots around the world. The UN Secretary General has warned of a deepening liquidity crisis in
some UN Peacekeeping missions, meaning UN peacekeeping missions are cash strapped…
…Persistent cash-flow problems stemming from the non-payment or late payment of dues from key UN member
states (chief among them, the United States) has been a defining challenge for the United Nations during the
past few years.

The cost of peacekeeping operations for the US have historically been governed by a Congressional cap on spending. But
this cap has been inconsistently applied. La Rainne Pasion from the International Relations program at the New School
explains:
The UN-US calculations and gaps have seesawed ever since. In the early years of the George W. Bush
administration, the US cap was raised several times by Congress as arrears were being reduced. When Barack
Obama assumed the presidency in 2009, the US budget cap on payments, at 27.1 percent, was higher than the
UN assessment of 25.9 percent. At the end of the Obama years, the US payment ceiling was set at 28.57
percent, according to figures from the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations. The UN assessment stood a
little lower, at 28.3 percent.

The Associated Press reported in 2018 that the US declared it would not pay more than 25% of the cost of UN
Peacekeeping. Previously it had been assessed approximately 28% of the costs of peacekeeping operations. Historically,
the U.S. had been more flexible. Under the 1999 Helms-Biden Act the Congress worked with the State Dept to negotiate
and often lift the cap to match the requirements from the UN. But Republican era politics took a strict posture and
enforced the cap. The difference between the cap and what the UN required made the US fall into arrears with the UN.
As of November, 2020, the US is $900 million in arrears to UN Peacekeeping. The lack of flexibility in the cap has severely
compromised peacekeeping operations as pointed out by the UN Dispatch:
Since the Trump administration came to office in 2017, Congress has declined to lift this 25% cap so the amount
of US arrears have increased year-over year. As of November 2, 2020, the United States is about $900 million in
arrears to UN Peacekeeping, which is fielding about 80,000 blue helmets across 13 missions around the world.
These arrears are having a deleterious impact on the ability of the UN Peacekeepers to carry out their missions
in several hotspots around the world. The UN Secretary General has warned of a deepening liquidity crisis in
some UN Peacekeeping missions, meaning UN peacekeeping missions are cash strapped.
 Historic Perspectives

Failed Missions
Established in 1945, the United Nations was created to act as an international umbrella organization focused on a select
group of objectives, including the prevention of war and maintaining peace in disputed areas. Unfortunately, the United
Nations has failed several times. There are several reasons why the United Nations has been ineffective in achieving
some of its core objectives, including a lack of reachable agreement by both sides, lack of troop support from wealthier
countries, the right to veto at the disposal of five countries (Jett 2019; TRT World, 2018).

As peacekeeping missions have become increasing intricate and hazardous, support from wealthier countries has
waned. Wealthier nations who were willing to provide soldiers early on (during first stage operations) did so because
they wanted to prevent superpower confrontation during the Cold War. Once the Cold War risk subsided, the support
from wealthier nations diminished. Take the United States, it provides only 0.04 percent of the total number of troops
and police in the United Nations. Additionally, wealthier countries tend to be democracies, and democracies tend to be
held more accountable to public opinion. Therefore, democratic governments are less likely to make choices that result
in the need to explain to voters why they choose to put their valiant soldiers at risk in regions of the world that few
voters could locate on a map. Therefore, larger stage operations tend to be staffed by troops provided by poorer
countries. Unfortunately, these countries often lack the ability to offer significant training or afford the necessary
equipment to carry out effective missions (Jett, 2019).

There are many examples of missions that have been carried out by the United Nations that failed to achieve their
desired outcomes due to a lack of support and/or other mission variables despite spending close to $8 billion every year
on peacekeeping operations around the world with the majority of those funds going towards missions in Africa
(Oladipo, 2017).

Since the creation of the Jewish state in 1948, Palestinians have been fighting against Israel's ethnic cleansing. Today,
Israel controls 85% of historic Palestine and has also imposed a blockade on the Gaza along with several illegal
settlements that violate multiple United Nations' resolutions. The United Nations Security Council has sought to
condemn Israel's use of force, but the United States has used its veto power multiple times to counter the UN's efforts.
Therefore, the UN has been unsuccessful in its efforts to resolve the Israeli-Palestinian ethnic conflict (TRT World, 2018).

Secondly, the confrontation over the Kashmir region has become one of the most notable human rights crises in
recorded history (TRT World, 2018). Kashmir is located along the border of India and Pakistan. The region has been
disputed by the two countries for years, since the two countries achieved independence in 1947 (Better World
Campaign, 2012). The Kashmir region has become dominated by killing, raping, incarceration of leaders and activists,
torture, and more due to several unimplemented UN resolutions (TRT World, 2018). Kashmir acceded to India, sparking
a violent outburst, ended by a ceasefire and deployment of a UN peacekeeping force during the United Nations Military
Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) mission. It has overseen the State of Jammu and Kashmir since 1949.
There was a 'Line of Control' agreed upon in 1972, but India and Pakistan still do not agree on the mandates outlined by
the UNMOGIP mission, which can only be ended but the UN Security Council (Better World Campaign, 2012).

After the end of the US-Vietnam War and the Cambodian Civil War in 1975, the Khmer Rouge regime took control of
Cambodia and converted the country into a socialist state. The Khmer Rouge regime proceeded to carry out a four-year
genocide killing two million people. The United Nations failed in Cambodia; it recognized the Khmer Rouge regime, while
ignoring human rights violations (TRT World, 2018).

Since the dictator Mohamed Siad Barre was ousted in the Somalian Rebellion in 1991, there has been a long-term civil
war. The peacekeeping mission, UNOSOM, was established in December 1992 to offer humanitarian aid to those
effected by civil war and famine. The mission failed due to the lack of government, preventing effective communication
with UN officers, along with repeated attacks against the UN officers. The failure of the mission has resulted in the
deaths of 500,000 civilians (TRT World, 2018).

The Rwandan Civil War is one of the worse ethnic genocides since Word War II. The civil war between the Rwandan
Armed Forces and the Rwandan Patriotic Front took placed between 1990 and 1994. In 1994, the Hutu regime killed 10
UN peacekeeping officers in an effort to prevent international intervention. Over the next three months, the Hutus
proceeded to kill 800,000 Tutsis and rape nearly 250,000 women. During this time, the UN troops failed to protect the
victims and stop the violence occurring (TRT World, 2018).

Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence in 1992. Following the declaration of independence, Bosnian Serbs
mobilized troops into the country with assistance of the Serbian government. These actions fueled the fire for war.
Approximately 8,000 Muslims were killed by Bosnian Serb troops in July 1995. Many Muslims fled to the UN safe zone in
Srebrenica, but they were out numbed, and the Dutch troops in the safe zone were unable to defend them (TRT World,
2018).

The next UN failure lies with the Darfur conflict in Sudan. Rebels in Sudan rose up against the government in 2003. Since
then, 200,000 people have been killed, 4.4 million people need aid, and 2.5 million people have been displaced. It took
four years into the conflict, before the UN sent 26,000 troops into Darfur (TRT World, 2018). The operations of the UN's
mission in South Sudan came into focus after its troops failed to protect civilians following clashes between government
forces and former rebels in 2016. After an internal investigation, it was revealed that its peacekeeping mission in Juba
had failed to achieve one of its core mandates, 'to protect civilians under threat of physical violence […] with specific
protection for women and children' (Oladipo, 2017).

The US-led invasion of Iraq occurred in 2003. Since then, over one million Iraqis have died as a result of the civil and
economic instability and terrorism. UN Resolution 1483 attempts to legitimize the invasion, an invasion that was carried
out under falsely asserting that Saddam has Weapons of Mass Destruction (TRT World 2018).

The Syrian regime sought to squash peaceful protestors who took to the streets in March 2011. The regime released
imprisoned Al Qaeda members. Several countries were involved in the conflict across Syria. Over the next year, the UN
tried to pass resolutions to address the conflict, but Russia used its veto power at least 12 times to protect its ally. Syria's
conflict pushed over 6.3 million people out of the country, accounting for one-third of the global refuge population.
Another 6.2 million are displaced within the country.

South Sudan gained its independence in July 2011 when it separated from Sudan. Since then, the country has been
experiencing a civil war, which has resulted in the killings of over 382,000. More than 14,500 UN peacekeeping officers
have been deployed, but have failed to prevent the humanitarian crisis in South Sudan. The conflict forced 2.5 million
people to leave the country and left another 1.8 million displaced within South Sudan. Five million people are facing
severe food insecurity.

The Yemen War began in 2014. The Saudi-led coalition began its intervention in 2015, which escalated the war and left
the poor country in a disastrous state. The UN failed to send humanitarian aid, food, drugs, and more to civilians.

In August 2017, Myanmar launched its military crackdown on the Muslim minority, killing 24,000 civilians and forcing
750,000 others to flee to Bangladesh. China stood behind Myanmar and blocked efforts to help in the UN Security
Council. The UN documented occurrences of gang rapes, killings, beatings, and more (TRT World, 2018).

In the Central African Republic, the UN mission has been accused of inaction when more than 75 people including
civilians were killed during September 2016 (Oladipo, 2017). In the Central African Republic, a joint delegation recently
wrapped up its visit. The delegation was made up of the United Nations, the African Union, the Economic Community of
Central African States (ECCAS), and the European Union. The visit focused on dialogue over the peace process (United
Nations, 2021).
 Obama Era Peacekeeping
During the Obama presidency there were approximately 125,000 U.N. troops engaged in 16 peace missions. President
Obama hosted a historic Leaders' Summit on Peacekeeping with the goal of strengthening the capacity of the United
Nations to undertake peace operations. The Whitehouse outlined the goals of the summit.
…on September 28, 2015-- President Obama hosted a historic Leaders' Summit on Peacekeeping with the goal of
strengthening the capacity of the United Nations to undertake peace operations. At that landmark meeting of
nearly fifty world leaders, President Obama described U.N. peace operations as "one of the world's most
important tools to address armed conflict." He also reaffirmed at this Summit the great value the United States
places on peacekeeping and announced the release of a new Presidential Policy Memorandum on U.S. Support
to U.N. Peace Operations, the first of its kind in over 20 years, to deepen the U.S. commitment to the success of
these missions.

According to Time Magazine, President Obama convinced 50 different countries to provide 40,000 additional
peacekeeping forces for global missions. The Obama Administration did not contribute significantly with troops. The U.S.
was a leader in funding peace operations. The U.S. used its military budget and troops to train peacekeepers from other
countries. We provided logistical support such as air transportation and aerial refueling. Will Brown, the Africa
correspondent for the Telegraph, pointed out:
While the Obama Administration never contributed significant numbers of troops to UN operations, it did play a
key role in peacekeeping in three major ways. First, it remained the leading funder of UN peace operations,
contributing several billion dollars to UN missions over the course of the Administration. In addition, it used its
extensive military experience and military budget to increase the professional capability of UN troop
contributing countries such as Ghana, Ethiopia, and Rwanda, as well as training for UN forces in the field. Finally,
it provided substantial logistical support in the form of air transportation and aerial refueling, especially for UN
missions in the Sahel region. In the Security Council, the Obama Administration was a relatively strong supporter
of UN peacekeeping, advocating for frequent deployments of UN peacekeepers and strongly supporting ongoing
missions.

Trump Era Peacekeeping

Trump was openly hostile to the U.N.’s mission. La Rainne Pasion from the International Relations program at the New
School explained some of the consequences of Trump’s hostility:
The Trump administration’s unilateral decision to stop paying its full United Nations peacekeeping bills is
hanging peacekeeping missions out to dry while creating financial woes for the countries that provide the blue-
helmeted troops and police officers, United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres is warning… Indeed, by
refusing to pay America’s bill fully, Trump has ended up harming some extremely poor nations that are eager to
do their part at the UN while undermining UN efficiency and the collective financing agreements to which every
nation had previously agreed.

Another sign of the negativity toward the UN under the Trump administration was the appointment of Nikki Haley as the
ambassador to the United Nations. According to Politico, Haley had no foreign policy experience. She replaced Samantha
Power who had won the Pulitzer Prize for her writing on humanitarian crises and authored the U.S.’s policy on genocide
prevention. The Trump administration also made decisions that financially strangled the UN. The administration chose
to stop payments to UN peacekeeping. Peacekeeping missions were already underfunded and in financial peril. The U.S.
fell into arrears for hundreds of millions of dollars undermining UN efficiency and the collective financing agreements to
which every nation had previously agreed.

Biden Projections
Joe Biden has a long history with the United Nations. The UN Dispatch explains that then, Vice President Biden led a
summit to enhance their commitments to more effective UN Peacekeeping. The “Helms-Biden” Law was adopted. The
Law guided America’s relationship with the United Nations for over two decades. The “Helms-Biden Law” was the result
of a crisis imposed by Republicans in Congress who refused to pay American dues payments to the United Nations. US
Ambassador Richard Holbrooke secured an agreement with other UN member states to slightly reduce America’s dues
payments. Joe Biden leaned on Jesse Helms to release the billion dollars of back dues. The “Helms-Biden” law was
passed unanimously in the US Senate and America’s arrears were paid. The expectation was that the United States
would not become a deadbeat at the UN once again.

President Biden did not identify UN Peacekeeping as a campaign issue, so his policies are somewhat speculative. Under
the new Biden administration experts expect President Biden’s focus to be an extension of Obama era policies. Will
Brown, the Africa correspondent for the Telegraph, indicated that, “While Biden has a long and strong history with
peacekeeping, his administration will represent a continuity, rather than a change, from the Obama Administration.”
The lack of American support over the last four years will most likely be restored.

Non-Traditional Operations
Traditionally the United Nations is involved with conflicts around the globe. They use troops to prevent conflict, monitor
conflict and observe, monitor, and report in pre and post conflict environments. But the role of UN Peacekeeping goes
beyond the traditional roles into some multi-dimensional areas. Robinson et. al., report that “The UN defines two type
of peacekeeping operation that it can undertake: Traditional and Multi-Dimensional...Multi-Dimensional: More complex
operations which include peacekeeping but also extend into peace building, reforming a state’s security sector and
clearing mines.

There are many facets to Multi-Dimensional peacekeeping which give the affirmative several non-traditional
peacekeeping operations to explore.

Cyber Peacekeeping
Cyber attacks throughout the world are increasing. Many nations and corporations have been targets. UN Peacekeeping
operations are no exception. Cyber warfare can be waged against logistic operations of peacekeepers to thwart
missions. The UN could expand peacekeeping operations in the area of cyber peacekeeping. Cyber attacks can occur
independent of a peacekeeping operation and/or could occur as a disruption to a current peacekeeping operation. The
UN will need to be concerned with keeping their operations safe along with the dangerous destabilization of
international peace via cyber attacks. Michael Robinson associate professor at American University et. al., outlines how
a cyber attack could threaten peace:
Cyber warfare which causes blackouts, cuts off supplies to safe drinking water, makes travelling dangerous or destabilises a
national economy is clearly a threat to the stability of a nation and is therefore a threat to international peace and security,
providing justification for the establishment of a peacekeeping operation.

Robinson goes on to indicate that research has determined that cyber peacekeeping would be legal within the UN
Charter:
Research by Kleffner and Dinniss [27] concurs …the UN Security Council would be legally entitled to determine that cyber
warfare could amount to a threat to international peace and security under Article 39 of the UN Charter. They conclude
that cyber peacekeeping will largely be legally permissible, with international human rights law and the specifics of the
mandate for a particular operation being the primary legal framework to guide it.

UN cyber peacekeepers could execute a host of operations to secure peace including: data analysis and discovery,
network cleansing, blocking IP ranges for networks, patching and removing unnecessary services, adding capacity to
reduce impact of attacks, and provide training for local staff to eventuate the withdrawal of UN cyber peacekeepers.
There are many nations that don’t have the resources to defend against cyber attacks. The UN could play a critical role in
keeping those nations, and most likely their infrastructure safe. Other UN peacekeeping operations could also be the
subject of cyber attacks that would endanger their effectiveness to ensure peace. There is certainly a need to develop a
cyber peacekeeping force.

Space
The United Nations also works to ensure peace in outer space, so that every nation may have access to the benefits
offered from various space activities (developments, explorations, etc). The United Nations plays a vital role in
developing international space law and cooperation over space science and space technology. The importance of
ensuring peace in outer space began in 1957 with the launch of Sputnik. The United Nations Office for Outer Space,
based in Vienna, serves as the secretariat for the Committee on the Peaceful Use of Outer Space and its subcommittees.
It also assists developing countries in using space technology for development (United Nations). The United Nations for
Outer Space Affairs is led by its Director, Simonetta Di Pippo (United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs).

In 2019, representatives from 25 countries met in Geneva to discuss how to stop the space race from turning into an
arms race. During the 10-day event, the United Nations attempted to create a new treaty on space militarization. The
discussions were deemed necessary after both Russia and China had launched military space programs aimed at
challenging U.S. hegemony. The countries were working to develop lasers that could attack satellites in orbit. Trump
responded to Russia and China's actions with the creation of the United States' 'Space Force.' Although America took
part in discussions in Geneva, the United States voted against several recent resolutions on UN celestial peacekeeping
(The Economist, 2019).

Humanitarian
Most UN Peacekeeping operations arise out of interstate conflict. But increasingly important is peacekeeping are
humanitarian concerns. Robinson et. al. identify some humanitarian concerns as they report, “…the UN has widened the
scope to include events such as state collapse, HIV/AIDS, nuclear proliferation, humanitarian suffering and massive
human rights abuses. In effect, the UN Security Council has a large degree of discretion on what constitutes a threat to
international peace and security.”

These events include the recent pandemic. The UN Security Council reports:
Michelle Bachelet, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, noted the impact of COVID-19 on health, societies,
economies and development gains around the globe, welcoming the 15-member Council’s recent adoption of a resolution
calling for a global ceasefire amid the pandemic (see Press Release SC/14238 of 1 July). She also underlined the importance
of human rights components in 12 of the organ’s peace operations, stressing that such work brings missions closer to the
people they serve and helps Governments advance inclusive development, the rule of law and peace.

Human Rights Violations

The United Nations Peacekeeping forces have been accused of many human rights violations. From Haiti to
Somalia the troops supplied by member states commit atrocities against indigenous populations. According to
a recent investigation by the Associated Press, between 2004 and 2016, the United Nations received almost
2,000 allegations of sexual exploitation and abuse against its peacekeepers. Human Rights Watch reported:

Haiti is just one of many countries where peacekeepers have raped women and girls, or sexually
exploited them in exchange for food or support. My colleagues have also reported on rape by African
Union forces in Somalia, French and UN peacekeepers in Central African Republic and UN troops in
the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Dr. Jasmine Westendorf reported that while member states have the ultimate responsibility for the actions of
their troops, the UN needs to do its own due diligence. Reliance on member states to vet their troops has
proven problematic, such is the case with Sri Lanka

In 2016, initially, the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) in Geneva took the
lead in the vetting of peacekeepers from Sri Lanka, which was done together with the Human Rights
Commission of Sri Lanka (HRCSL), on the basis that the HRCSL would take this process over. However
almost as soon as the vetting program actually began in 2018, it was beset by problems affecting the
first deployment and that revealed bad faith on the part of the government of Sri Lanka from the very
outset — the Sri Lankan Army dispatched troops to Lebanon without waiting for the vetting process to
be finished.

Human Rights Watch has indicated that the UN has stepped up its efforts to tackle the violations by member
troops. The UN outlined it three pronged “strategy to address all form of misconduct including sexual
exploitation and abuse: prevention of misconduct, enforcement of UN standards of conduct and remedial
action.” But Aljazeer reported “The UN says it has a zero tolerance policy on sexual exploitation and abuse, but
survivors, activists, lawyers and human rights organisations say such crimes have been allowed to continue
with impunity.”

War on Drugs
Drugs, drug cartels, and the war on drugs figure prominently in UN Peacekeeping operations. The UN office on Drugs
and Crime outlines that, “The fight against drugs and organized crime is also critical to the success of peacekeeping
operations because criminals exploit regions weakened by war.”

The UN has increasingly taken on the war on drugs as part of its operations in conflict zones. This role can take the UN
into areas not traditional identified as peacekeeping including, according to the UN Office on Drugs and Crime,
peacekeeping missions are aimed at “…strengthening national and regional capacities in the areas of law enforcement,
forensics, intelligence, border management and money-laundering and at strengthening criminal justice systems.

Terrorism
Terrorism is generally thought to be a non-nation state conflict, and traditionally not an area for UN Peacekeeping. The
UN is not currently prepared to fight terrorism. This could change as UN officials have been examining the feasibility of
using peacekeepers in areas such as Libya and Syria. The Richard Gowan, UN Director, reports:

An expert panel convened by Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon reported earlier this month that blue helmet missions “lack the
specific equipment, intelligence, logistics, capabilities and specialized military preparation required” to handle violent
extremists.

This is one of those pieces of policy advice that is right but liable to be ignored in a crisis. U.N officials have talked about
sending blue helmets to Libya and have plans for a post-conflict mission of over 10,000 soldiers in Syria, should it ever be
needed.

Immunity
UN Peacekeepers operate around the world with a variety of supervision levels. Reports of peacekeeper misdeeds have
become increasingly concerning. Accusations include anything from automobile claims to sexual abuse and exploitation.
Traditionally, peacekeepers have enjoyed immunity in the courts of member states. According to Bruce Rashkow ABA
Representative to the United Nations:

Initially, there is the issue of the generally absolute immunity of the UN from any kind of jurisdiction in the courts of UN
Member States… In addition, the UN has established internal administrative processes within each peacekeeping
 mission…These responses of the UN have generally been effective over the years to address claims by third parties in
peacekeeping missions.

Third party claims have become prevalent in recent years and the details are shocking. Skye Wheeler Senior
Researcher, Women's Rights Division outlines:

Sexual exploitation and abuse” is a broad term that includes crimes like rape but also violations of the UN’s ban on any
sexual relationships that include “abuse of position of vulnerability,” which essentially covers the local population
everywhere UN peacekeepers deploy. Poverty, conflict and chaos all make women and girls profoundly vulnerable to abuse
by UN soldiers. Stigma, along with steep barriers to obtaining contraception and safe abortions (in Haiti abortion is
completely prohibited), make even consensual relationships more dangerous.

Currently the UN is not effective in dealing with serious issues. Wheeler goes on:

UN efforts have led to some improvements by troop and police contributing countries such as more training and troop
vetting ahead of deployment. Some countries have tried new approaches. South Africa holds courts-martial in the same
locale as the victim, to improve access to witnesses and evidence, and ensure that justice is seen to be done. But countries
need to do more.

Elections
UN Political and Peacekeeping Affairs identifies that: “Elections are a vital part of democratic processes, including political
transitions, implementation of peace agreements and consolidation of democracy. The United Nations plays a major role
in providing international assistance to these important processes of change.”

While not a traditional part of peacekeeping missions, ensuring free and fair elections is critical to the post-conflict success
of UN peacekeeping efforts. The UN has provided support for the supervision of elections, technical assistance, supporting
a conducive environment, organization and conduct, certification/verification, election observation, along with expert
consultation. The UN reports that since 1991 more than 100 countries have requested and received electoral assistance.
Elections are an integral part of post-conflict peacekeeping operations.

Mine Clearing
Certainly, mine clearing is an important part of ensuring peace within a conflict. But mine clearing has an expanded
benefit for peacekeeping. The United Nations identifies that:
Mine action makes it possible for peacekeepers to carry out patrols, for humanitarian agencies to deliver assistance and for
ordinary citizens to live without the fear that a single misstep could cost them their lives.

Mine action entails more than removing landmines from the ground. It includes high impact efforts aimed at protecting
people from danger, helping victims become self-sufficient and active members of their communities and providing
opportunities for stability and sustainable development.

Clearing mines so a village can survive post-conflict and provide resources to prevent conflict can be an important aspect
to UN Peacekeeping.

Impact of Pandemic
The Covid 19 pandemic has implications throughout the world and on every part of our lives. Peacekeeping is no
exception. The UN scaled back its Peacekeeping missions in 2020. There was pressure from member countries to limit
deployments of troops. Global economic decline because of the pandemic has resulted in decreased capacity of member
states to contribute to Peacekeeping operations. Some member states are also under financial pressure to cut their
funding to the United Nations. In spite of safety precautions and tighter funding the UN Peacekeeping operations
continue. Bruce Rashkow of Columbia University summarizes the UN efforts:
In addition to the initiative of the UN Secretary General to pause hostilities around the world --- and the dangers
that such hostilities inherently raise for U.N. peacekeeping operations --- COVID-19 is having a significant impact
 on how those operations are being conducted. The pandemic has presented new challenges for U.N.
peacekeeping forces to keep themselves safe from the coronavirus, while also seeking to facilitate peace in
troubled areas. Working with the WHO and others, the United Nations has developed extensive guidelines for
dealing with the pandemic not only in its headquarters in New York, Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi, but
throughout the world, including its 13 current peacekeeping missions. These missions currently involve 95,000
military and police personnel from some 34 countries wearing Blue Helmets, mostly in Africa.

Renewable Energy
The United Nations has stated that it is striving to reduce its carbon footprint in areas where it is carrying out global
operations, including peacekeeping operations (Hall 2021). The activities of the U.N. Secretariat constitute
approximately 60% of the U.N.'s greenhouse gas emissions. The largest portion of which is due to peace operations,
operations established and carried out around the global to prevent conflict, protect civilians, establish peace processes,
and support peacebuilding (Holt, Hopkins, Mozersky 2021). The United Nations often carries out these peacekeeping
operations in areas of the global which suffer from limited access to electricity and high vulnerability to the effects of
climate change (Energy Peace Partners 2019).

Despite the growing global renewable energy market, very little of the investment is targeted towards fragile states.
Approximately 27 countries located in Africa, the Middle East, and Southern Asia, home to some 850 million people, are
affected by conflict, climate change, and limited access to electricity. Many of these nations are home to U.N.
peacekeeping and humanitarian operations (Energy Peace Partners 2019).

Some efforts have already been made. For example, Energy Peace Partners and The Stimson Center's Powering Peace
initiative is focused on supporting the U.N. and its ability to transition to renewable energy dependency in the field and
bring renewable energy to the communities where missions are being carried out (Energy Peace Partners 2019). The
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) signed a memorandum of understanding with the United Nations to
utilize renewable energy in its peacekeeping operations. IRENA announced that it would collaborate with its partners to
install clean energy when possible and work to attract financial support from private investors to support their efforts
(Hall 2021; IRENA 2021).

These, and future, efforts will be of vital importance to many U.N. peacekeeping operations throughout the global
(OCHA Services 2021). Despite what has already been done, successful renewable-energy transitions in peace operations
continue to represent the exception, rather than the rule. Several missions must overcome internal obstacles in order to
effectively deploy renewables (Holt, Hopkins, Mozersky 2021).

Nonetheless, the time is now. For example, energy plays an important role in the climate, security, conflict in Mali, one
of least electrified countries in the world. There is notable dichotomy that exists between the electrification levels in the
urban areas of the South and central regions of the country where 80% of the population lives, and the conflict-afflicted
North, where electrification is less than 2%. This discrepancy reveals the significant inequitable distribution of wealth
and development, fueled by marginalization and successive conflicts. A Transition to renewable energy would benefit
the MINUSMA mission in multiple ways. It would reduce security exposure from fuel convoys, increase economic cost
savings over time, and reduce diesel fuel consumption. Delivering local energy services would also contribute to
peacebuilding and support for peace processes in the North through investment and engagement strategies.
Transitioning missions to renewable energies will help to contribute to the larger climate goals established by the United
Nations (OCHA Services 2021).

Another conflict to analyze is that of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)
is home to one of the longest and most complex crises in the world. Eighty percent of the population lives in extreme
poverty, and only a few have access to electricity. The country suffers from a lack of interconnected electrical grid, and
therefore has one of the lowest rates of electrification and energy consumption in the world. Having said that, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo has great potential for hydroelectric, solar, and wind power. The MONUSCO
peacekeeping operation deployed by the U.N. relies on diesel generators for two-thirds of its electricity. Only one-third
of their energy comes from local grids, driven by hydroelectric energy. Now offers an excellent opportunity to transition
the mission and others to renewable energy. The result would offer both short-term and long-terms benefits to the
mission and the communities. The benefits include: cost savings, reduced environmental impact, a jumpstart of the
renewable energy sector in the DRC, local economic growth, national DRC electrification goals, and sustainability
objectives. While there will be complications and challenges to face, the transition away from diesel consumption to
renewables is one that must occur. Challenges include limited information about the local grid connectivity, and limited
institutional knowledge. Both of which can be overcome through incentives, support packages, education, and an overall
prioritization of electricity generation from renewable energy (Holt, Hopkins, Mozersky 2019).

Furthermore, in order to meet its own carbon-reduction and renewable-energy transition goals, the United Nations will
need to alter the way it sources and generates power. This means that it will need to shift away from diesel generators
in field missions. The United Nations must also implement mandates for achieving more diversified energy sources,
which help to promote efficiency, monetary savings, reduced pollution, enhanced security, the ability to jumpstart local
access to energy and/or investment, and reduced corruption. At the current pace, the U.N. will be unable to achieve its
goals, especially in fragile states, where it could take decades to reach the goals lied out by the United Nations.
Therefore, it is time to reduce consumption, modernize field operations, support carbon neutrality, and minimize the
environmental footprint imposed in these countries, thereby, reducing emissions and addressing climate change (Holt,
Hopkins, Mozersky 2021).

Medical Support
Increasingly, UN missions are being carried out in remote locations with uncertain geography. UN missions have also
become more dangerous when dealing with insurgency, terrorism and the like. The higher risk of serious injury or death
for the peacekeepers is a real probability. Ralph Johnson III, from University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center,
explains, “…, UN PKOs have become more “robust,” that is, engaged in preemptive, assertive operations. A statistically
positive and significant relationship exists between missions’ size, complexity, remoteness, and aggressive tenor and a
higher probability of trauma or death, especially as a result of hostile actions or disease.” Much like the Korean War
where M*A*S*H units were developed, the concept of having a medical support unit that is mobile and capable of
delivering level 2 or 3 trauma responses is an absolute necessity. Medical support is a critical part of the planning of UN
peacekeeping operations. Ralph Johnson goes on to indicate:

“Therefore, medical support plans must be purpose built for each operation. Plans (and planners) must be capable of
speedy initial reaction and sufficiently flexible to manage rapidly changing demands (cf. [2]). Thus, given the experience
of past UN PKOs, in addition to fundamental structural modifications, future UN PKOs will need to adopt a medical
support planning mind-set that is informed by continuously updated research and aims to achieve best practices (cf. [12,
13]).”

Moving Forward & Future Missions

Peacekeeping Missions – On Decline and Risks Posed
Peacekeeping missions have been on a steady decline over the past four years with two of the largest missions
beginning to draw down. Many believe that the downsizing provides evidence that missions are poised to shrink even
further. Some of the factors contributing to the decline in peacekeeping missions and deployments include budgetary
pressures, which have been further escalated due to the financial and practical challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic.
On the other hand, some believe that COVID-19 has created the need for additional missions, as COVID-19 may continue
to fuel instability in conflict-prone countries, leading to new internal conflicts.

UN peacekeeping operations reached its peak in 2015 when nearly 100,000 troops were deployed, and operations had a
budget of over $8 billion. Among the deployments were the "big five:" Mali, Central African Republic, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, Darfur, and South Sudan.
Since then, troops have been drawn down. The peacekeeping mission in Darfur decreased from 20,000 to 4,000 and will
be replacement by a more politically focused presence. After 20 years in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the UN's
biggest and most expensive mission has begun scaling back its 16,000 troops and 1,000 police. Furthermore, no major
new missions have been authorized since 2014 – this provides further evidence that the era of peacekeeping is in
decline.

What happens if the declines continue, and missions come to an end? There are certainly real-world costs of ending
large peacekeeping operations. There have been some successful peace processes, such as Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire;
Darfur and the Congo face high risks of large-scale violence and relapse. In Darfur, three million people remain
displaced, and in the Congo, there is a very fragile government, which faces armed group activity and is grappling with
three million internally displaced people.

Peacekeepers are the canary in the coal mine of the international community. They report human rights violations,
constrain belligerents, provides information that fuels the world's response, etc. With declining missions, there will be
fewer canaries, risking greater violence.

Could COVID-19 create instability internationally? Yes, take Burkina Faso, Cameroon, and northern Nigeria. Widespread
violence was already present prior to COVID-19, but the economic shock of the pandemic could trigger more serious
instability and regional conflagrations (The Conversation 2020).

Finally, the UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres suggests that there are five "horseman" that now threaten our
common future – geostrategic tensions, the climate crisis, growing global, mistrust the dark side of the digital world, and
the COVID-19 pandemic. Five missions have closed or downsized significantly since 2015, which poses the question of
whether large, multidimensional missions have passed and whether the political conditions which allowed them to
occur also passed (Miyashita 2020).

Future Missions/Operations Procedural Steps

There are several steps that must occur in order to determine whether a new operation (peacekeeping mission) should
be carried out with the Security Council determining the deployment.

The first step is the Initial Consultation step. As conflict develops, worsens, or approaches resolution, the UN becomes
involved in numerous consultations. These consultations include all relevant UN actors, the potential host government
and parties on the ground, Member States, including those that might contribute troops and/or police, regional and
other intergovernmental organizations, and external partners. The UN Secretary-General may request an assessment to
identify all possible options for UN engagement.

The second step is the Technical Field Assessment. The Secretariat deploys a technical assessment mission to the
country/territory where deployment of UN peace operations is desired. The assessment analyzes the political, security,
military, humanitarian, and human rights situation. Based on the recommendations of the assessment mission, the UN
Secretary-General issues a report to the Security Council. The report includes the size and resources necessary for the
peace operation to be utilized and includes the financial implications and preliminary estimated costs.

The next step is the Security Council Resolution. If the UN Security Council agrees that deployment should be the next
course of action, it provides authorization via adopting a resolution. The resolution sets the size of the mission and
details the tasks to be accomplished and carried out. The budget and resources are subject to the General Assembly.
Then, there is the Appointment of Senior Officials. The Secretary-General appoints a Head of Mission (usually a Special
Representative) to direct the operation. The Head of Missions reports to the Under-Secretary-General for Peace
Operations. The Secretary-General appoints a Force Commander and Police Commissioner, as well as senior civilian
staff. The Department of Peace Operations and the Department of Operational Support are responsible for staffing the
civilian components of the operation.
Then, the Planning stage takes place. The Head of Mission, Department of Peace Operations, and Department of
Operational Support lead the planning for support. These include the political, military, operational, and other support,
such as logistics and administrative support.

At the conclusion of the planning stage, Deployment occurs. This step proceeds quickly based on the security and
political conditions in place. A mission headquarters is established followed by a gradual build-up of troops. The Member
States contribute military and police personnel, since the United Nations does not have a standing army or police force.
The peacekeepers wear their countries' uniform but are identifiable as UN peacekeepers by their UN blue helmet or
beret and badge. The civilian staff of peace operations are international civil servants, who are recruited and deployed
by the UN Secretariat.

The final step is Reporting to the Security Council. The Secretary-General provides regular reports to the Security Council
covering the implementation of the mission. Any adjustments to the mission mandate are made until the mission(s) is
completed (United Nations Peacekeeping).

Will Future Missions Be the Same?

Future missions my not take the same form as previous ones. For example, future missions may not involve large
military personnel. Smaller missions can also be effective through partnerships with the private sector. Non-military
missions can, and do, exist. Take the example of Guinea-Bissau. The political mission in Haiti, the regional prevention
work in West Africa and the Sahel, and other UN missions prove (The Conversation 2020).

Future Missions Needed - Afghanistan

The U.S. military is now scheduled to leave Afghanistan. Many believe that the U.S. has achieved all that it can through
military involvement in the country and that staying may actually cause more harm than good. Those in favor of
withdrawing the remaining troops, also argue that the U.S. has larger security issues to address elsewhere in the world.

Many argue that what is needed now is not a prolonged U.S. military presence or military intervention from other
countries. Rather, a robust international peacekeeping, peacebuilding, and peace-enforcement mission carried out by
the United Nations is needed. The U.S. should contribute to the mission, but the U.S. should no longer be in control;
Afghanistan is an issue that requires international community involvement. Therefore, peacekeeping in Afghanistan
would involve a multilateral force with consent from both parties. This would help to ensure peace and protection for
the civilians and allow the nation to truly rebuild itself. An important note to realize is that peacekeeping efforts only use
force in self-defense or in defense of civilians. This is distinct from a counterinsurgency mission, which aligns itself with
the host government. Peacekeeping missions must remain politically neutral.

Additionally, US nation-building and counterinsurgency efforts have not always worked, but UN peacekeeping missions
have a high level of success. Virginia Page Fortna, professor at Columbia University, studied 47 peace mission in the
context of 115 periods of peace following conflict and found that peace lasts longer when UN peace missions are
involved. Other professors and experts have also studied the effects of peacekeeping and compared those results to
other nation-building efforts and counterinsurgency efforts and have reached similar results.

So, why have peacekeeping missions not already been established in Afghanistan? Some might argue that the United
Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan, UNAMA, is a peacekeeping mission, but it is not. It lacks peacekeepers.
UNAMA is a political office that does some human rights work, but it is not a police or military force. It is also poorly
staffed and does not have sufficient resources. Additionally, many fear that the U.S. leaving will create a power vacuum
that has the potential to reignite a civil war, ethnic apartheid, and state failure leading to state failure, insurgencies,
instability, and transnational crime.

Those that support invoking a peacekeeping mission in Afghanistan suggest sending at least 5,000 troops with a base in
Kabul and regiments in three other major cities. Others argue that 25,000 troops would have a might higher rate of
success. It would also be more robust (Carpenter, 2021).
 Future Missions Needed - Sudan
After President Omar al-Bashir was deposed following months of protests across the country, the Sudan finds itself in a
difficult and prolonged political and socioeconomic situation. Counterrevolutionary forces have sought to undo much of
the progress that had been achieved in the previous year. The civilian government, which is in charge of leading the
political transition, is exposed to attacks and internal divisions. Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok sent two letters to the
United Nations requesting the formation of a special political mission to Sudan under Chapter VI of the UN Charter.
There is another mission in the country, the United Nations-African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID), which was
created under Chapter VBII provisions on peacekeeping. The request for the new mission is to cover the entire territory
of Sudan. It would be tasked with the promotion of peace settlements in Darfur, South Kordofan, and Blue Niles states,
while mobilizing international economic assistance, humanitarian aid, and constitution-making. This would create a shift
from peacekeeping to peacebuilding. Now is a key time for the United Nation's involvement as many Islamic groups in
Sudan have taken the opportunity to attack the government and accuse it of undermining the country's sovereignty and
independence (Adam 2020).

What the U.S. Can Do? - Africa

For 70 years, peacekeeping missions have saved civilians' lives, reduced violence and conflict, and created the
frameworks necessary for sustainable peace. The United Nations peacekeeping operations have offered a cost-effect
and conflict-management based tool that prevents food insecurity, population displacement, conflict escalation, and
human rights abuses.

The items listed above are exactly what Africa needs as it faces numerous challenges. There are currently several
peacekeeping operations going on in Africa, varying in size, structure, and location, but critical nonetheless. The
Peacekeeping missions have had mixed results. Missions in Liberia, Sierra Leone, and the Ivory Coast have been deemed
successful, while those in Mali, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), the CAR, South Sudan, and Darfur have not.
Some of the failed due to impartiality, non-use of force, or principles of consent.

The peacekeeping operations being carried out by the United Nations led themselves well to the U.S. and its foreign
policy and security goals. The Unites States has long been focused on promoting good governance, peace, human rights
protection, and economic development. Now represents a vital opportunity for President Biden and the United States to
reengage with the United Nations and the global community with a renewed sense of leadership and support for the
United Nations peacekeeping missions.

The United States should offer financial contributions, equipment, training, and other resources, along with increasing
the number of women involved across the entire spectrum of operations and duties. Continued and recurring financial
support to the United Nations is vital to supporting administrative duties and promotion of policy experts, which are
necessary to achieve peace and contribute to economic growth and development, education, and health. Finally, the
United States should work to help customize missions. Creating more specialized and focused missions will help to
resolve issues associated with nonstate actors, climate change, pandemics, transnational population flow, emerging
technologies, and more (Center for Strategic International Studies, 2021).

China
Despite China's involvement and investment in United Nations peacekeeping, its contributions to blue helmet missions
has been limited. Beijing has acted with extreme reserve when discussing its possible expansion. In 2015, President Xi
Jinping shocked the U.N. General Assembly when he offered 8,000 troops to help support the U.N. peacekeeping
operations. As of June 30, 2020, there was 2,534 Chinese soldiers and police serving the United Nations. This number
fails short of Xi's pledge, but still places China among the top ten U.N. personnel contributing countries. Additionally, this
number places it firmly ahead of other permanent members of the Security Council. In fact, the figure is more than twice
the combined total of personnel from all other permanent members. The United States has just 29 soldiers and police
serving.

In addition to troops, China has also supported the U.N. financially. China is the second largest financial contributor,
paying nearly $6 billion each year. This represents 15% of the total cost, but still falls short of the 28% of the budget that
the United States is responsible each year.

There are some fears and accusations that China is seeking to alter U.N. peacekeeping missions and strategy, reducing
its focus on human rights abuses and spreading/upholding democracy. Western diplomats argue that China may be
attempting to utilize peacekeeping missions to prop up Beijing leaders in Africa (Gowan, 2020). This is of significance,
because many of the United Nation's most complex missions are currently taking place in Africa (Twardowski 2021).
Evidence for this inconclusive. What is known is that China remains skeptical of deploying a significant number of troops
into high-risk locations (Gowan 2020).

China deployed a full infantry with the United Nations in 2015 in South Sudan. Since then, it has not sent any other large
battalion on any other mission to date. However, since 2015, U.N. officials have worked with the Chinese to prepare
rapid reaction capabilities. Additionally, China opened a logistics base in Djibouti to support peacekeepers in Africa.

The reasons for China's involvement in United Nations peacekeeping operations is motivated by a litany of reasons, but
good publicity seems to rank near the top of the list. Chinese media and officials utilize their deployments as proof of
the country's support for multilateralism. This is particularly important in terms of the international cooperation possible
with the United States, a country that has had shaky relations with China over the years.

In addition to publicity, China's support of U.N. peacekeeping operations serves as a vital investment and growing
influence in Africa. This is of unique importance, since four out of every five peacekeepers are currently deployed in
Africa. Of the 2,534 Chinese personnel deployed in U.N. peacekeeping missions, 1,000 are in South Sudan (vital to
Beijing's energy interests) and another 1,000 are spread out amongst operations in the Democratic Republic of Congo,
Mali, and Sudan.

Despite transparent and hidden motives for support, Chinese has prioritized minimizing the risk posed to peacekeeping
during the U.N.'s meetings in New York. China has worked with the U.N. secretariat on safety issues and intelligence
issues, etc.

Finally, it is important to realize that the role that China plays will be due in part to future missions, budgetary issues
following COVID-19, and the role allowed/supported by the United States and other veto powers on the Security
Council. Regardless, China stands much to gain through its continued support of and for United Nations peacekeeping
operations (Gowan 2020).

India
The role that technology plays in ensuring the safety of U.N. peacekeepers is paramount. Therefore, India's
announcement that it plans to launch a mobile tech platform in August to provide terrain-relation information to U.N.
troops in the field is of vital importance.

Implementing the effective use of technology, through field-focused, reliable, and cost-effective technologies will help
ensure that the peacekeepers have the information they need when they need it.

India, in collaboration with the United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations and the Department of
Operational Support, have been working on the mobile platform known as 'UNITE AWARE.' The goal is to increase
situational awareness and terrain-based information to the troops.

This technology comes at a perfect time for India, since they will be the President of the 15-nation UN Security Council in
August this year. India is already supported U.N. peacekeeping missions in many ways over the years. It is one of the
largest troop-contributing countries, contributing more than 250,000 troops to 49 missions. During COVID-19, India sent
200,000 doses of the vaccine to U.N. peacekeepers deployed on missions. Additionally, India has recognized the
dangers that U.N. peacekeepers face from terrorist and non-state actor attacks, security concerns, and limited
resources. Naidu has pushed for an upgrade to the security infrastructure utilized by U.N. peacekeepers and has
supported the need for medical evacuation and casualty evacuation reliability, dependent on the use of helicopters with
night flight capability (The Economic Times 2021).

Future US Action & the Biden-Harris Administration on UN Peacekeeping

The Biden-Harris Administration has called for a renewed role for America in addressing the world's rising challenges.
This includes preventing conflicts, leading peace agreements, and supporting American leadership and UN peace
operations. Active engagement by the United States will help to deliver results to peace operations. By focusing on their
ability to influence the Security Council, the U.S. can signal support for maintaining peace and security.

The Trump Administration neglected U.S. foreign policy and relationships during his four-year tenure, especially the
United Nations. Now, many countries are in limbo waiting to figure out the U.S.'s priorities and goals, and the UN is less
prepared than usual to respond to crises globally.

The United States has a unique ability and obligation to step up its commitment to multilateralism. The Biden
Administration should increase its support for effective peacekeeping and lead other member states to do the same. The
United States is a permanent member of the UN Security Council and the largest funder of the Department of Peace
Operations; therefore, the United States plays an important leadership role in authorizing and shaping UN missions.

Russia and China are currently working to erode US leadership; therefore, the Biden Administration should be involved
in resolving many of the issues facing the UN. These include whether the UN should support regionally led peace
operations, what is the role of the UN in counterterrorism, and how to mainstream resource peacebuilding as a core
function of UN peacekeeping (Long and Thomas-Jensen 2021).

It is important to note that there are essential duties that are not only military-based. These activities separate UN
peacekeeping from other international military operations. These include the ability to support political processes,
create condition for protection, support negotiations for local peace agreements, promote human rights, and support
national, regional, and local governments. Most of these operations are now done remotely – they have to be planned,
financed, managed, coordinates, and supported (Norwegian Institute of International Affairs 2020).

There are several steps the United States can take. First, Pay Up. The U.S. should pay its due – this will go far to repairing
U.S. credibility on multilateral issues. This would also help restore the US's leverage on the Security Council and push
back against criticism from other countries such as China. Second, Build Support for Regional Organizations: The US
should build support for regional organization like the AU to access UN funding for peace operations – regional
organizations, such as the AU have shown leadership and willingness to help combat extremism and terrorism (e.g.,
Somalia and the Sahel). They have also deployed troops to help stop atrocities, such as their involvement in the Central
African Republic in 2014. Third, Equip UN Peacekeepers to Fulfill Their Mandates in Counterterrorism or
Counterinsurgency Context: UN forces are unable to protect themselves, which means that they are also unable to
protect the civilians and/or support peacebuilding efforts in active conflict zones. Therefore, the US could work with the
DPO to anticipate when a surge is needed to manage a possible destabilizing moment. Fourthly, Better Align and
Resource Political and Peacekeeping Functions: The US could use its Security Council Presidency in March 2021 or July
2022 to lead a discussion over how to ensure missions are adequately and sustainably funded. Historically, US leadership
was vital to peacekeeping summits in 2014 and 2015, but support has since wanted (Long and Thomas-Jensen 2021).

The U.S.'s failure to support the UN has forced the UN to cut back on peacekeeping operations. Therefore, the U.S.
needs to increase its financial support of the UN. The U.S. is assessed the largest share of the UN peacekeeping budget
at 28%, but is has failed to make payments and owes nearly $1 billion. This debt grew substantially over the Trump
Administration's tenure (Holt and Sherman 2021).
The Biden Administration has released its fiscal year 2022 budget request confirming a 12% increase for foreign
assistance programs with a substantial increase in support of the United Nations and its peacekeeping operations. The
budget proposed by Biden proposes $1.93 billion for peacekeeping, a notable increase from the $750 million in fiscal
year 2021 (Saldinger 2021). The United States can, and should, do more to fund peacekeeping. This starts with paying its
arrears to the organization without further delay.

Despite the increased allocations, more funding and support are needed. Missions are often underfunded and lack
critical equipment, such as helicopters and troops. Biden is uniquely positioned to jumpstart renewed support for UN
peacekeeping operations – offering monetary support, helicopters, and military personnel (Olbert 2021).

The United Nations Secretary General warned that a financial crisis threatens peacekeeping activities. The UN member
states have not paid 25% of the $6.7 billion peacekeeping budget. The dues are key to protecting millions of civilians in a
dozen war zones and hot spots. The United Nations has nearly 90,000 uniformed personnel deployed. This is more than
any other type of uniformed troops in current conflicts around the globe (Howard 2019).

The U.S. is the largest single contributor of the UN peacekeeping budget. It provides 25% of the entire budget. Even so,
its funding fails short of its assessed contributions, 27.89% for 2021. All members of the UN are required to make
payment to fund the organization. These are called assessed contributions and are tied to gross domestic product and
population statistics. The United States has veto power on the Security Council; therefore, it is assessed higher than it
would otherwise have been. In 1994, Congress placed a cap on the proportion of the peacekeeping budget that can
come from the U.S. Congress at the time felt like the US was paying too much.

Despite the support of its members, the peacekeeping budget makes up just 0.3% of the global military expenditures,
and often fails short of its needed equipment, personnel, and logistical needs.

Renewing the United States' support for the United Nations and its peacekeeping operations are vital to restoring the
United States' reputation. In addition to funding, the U.S. should offer material support to UN missions. One of the most
significant shortages is helicopters, especially utility helicopters. Modern UN peacekeeping missions take an average of
10 months to reach peak deployment levels. This allows a window of opportunity for continued violence to occur. The
U.S. Air Force can offer significant assistance by moving large numbers of people in and out of areas of operations and
speed up deployment schedules, therefore, speeding up the time it takes troops to do their jobs.

Finally, the US can supply more personnel. The U.S. provided only a mere 34 people to peacekeeping missions in 2019.
This reflects the Western fear of putting more boots on the ground. Even if the U.S. chooses not to significantly
increases its deployments, it can provide more specialty advisors. To facilitate more advisors the United States Military
Observer Group – Washington (USMOG-W) should be expanded significantly by the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The United
States provides peacekeepers through the United States Military Observer Group – Washington (USMOG-W). This is a
small section of the military-housed in Section G-3/5/7 of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which coordinates the deployment of
30 or so Americans to peacekeeping operations (Olbert 2021).

Are Any Missions Scheduled to End?

As we move forward, there are some talks about ending some of the current missions. One such mission is the one in
Cyprus. A meeting was recently held, organized by the Secretary-General, following consultations conducted over the
past few months, to determine whether common ground exists for the parties to negotiate a lasting solution to the
Cyprus issue within the foreseeable future. These meetings come four years after the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot
leads met in Switzerland to discuss the future of the Mediterranean island. The meeting stalled after a week of talks due
to a wide array of issues, including security guarantees, territorial boundaries, and power-sharing (UN News, 2021).
 Application of the NFHS Criteria and Resolutions
Possible Resolutions
2004-2005 Resolved: That the United States federal government should establish a foreign policy substantially
increasing its support of United Nations peacekeeping operations

1. Resolved: The United States should substantially increase its collaboration with the United Nations on
peacekeeping
2. Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially increase its support of United Nations
peacekeeping operations.
3. Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially increase its assistance to United Nations
peacekeeping operations.
4. Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially increase its assistance to United Nations
peacekeeping operations in one or more of the following: Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Kashmir, Republic of
South Sudan, Republic of Yemen, State of Palestine.
5. Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially increase its support of United Nations
peacekeeping operations in one or more of the following: Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Kashmir, Republic of
South Sudan, Republic of Yemen, State of Palestine.
6. Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially increase its support of United Nations
peacekeeping operations in one or more of the following: cyber peacekeeping, elections, human rights
violations, terrorism, war on drugs.
7. Resolved: The United States federal government should substantially increase its assistance of United Nations
peacekeeping operations in one or more of the following: cyber peacekeeping, elections, human rights
violations, terrorism, war on drugs.

NFHS Criteria
Timeliness—As the U.S. recenters itself in the international arena, the timeliness of UN Peacekeeping can be
underestimated. Conflict in other nations is increasing because of financial stress and the stress of the pandemic. There
will always be conflict across the globe that might need UN assistance. The full paper identifies more information
regarding the Biden administration and the UN. Other areas of peacekeeping are also coming to the forefront. Areas
such as cyber peacekeeping and space are becoming increasingly important as hackers from around the world disrupt
operations within the U.S. and other countries in addition to the potential weaponization of space. The full paper goes
into more details regarding the timeliness of some non-traditional peacekeeping operations.

Scope—As an international topic it will impact all areas of the country and all groups of people.

Range—The topics lend themselves to a wide range of skill levels. Depending on the resolution, novice students could
simply deal with a specific country and the advantages of supporting/assisting with conflict resolution in that regions or
the issues involved with the UN-US relationship. There will also be opportunities for advanced debaters to discuss the
philosophical theories involved in international relations and the U.S. role. See the full paper for a discussion of potential
affirmative and negative areas.

Quality—High quality debate will most certainly take place. The UN is a fascinating organization. It is also an area that
hasn’t been the focus of debate in over 15 years. The United Nations is an organization that students should study. The
issues involved in debates may be familiar to debates, in which case, more advanced education can take place. There
will also be new issues that involve the U.S./U.N. relationship. See the paper for a full background and core areas for
debate.

Material—A wide range of basic internet material, academic books, along with scholarly journal articles are available for
research. UN peacekeeping has been around long enough to have been studied on multiple levels. A depth of research is
available on a multitude of topics within this area. Advocates both for and against U.S. involvement with the UN have
written vociferously on these issues. In addition, simple searches of the UN and peacekeeping issues will provide a
wealth of material available to less experienced debaters. See the paper bibliography for the wide range of available
materials.

Interest—Peacekeeping was a well-received topic when it was last debated in 2004-2005. The wide array of topics
available for both affirmative and negative arguments will provide something that should peak the interest of debate
students at all level and all geographic areas. See the paper for a more detailed discussion of the potential of this topic.

Balance—Scholars have argued for many decades about the value or lack of value of the U.S. role in the UN. Both sides
of the debate have been effectively advocated in the media and scholarly publications. For as many experts who say we
should be more involved there are a similar number who advocate that we are overcommitted to the UN or
international conflicts. The full paper has a more complete discussion of the argument potential on both sides of the
debate.
 Core Affirmatives
Affirmative Ideas & Advantages
• US Increasing Support of UN Peacekeeping
o Climate
o Diplomacy
o Environment
o Soft Power
o Funding
o Human Rights
o Humanitarian Aid
o Civil Wars
o Fragile States
o Refugees
o Multilateralism
o Leadership
o Hegemony
o Democratization
o Terrorism
o Regional Wars
o Gender
o Sexism
o Disease
o Energy
• Depending on the resolution wordings, the affirmative might increase military and/or police support, financial
support, etc.

Plan mechanisms

1. Money: US is the largest contributor to the UN and Peacekeeping operations

2. Troops: The US can choose to or not to contribute troops to peacekeeping missions
3. Military aid and support: The US provides a variety of military aid to peacekeeping missions including weapons
supplies and operational bases
4. Training: The US is a major player in the training of UN forces or local forces
5. Police forces: The US contributes to the selection of police forces both local and UN
6. Security Council: The Security Council makes key decisions for peacekeeping operations
7. UN Personnel: Placing US personnel in key UN roles always US influence in a variety of areas
8. Alternative Peacekeeping: The US, through the Security Council and other areas can influence the development
of alternative peacekeeping operations such as regional or multinational forces.
9. Observers: US can influence the use of observers for pre or post-conflict operations including missions for
maintaining a ceasefire or armistice; the withdrawal of military forces; or the maintenance of a neutral buffer
zone.
10. Ancillary actions: The US can provide support through other actions that support peacekeeping such as clearing
mines.
 Core Negative Positions
Counterplans
• USAID
• NGOs
• Consult UN
• NATO
• UN Security Council
• International Actor CPs (e.g., China should increase its involvement in, support of, funding for, etc. of UN
peacekeeping operations)
• PICs out of the UN portion of the Aff (e.g., the US should just increase military presence in a particular area of
concern or conflict)
• AmeriCorps, Peace Corps, etc. CPs

Kritiks
• Security
• Human rights
• Nietzsche
• Heidegger
• Cap
• Agamben
• Orientalism
• Imperialism
• Realism
• International Relations
• Feminism
• Heg
• Schmitt
• Borders
• Cuomo
• Positive Peace
• Levinas
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Rashkow, Bruce, U.N. Peacekeeping in a Time of Pandemic (July 31, 2020). Journal of National Security Law and Policy
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(https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3690618)

Rashkow, Bruce, ABA Representative to the United Nations, a member of the Council of the Section of International Law,
and a lecturer at Columbia Law School in New York United Nations “Peacekeeping: Strengthening Accountability for
Injuries to Third Parties” International Law News, June 05, 2018.
https://www.americanbar.org/groups/international_law/publications/international_law_news/2018/winter/united-
nations-peacekeeping/

Renner, Michael, "Peacekeeping and the United Nations," Institute for Policy Studies, December 1, 1996. https://ips-
dc.org/peacekeeping_and_the_united_nations/

Robinson, Michael, Kevin Jones, Helge Janicke and Leandros Maglaras, Senior Members, IEEE, An Introduction to Cyber
Peacekeeping April 2018

Saldinger, Adva, "Biden administration releases full budget request for fiscal year 2022," devex, 5/31/2021,
https://www.devex.com/news/biden-administration-releases-full-budget-request-for-fiscal-year-2022-100024

Skullerud, Rein, "Partners in Progress: The U.S. and the U.N. in 2020," Congressional Briefing Book, 2020,
https://unausa.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Briefing-Book-2020.pdf

Sooka, Yasmine, staff writer Just Security “UN Should Suspend Sri Lanka from Peacekeeping Over Human Rights Abuses”
Just Security. March 5, 2021. https://www.justsecurity.org/75138/un-should-suspend-sri-lanka-from-peacekeeping-
over-human-rights-abuses/

The Conversation, "Why COVID-19 offers a chance to transform UN peacekeeping," May28, 2020,
https://theconversation.com/why-covid-19-offers-a-chance-to-transform-un-peacekeeping-139416

TRT World, "Twelve times the UN has failed the world," 11/28/2018, https://www.trtworld.com/americas/twelve-times-
the-un-has-failed-the-world-21666

Twardowski, Adam, "The future of peacekeeping in Africa," Brookings, February 19, 2021,
https://www.brookings.edu/events/the-future-of-peacekeeping-in-africa/

UN News, "UN chief ‘realistic’ at start of fresh bid to resolve Cyprus stalemate," April 27, 2021,
https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/04/1090722

United Nations, "Main Organs," United Nations, 2021. https://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/main-

organs/index.html

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https://news.un.org/en/story/2009/03/293612-ban-president-obama-discuss-boosting-us-un-cooperation

United Nations “Elections” UN Political and Peacekeeping Affairs https://dppa.un.org/en/elections

United Nations, "Forming a New Operation," United Nations Peacekeeping, 2021.
https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/forming-new-operation

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ANTÓNIO GUTERRES, "Office of the Spokesperson for the UN Secretary-General, 6/4/2021,
https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/highlight/2021-06-04.html
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https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/principles-of-peacekeeping

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https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/standards-of-conduct

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operate

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Advances Inclusive Development, High Commissioner Tells Security Council”
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Why does it persist?” ABC News, June 14, 2020 https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-06-15/united-nations-un-
peacekeeping-sexual-exploitation-abuse/12286664
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Rights Watch January 11, 2020. https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/11/un-peacekeeping-has-sexual-abuse-problem
 DEFINITIONS
Assistance
assistance
Oxford Languages
https://www.google.com/search?client=firefox-b-1-d&q=assistance+define
noun: assistance
the action of helping someone with a job or task.
"the work was completed with the assistance of carpenters"
o the provision of money, resources, or information to help someone.
"plans offering financial assistance to employers"
Assistance
Merriam Webster https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/assistance
: the act of helping or assisting someone or the help supplied : aid financial and technical assistance

Assistance
COBUILD Advanced English Dictionary. Copyright © HarperCollins Publishers
https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/assistance

1. uncountable noun [oft with poss]

If you give someone assistance, you help them do a job or task by doing part of the work for them.
Since 1976 he has been operating the shop with the assistance of volunteers.
She can still come downstairs with assistance but she's very weak.
Synonyms: help, backing, service, support More Synonyms of assistance
2. uncountable noun
If you give someone assistance, you give them information or advice.
Any assistance you could give the police will be greatly appreciated.
Employees are being offered assistance in finding new jobs.
3. uncountable noun
If someone gives a person or country assistance, they help them by giving them money.
...a viable programme of economic assistance.
We shall offer you assistance with legal expenses up to $5,000.
4. uncountable noun
If something is done with the assistance of a particular thing, that thing is helpful or necessary for doing it. The translations were carried out with the assistance of a
medical dictionary.
5. See be of assistance
6. See come to sb's assistance

Assistance vs Aid
DiffSense https://diffsense.com/diff/aid/assist

The difference between Aid and Assist

When used as nouns, aid means help, whereas assist means a helpful action or an act of giving.

When used as verbs, aid means to (give) support (to), whereas assist means to stand (at a place) or to (an opinion).

Aid as a noun (uncountable):

Help; assistance; succor, relief.
Examples:
"He came to my aid when I was foundering."
Aid as a noun (countable):
A helper; an assistant.
Aid as a noun (countable):
Something which helps; a material source of help.
Examples:
"Slimming aids include dietary supplements and appetite suppressants."
Aid as a noun (countable, British):
An historical subsidy granted to the crown by Parliament for an extraordinary purpose, such as a war effort.
Aid as a noun (countable, British):
An exchequer loan.
Aid as a noun (countable, legal):
A pecuniary tribute paid by a vassal to his feudal lord on special occasions.
Aid as a noun (countable):
An aide-de-camp, so called by abbreviation.
Examples:
"The incompetent general's brilliant aid often made priceless suggestions."
Aid as a verb (transitive):
To (give) support (to); to further the progress of; to help; to assist.

Assist as a verb (archaic):

To stand (at a place) or to (an opinion).
Examples:
"A great part of the nobility assisted to his opinion."
Assist as a verb (archaic):
To attend }}
Assist as a verb:
To help.
Assist as a verb (sports):
To make a pass that leads directly towards scoring.
Assist as a verb (medicine):
To help compensate for what is missing with the help of a medical technique or therapy.
Assist as a noun:
A helpful action or an act of giving.
Examples:
"The foundation gave a much needed assist to the shelter."
Assist as a noun (sports):
The act of helping another player score points or goals A decisive pass made to the goal scorer A defensive play, allowing a teammate to record a putout.
Examples:
"He had two assists in the game."

Assistance vs Support
Assistance vs Support
https://wikidiff.com/assist/support

As nouns the difference between assist and support

is that assist is a helpful action or an act of giving while support is something which supports often used attributively, as a complement or supplement to.
As verbs the difference between assist and support
is that assist is (archaic) to stand (at a place) or to (an opinion), to attend a theatrical performance while support is (senseid)to keep from falling.

Assist vs Support
CompareWords “What's the difference between assist and support?”
https://comparewords.com/assist/support

Support Definition:

• (v. t.) To bear by being under; to keep from falling; to uphold; to sustain, in a literal or physical sense; to prop up; to bear the weight of; as, a pillar supports
a structure; an abutment supports an arch; the trunk of a tree supports the branches.
• (v. t.) To endure without being overcome, exhausted, or changed in character; to sustain; as, to support pain, distress, or misfortunes.
• (v. t.) To keep from failing or sinking; to solace under affictive circumstances; to assist; to encourage; to defend; as, to support the courage or spirits.
• (v. t.) To assume and carry successfully, as the part of an actor; to represent or act; to sustain; as, to support the character of King Lear.
• (v. t.) To furnish with the means of sustenance or livelihood; to maintain; to provide for; as, to support a family; to support the ministers of the gospel.
• (v. t.) To carry on; to enable to continue; to maintain; as, to support a war or a contest; to support an argument or a debate.
• (v. t.) To verify; to make good; to substantiate; to establish; to sustain; as, the testimony is not sufficient to support the charges; the evidence will not
support the statements or allegations.
• (v. t.) To vindicate; to maintain; to defend successfully; as, to be able to support one's own cause.
• (v. t.) To uphold by aid or countenance; to aid; to help; to back up; as, to support a friend or a party; to support the present administration.
• (v. t.) A attend as an honorary assistant; as, a chairman supported by a vice chairman; O'Connell left the prison, supported by his two sons.
• (n.) The act, state, or operation of supporting, upholding, or sustaining.
• (n.) That which upholds, sustains, or keeps from falling, as a prop, a pillar, or a foundation of any kind.
• (n.) That which maintains or preserves from being overcome, falling, yielding, sinking, giving way, or the like; subsistence; maintenance; assistance;
reenforcement; as, he gave his family a good support, the support of national credit; the assaulting column had the support of a battery.

Assist Definition:
 • (v. t.) To give support to in some undertaking or effort, or in time of distress; to help; to aid; to succor.
• (v. i.) To lend aid; to help.
• (v. i.) To be present as a spectator; as, to assist at a public meeting.

Assistance (Foreign)
Foreign Assistance

Congressional Research Service SUMMARY “Foreign Assistance: An Introduction to U.S. Programs and Policy” April 30, 2020
https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R40213

Foreign assistance is the largest component of the international affairs budget and is viewed by many Members of Congress as an essential instrument of U.S. foreign
policy. On the basis of national security, commercial, and humanitarian rationales, U.S. assistance flows through many federal agencies and supports myriad
objectives. These objectives include promoting economic growth, reducing poverty, improving governance, expanding access to health care and education,
promoting stability in conflict regions, countering terrorism, promoting human rights, strengthening allies, and curbing illicit drug production and trafficking. Since the
terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, foreign aid has increasingly been associated with national security policy. At the same time, many Americans and some
Members of Congress view foreign aid as an expense that the United States cannot afford given current budget deficits.

Foreign Assistance
“What is U.S. Government Foreign Assistance?” June 18, 2021 https://www.foreignassistance.gov/

Foreign assistance is aid given by the United States to other countries to support global peace, security, and development efforts, and provide humanitarian relief
during times of crisis. It is a strategic, economic, and moral imperative for the United States and vital to U.S. national security… Today, the U.S. manages foreign
assistance programs in more than 100 countries around the world through the efforts of over 20 different U.S. government agencies. These investments further
America's foreign policy interests on issues ranging from expanding free markets, combating extremism, ensuring stable democracies, and addressing the root causes
of poverty, while simultaneously fostering global good will.

Foreign Assistance
Every CRS Report “Foreign Assistance: An Introduction to U.S. Programs and Policy ”February 10, 2009 – April 30, 2020
https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/R40213.html

In FY2018, U.S. foreign assistance, defined broadly, totaled an estimated $46.89 billion, or 1% of total federal budget authority. About 43% of this assistance was for
bilateral economic development programs, including political/strategic economic assistance; 35% for military aid and nonmilitary security assistance; 18% for
humanitarian activities; and 4% to support the work of multilateral institutions. Assistance can take the form of cash transfers, equipment and commodities,
infrastructure, education and training, or technical assistance, and, in recent decades, is provided almost exclusively on a grant rather than loan basis. Most U.S. aid is
implemented by nongovernmental organizations rather than foreign governments. The United States is the largest foreign aid donor in the world, accounting for
about 20% of total official development assistance from major donor governments in 2018 (the latest year for which these data are available).

Collaboration
Collaboration
Merriam Webster
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/collaborate
intransitive verb

1 : to work jointly with others or together especially in an intellectual endeavor An international team of scientists collaborated on the study.
2 : to cooperate with or willingly assist an enemy of one's country and especially an occupying force suspected of collaborating with the enemy
3 : to cooperate with an agency or instrumentality with which one is not immediately connected The two schools collaborate on library services.

Collaboration
Merriam Webster
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/collaboration
intransitive verb
1 : to work jointly with others or together especially in an intellectual endeavor An international team of scientists collaborated on the study.
2 : to cooperate with or willingly assist an enemy of one's country and especially an occupying force suspected of collaborating with the enemy
3 : to cooperate with an agency or instrumentality with which one is not immediately connected The two schools collaborate on library services.

Collaboration
Cambridge Dictionary
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/collaboration
noun
collaboration noun (WORKING WITH)
the situation of two or more people working together to create or achieve the same thing:
col·lab·o·rate
American Heritage Dictionary
https://www.thefreedictionary.com/collaborating
intr.v. col·lab·o·rat·ed, col·lab·o·rat·ing, col·lab·o·rates
1. To work together, especially in a joint intellectual effort.
2. To cooperate treasonably, as with an enemy occupation force in one's country.

Cooperation
co·op·er·a·tion
noun
noun: cooperation; noun: co-operation
1. the process of working together to the same end.
"they worked in close cooperation with the AAA"
2. assistance, especially by ready compliance with requests.
"we would like to ask for your cooperation in the survey"
o ministrations
o Economics---the formation and operation of cooperatives.

Collaboration vs. Cooperation

English Language Help Desk
https://site.uit.no/english/words/collaborate-or-cooperate/
However, there is a subtle meaning difference between the two. collaborate= 1. to work together with somebody in order to achieve a single shared goal. ...
cooperate=1. to work with other people by achieving one's own goals as part of a common goal. Facebook users cooperate to create the world's largest social
network.

Commitment
Commitment
Merriam Webster
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/commitment
1a : an agreement or pledge to do something in the future a commitment to improve conditions at the prison especially : an engagement to assume a financial
obligation at a future date
b : something pledged the commitment of troops to the war
c : the state or an instance of being obligated or emotionally impelled a commitment to a cause
2a : an act of committing to a charge or trust: such as
(1) : a consignment to a penal or mental institution filed a petition for commitment
(2) : an act of referring a matter to a legislative committee

Commitment
Dictionary.com
https://www.dictionary.com/browse/commitment
noun
the act of committing.
the state of being committed.
the act of committing, pledging, or engaging oneself.
a pledge or promise; obligation: We have made a commitment to pay our bills on time.
dedication; allegiance: They have a sincere commitment to religion.
perpetration or commission, as of a crime.
consignment, as to prison.
confinement to a mental institution or hospital: The psychiatrist recommended commitment.
an order, as by a court or judge, confining a person to a mental institution or hospital.
Law. a written order of a court directing that someone be confined in prison; mittimus.
Parliamentary Procedure. the act of referring or entrusting to a committee for consideration.

Engagement
Engagement
Oxford Languages
noun: engagement; plural noun: engagements
 1. a formal agreement to get married.
• the duration of an agreement to get married.
"a good long engagement to give you time to be sure"
2. an arrangement to do something or go somewhere at a fixed time.
"a dinner engagement"

Engagement
Cambridge Dictionary https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/engagement

the fact of being involved with something:

He was known for his engagement with the problems of the most difficult students.
their lack of engagement in politics

Establish
establish
vt.
1 to make stable; make firm; settle !to establish a habit"
2 to order, ordain, or enact (a law, statute, etc.) permanently
3 to set up (a government, nation, business, etc.); found; institute
4 to cause to be or happen; bring about !efforts to establish a friendship"
5 to settle in an office or position, or set up as in business or a profession
6 to make a state institution of (a church)
7 to set up (a precedent, theory, reputation, etc.) permanently; cause to be accepted or recognized
8 to prove; demonstrate !to establish one‘s cause at law"
Card Games to win control of (a suit) so that one is sure of taking all the remaining tricks in it
(Websters New World Dictionary, Accent Software International, MacMillan Publishers, Version 1.0 1997)

establish
verb 1 set up. 2 settle. 3 (esp. as established adjective) achieve permanent acceptance for. 4 place beyond dispute. Established Church recognized by state.
·1base, begin, constitute, construct, create, decree, form, found, inaugurate, initiate, institute, introduce, organize, originate, set up, start. 2ensconce, entrench,
install, lodge, secure, settle, station. 3(established) deep-rooted, deep-seated, indelible, ineradicable, ingrained, long-lasting, long-standing, permanent, proven,
reliable, respected, rooted, secure, traditional, well known, well tried. 4accept, agree, authenticate, certify, confirm, corroborate, decide, demonstrate, fix, prove,
ratify, recognize, show to be true, substantiate, verify. (Oxford Paperback Dictionary and Thesaurus Askoxford.com)

establish

verb: set up or found

verb: use as a basis for; found on
verb: set up or lay the groundwork for (Example: "Establish a new department")
verb: bring about (Example: "The trompe l'oeil-illusion establishes depth")
verb: institute, enact, or establish
verb: build or establish something abstract
verb: establish the validity of something
verb: place
(One Look Dictionaries, OneLook.com)

Federal government
federal government: “Generally the federal government refers to the government in Washington DC. This would include actions by Congress, the President
(or any member of the executive branch) or the Supreme Court” “Potential Wording of Debate Topics,” ( Private Paper Presented to the National Federation of High
School Activity Associations, January 1998)

federal government: “The system of government administered in a nation formed by the union or confederation of several independent states” ( Black Law’s
Dictionary)

federal government
n : a government with strong central powers (WordNet ® 1.6, © 1997 Princeton University)

federal government
federation, government of a union of states in which sovereignty is divided between a central authority and component state authorities. A federation differs from a
confederation in that the central power acts directly upon individuals as well as upon states, thus creating the problem of dual allegiance. Substantial power over
matters affecting the people as a whole, such as external affairs, commerce, coinage, and the maintenance of military forces, are usually granted to the central
government. Nevertheless, retention of jurisdiction over local affairs by states is compatible with the federal system and makes allowance for local feelings. The chief
political problem of a federal system of government is likely to be the allocation of sovereignty, because the need for unity among the federating states may conflict
with their desire for autonomy. The Greek city-states failed to solve this problem, although religious and political federations were often attempted and the Aetolian
and Achaean leagues had many of the institutions of federal government. The primacy of the central over the state governments was not resolved in the United
States until after the Civil War. The distribution of powers between the federal and state governments is usually accomplished by means of a written constitution, for
a federation does not exist if authority can be allocated by ordinary legislation. A fairly uniform legal system, as well as cultural and geographic affinities, is usually
necessary for the success of a federation. Varieties of federation include the Swiss, where the federative principle is carried into the executive branch of government;
the Australian, which closely reflects American states' rights and judicial doctrines; and the Canadian, which reverses common federative practice and allots residuary
rights to the dominion government. Other examples of federal governments are the German Empire of 1871 and the present state of Germany, modern Russia,
Mexico, South Africa, and India.
(Bibliography: See J. Bryce, The American Commonwealth (rev. ed. 1959); K. Wheare, Federal Government (4th ed. 1964); D. J. Elazar, American Federalism (2d ed.
1972); W. H. Stewart, Concepts of Federalism (1984); H. Bakvis and W. M. Chandler, ed., Federalism and the Role of the State (1987); K. L. Hall, Federalism (1987).)

foreign
foreign
adj.
1 situated outside one‘s own country, province, locality, etc. !foreign lands"
2 of, from, or characteristic of another country or countries !foreign languages"
3 having to do with the relations of one country to another country or countries !foreign affairs, foreign trade": often opposed to DOMESTIC
4 not subject to the laws or jurisdiction of the specified country
5 a) not natural to the person or thing specified; not belonging; not characteristic !a trait foreign to one‘s nature" b) not pertinent; irrelevant
not organically belonging; introduced from outside: said of substances found in parts of the body or in organisms where they do not naturally occur
(Websters New World Dictionary, Accent Software International, MacMillan Publishers, Version 1.0 1997)

Foreign policy
foreign policy
Function: noun
Date: 1859
: the policy of a sovereign state in its interaction with other sovereign states
(Merriam-Websters Dictionary of the English Language http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary)

foreign policy
noun: a policy governing international relations
(One Look Dictionaries, OneLook.com)

foreign policy The diplomatic policy of a nation in its interactions with other nations
(The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.)

Funding
Funding
noun [ U ]
us
/ˈfʌn.dɪŋ/ uk
/ˈfʌn.dɪŋ/
C1
money given by a government or organization for an event or activity:
Alisha is trying to get funding for her research.
They received state funding for the project.
Cambridge Dictionary https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/funding

Funding
Funding is the act of providing resources, usually in form of money, or other values such as effort or time, for a project, a person, a business, or any other private or
public institutions. The process of soliciting and gathering fund is known as fundraising. Sources of funding include credit, venture capital, donations, grants, savings,
subsidies, and taxes. Fundings such as donations, subsidies, and grants that have no direct requirement for return of investment are described as "soft funding" or
"crowdfunding". Funding that facilitates the exchange of equity ownership in a company for capital investment via an online funding portal as per the Jumpstart Our
Business Startups Act is known as equity crowdfunding. Funds can be allocated for either short-term or long-term purposes.
Freebase https://www.definitions.net/definition/funding
Funding
Money set aside to pay for or finance something.
noun
The arranging for or providing of such money.
noun
A term that is used by a company that is funding its operations by issuing debt.
Refinancing debt before maturity, typically referred to as refunding.
Initial investments in a start-up, provided by a venture capitalist or private equity investor.
Your Dictionary https://www.yourdictionary.com/funding

Funding
Arranged financing meeting needs over a set period of time.
The Law Dictionary https://thelawdictionary.org/term-funding/

Increase
Increase
verb: increase; 3rd person present: increases; past tense: increased; past participle: increased; gerund or present participle: increasing--become or make greater in
size, amount, intensity, or degree. "car use is increasing at an alarming rate"
noun: increase; plural noun: increases--an instance of growing or making greater. "some increase in inflation"
Oxford Languages https://www.google.com/search?client=firefox-b-1-d&q=increase+define

Increase
intransitive verb
1 : to become progressively greater (as in size, amount, number, or intensity)
2 : to multiply by the production of young
transitive verb
1 : to make greater : augment
2 obsolete : enrich
1 : the act or process of increasing: such as
a : addition or enlargement in size, extent, or quantity
b obsolete : propagation
2 : something that is added to an original stock or amount by augmentation or growth (such as offspring, produce, profit)
on the increase
: becoming greater (as in size, number, or amount) : increasing crime is on the increase
Merriam Webster https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/increase

Increase
verb (used with object), in·creased, in·creas·ing.
to make greater, as in number, size, strength, or quality; augment; add to: to increase taxes.
verb (used without object), in·creased, in·creas·ing.
to become greater, as in number, size, strength, or quality: Sales of automobiles increased last year.
to multiply by propagation.
noun
growth or augmentation in numbers, size, strength, quality, etc.: the increase of crime.
the act or process of increasing.
that by which something is increased.
Dictonary.com https://www.dictionary.com/browse/increase

Increase
TheLaw.com Law Dictionary & Black's Law Dictionary 2nd Ed.
To make greater. To multiply. To produce more. (1) The produce of land; (2) the offspring of animals. Increase, affidavit of. Affidavit of payment of increased costs,
produced on taxation. Increase, costs of. In English law. It was formerly a practice with the jury to award to the successful party in an action the nominal sum of 40s.
only for his costs; and the court assessed by their own officer the actual amount of the successful party’s costs; and the amount so assessed, pver and above the
nominal sum awarded by the jury, was thence called “coBts of increase.” Lush, Com. Law Pr. 775. The practice has now wholly ceased. Rapal. & Law.
https://dictionary.thelaw.com/increase/

Involvement
Involvement
Vocabulary.com
https://www.vocabulary.com › dictionary › involvement
Involvement is the act of participating in something. Even if you do nothing but drive the getaway car, you will be held to account for your involvement in a crime.
Involvement is useful because it is not specific.

Involvement
Oxford Languages
noun
noun: involvement; plural noun: involvements
1. the fact or condition of being involved with or participating in something.
Involvement

Involvement
Collins COBUILD
https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/involvement
1. uncountable noun
Your involvement in something is the fact that you are taking part in it.
You have no proof of my involvement in anything.
She disliked his involvement with the group and disliked his friends. [+ with]
Synonyms: collaboration, implication, participation, hand More Synonyms of involvement
2. uncountable noun
Involvement is the enthusiasm that you feel when you care deeply about something.
Ben has always felt a deep involvement with animals. [+ with]
Synonyms: connection, interest, relationship, concern More Synonyms of involvement
3. variable noun
An involvement is a close relationship between two people, especially if they are not married to each other.
They were very good friends but there was no romantic involvement.
Synonyms: intimacy, attachment, closeness, familiarity More Synonyms of involvement

Participation
Participation
Oxford Languages
noun
noun: participation; plural noun: participations
1. the action of taking part in something

Participation
Merriam Webster https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/participation
the act of joining with others in doing something Class participation counts toward your grade.

Participation
Cambridge Dictionary https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/participation
he fact that you take part or become involved in something

Peacekeeping
Peacekeeping: “The term includes all actions designed to enhance international peace, security, and stability which are authorized by competent national and
international organizations and which are undertaken cooperatively and individually by military, humanitarian, good governance, civilian police and other interested
agencies and groups.” [Pearson Peacekeeping Centre, as quoted in John Arch MacInnis. “Preparing Peacekeeping in the 21st Century” Strengthening the United
Nations & Enhancing War Prevention eds. John Norton Moore & Alex Morrison (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press; 2000)

Peacekeeping: “… is the military technique most often associated with UN military operations. As noted, most UN studies treat observation missions, traditional
peacekeeping and second-generation peacekeeping in the same elastic category of “peacekeeping.” … In addition to those distinctions, it is helpful to note that,
much like UN observation missions, traditional peacekeeping missions themselves vary to some degree in their military characteristics.” [John Hillen. Blue Helmets:
The Strategy of UN Military Operations (Washington: Brasseys; 1998): p. 79]

Peacekeeping: “At its core, peacekeeping is a military technique for controlling armed conflict and promoting conflict resolution. As such, the definitions for
traditional peacekeeping abound, and there are differences in the actual wording of the definitions among various UN documents, the Peacekeeper’s Handbook, ad
the doctrinal manuals of different nations and multinational military organizations. The British Army field manual Wider Peacekeeping lists thirteen separate
definitions of peacekeeping and peacekeeping operations” [John Hillen. Blue Helmets: The Strategy of UN Military Operations (Washington: Brasseys; 1998): p. 79]

Peacekeeping: “Traditional peacekeeping operations and second-generation peacekeeping operations span somewhat elastic categories that overlap and can
be considered seamless. However, although the spectrum of UN military operations is progressive, there are some distinctive characteristics that clearly separate the
categories of peacekeeping in two respects. The first is the environment in which peacekeeping missions have operated. The second is the nature of the UN forces’
military objectives and modus operandi.
The environments of second-generation peacekeeping missions were, in the main, considerably more bellicose and complex than those of traditional
peacekeeping, where most missions were deployed in clearly delineated linear buffer zones between consenting nation-states. In contrast, the environment of
second-generation peacekeeping was characterized largely by unstable intrastate conflicts. These often were hostile environments where a virtual state of war
existed or was in temporary remission. …
The second aspect that helps to define second-generation peacekeeping concerns their complex character. These were multifunctional missions in which
the military component was only one part of a comprehensive political, diplomatic, humanitarian, and economic effort. The objectives of these missions included
supporting civilian components and nongovernmental organizations in the provision of humanitarian air, the organization and protection of elections, the supervision
of government functions, the disarmament and demobilization of large numbers of belligerents, the repatriation and rehabilitation of refugees, the protection of safe
areas, restoration of national government and institutions, and other missions. [John Hillen. Blue Helmets: The Strategy of UN Military Operations (Washington:
Brasseys; 1998): p. 140-141]

Peacekeeping: Military operations undertaken with the consent of all major parties to a dispute, designed to monitor and facilitate implementation of an
agreement (ceasefire, truce, or other such agreement) and support diplomatic efforts to reach a long-term political settlement. [DoD Dictionary of Military Terms]

Peacekeeping: The process of diplomacy, mediation, negotiation, or other forms of peaceful settlements that arranges an end to a dispute, and resolves issues
that led to it. [DoD Dictionary of Military Terms]

Peacekeeping: The maintenance of peace, especially the use of armed forces not involved in a disagreement to prevent fighting in an area; a peacekeeping
force/mission/ [Cambridge International Dictionary of English]

Peacekeeping: Efforts made by the United Nations to neutralize civil and regional conflicts. [Lawrence Ziring, Jack C. Plano, Roy Oltan. International Relations: A
Political Dictionary (Santa Barbarra: ABC-CLIO; 1995)]

Peacekeeping: As a general expression peacekeeping is a third party role played by an actor in a violent conflict situation. The putative peacekeeper, by using a
repertoire of behavior, attempts to stabilize the conflict at least to the extent of eliminating violence from the relationship. Thus typically a peacekeeper will assist in
the establishment of a truce or a cease-fire. Peacekeeping then, is an activity engaged in by military and/or civilian actors operating in a neutral and impartial war,
with the consent of the parties and through such measures as supervising the withdrawal of forces, the repatriation of prisoners and perhaps the imposition of its
own contingents into a ‘cordon sanitaire.’ In this way peacekeeping can be viewed as a function of diplomacy. [Penguin Dictionary of International Relations, 1998]

Peacekeeping: Neutral military or para-military operations that are undertaken with the consent of all major belligerents, designed to monitor and facilitate
implementation of existing truces and support diplomatic efforts to reach a long- term political settlement. (UNDHA 1995:
http://www.reliefweb.int/library/mcda/refman/glossary.html)

Peacemaking/Peacebuilding
Peacemaking/Peacebuilding: The focus on the removal of the structural causes of conflict (social, economic, humanitarian, ethnic, sectarian, and
environmental conditions that contribute to the outbreak of violence). [Lawrence Ziring, Jack C. Plano, Roy Oltan. International Relations: A Political Dictionary (Santa
Barbarra: ABC-CLIO; 1995)]

Peacekeeping operations
Peacekeeping Operations: “PK [peacekeeping] operations are also conducted with the consent of one or all sides of the conflict and fall into one of two
categories. The first includes operations that are a practical continuation of peacemaking operations. After an armistice has been signed, negotiations begin to
resolve the conflict peacefully.

The second category includes operations conducted to implement a previously signed accord. One example is the NATO operation in Bosnia subsequent to the signing
of the accord in Dayton, Ohio. In this case, the operation’s goal, including its military aspect. Is to assure that the agreements terms are implemented by all parties
involved in the conflict.” [Andrei Demurenko & Alexander Nikitin “Concepts in International Peacekeeping” Military Review (May/June 1997): http://www-
cgsc.army.mil/milrev/english/mayjun97/nikitin.htm]

Peace building
Peace building:
Predominantly diplomatic actions that strengthen and rebuild civil infrastructure and institutions in order to avoid a relapse into conflict. (UNDHA 1995:
http://www.reliefweb.int/library/mcda/refman/glossary.html)
The employment of measures to consolidate peaceful relations and create an environment which deters the emergence or escalation of tensions which may lead to
conflict. (International Alert 1995; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)
 Peacekeeping forces
Peacekeeping forces: Civilian and military personnel designated by the national governments of the countries participating in the peace operation. These
personnel are placed at the disposal of the international organization under whose mandate the given operation is being conducted. Generally, peacekeeping forces
are made up of national contingents under international command. Each national contingent is assigned either a zone of responsibility or specific functional duties.
(Demurenko & Nikitin; cited by Schmid 1998: http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)
Peacekeeping operations: A common term for various types of activities, such as to resolve conflict; prevent conflict escalation; halt or prevent military actions; to
uphold law and order in a conflict zone; to conduct humanitarian actions; to restore social and political institutions whose functioning has been disrupted by the
conflict; and to restore basic conditions for daily living. The distinctive feature of peacekeeping operations is that they are conducted under a mandate from the
United Nations or regional organizations whose functions include peace support and international security . (British Army 1997; cited by Schmid 1998:
http://www.fewer.org/pubs/thes.htm)

UN Peacekeeping
UN Peacekeeping under Chapter VI: The legal basis for peacekeeping activities under a United Nations mandate. Art. 33-38 deal with the security
Council’s role in the Pacific Settlement of Disputes and the process that the parties to any dispute should follow, i.e. first seek a solution by negotiation, inquiry,
mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own choice. Art. 36 entitles the
Security Council to recommend, at any stage of dispute, appropriate procedures or methods of adjustment. (UN Charter 1948)

UN Peacekeeping under Chapter VII: The legal basis for preventive deployments and peace enforcement actions by, or on the behalf of, the United
Nations. Art. 39-51 of the United Nations Charter deals with coercive action with respect to threats of peace, breaches of peace, and acts of aggression. These articles
form the legal basis for measures involving the used of armed forces (Art.41) to make effective the Security Council's decisions, and preventive or enforcement
measures. (UN Charter 1948)

Strengthen
Strengthen: To make or become strong or stronger. [Webster’s II New College Dictionary]

Strengthen: To make or become stronger. (New Oxford American Dictionary. Elizabeth J. Jewell & Frank Abate, editors. NY: Oxford U., 2001, p. 1685)

Strengthen: To make strong or increase the strength of. (The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Ed., Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000, p.
1714)

Substantial
SUBSTANTIAL
adj.
1 of or having substance
2 real; actual; true; not imaginary
3 strong; solid; firm; stout
4 considerable; ample; large
5 of considerable worth or value; important
6 having property or possessions; wealthy
7 with regard to essential elements; in substance
8 Philos. of, or having the nature of, substance
n.
a substantial thing: usually used in pl.
adv.
(Webster's New World Dictionary. Accent Software International. Macmillan Publishers. Version 1.0 1997)

substantial: considerable in amount, extent, importance, etc

(allwords.com Concise Dictionary is © (1998,1999) AND Classification Data Ltd., Oxford, UK and database rights are © (1998,1999) AND Classification Data Ltd. All
rights reserved.)

Substantial
1. Belonging to substance; actually existing; real; as, substantial life.
2. Not seeming or imaginary; not illusive; real; solid; true; veritable.
3. Corporeal; material; firm.
4. Having good substance; strong; stout; solid; firm; as, substantial cloth; a substantial fence or wall.
5. Possessed of goods or an estate; moderately wealthy; responsible; as, a substantial freeholder.
Substantially (adv.) 1. In a substantial manner; in substance; essentially
(The Webster's Dictionary)
sub·stan·tial
adj.
Of, relating to, or having substance; material.
True or real; not imaginary.
Solidly built; strong.
Ample; sustaining: a substantial breakfast.
Considerable in importance, value, degree, amount, or extent: won by a substantial margin.
Possessing wealth or property; well-to-do.

n.
An essential. Often used in the plural.
A solid thing. Often used in the plural.
(The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company)

Support
Support
noun: a military operation (often involving new supplies of men and materiel) to strengthen a military force or aid in the performance of its mission (Example: "They
called for artillery support")
noun: the act of bearing the weight of or strengthening (Example: "He leaned against the wall for support")
noun: aiding the cause or policy or interests of (Example: "The president no longer had the support of his own party")
noun: the activity of providing for or maintaining by supplying with money or necessities (Example: "His support kept the family together")
noun: any device that bears the weight of another thing (Example: "There was no place to attach supports for a shelf")
noun: supporting structure that holds up or provides a foundation (Example: "The statue stood on a marble support")
noun: something providing immaterial support or assistance to a person or cause or interest (Example: "The policy found little public support")
noun: the financial means whereby one lives (Example: "He applied to the state for support")
noun: financial resources provided to make some project possible (Example: "The foundation provided support for the experiment")
noun: documentary validation (Example: "The strongest support for this this view is the work of Jones")
noun: a subordinate musical part; provides background for more important parts
verb: support financially in an enterprise
verb: give moral or psychological support, aid, or courage to (Example: "She supported him during the illness")
verb: play a subordinate role to (another performer) (Example: "Olivier supported Gielgud beautifully in the second act")
verb: support; of morale, theories, etc.
verb: adopt as a belief
verb: argue or speak in defense of (Example: "She supported the motion to strike")
verb: be the physical support of; carry the weight of (Example: "He supported me with one hand while I balanced on the beam")
verb: support with evidence or authority : make more certain or confirm
verb: be a regular customer or client of
verb: be behind; approve of
verb: establish or strengthen as with new evidence or facts (Example: "The evidence supports the defendant")
verb: put up with something or somebody unpleasant
(One Look Dictionaries, OneLook.com)

support
verb 1 carry all or part of weight of. 2 keep from falling, sinking, or failing. 3 provide for. 4 strengthen; encourage; give help to. 5 corroborate; bear out. 6 speak in
favour of. 7 take secondary part to (actor etc.). 8 perform secondary act to (main act) at pop concert. noun 1 supporting, being supported. 2 person or thing that
supports. in support of so as to support. supportable adjective. supportive adjective. supportively adverb. supportiveness noun.
·verb 1,2bear, bolster, buttress, carry, hold up, keep up, prop up, reinforce, shore up, strengthen, sustain, underpin. 3bring up, feed, finance, fund, keep, look after,
maintain, nourish, provide for, sustain. 4aid, allow, approve, assist, back, be faithful to, be interested in, bolster, buoy up, comfort, contribute to, encourage, espouse
(a cause), fight for, follow, give to, help, patronize, pay money to, promote, rally round, reassure, side with, sponsor, stand by, stand up for, stay with, stick up for,
stick with, subsidize, sustain, work for. 5bear out, confirm, corroborate, defend, endorse, explain, justify, ratify, substantiate, uphold, validate, verify. 6advocate,
agree with, argue for, back, champion, defend, favour, speak up for. noun 1aid, approval, assistance, backing, backup, bolstering, contribution, cooperation,
encouragement, fortifying, friendship, help, interest, loyalty, patronage, protection, reassurance, reinforcement, archaic or formal succour. 2brace, bracket, buttress,
crutch, foundation, frame, pillar, post, prop, sling, stanchion, stay, strut, substructure, trestle, truss, underpinning; (financial support) aid, backing, donation,
expenses, funding, keep, maintenance, sponsorship, subsidy, subsistence, upkeep. supportive caring, concerned, encouraging, favourable, heartening, helpful,
interested, kind, loyal, positive, reassuring, sustaining, sympathetic, understanding. (Oxford Paperback Dictionary and Thesauraus Askoxford.com)

support
vt.
1 a) to carry or bear the weight of; keep from falling, slipping or sinking; hold up b) to carry or bear (a specified weight, strain, pressure, etc.)
2 to give courage, faith, or confidence to; help or comfort
3 to give approval to or be in favor of; subscribe to; uphold
4 to maintain or provide for (a person, institution, etc.) with money, or subsistence
5 to show or tend to show to be true; help prove, vindicate, or corroborate !evidence to support a claim"
6 to bear; endure; submit to; tolerate
7 to keep up; maintain; sustain; specif., to maintain (the price of a specified commodity) as by government purchase of surpluses
8 Theater to act a subordinate role in the same play with (a specified star)
n.
1 a supporting or being supported
2 a person or thing that supports; specif., a) a prop, base, brace, etc. b) a means of subsistence c) an elastic, girdlelike device to support or bind a part of the
body
SYN.—support, the broadest of these terms, suggests a favoring of someone or something, either by giving active aid or merely by approving or sanctioning [to
support a candidate for office]; uphold suggests that what is being supported is under attack [to uphold civil rights for all]; sustain implies full active support so as to
strengthen or keep from failing [sustained by his hope for the future]; maintain suggests a supporting so as to keep intact or unimpaired [to maintain the law, a
family, etc.]; advocate implies support in speech or writing and sometimes connotes persuasion or argument [to advocate a change in policy]; back (often back up)
suggests support, as financial aid, moral encouragement, etc., given to prevent failure [I‘ll back you up in your demands]
(Websters New World Dictionary, Accent Software International, MacMillan Publishers, Version 1.0 1997)

United Nations
United Nations
Abbr. UN
An international organization composed of most of the countries of the world. It was founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, and economic development (The
American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All
rights reserved.)

united nations
n : an organization of independent states to promote international peace and security [syn: United Nations, UN]
(WordNet ® 1.6, © 1997 Princeton University)

United Nations
Abbr. UN
An international organization composed of most of the countries of the world. It was founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, and economic development.
(The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company)

United Nations (UN): Intergovernmental organization established in 1945 as the successor to the League of Nations. It is concerned with the maintenance of
international peace and security. The UN's principal organs are the General Assembly, Security Council, Secretariat, International Court of Justice, Economic and Social
Council, and the Trusteeship Council. Its headquarters is in New York City.
(International Law Dictionary and Directory http://august1.com/pubs/dict/u.htm#UN

United Nations: An organization started by the Allied powers in World War II for the stated purpose of preventing war, providing justice and promoting welfare
and human rights of peoples. [Black’s Law]

United Nations: An international organization composed of most of the countries of the world, formed in 1945 to promote peace, security, and economic
development. [Webster’s II New College Dictionary]