Chapter 3 Analog Meter

Analog instruments operates based on different effects produced by

current and voltage like
 Magnetic effect - ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter, integrating meters
 Induction effect- AC ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter, energy meters
 Heating effect - ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter
 Electrostatic effect- voltmeter
 Hall effect- flux-meter, clamp-meter (tongue tester)

Deflecting torque
 Deflecting torque depends on the quantity to be measured
 It causes pointer movement to rotate from its zero position.
 The more the deflecting torque, the more is the sensitivity.

Controlling torque
 This torque acts in the opposite sense to the deflecting torque.
 Equilibrium position is obtained when deflecting and controlling
torques are equal.
 Types of controlling torque
Spring Control Gravity Control

 Used for pointer deflection in  Used for pointer deflection only

both horizontal or vertical in vertical plane.
plane.
 Damping torque
 A damping torque acts in opposite to the movement of pointer.
 This brings the pointer to rest at the deflected position reasonably
quickly without any oscillation or very small oscillation.
 There are three types of damping used in the indicating instruments:
1. Air friction damping
2. Fluid friction damping
3. Electromagnetic damping
 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument

Permanent magnet
 Provides steady magnetic field
 Flux density varies from 0.1 Wb/m2 to 1 Wb/m2

Moving coil
 Light weight
 Wound on metallic or non-metallic former
 Parts of PMMC instrument

Moving coil
 Voltmeter coils are wound on metal formers to provide the required
electromagnetic damping.
 Ammeter coils are wound on non-metallic formers, because coil turns
are shorted.

Springs
 Hairsprings are made of phosphor bronze.
Functions of springs
1. Provide a restoring/controlling torque.
2. Provide an electric connection to the rotating coil.

Spindle, Pivot & jewelled bearing
 The frame of moving coil and springs are carried on a spindle. The
spindle are supported on pivot & jewelled bearings for free movement.

A pointer
 A pointer moves over the scale to indicate the reading. A balance
weight is attached to the pointer to counteract its weight.
 Operating Principle of PMMC instrument

Deflecting torque
 It is developed on the coil by the interaction of the magnetic field and
the field set up by the current in the coil. 2r
 force on each side of the coil
F
 Torque due to either side of the coil l B

I
 Deflecting torque due to both sides of the coil F

Controlling torque TC = kθ
 At steady state Deflecting Torque = Controlling Torque

 So instrument scale is linear

 Electromagnetic Damping Torque
 Electromagnetic damping is caused by the induced effects in the
moving coil as it rotates in magnetic field.
2r
 Angular velocity of the coil
F
 linear velocity of a coil side l B

 Dynamically generated emf in N turns of the coil I

F

 Damping force on the each coil side

 Thus damping torque due to N turns coil is

 Sensitivity of PMMC Instrument

Ammeter Sensitivity
 For higher sensitivity G should be large and k should be small.
 For given coil area A and a constant flux density, G is increased when
the coil is wound with many turns of thin wire. Thus a sensitive
instrument has a large resistance.

Voltmeter Sensitivity

 A low resistance voltmeter gives correct reading in low resistance

circuit, but it is certain to produce very unreliable readings in high
resistance circuit and vice-versa.
 Numerical Problem

150V dc is applied across the series connection of 100kΩ and 50kΩ.
Calculate the voltage across 50kΩ resistance with voltmeter A of
sensitivity of 1000Ω/volt and voltmeter B with a sensitivity of
20000Ω/volt. Both meters have 0-50V range.
 Solution:
V
 Resistance of voltmeter A = 1000*50Ω = 50 kΩ
100 k 50 k
 Resistance of voltmeter B = 20*50kΩ = 1000 kΩ
 Reading of voltmeter A 150 V

 Reading of voltmeter B
 Numerical Problem

A moving coil instrument has a resistance of 200Ω and the full scale
deflection is reached when a potential difference of 100 mV is applied
across the terminals. The moving coil has effective dimensions of
30mm × 25mm and is wound with 100 turns. The flux density in the
air-gap is 0.2 Wb/m2. Determine the spring constant if its final
deflection is 1000 and a suitable diameter of copper wire for the coil
winding if 20% of total instrument resistance is due to the coil winding.
Resistivity of copper is 1.7×10–8 Ωm. Find the sensitivity of the
instrument in deflection per unit current.

Solution:
 Current when full scale deflection takes place

 At Steady state, Tc = Td
kθ = NIBA
 Resistance of the wire

 Diameter of the wire

 Sensitivity of the instrument

 Numerical Problem

A periodic voltage waveform observed on an Oscilloscope across a
load is shown in the figure. A PMMC meter is connected across the
same load. What will be its reading?

v
o
l
t
( )

10

s
e
c
0 ( )
10 12 20

 Hints:
 Advantages and disadvantages of PMMC instrument

Advantages
1. Uniform scale
2. Low consumption (25µW to 200 µW)
3. High torque-weight ratio
4. High sensitivity and high accuracy
5. Error due to stray magnetic field is very small.

Disadvantages
1. Suitable for direct current only
2. High cost
3. As the instrument has permanent magnet, magnetic strength decreases
with time.
 Extension of Ammeter range (Shunt)
 From the circuit diagram
I
Ish Im

 Shunt resistance, Rsh Rm

 Where multiplying factor for shunt

 Multi-range of Ammeter

(a) Multi range ammeter and (b) make-before-break switch

 Extension of Voltmeter range (Multiplier)

 From the circuit diagram

Rm Rs
Im

 Multiplier resistance, Vm

 Where multiplying factor for multiplier

Multi range voltmeter

 Moving iron (MI) Instruments

Repulsion (double iron)
type
 When the coil carries
current, a magnetic field
is created
 Both vanes become
similarly magnetized.
 Repulsion between the
similarly magnetized
vanes produces a
proportional rotation.
 It is constructed to
withstand high transient
current because load
current is carried by the
fixed coil.
 Attraction (single iron) type MI Instruments
 When the current flows
through the coil, a
magnetic field is
produced
 It starts magnetising
moving iron disc.
 The disc experiences non
uniform field- strong
field inside the coil
while weak field outside
the coil.
 Hence the disc moves
from outside the coil to
inside the coil.
 Torque Equation of MI Instrument
 When the coil is excited, it becomes an electromagnet and the iron vane
tries to occupy a position of minimum reluctance.
 Thus, the torque produced is always in such direction so as to increase
the inductance of the coil.
 Due to change in current, a voltage will be induced across the coil
which is equal to the applied voltage.

 Supplied energy in time dt

 Increase in energy stored in the magnetic field

 Mechanical work done for deflection of dθ, Wm = Td dθ

 Torque Equation of MI Instrument
 From the principle of conservation of energy

 For steady deflection, Deflecting torque = Controlling torque

 Deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current in the coil,

making the instrument reading is a true ‘RMS’ quantity.
 Advantages and disadvantages of MI instrument

Advantages
1. The instruments are suitable for AC and DC.
2. The instruments are robust and simple in construction.
3. Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.
4. Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.

Disadvantages
1. Scale is not uniform- crowded at the lower end.
2. For rms measurement calibration changes with frequency causing
error in measurement.
3. The calibration changes due to change in spring constant and
resistances with temperature. Use of swamping resistance reduces this
effect.
4. Deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the
current due to non-linear characteristics of iron material.
 Numerical Problem

The coil of 150V moving iron voltmeter has an inductance of 1H. The
instrument is calibrated at 50Hz ac supply and draws 100mA current at
full scale deflection. Find the % error in reading when the instrument is
connected to 100V dc.
 Solution:
 Reactance of voltmeter X = 2×3.14×50×1 = 314 ohm
 Current drawn by meter at 50 Hz and 150V is Im =100mA = 0.1A
 Impedance of voltmeter circuit Z = 150/0.1 = 1500 ohm
 Resistance R = (Z2 – X2)1/2 = (15002-3142)1/2 =1466.76 Ω
 Current through meter at 100V, 50Hz ac supply
Iac= 100/Z =100/1500 = 0.0667 A
 Current through meter at 100V dc supply
Idc =100/ R = 100/1466.76 = 0.0682 A
 Numerical Problem
 Reading of instrument when connected to 100V dc is

 Error = [(measured value – true value)/true value] ×100 %

 Numerical Problem
 The inductance of a moving iron ammeter is given by L=
mH, where θ is the deflection from zero position in degree. The angular
deflection of the instrument corresponding to 1.5 & 2 Amp is
respectively 900 & 1200. Find the value of c.
 Electrodynamic Instrument

 Electro dynamic instrument is true RMS responding meters.

 It measures both DC and AC quantities with same accuracy after
calibrating it in DC.
 Such instrument having same response both in AC & DC is
known as transfer instrument.
 Electro dynamic instrument for power measurement has linear
scale because it measures average power.
 Construction of Electrodynamic Instrument

Fixed coil:
 It produces magnetic field. It is
divided into two parts
1. To give more uniform field Pointer
2. To allow passage of the shaft.
 It is air-core coil. FC
terminals Hair Spring

Moving coil:
 It is wound as a self-sustaining coil or
on a non-magnetic former to prevent MC
eddy currents.
 Light but rigid construction for free
movement. FC FC

Spindle: It is made of non-metal to MC Spindle
prevent eddy current loss. terminals Pivot & Jewel

Other parts: pointer, springs, bearing
dampers, shielding
 Operating Principle of Electrodynamic Instrument
 Flux linked by fixed coil
 Flux linked by moving coil
 Voltage induced in fixed and moving coils

 Energy supplied to the coils in time interval dt

 Total energy stored in the magnetic field of the coils

 Operating Principle of Electrodynamic Instrument
 Change in stored energy

 Mechanical work done for deflection dθ

 From the principle of conservation of energy

 Electrodynamic Instrument for DC measurement
 For dc current, if = I1 and im = I2

 At steady state, Deflecting torque = Controlling torque.

 Electrodynamic Instrument for AC measurement
 Average deflecting torque

 Where I1 and I2 are the r.m.s values of fixed and moving coil currents.
 At steady state,
 Electrodynamic Instrument as Ammeter

 It can measure upto 250 mA without shunt.

 For using shunt, following conditions must be satisfied.
1. Resistance/reactance ratio must be same for moving coil and shunt.
2. The percentage change of resistance with temperature must be the
same for the two branches.

Moving coil
I
Fixed coil Fixed coil

Shunt Load
I
 Electrodynamic Instrument as Voltmeter
 Fixed and moving coils are connected in series with a non-inductive
high series resistance.
 Electrodynamic Instrument as Wattmeter
 Moving coil is used as potential coil because it carries very small
current.
 The fixed coils are used as current coil (C.C.) because of heavy (large
cross-section) conductors required to carry large current.

For DC circuit
Fixed coil current if = IL
Moving coil current im = V/R
 Electrodynamic Instrument as Wattmeter

For AC circuit
 Let voltage across the moving coil is
 Assuming inductance of moving coil to be negligible, current through
the fixed and moving coils are given by
 Electrodynamic Instrument as Wattmeter

 Where V and I are the r.m.s values of voltage and current.

 Advantages and disadvantages of Electrodynamic instrument

Advantages
1. Free from hysteresis and eddy current errors.
2. Applicable to both dc and ac measurements.
3. Electro dynamic instruments give accurate r.m.s values irrespective of
waveforms. This property is common for all instruments having
deflecting torque proportional to square of voltage/current.

Disadvantages
1. These instruments have weak magnetic field because air core coil is
used. That results in low torque/weight ratio, hence more frictional
errors.
2. Due to low torque/weight ratio, sensitivity is low.
3. More expensive than PMMC or MI instruments.
4. Power consumption higher than PMMC but less than MI instruments.
5. They have a non-linear scale.
 Numerical Problems

A 150V range electrodynamic voltmeter has an initial mutual
inductance of 0.25 H. The self inductances of fixed and moving coils
are 0.22 H and 0.13 H respectively. At full scale deflection: deflecting
torque is 1.5×10–4 Nm and current is 75 mA. If the voltmeter is
calibrated in DC, determine error for measuring 150 volt 50 Hz AC.
The voltmeter inductance increases uniformly over the full scale of 900.

Solution:
 Deflecting torque
 For full scale deflection

 Change in mutual inductance

 Numerical Problems
 Total mutual inductance

 Total inductance of the meter

 Resistance of voltmeter

 Impedance of the voltmeter at 50 Hz AC

 Voltmeter reading at 150 volt 50 Hz AC

 Error
 Electrostatic Instruments

Linear Motion type
 The voltage to be measured V is applied across the plates. Then due to
force of attraction (F Newton), plate B moves towards A by a distance
dx until this force is balanced by that of the spring.
 Change in stored energy

 Current through capacitor

 Input energy

 Mechanical work done

 Electrostatic Instruments (Linear Motion)
 From the principle of the conservation of energy
 Electrostatic Instruments (Rotational Motion)
 The analysis used for linear motion can be applied to the rotational
motion by writing an angular displacement θ in place of linear
displacement x and deflecting torque Td in place of force F

 The electrostatic instrument can

be used on both AC and DC.
 Advantages and disadvantages of Electrostatic instrument

Advantages
1. These instruments draw negligible power from the mains.
2. They may be used on both AC and DC.
3. There are no errors caused by stray magnetic fields as the instrument
works on electrostatic principle.
4. They are particularly suited for high voltages.

Disadvantages
1. These instruments are expensive, large in size and are not robust in
construction.
2. Their scale is not uniform.
3. The operating forces are small comparing to forces in electromagnetic
type instruments.
 Numerical Problems

The capacity of an electrostatic voltmeter reading is from 0 to

2000V for the increase in capacitor from 80 to 90pF as the
pointer moves from zero to full scale deflection. Calculate the
value of external capacitor used to increase its range to 20kV. If
the capacitor is adjusted to make the full scale reading correct,
what will be the error at half scale reading?

Solution:
 Multiplying factor m =20000/2000 =10
 Capacitance of voltmeter at full scale Cv = 90pF
 The multiplying factor with an external capacitance Cs, at the full scale.
 Numerical Problems
 Capacitance of voltmeter at half scale reading = (80+90)×(1/2) = 85pF
 Multiplying factor at half scale m=1+85/10 = 9.5
 At half scale voltmeter should read = 20000/2 =10000 volt
 Reading of voltmeter = 9.5×1000 = 9500V
 Thermocouple type Instrument
 Thermocouple instruments can be used to measure AC after calibrating
it in DC. That’s why they are used as transfer instruments.
 It consist of the following major parts
1. Heating element- should be free from skin effect for high frequency
application.
2. Thermocouple element
3. Indicating instruments- PMMC type instrument is used because of its
high accuracy and high sensitivity.
 Operating Principle of Thermocouple type Instrument
 Thermal emf developed in the thermocouple

 T1 is the hot junction temperature and T2 is the cold junction

temperature
 ‘a’ and ‘b’ are thermocouple constants whose values depend upon the
metals used and ‘a’ is much larger than ‘b’.

 Temperature rise of hot junction is proportional to heat produced

 If θ is the deflection of PMMC meter for a current I

 For voltage measurement

Advantages and disadvantages of thermocouple type instrument

Advantages
1. The thermocouple instruments correctly indicate the rms value of
voltage or current irrespective of waveform.
2. These instruments are not affected by stray magnetic fields.
3. These instruments are primarily designed for current measurements at
high frequencies.
4. These instruments have high sensitivity.
5. They are very useful as transfer instruments.

Disadvantages
1. If we pass twice the rated current the heater would give a temperature
of nearly 4 times the normal temperature. It brings the heater to nearly
its burn out temperature.
2. The overall efficiency of the system is very low. This means that the
power consumption of the instrument is relatively high
 Numerical Problem

A thermocouple instrument reads 10A at full scale. Determine the
current when the meter reads one third of full scale. If thermocouple
generates an emf of 20 mV at full scale, find emf at one third of full
scale deflection.

Solution:
 If θf is the full scale deflection

 For one third of full scale deflection

 Numerical Problem
 Thermocouple emf
 If v is the emf at one third of full scale deflection
 Rectifier Type Instrument

Half-wave and full-wave
V Sinusoidal voltage
rectification Vm
 Average value of half wave
rectified voltage wt
pi 2pi 3pi

0 pi 2pi 3pi

V
Half wave rectified voltage
Vm

pi wt
 Average value of full wave 0 pi 2pi
2pi 3pi
3pi

rectified voltage V
Full wave rectified voltage
Vm

wt
0 pi
pi 2pi
2pi
3pi
3pi
 Half Wave Rectifier Instrument
 PMMC instrument indicates a deflection corresponding to average
value of current.
 Current through the meter

 Hence, the sensitivity of a half wave

rectifier instruments with AC is 0.45
times its sensitivity with DC.

 The form factor for half wave rectified sinusoidal signal is 2.22.
 So to read true r.m.s. value of the sinusoidal input, the scale markings
on PMMC instrument should be multiplied by a factor of 2.22.
 Full Wave Rectifier Instrument
 Current through the meter

 Hence, the sensitivity of a full wave rectifier instruments with AC is 0.9

times its sensitivity with DC.
 The form factor for full wave rectified sinusoidal signal is 1.11.
 So to read true r.m.s. value of the sinusoidal input, the scale markings
on PMMC instrument should be multiplied by a factor of 1.11.
 Advantages and disadvantages of Rectifier type instrument

Advantages
1. The frequency range extends from about 20 Hz to 3000 MHz.
2. These instruments have a much lower operating current for voltmeters.
3. They have a practically uniform scale for most ranges.

Disadvantages
1. The sensitivity of rectifier type of voltmeters using either half or full
wave rectification, is less than the sensitivity of DC voltmeters.
2. A non sinusoidal waveform has an average value that may differ
considerably from the average value of a sinusoidal wave (for which
the meter is calibrated) and the indicated reading would certainly be
erroneous.
3. Resistance of rectifier element varies with temperature that causes
error in the reading.
 Numerical Problem

A full wave rectifier type AC voltmeter uses bridge rectifier. Each
diodes of the bridge has a forward resistance of 50Ω and infinite
reverse resistance. The indicating instrument has an internal resistance
of 250Ω and requires 1mA for full scale deflection. Calculate
i) the series resistance for full scale meter deflection when 25 V rms is
applied to the meter terminals.
ii) The sensitivity in ohm/volt of this ac voltmeter.

Solution:
 Total resistance of the path = Rs + (2×50) +250 = Rs + 350
 Deflection of PMMC depends on average voltage.
 The average value of 25 V rms

 Full scale deflection current is 1 mA.

 Numerical Problem

 Sensitivity of the rectifier type AC voltmeter is

 Induction Type Instrument
 This type of instrument operates based on the eddy currents induced on
a metal disc.
 The interaction of a flux and an eddy current induced by other flux
produces a torque.
 Let an instantaneous flux φ(t) interact with an eddy current i(t) of rms
value I.
 Instantaneous torque

 Average torque

 The interaction of a sinusoidally varying flux Φ(t) and its own eddy
current cannot produce torque on the disc. Because the disc is nearly
resistive and eddy current is almost 900 out of phase with the flux.
 Operation of Induction Type Instrument
 Two electromagnetic poles P1
and P2 produce alternating
fluxes ϕ1 and ϕ2 respectively.
 φ1 produces an eddy current i1
and φ2 produces an eddy
current i2.
 two torques are produced
1. Due to interaction of φ1 and
i2 in anti clockwise direction
2. Due to interaction of φ2 and
i1 in clockwise direction
 Operation of Induction Type Instrument

 Emf induced in the aluminium disc by

flux φ1 and φ2

 RMS values of induced emf e1 and e2

 Operation of Induction Type Instrument
 If I1 and I2 are the rms values of eddy currents corresponding to E1 and
E2 and Z∠α is impedance in the current path in the disc

 From the phasor diagram we get, the phase angle between Φ2 and I1 is
(90-β+α) and phase angle between Φ1 and I2 is (90+β+α).
 Average deflecting torque due to interaction of φ2 and I1 in clockwise
direction

 Average deflecting torque due to interaction of φ1 and I2 in anti

clockwise direction
 Operation of Induction Type Instrument
 Resultant torque in clockwise direction

 Thus,
1. The torque is directly proportional to cosα. Therefore torque will be
maximum when α is zero. Hence eddy current path should be highly
resistive for torque to be large.
2. The torque is directly proportional to sinβ. Therefore torque is
maximum when β = 900. Hence the two fluxes Φ1 and Φ2 should be
900 phase displaced for torque to be maximum.
 Advantages and disadvantages of Induction type instrument

Advantages
1. It is free from the effects of stray fields.
2. It provides very good damping.

Disadvantages
1. It can be used to measure AC power only.
2. It causes error due to temperature variation.
3. It has high power consumption.
4. It is costly as well.
 Summary of Different Types of Instruments
Type of Effect Utilised Suitable Type of Type of Special Features
Instrument for control damping
PMMC Magnetic DC Spring Eddy • High accuracy & sensitivity
Instruments (Current, current • Uniform scale
voltage) • Low power consumption
• High torque-weight ratio
• Used in DC only
• Costly
Induction Type Electro- AC Spring Eddy • Provides very good damping
Instrument magnetic (Current, current • Only wattmeter scale uniform
Induction Voltage, • Mainly used for power &
Power & energy measurement
Energy) • High power consumption
• costly
Electro- Magnetic AC & DC Spring or Air Friction • High accuracy
dynamic (Current, Gravity • Used as transfer instrument
Instrument Voltage & • Uniform scale only for
Power) wattmeter
• Low torque-weight ratio
• High power consumption
 Summary of Different Types of Instruments
Moving Iron Magnetic AC & DC Spring Air Friction • Relatively cheaper
Instrument (Magnetisation) (Current, • High torque-weight ratio
voltage) • High accuracy
• Non uniform scale
Electrostatic Electrostatic AC & DC Spring or Air Friction • Very low power consumption
Instrument (Voltage) Gravity • Suitable for high voltage
• Non uniform scale
• Costly, large in size
Thermo Heating AC & DC Spring Eddy • Suitable for high frequency
couple Type (Current, current application
Instrument voltage) • High accuracy & sensitivity
• No frequency & waveform
error
• Used as transfer instrument
• Non uniform scale
• Very poor efficiency

Rectifier Type Rectification AC & DC Spring Eddy • Suitable for communication

Instrument (Current, current circuit
voltage) • Uniform scale
• Low sensitivity