COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE AND

OPERATING SYSTEMS (CAOS)

Course Code: CS31702
4-0-0

K. Sreenivasa Rao
Professor
Dept. of CSE
IIT Kharagpur
 Syllabus
• Architecture:
– Basic organization,
– fetch-decode-execute cycle,
– data path and control path,
– instruction set architecture,
– I/O subsystems, interrupts, memory hierarchy, overview of pipelined
architecture.
• Operating systems:
– An overview,
– process management,
– user and supervisor modes,
– process synchronization, semaphores,
– memory management, virtual memory,
– file systems, I/O systems.
 Books
Computer Architecture:
• David A. Patterson and John L. Hennessy, Computer
Organization and Design: The Hardware/Software Interface,
5th Edition, Elsevier.
• Carl Hamachar, Zvonco Vranesic and Safwat Zaky, Computer
Organization, McGraw-Hill.
• John P. Hayes, Computer Architecture and Organization,
McGraw-Hill.
Operating System:
• Avi Silberschatz, Peter Galvin, Greg Gagne, Operating
System Concepts, Wiley Asia Student Edition.
• William Stallings, Operating Systems: Internals and Design
Principles, Prentice Hall of India.
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND DESIGN 5th
Edition
The Hardware/Software Interface

Chapter 1
Computer Abstractions
and Technology
 §1.1 Introduction
The Computer Revolution
 Progress in computer technology
 Underpinned by Moore’s Law – 2x integration
density every 18 months
 Makes novel applications feasible
 Computers in automobiles
 Cell phones
 Human genome project
 World Wide Web
 Search Engines
 Computers are pervasive
Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 5
Classes of Computers
 Personal computers
 General purpose, variety of software
 Subject to cost/performance tradeoff

 Server computers
 Network based
 High capacity, performance, reliability
 Range from small servers to building sized

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 6

Classes of Computers
 Supercomputers
 High-end scientific and engineering
calculations
 Highest capability but represent a small
fraction of the overall computer market

 Embedded computers
 Hidden as components of systems
 Stringent power/performance/cost constraints

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 7

The PostPC Era

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 8

The PostPC Era
 Personal Mobile Device (PMD)
 Battery operated
 Connects to the Internet
 Hundreds of dollars
 Smart phones, tablets, electronic glasses
 Cloud computing
 Warehouse Scale Computers (WSC)
 Software as a Service (SaaS)
 Portion of software run on a PMD and a
portion run in the Cloud
 Amazon and Google
Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 9
Understanding What is below
your code ?
1960-70’s: limited Memory
PostPC Era:
- Parallel nature of processors
- Hierarchical nature of memories
Present PMD & Cloud computing Era:
- Energy efficiency

Programmers:
- Knowledge of Computer Organization
- Software below the program
- Hardware under the covers of computer
What You Will Learn
 How programs are translated into the
machine language
 And how the hardware executes them
 The hardware/software interface
 What determines program performance
 And how it can be improved
 How hardware designers improve
performance
 What is parallel processing

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 11

What Affects Performance?
 Algorithm
 Determines number of operations executed
 Programming language, compiler, architecture
 Determine number of machine instructions executed
per operation
 Processor and memory system
 Determine how fast instructions are executed
 I/O system (including OS)
 Determines how fast I/O operations are executed

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 12

What Affects Performance?
(Example: Matrix Multiplication)
Data level parallelism (3.8 times)
Instruction level parallelism (2.3 times)
Memory hierarchy optimization (2.5 times)
Thread level parallelism (14 times)

Overall speedup (200 times)

 §1.2 Eight Great Ideas in Computer Architecture
Eight Great Ideas
 Design for Moore’s Law

 Use abstraction to simplify design

 Make the common case fast

 Performance via parallelism

 Performance via pipelining

 Performance via prediction

 Hierarchy of memories

 Dependability via redundancy

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 14

 §1.3 Below Your Program
Below Your Program
 Application software
 Written in high-level language
 System software
 Compiler: translates HLL code to
machine code
 Operating System: service code
 Handling input/output
 Managing memory and storage
 Scheduling tasks & sharing resources
 Hardware
 Processor, memory, I/O controllers

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 15

Levels of Program Code
 High-level language
 Level of abstraction closer
to problem domain
 Provides for productivity
and portability
 Assembly language
 Textual representation of
instructions
 Hardware representation
 Binary digits (bits)
 Encoded instructions and
data

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 16

 §1.4 Under the Covers
Components of a Computer
The BIG Picture  Same components for
all kinds of computer
 Desktop, server,
embedded
 Input/output includes
 User-interface devices
 Display, keyboard, mouse
 Storage devices
 Hard disk, CD/DVD, flash
 Network adapters
 For communicating with
other computers

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 17

Opening the Box
Capacitive multitouch LCD screen

3.8 V, 25 Watt-hour battery

Computer board

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 18

Apple A5 Processor
Inside the Processor (CPU)
 Datapath: performs operations on data
 Control: sequences datapath, memory, ...
 Cache memory
 Small fast SRAM memory for immediate
access to data

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 20

CPU Clocking
 Operation of digital hardware governed by a
constant-rate clock
Clock period

Clock (cycles)

Data transfer
and computation
Update state

 Clock period: duration of a clock cycle

 e.g., 250ps = 0.25ns = 250×10–12s
 Clock frequency (rate): cycles per second
 e.g., 4.0GHz = 4000MHz = 4.0×109Hz
Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 21
CPU Time
CPU Time  CPU Clock Cycles  Clock Cycle Time
CPU Clock Cycles

Clock Rate
 Performance improved by
 Reducing number of clock cycles
 Increasing clock rate
 Hardware designer must often trade off clock
rate against cycle count

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 22

CPU Time Example
 Computer A: 2GHz clock, 10s CPU time
 Designing Computer B
 Aim for 6s CPU time
 Can do faster clock, but causes 1.2 × clock cycles
 How fast must Computer B clock be?
Clock CyclesB 1.2  Clock Cycles A
Clock Rate B  
CPU Time B 6s
Clock Cycles A  CPU Time A  Clock Rate A
 10s  2GHz  20  10 9
1.2  20  10 9 24  10 9
Clock Rate B    4GHz
6s 6s
Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 23
Instruction Count and CPI
Clock Cycles  Instructio n Count  Cycles per Instructio n
CPU Time  Instructio n Count  CPI Clock Cycle Time
Instructio n Count  CPI

Clock Rate
 Instruction Count for a program
 Determined by program, ISA and compiler
 Average cycles per instruction
 Determined by CPU hardware
 If different instructions have different CPI
 Average CPI affected by instruction mix

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 24

CPI Example
 Computer A: Cycle Time = 250ps, CPI = 2.0
 Computer B: Cycle Time = 500ps, CPI = 1.2
 Same ISA
 Which is faster, and by how much?
CPU Time  Instructio n Count  CPI  Cycle Time
A A A
 I  2.0  250ps  I  500ps A is faster…
CPU Time  Instructio n Count  CPI  Cycle Time
B B B
 I  1.2  500ps  I  600ps

B  I  600ps  1.2
CPU Time
…by this much
CPU Time I  500ps
A
Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 25
 CPI in More Detail
 If different instruction classes take different
numbers of cycles
n
Clock Cycles   (CPIi  Instructio n Count i )
i1

 Weighted average CPI

Clock Cycles n
 Instructio n Count i 
CPI     CPIi  
Instructio n Count i1  Instructio n Count 

Relative frequency

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 26

CPI Example
 Alternative compiled code sequences using
instructions in classes A, B, C
Class A B C
CPI for class 1 2 3
IC in sequence 1 2 1 2
IC in sequence 2 4 1 1

 Sequence 1: IC = 5  Sequence 2: IC = 6
 Clock Cycles  Clock Cycles
= 2×1 + 1×2 + 2×3 = 4×1 + 1×2 + 1×3
= 10 =9
 Avg. CPI = 10/5 = 2.0  Avg. CPI = 9/6 = 1.5
Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 27
Performance Summary
The BIG Picture

Instructio ns Clock cycles Seconds

CPU Time   
Program Instructio n Clock cycle

 Performance depends on
 Algorithm: affects IC, possibly CPI
 Programming language: affects IC, CPI
 Compiler: affects IC, CPI
 Instruction set architecture: affects IC, CPI, Tc

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 28

Response Time and Throughput
 Response time
 How long it takes to do a task
 Throughput
 Total work done per unit time
 e.g., tasks/transactions/… per hour
 How are response time and throughput affected
by
 Replacing the processor with a faster version?
 Adding more processors?
 We’ll study their estimation now

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 29

 §1.7 The Power Wall
Power Trends

 In CMOS IC technology
Power  Capacitive load  Voltage 2  Frequency

×30 5V → 1V ×1000

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 30

Reducing Power
 Suppose a new CPU has
 85% of capacitive load of old CPU
 15% voltage and 15% frequency reduction
Pnew Cold  0.85  (Vold  0.85) 2  Fold  0.85
  0.85 4
 0.52
Cold  Vold  Fold
2
Pold

 The power wall

 We can’t reduce voltage further
 We can’t remove more heat
 How else can we improve performance?
Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 31
Multiprocessors
 Multicore microprocessors
 More than one processor per chip
 Clock frequency limited
 Requires explicitly parallel programming
 Compare with instruction level parallelism
 Hardware executes multiple instructions at once
 Hidden from the programmer
 Hard to do
 Programming for performance
 Load balancing
 Optimizing communication and synchronization
Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 32
 §1.9 Concluding Remarks
Concluding Remarks
 Cost/performance is improving
 Due to underlying technology development
 Hierarchical layers of abstraction
 In both hardware and software
 Instruction set architecture
 The hardware/software interface
 Execution time: the best performance
measure
 Power is a limiting factor
 Use parallelism to improve performance

Chapter 1 — Computer Abstractions and Technology — 33