Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Malcolm J.

McPherson

2.3 FLUIDS IN MOTION

2.3.1. Bernoulli's equation for ideal fluids

As a fluid stream passes through a pipe, duct or other continuous opening, there will, in general, be
changes in its velocity, elevation and pressure. In order to follow such changes it is useful to identify
the differing forms of energy contained within a given mass of the fluid. For the time being, we will
consider that the fluid is ideal; that is, it has no viscosity and proceeds along the pipe with no shear
forces and no frictional losses. Secondly, we will ignore any thermal effects and consider mechanical
energy only.

Suppose we have a mass, m, of fluid moving at velocity, u, at an elevation, Z, and a barometric

pressure P. There are three forms of mechanical energy that we need to consider. In each case, we
shall quantify the relevant term by assessing how much work we would have to do in order to raise
that energy quantity from zero to its actual value in the pipe, duct or airway.

Kinetic energy
If we commence with the mass, m, at rest and accelerate it to velocity u in t seconds by applying a
constant force F, then the acceleration will be uniform and the mean velocity is

0 +u u m
=
2 2 s

Then
distance travelled = mean velocity x time

u
= t m
2

Furthermore, the acceleration is defined as

increase in velocity u
= m / s2
time t

The force is given by

F = mass x acceleration

u
= m N
t

and the work done to accelerate from rest to velocity u is

WD = force x distance Nm

u u
=m x t
t 2
2
u
=m Nm or J (2.11)
2

The kinetic energy of the mass m is, therefore, m u2/2 Joules.

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Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Malcolm J. McPherson

Potential energy
Any base elevation may be used as the datum for potential energy. In most circumstances of
underground ventilation engineering, it is differences in elevation that are important. If our mass m is
located on the base datum then it will have a potential energy of zero relative to that datum. We then
exert an upward force, F, sufficient to counteract the effect of gravity.

F = mass x acceleration

=mg N

where g is the gravitational acceleration.

In moving upward to the final elevation of Z metres above the datum, the work done is

WD = Force x distance

= mgZ Joules (2.12)

This gives the potential energy of the mass at elevation Z.

Flow work
Suppose we have a horizontal pipe, open at both ends and of cross sectional area A as shown in
Figure 2.1. We wish to insert a plug of fluid, volume v and mass m into the pipe. However, even in
the absence of friction, there is a resistance due to the pressure of the fluid, P, that already exists in
the pipe. Hence, we must exert a force, F, on the plug of fluid to overcome that resisting pressure.
Our intent is to find the work done on the plug of fluid in order to move it a distance s into the pipe.
s

F P
v
A

Figure 2.1 Flow work done on a fluid entering a pipe

The force, F, must balance the pressure, P, which is distributed over the area, A.

F=PA N

Work done = force x distance

= PAs J or Joules

However, the product As is the swept volume v, giving

WD = P v

Now, by definition, the density is

m kg
ρ=
v m3
or
m
v =
ρ

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Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Malcolm J. McPherson

Hence, the work done in moving the plug of fluid into the pipe is

Pm
WD = J (2.13)
ρ

or P/ρ Joules per kilogram.

As fluid continues to be inserted into the pipe to produce a continuous flow, then each individual
plug must have this amount of work done on it. That energy is retained within the fluid stream and is
known as the flow work. The appearance of pressure, P, within the expression for flow work has
resulted in the term sometimes being labelled "pressure energy". This is very misleading as flow
work is entirely different to the "elastic energy" stored when a closed vessel of fluid is compressed.
Some authorities also object to the term "flow work" and have suggested "convected energy" or,
simply, the "Pv work". Note that in Figure 2.1 the pipe is open at both ends. Hence the pressure, P,
inside the pipe does not change with time (the fluid is not compressed) when plugs of fluid continue
to be inserted in a frictionless manner. When the fluid exits the system, it will carry kinetic and
potential energy, and the corresponding flow work with it.

Now we are in a position to quantify the total mechanical energy of our mass of fluid, m. From
expressions (2.11, 2.12 and 2.13)

total mechanical kinetic potential flow

= energy + energy + work
energy
mu 2 P
= + mZ g + m J (2.14)
2 ρ

If no mechanical energy is added to or subtracted from the fluid during its traverse through the pipe,
duct or airway, and in the absence of frictional effects, the total mechanical energy must remain
constant throughout the airway. Then equation (2.14) becomes

 u 2 P
m + Zg +  = constant J (2. 15)
 2 ρ

Another way of expressing this equation is to consider two stations, 1 and 2 along the pipe, duct or
airway. Then

 u 2 P   u 2 P 
m  1 + Z1 g + 1  = m  2 + Z 2 g + 2 
 2 ρ1   2 ρ2 

Now as we are still considering the fluid to be incompressible (constant density),

ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ (say)
giving

u12 − u 22 P −P J
+ (Z 1 − Z 2 )g + 1 2 = 0 (2.16)
2 ρ kg

Note that dividing by m on both sides has changed the units of each term from J to J/kg.
Furthermore, if we multiplied throughout by ρ then each term would take the units of pressure.
Bernoulli's equation has, traditionally, been expressed in this form for incompressible flow.

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Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Malcolm J. McPherson

Equation (2.16) is of fundamental importance in the study of fluid flow. It was first derived by Daniel
Bernoulli (1700-1782), a Swiss mathematician, and is known throughout the world by his name.

As fluid flows along any closed system, Bernoulli's equation allows us to track the inter-relationships
between the variables. Velocity u, elevation Z, and pressure P may all vary, but their combination as
expressed in Bernoulli's equation remains true. It must be remembered, however, that it has been
derived here on the assumptions of ideal (frictionless) conditions, constant density and steady-state
flow. We shall see later how the equation must be amended for the real flow of compressible fluids.

2.3.2. Static, total and velocity pressures.

Consider the level duct shown on Figure 2.2. Three gauge pressures are measured. To facilitate
visualization, the pressures are indicated as liquid heads on U tube manometers. However, the
2
analysis will be conducted in terms of true pressure (N/m ) rather than head of fluid.

u1

(a) (b) (c)

ps pt pv

Figure 2.2 (a) static, (b) total and (c) velocity pressures

In position (a), one limb of the U tube is connected perpendicular through the wall of the duct. Any
drilling burrs on the inside have been smoothed out so that the pressure indicated is not influenced
by the local kinetic energy of the air. The other limb of the manometer is open to the ambient
atmosphere. The gauge pressure indicated is known as the static pressure, ps.

In position (b) the left tube has been extended into the duct and its open end turned so that it faces
directly into the fluid stream. As the fluid impacts against the open end of the tube, it is brought to
rest and the loss of its kinetic energy results in a local increase in pressure. The pressure within the
tube then reflects the sum of the static pressure and the kinetic effect. Hence the manometer
indicates a higher reading than in position (a).The corresponding pressure, pt, is termed the total
pressure. The increase in pressure caused by the kinetic energy can be quantified by using
Bernoulli's equation (2.16). In this case Zl = Z2, and u2 = 0. Then

P2 − P1 u12
=
ρ 2

The local increase in pressure caused by bringing the fluid to rest is then

u12
pv = P2 − P1 = ρ Pa
2

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Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Malcolm J. McPherson

This is known as the velocity pressure and can be measured directly by connecting the manometer
as shown in position (c). The left connecting tube of the manometer is at gauge pressure pt and the
right tube at gauge pressure ps. It follows that

p v = pt - p s

or p t = ps + p v Pa (2.18)

In applying this equation, care should be taken with regard to sign as the static pressure, ps, will be
negative if the barometric pressure inside the duct is less than that of the outside atmosphere.

If measurements are actually made using a liquid in glass manometer as shown on Figure 2.2 then
the reading registered on the instrument is influenced by the head of fluid in the manometer tubes
above the liquid level. If the manometer liquid has a density ρ1, and the superincumbent fluid in both
tubes has a density ρd, then the head indicated by the manometer, h, should be converted to true
pressure by the equation

p = ( ρ1 − ρd ) g h Pa (2.19)

Reflecting back on equation (2.8) shows that this is the usual equation relating fluid head and
pressure with the density replaced by the difference in the two fluid densities. In ventilation
engineering, the superincumbent fluid is air, having a very low density compared with liquids. Hence,
the ρd term in equation (2.19) is usually neglected. However, if the duct or pipe contains a liquid
rather than a gas then the full form of equation (2.19) should be employed.

A further situation arises when the fluid in the duct has a density, ρd, that is significantly different to
that of the air (or other fluid), ρa, which exists above the liquid in the right hand tube of the
manometer in Fig. 2.2(a). Then

p = ( ρ1 − ρd ) g h − ( ρd − ρa ) g h2 Pa (2.20)

where h2 is the vertical distance between the liquid level in the right side of the manometer and the
connection into the duct.

Equations (2.19) and (2.20) can be derived by considering a pressure balance on the two sides of
the U tube above the lower of the two liquid levels.

2.3.3. Viscosity
Bernoulli's equation was derived in Section 2.3.1. on the assumption of an ideal fluid; i.e. that flow
could take place without frictional resistance. In subsurface ventilation engineering almost all of the
work input by fans (or other ventilating devices) is utilized against frictional effects within the airways.
Hence, we must find a way of amending Bernoulli's equation for the frictional flow of real fluids.

The starting point in an examination of 'frictional flow' is the concept of viscosity. Consider two
parallel sheets of fluid a very small distance, dy, apart but moving at different velocities u and
u + du (Figure 2.3). An equal but opposite force, F, will act upon each layer, the higher velocity sheet
tending to pull its slower neighbour along and, conversely, the slower sheet tending to act as a brake
on the higher velocity layer.

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Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Malcolm J. McPherson

u + du
dy F
F
u

Figure 2.3 Viscosity causes equal but opposite forces to be exerted

on adjacent laminae of fluid.
If the area of each of the two sheets in near contact is A, then the shear stress is defined as
τ (Greek 'tau') where

F N
τ = (2.21)
A m2

Among his many accomplishments, Isaac Newton (1642-1727) proposed that for parallel motion of
streamlines in a moving fluid, the shear stress transmitted across the fluid in a direction
perpendicular to the flow is proportional to the rate of change of velocity, du/dy (velocity gradient)

F du N
τ = = µ (2.22)
A dy m2

where the constant of proportionality, µ, is known as the coefficient of dynamic viscosity (usually
referred to simply as dynamic viscosity). The dynamic viscosity of a fluid varies with its temperature.
For air, it may be determined from

Ns
µair = (17.0 + 0.045 t) x 10-6
m2

and for water

 64.72  Ns
µ water =  − 0.2455  x 10 −3
 t + 31.766  m2

where t = temperature (ºC) in the range 0 - 60 ºC

The units of viscosity are derived by transposing equation (2.22)

dy N s Ns
µ = τ 2
m or
du m m m2

A term which commonly occurs in fluid mechanics is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to fluid density.
This is called the kinematic viscosity, υ (Greek 'nu')

µ Ns m 3 s
υ = or N m
ρ m 2 kg kg

As 1 N = 1 kg x 1 m/s2, these units become

m ms m2
kg 2 =
s kg s

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Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Malcolm J. McPherson

It is the transmission of shear stress that produces frictional resistance to motion in a fluid stream.
Indeed, a definition of an 'ideal fluid' is one that has zero viscosity. Following from our earlier
discussion on the molecular behaviour of fluids (Section 2.1.1.), there would appear to be at least
two effects that produce the phenomenon of viscosity. One is the attractive forces that exist between
molecules - particularly those of liquids. This will result in the movement of some molecules tending
to drag others along, and for the slower molecules to inhibit motion of faster neighbours. The second
effect may be visualized by glancing again at Figure 2.3. If molecules from the faster moving layer
stray sideways into the slower layer then the inertia that they carry will impart kinetic energy to that
layer. Conversely, migration of molecules from the slower to the faster layer will tend to retard its
motion.

In liquids, the molecular attraction effect is dominant. Heating a liquid increases the internal kinetic
energy of the molecules and also increases the average inter-molecular spacing. Hence, as the
attractive forces diminish with distance, the viscosity of a liquid decreases with respect to
temperature. In a gas, the molecular attractive force is negligible. The viscosity of gases is much
less than that of liquids and is caused by the molecular inertia effect. In this case, the increased
velocity of molecules caused by heating will tend to enhance their ability to transmit inertia across
streamlines and, hence, we may expect the viscosity of gases to increase with respect to
temperature. This is, in fact, the situation observed in practice.

In both of these explanations of viscosity, the effect works between consecutive layers equally well
in both directions. Hence, dynamic equilibrium is achieved with both the higher and lower velocity
layers maintaining their net energy levels. Unfortunately, no real process is perfect in fluid
mechanics. Some of the useful mechanical energy will be transformed into the much less useful heat
energy. In a level duct, pipe or airway, the loss of mechanical energy is reflected in an observable
drop in pressure. This is often termed the 'frictional pressure drop'

Recalling that Bernoulli's equation was derived for mechanical energy terms only in Section 2.3.1, it
follows that for the flow of real fluids, the equation must take account of the frictional loss of
mechanical energy. We may rewrite equation (2.16) as

u12 P u2 P J
+ Z 1 g + 1 = 2 + Z 2 g + 2 + F12 (2.23)
2 ρ 2 ρ kg

where Fl2 = energy converted from the mechanical form to heat (J/kg).

The problem now turns to one of quantifying the frictional term F12. For that, we must first examine
the nature of fluid flow.

2.3.4. Laminar and turbulent flow. Reynolds Number

In our everyday world, we can observe many examples of the fact that there are two basic kinds of
fluid flow. A stream of oil poured out of a can flows smoothly and in a controlled manner while water,
poured out at the same rate, would break up into cascading rivulets and droplets. This example
seems to suggest that the type of flow depends upon the fluid. However, a light flow of water falling
from a circular outlet has a steady and controlled appearance, but if the flowrate is increased the
stream will assume a much more chaotic form. The type of flow seems to depend upon the flowrate
as well as the type of fluid.

Throughout the nineteenth century, it was realized that these two types of flow existed. The German
engineer G.H.L. Hagen (1797-1884) found that the type of flow depended upon the velocity and
viscosity of the fluid. However, it was not until the 1880's that Professor Osborne Reynolds of
Manchester University in England established a means of characterizing the type of flow regime

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