ATOMIC MODELS

During the past 100 years scientists have mode contributions

which helped in the development of modern theory of atomic
structure. The work of J.J.Thomson and Ernest Rutherford
actually laid the foundation of modern picture of the atom. It
is now believed that the atom consists of several particles
called sub-atomic particles like electron , proton , neutron ,
positron , neutrino , meson etc . Out of these particles , the
electron , the proton , the proton , and the neutron are called
fundamental particles and are the building blocks of the
atoms . the word atom is a Greek word meaning indivisible.
Indian and greek philosophers gave the idea of permanu and
atoms but this was based on philosophical considerations . In
1804 John Dalton proposed a classical model of atom . this
theory was landmark in the history of chemistry.
The concepts of atom as postulated by Dalton , was an
ultimate smallest particle which had all the properties of
matter but did not have free existence . On the basis of
Dalton’s atomic theory , the atoms of different elements
should have different properties.

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

The old philosophical doctrine of Greeks that matter is
composed of tiny indestructible particles called atoms , was
developed in the form of Atomic theory by John Dalton
during 1803-1808 . Subsequently , it was found that it could
explain all the four laws of chemical combination and so , it
was later on referred to as a ‘Atomic Theory’ rather than as
atomic hypothesis . According to Dalton’s atomic theory.
 Matter is composed of a number of extremely small
particles called ‘atoms’ which are incapable of further
sub-division.
 Atoms of the some element are identical in all respect .
All atoms of the same element have the same size and
mass.
 Atoms of different elements have different properties
and different mass and size.
 Combination between atoms takes place in small whole
numbers ,resulting in the formation of ‘compound
atoms’ ( in modern terminology , they are called
molecules).
 An atom can neither be created nor destroyed , i.e.
atoms are indestructible.

Earlier models of atom

Based on the experimental observation, different models
were proposed for the structure of atom Sir J.J Thomson came
forward with the first model of atom in 1897.

Thomson’s model of atom

After the Discovery of electron and proton , the question
arose , how these charged particles are distributed in an atom
. The answer was given by J.J Thomson in the form of first
model of the atom.
He proposed that the positive charge is spread over a sphere
in which the electrons are embedded to make the atom as a
whole neutral . This model was much like raisins in a pudding
and is also known as Thomson’s plum pudding model . This
model was discarded as it was not consistent with the results
of further investigations such as scattering of alpha particles
by thin metal-foils.

Rutherford experiment
nuclear model of atom
Ernest Rutherford (a student of J.J Thomson) performed a
historical Alpha particle scattering experiment in
collaboration with Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden . He shot
a thin stream of alpha particles produced from a radioactive
material through a thin gold foil . The foil was surrounded by
a circular fluorescent zinc sulphide screen . Whenever an
alpha particle struck the screen , it produced a flash of light .
They found that although the majority of the alpha particles
passed through the gold foil undeflected , some of them were
deflected by large angles and a few even bounded back .
Since alpha particles are positively charged with two units of
positive and a mass of four units , their deflection could be
caused only if they struck against something positively
charged of about their own mass.
Rutherford derived following conclusion from the
observations of his experiments :
 Most part of the atom is hollow . The empty space in
atoms allow the clean passage of those alpha particles
which pass through it and remain undeflected . Majority
of the alpha particles passed undeflectd so most part of
the atom should be empty.
 The positive charge is concentrated somewhere in the
atom . When positively charged alpha particles pass in
the vicinity of concentrated positive charge of atom ,
they get repelled and suffer deflection.
 There is something very heavy in the atom . The
returning back of some alpha particle indicate that they
have collided with something heavy . As a few particles
deflect back . So the space occupied by the heavy part of
the atom is very small.

Rutherford nuclear model of atoms

Rutherford proposed a model of atom on the basis of the
conclusions derived from alpha particles scattering
experiment . The salient features of this model are as follows
-:
 Almost all the mass and entire positive charge of the
atom is concentrated into its centre called nucleus . All
the protons and neutrons are present in nucleus
 The size of nucleus ‘is extremely small as compared to
the size of the atom . The radius of the nucleus is of the
order of 10- cm while that of the atom is of the order
of 10 to the power -8 cm.
 There is an empty space around the nucleus called extra
nuclear space . Electrons are present in this part the
number of electrons are equal to the number of protons.
 Electrons move at very high speed around the nucleus in
orbits.

Drawbacks of Rutherford model

This model is unable to explain the stability of atom .
According to this model an atom consists of a heavy charged
nucleus around which the negatively charged electrons move
in orbits in an empty space . Since the electrons are charged
and get accelerated , they must also emit radiations while
moving in orbits around the nucleus . As a results of this , the
electron should loose energy at every turn and move closer
and closer to the nucleus following a spiral path and a stage
should come when the electrons should fall into the nucleus
and the atoms should collapse.

Weakness of rutherford’s model

Although Rutherford’s atomic model proved very fruit full ,
but soon it was pointed out that the concept of revolving
electrons was untenable from the electrodynamics point of
view . Since the electrons , a charged body , is moving around
the nucleus , it is accelerated . It will radiate energy
continuously . As a result its orbits would become smaller and
smaller it is dropped into the nucleus.

Neils Bohr :: Suggested his theory of atomic structure that

was based on planck’s Qunamtum theory . Later summer field
also introduced his atomic model.

Bohr model
While the Rutherford model focused on describing the
nucleus Neils Bohr turned his attention to describing the
electron prior to the Bohr model . The accepted model was
one which depicted the electron as an orbiting planet . The
flow with the planets like model is that an electron particle
moving in a circular path would be accelerating . An
accelerating electron creates a changing magnetic field . This
changing magnetic field would carry energy away from the
electron eventually slowing it down and allowing it to be
“captured” by the nucleus.
Bohr built upon spectroscopic observation of atoms .
Spectroscopists noticed that an atom can only absorb certain
energies of eight absorption spectrum and once excited can
only release certain energies and there energies happen to be
the same . Bohr used these observation to argue that the
energy of a bound electron is “quantized” . Quantized is a
fancy word meaning only certain quantities of energy are
allowed . This explanation addresses the true origin of eight .
since only certain energy level are allowed it is actually
possible to diagram the atom in terms of energy levels . In the
animation below you will see a model of a Hydrogen atom
and to the right of it , a Bohr energy level diagram .
In this animation you will notice that if the energy of the
photons of eight is just night , it will cause the electron to
jump to a higher level . When the electron to jump to a higher
level . When the electron jump back down a photon without
the right amount of energy passes through the atom with not
any effect . Photon with too much energy7 will cause the
electron to be ejected which ionizes the atom.
A ionized electron is said to be in the n= infinity energy level .
Keep in mind that these rings are actually orbits , but are
levels that represent the location of an electron wave . The
no. n corresponds to the number of complete wave in the
electrons.

Sommerfield extended Bohr

theory and gave his
postulate
According to him, the orbit in which electrons are revolving
around the nucleus in the atom are not circular but elliptical
in shape . It is due to the influence of the centrally located
nucleus. The electron revolves in elliptical path with nucleus
at one of its foci . So there will be a major and a minor axis of
the path He said that with broadening of the orbit the lengths
of two axis approach to equal value and ultimately become
equal i.e. the path become circular . So we can say the
circular path is just one special case elliptical path.
As electron travel in the elliptical path, it will have an angular
momentum must be quantized according to the quantum
theory of radiations. Bohr gave that angular momentum as
m=nh/2 but Sommerfield used another integer k instead of
n. k is an integer known as azimuthal quantum number. n
used by Bohr and k used by Sommerfield are related as ::

N/K = LENGTH OF MAJOR AXIS/LENGTH

OF MINOR AXIS
With increase in value of k, the path becomes more and more
elliptical and eccentric . When k=n, the path becomes circular.
Bohr was not able to explain the reason for the fine
spectral lines visible by high revolving power spectroscopes
but sommerfield explained the reason for the same . He said
that the energy of the stationary orbit depends not only on n
but on k to same extent as well. So when a transition of
electron from a higher level to a lower level occurs , it would
be different from what proposed by Bohr as there nay be
more than one values of k . In this way Sommerfield was able
to the reason behind those fine spectral lines. Even the
frequencies of some of those fine spectral lines come to be in
well agreement with the frequencies by Sommerfield.

Modern atomic theory

As a result of recent advances in chemistry , Dalton’s atomic
theory stated above has undergone drastic changes at the
hands of modern chemists. The present position or Modern
Atomic. Theory can be stated as follows :;
 Atom is divisible , it is further made up of electrons ,
protons and neutrons . But atom is still the smallest unit
which takes part in a chemical reaction .
 Atoms of the same element may not be all alike ; they
may possess different atomic weights . Such atoms of
the same elelment that differ in their atomic weights
only, are called isotopes ; (a) protium (1H1) , b
deuterium (1H2) , and tritium (1H3). Their atomic
weights are 1,2,3 and 3 respectively .
 In certain cases , atoms of different elements might
possess the same atomic weight and different
properties . for examples – two different atoms argon
and calcium , both have atomic weight 40 . Such atoms
are called isobars.
  Dalton’s compound atom is a molecule . atoms combine
to form a molecule , not compound atom .
 It is not essential to have a simple numerical ratio
between the constituent elements of compound . Some
organic compounds like carbohydrates , proteins ,
polymers etc . do have numerical ratio but not simple .
 Outer electron of an atom participate in a chemical
reaction , not the entire atom .
 Atoms of one element can be transmitted into atoms of
other elements .
 In certain organic compounds the ratio in which atoms
of different elements combine may not be simple .

fundamental particles of atom

The study of conduction of electricity through gases provided
evidence to show that atom is not indivisible but consists of
smaller fundamental particles . These particles are electron,
proton and neutron .

Discovery of electrons
An English physicist J.J Thomson studied electric discharge
through a cathode ray tube at a very low pressure . When
high voltage was applied across the electrodes the cathode
emitted a stream of indivisible rays called cathode rays .
These rays possess following properties -;:
1- They travel in a straight line .
2- They are cast a shadow of any 0paque body placed in their
path .
3- Cathode rays possess kinetic energy.
4- Cathode rays get deflected when passed through an
electric charge particle is ELECTRON

Discovery of protons
The positively charged rays are known as canal rays or anode
rays
Canal rays posses the following properties:-
i. Canal rays travel in the straight line .
ii. Rays are deflected by electric field towards the negative
electrode . This indicate that they are positively charged
iii. Anode rays are also deflected by magnetic field .
iv. The rays possess kinetic energy .
v. The positive charge particle are known as proton .

Discovery of neutrons
In 1932 , Chadwick discovered neutrons . He observed that
when a thin foil of beryllium is bombarded with produced
which were not affected by electric and magnetic fields . The
new fundamental particle was named neutrons on account of
its neutral nature . Its mass was nearly equal to the mass of
protons.

Fundamental particles of atom