FIFTH SEMESTER BCA

BCA501T: DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS

UNIT 3

Peer –to-Peer Protocols:- Peer-to peer Protocols and service models ARQ
Protocols stop and wait , Go –back-N Selective Repeat , Transmission
efficiency of ARQ Protocols, Other adaptation functions , - Sliding window
flow control Timing Recovery in Synchronous Services Reliable Stream
Service, Data Link Control, HDLC, PPP ; Statistical Multiplexing.

1. What are the Functions of the network layer. Explain. 5m

2. Briefly explain peer-to-peer protocols and service models. 5m
3. Explain the 2 settings of Peer-to-peer protocols. 5m
4. Explain GO-Back-N ARQ 5m 2019
5. Explain piggy-backing in detail. 4m 19, 5m 16
6. What is piggy-backing? What is its purpose? 2m 18,
7. Write short notes on flow control. 4m 19
8. Explain stop and wait ARQ with a neat diagram. 7m 18, 8m 16
9. Explain sliding window ARQ. 7m 18
10. What do you mean by peer-to-peer protocol? Compare PPP with HDLC. 7m 18
11. Explain structure of HDLC frames. 5m
12. Expand HDLC and PPP. 2m 16
ans: high level data link control / peer-to-peer protocol
13. Explain selective repeat ARQ protocol. 5m 5m
14. How go back ‘n’ is different from selective repeat method? 5m
15. The most common techniques for error control are 2m
16. Explain transition phase in PPP. 4m

 The network layer (third layer) is designed to service request from transport layer and
issues service requests to the data link layer.

 It is responsible for end-to-end(source to destination) packet delivery, whereas the

data link layer is responsible for node-to-node(hope-to-hop) packet delivery.

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What are the Functions of the network layer. Explain. 5m

Path Determination. The network layer must determine the route or path taken by packets as
they flow from a sender to a receiver. The algorithms that calculate these paths are referred to
as routing algorithms.

Routing: Network layer establishes a path for the data to transfer. It makes use of shortest
path routing algorithms.

Call Setup. Some network architectures require router call setup along the path before the
data flows.

Peer - Peer Protocols

Briefly explain peer-to-peer protocols and service models. 5m

A peer-to-peer protocol involves the interaction of two or more processes or entities through
the exchange of messages and are called as protocol data units (PDU).

 The purpose of protocol is to provide service to higher layers.

 It involves sending and receiving information, confirmation of delivery, guarantees
regarding delays etc.
 service provided by a protocol is described by service models.

A protocol data unit (PDU) is an open-system interconnection (OSI) term used in

telecommunications that refers to a group of information added or removed by a layer of the
OSI model. Each layer in the model uses the PDU to communicate and exchange
information, which can only be read by the peer layer on the receiving device and is then
handed over to next upper layer after stripping.

There are two broad categories of service models

 Connection Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service

Connection Oriented Services

In connection oriented before data is transmitted, connection setup should be established. It

has 3 phases.

 connection establishment – In this phase, connection between two end systems

should be established.
 Data transfer – Once connection is established, data is transmitted and will reach
destination in proper order as it sent from sender.

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 once data reaches the receiver, an acknowledgement for the received data is sent to
the sender.
 Connection termination – after successful data communication, two end systems
should be terminated. And resources are released.

Ex : TCP

Connectionless Oriented services

 Individual blocks of information are transmitted and delivered based on destination

address.
 does not provide acknowledgement for transmitted information.
 if information is lost during transmission, no effort is made to retransmit it.

ex: Internet protocol (IP) and User datagram protocol (UDP) are connectionless
protocol.

The service provided by a given layer can have the following features

Sequence

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Reliability

Timing

Multiplexing

Flow Control (management of data flow between computers)

Integrity , Authentication , privacy

Explain the 2 settings of Peer-to-peer protocols. 5m

Across a Single hop in the network

End to End across an entire network

Single Hop

 Peer-to-peer protocol that operates across a single hop in a network uses the physical
and data link layer of the OSI reference model to show how data link layer provides
service for the transfer of packets across a single link in the network.

 The data link layer takes packets from the network layer, encapsulates them in frames
and it transfers across the link and delivers them to the network layer at the other end.

Single Hop Significances

-like, directly-connected systems

-checking & retransmission

-free packet transfer between two systems

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End-to-End

End to End Significances

nsport layer protocol sends segments across network and performs end-to-end error
checking & retransmission.

-of-order because packets

can follow different paths across network.

-to-end error control protocol is more difficult.

ARQ PROTOCOLS

 Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ), also known as Automatic Repeat Query, is an

error-control method for data transmission that uses acknowledgements (messages
sent by the receiver indicating that it has correctly received a data frame or packet)
and timeouts (specified periods of time allowed to elapse before an acknowledgment
is to be received) to achieve reliable data transmission.

 If the sender does not receive an acknowledgment before the timeout, it usually re-
transmits the frame/packet until the sender receives an acknowledgment or exceeds a
predefined number of re-transmissions.

The possibility of two types of errors:

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• Lost frame: A frame fails to arrive at the other side. For example, a noise burst (undesired
signals in a communication circuit, can affect your network in a bad way )may damage a
frame to the extent that the receiver is not aware that a frame has been transmitted.

• Damaged frame: A recognizable frame does arrive, but some of the bits are in error (have
been altered during transmission).

The most common techniques for error control are 2m

• Error detection: there will be errors, resulting in the change of one or more bits in a
transmitted frame.

• Positive acknowledgment: The destination returns a positive acknowledgment to

successfully received, error-free frames.

• Retransmission after timeout: The source retransmits a frame that has not been
acknowledged after a predetermined amount of time.

• Negative acknowledgment and retransmission: The destination returns a negative

acknowledgment to frames in which an error is detected. The source retransmits such frames.

Flow control 4m

Flow control means receiver is not able to receive packets at the same rate the sender is
sending.

Flow control protocols

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 ARQ PROTOCOL

Protocols are normally implemented in software by using any programming languages.

These protocols are divided into 2 categories

1. protocols for noiseless channel

2. protocols for noisy channels

1. For noiseless channel

In this, no frames are lost, duplicated or corrupted.

simplest protocol –

 Simplest Protocol is one that has no flow or error control .

 there is no need for flow control in this scheme.
 This protocol is very simple.
 It is unidirectional protocol in which data frames travel only from source to receiver.
 The receiver can immediately handle any frame it receives with negligible processing time.

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 2. Stop-and-Wait ARQ
 Also called Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ)
 It is the simplest form.
 Source may not send new frame until receiver acknowledges the frame already sent.
 Very inefficient, especially when a single message is broken into separate frames, or
when the data link is long enough for significant delays to be introduced.

When Frame is lost

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  The frame that arrives at the destination could be damaged.
 The receiver detects this by using the error-detection technique and simply
discards the frame.
 To account this possibility, the source station is equipped with a timer.
 After a frame is transmitted, the source station waits for an acknowledgment.
 If no acknowledgment is received by the time that the timer expires, then the
same frame is sent again.
 Note that this method requires that the transmitter maintain a copy of a transmitted
frame until an acknowledgment is received for that frame.

When Acknowledgment is lost

 Consider the following situation. Station A sends a frame. The frame is received
correctly by station B, which responds with an acknowledgment (ACK).
 The ACK is damaged in transit and is not recognizable by A, which will therefore
time out and resend the same frame.
 This duplicate frame arrives and is accepted by B.
 B has therefore accepted two copies of the same frame as if they were separate.
 To avoid this problem, frames are alternately labeled with 0 or 1, and positive
acknowledgments are of the form ACK0 and ACK1.

This method is inefficient due to following reasons:

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 Channel is thick and long means it takes large bandwidth and long round trip delay.

Explain GO-Back-N ARQ. 5m

S.NO GO-BACK-N PROTOCOL SELECTIVE REPEAT PROTOCOL

In Go-Back-N Protocol, if the

sent frame are find suspected

then all the frames are re- In selective Repeat protocol, only

transmitted from the lost packet those frames are re-transmitted

1. to the last packet transmitted. which are found suspected.

Sender window size of Go-Back- Sender window size of selective

2. N Protocol is N. Repeat protocol is also N.

Receiver window size of Go- Receiver window size of selective

3. Back-N Protocol is 1. Repeat protocol is N.

Go-Back-N Protocol is less Selective Repeat protocol is more

4. complex. complex.

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 In Go-Back-N Protocol, neither In selective Repeat protocol,

sender nor at receiver need receiver side needs sorting to sort

5. sorting. the frames.

In Go-Back-N Protocol, type of In selective Repeat protocol, type

6. Acknowledgement is cumulative. of Acknowledgement is individual.

In Go-Back-N Protocol, Out-of-

Order packets are NOT

Accepted (discarded) and the In selective Repeat protocol, Out-

7. entire window is re-transmitted. of-Order packets are Accepted.

In selective Repeat protocol, if

Receives receives a corrupt

In Go-Back-N Protocol, if packet, it immediately sends a

Receives receives a corrupt negative acknowledgement and

packet, then also, the entire hence only the selective packet is

8. window is re-transmitted. retransmitted.

Efficiency of Go-Back-N Protocol Efficiency of selective Repeat

is protocol is also
9. N/(1+2*a) N/(1+2*a)

Advantages of Go-Back-N ARQ

1. Go-Back-N ARQ is a more efficient use of a connection than Stop-and-wait ARQ,

since unlike waiting for an acknowledgement for each packet, the connection is still
being utilized as packets are being sent.

Dis-advantages of Go-Back-N ARQ

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 1. more complexity of sender and receiver

2. each frame must be acknowledged individually (no cumulative ack)

3. receiver may receive frames out of sequence.

To avoid this, Selective Repeat ARQ can be used.

Problem:

In go back N , 3 is the window size, if every 5th frame is lost and if we have to send 10
packets, then how many transmissions are required?

Explain selective repeat ARQ protocol. 5m 5m

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 OTHER PEER TO PEER PROTOCOLS

Explain sliding window flow control 6m 5m

 A method of flow control in which a receiver gives a transmitter permission to

transmit data until a window is full. When the window is full, the transmitter
must stop transmitting until the receiver advertises a larger window.

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  Sliding-window flow control is best utilized when the buffer size is limited
and pre-established.

 The sender can send and the receiver can accept n frames (n is the buffer size
in frames). without having to wait for an acknowledgement.

 A sequence number is assigned to frames in order to help keep track of those

frames which did receive an acknowledgement.

 The receiver acknowledges a frame by sending an acknowledgement that

includes the sequence number of the next frame expected.

 This acknowledgement announces that the receiver is ready to receive n

frames, beginning with the number specified.

 Both the sender and receiver maintain what is called a window. The size of
the window is less than or equal to the buffer size.

 Sliding window flow control has a far better performance than stop-and-
wait flow control.
 This is because in a wireless environment data rates are very low and noise
level is very high, so waiting for an acknowledgement for every packet that is
transferred is not very feasible.
 Therefore, transferring data as a bulk would yield a better performance in
terms of higher throughput(amount of data moved successfully).

PIGGYBACKING

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  Whenever TCP is about to ACK the data it has received from the client, it does not
immediately, rather it delays the ACK and see whether any data has to be sent to the
client, so the ACK can be sent along with the data.
 This is called Piggyback. Or
 The process of sending data along with the acknowledgment is called
piggybacking.

Point-to–Point protocol (PPP) 5m

 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) is a protocol for communication between two

computers using a serial interface, typically a personal computer connected by phone
line to a server.

 For example, your Internet server provider may provide you with a PPP connection so
that the provider's server can respond to your requests, pass them on to the Internet,
and forward your requested Internet responses back to you.

Services provided by PPP

1. PPP defines the format of the frame that has to be exchanged between 2 devices.
2. PPP was designed to support multiple network protocols simultaneously.
It can transfer packets that are produced by different network layer protocols
3. PPP defines how 2 devices can authenticate each other.
4. PPP defines how network layer data are encapsulated in the data link frame.

Explain transition phase in PPP. 4m - Point-to–Point protocol

The PPP connection goes through different states as shown in fig.

1. Dead: In dead phase the link is not used. There is no active carrier and the line is
quiet.

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2. Establish: Connection goes into this phase when one of the nodes start communication. In
this phase, two parties negotiate the options. If negotiation is successful, the system goes into
authentication phase or directly to networking phase. LCP(link control protocol) packets are
used for this purpose.
3. Authenticate: This phase is optional. The two nodes may decide during the establishment
phase, not to skip this phase. However if they decide to proceed with authentication, they
send several authentication packets. If the result is successful, the connection goes to the
networking phase; otherwise, it goes to the termination phase.
4. Network: negotiation for the network layer protocols takes place.
ex: when a PC is connecting to an IP network, NCP(network control protocol) dynamically
assigns IP address.
5. Open: In this phase, data transfer takes place. The connection remains in this phase until
one of the endpoints wants to end the connection.
6. Terminate: In this phase connection is terminated.

carrier detect – modem lights

HIGH- LEVEL DATA LINK CONTROL (HDLC) 5m

 High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented protocol for communication

over point-to-point and multipoint links.
 It implements the ARQ mechanisms.

Configurations and Transfer Modes:

 HDLC provides two common transfer modes that can be used in different
configurations:
normal response mode (NRM) and asynchronous balanced mode (ABM).

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Normal Response Mode:

In normal response mode (NRM), the station configuration is unbalanced. We have one
primary station and multiple secondary stations. A primary station can send commands, a
secondary station can only respond. The NRM is used for both point-to-point and multiple-
point links, as shown in the following figure.

Asynchronous Balanced Mode:

In asynchronous balanced mode (ABM), the configuration is balanced. The link is point-to-
point, and each station can function as a primary and a secondary (acting as peers). This is the
common mode today.

HDLC FRAME FORMAT 5M

1. Flag field: The flag field of an HDLC frame is an 8-bit bit pattern that identifies both the
beginning and the end of a frame .

2. Address field: The second field of an HDLC frame contains the address of the secondary
station. If a primary station created the frame, it contains to address. If a secondary creates
the frame, it contains a from address.
3. Control field: The control field is a 1- or 2-byte segment of the frame used for flow and
error control.

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4. Information field: The information field contains the user's data. Its length can vary from
one network to another.
5. FCS field: The frame check sequence (FCS) is the HDLC error detection field.

explain PPP FRAME FORMAT

What is Statistical multiplexing ?

 Statistical multiplexing dynamically allocates bandwidth to each channel on an as-

needed basis.
 This is in contrast to time-division multiplexing (TDM) techniques, in which quiet
devices use up a portion of the multiplexed data stream, filling it with empty packets.

Timing Recovery in Synchronous Services Reliable Stream Service,

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