Introduction to the Project Report :

Comparing the mass of the electron with the mass of

ionised hydrogen atom (proton) we see that it is
lighter by a factor of 1836. This indicates that
electrons are easier to accelarate than ions.
Availability of loosely bound electrons (are actually
unbound) in atoms of metals is responsible for their
high electrical conductivity. Within a solid piece of
substance like lithium, atoms are closely packed and,
therefore, the loosely bound electrons of each atom
are easily moved from the influence of their nucleus
to that of their neighbour. Such loosely bound
electrons are called free electrons. Free electrons are
held inside the metals by attractive forces at their
surface and require a minimum amount of energy,
called the work function of the metal, for their
escape. This minimum energy can be supplied to the
free electrons in the metal for their release from the
metal surface by anyone of the following physical
processes

(a) Thermo ionic emission : by heating the

metal sufficient thermal energy can be given to
 free electrons to overcome the attractive pull of
the metal surface.

(b) Field emission : electrons can be extracted

from metals by applying an electric field.
(c) Photoelectric emission :  by shining light of
high frequency (ultraviolet) on clean metal
surfaces electrons from inside the metal can be
released.
We shall next study the photoelectric effect.
Einstein explained it on the basis of Max Planck’s
Quantam idea. This laid the foundation of the
Quantam theory. Therefore, the photoelectric effect
is of special interest.

Photoelectric Effect
Hallwach discovered that an insulated zinc plate
connected to a gold leaf electroscope and charged
negatively losts its charge, when a beam of
ultraviolet light was directed on the plate. Hallwach
suggested that the metal surface loses negative
charge due to ejection of electrons from its surface
by the ultraviolet light. The effect was termed as
Photoelectric effect. The electrons so emitted were
called Photoelectrons. J.J.Thomson showed that the
Photoelectrons were not different from the ordinary
electrons.

Thus, the phenomenon of ejection of electrons from

a metal surface, when light of sufficiently high
frequency falls upon it is known as the photoelectric
effect.

Experimental Study
The phenomenon of photoelectric effect is studied
by using an experimental arrangement shown in
figure 1.
Monochromatic light of known frequency is
focussed on the anode of an evacuated quartz tube.
The anode is made out of the metal whose behaviour
under exposure to light is being investigated. Flow
of current in the external circuit indicates the flow of
electrons emitted from the anode surface inside the
tube. This is possible if the electrons are emitted
with energy large enough to overcome the retarding
potential between the anode and the cathode.
Explanation 1 : Free electrons in the metallic anode
can absorb energy from the electromagnetic waves
impinging on them. After sufficient energy has been
absorbed free electrons inside the metal should be
able to overcome the combined potential barrier
offered by the metal surface and the retarding
potential across the phototube.
Now, when the photocurrent is measured by varying
(a) the intensity of light, (b) its frequency and (c) the
retarding potential between the anode and the
cathode, effects are observed which cannot be
reconciled with the classical wave properties of light
and its absorption by electrons.
Hence explanation 1 is not accepted.
The maximum kinetic energy with which the
electrons leave the anode can be measured by
adjusting the retarding potential till the photocurrent
in the external circuit is reduced to zero. Then
electrons are not able to reach the anode. If V is the
cut-off voltage, the maximum kinetic energy of
electrons in the phototube is eV.
When a careful study is made of photoemission by
varying the above mentioned parameters in the
experiment, the following important conclusions are
reached :

(i) The energy distribution of the emitted

electrons is independent of the intensity of
the light. That is, more photoelectrons are
emitted if the intensity of the light is
increased but the maximum kinetic energy
with which the electrons leave the metal
remains unchanged. Infact, even with light
of very low intensity some electrons with
the same kinetic energy are emitted.
 (ii) With in the limit of experimental accuracy it
is observed that there is no time lag
between the arrival of light at the metal and
the emission of photoelectrons. The delay
has been experimentally measured. The
delay time has been found less than 10-9s.
(iii) For a given metal, photoelectrons are not
emitted if the incident light is of frequency
less than a critical value, called the
threshold frequency, no matter how high its
intensity.
(iv) The maximum kinetic energy with which
photoelectrons are emitted from a
particular metal and the frequency of the
incident light are related linearly. The
relation can be expressed as :
KEmax = h (n-no) ---------- (1)
As the kinetic energy of electrons cannot be
negative, photoemission does not takes place when
the frequency of the incident light is less than no.
Although the threshold frequency no changes from
metal to metal, the slope of the straight line.
eV = h (n-no), ------------ (2)
Where n is the magnitude of the cut-off voltage, is
the same.
Millikan also has the credit of making the first
accurate measurement of cut-off voltages for
sodium metal by using monochromatic light of
known frequencies. He published the graph of
photocurrent versus voltage and the graph of cut-
off voltage versus frequency of light. We can
estimate the slope of the straight line. It is
By multiplying it with the charge of an electron,
which is the fundamental charge (of an electron),
e=1.602 x 10-19 C;
We get.
H = 4.124 x 1.602 x 10-15 x 10-19 = 6.6 x 10-34 Js.
The Photon :
Einstein took Planck’s idea of the quantam of
energy seriously and proposed that a
monochromatic electromagnetic wave of frequency
consists of discrete quanta each having energy
E = hn ---- (3)
Where h is the Planck constant. The quanta of light
were appropriately called photons. Each photon
travels with the velocity of light. According to
Einstein’s special theory of relativity energy, E and
momentum, p of particles moving with the speed of
light are related
E = pc ---- (4).
Where c is the speed of light.
Comparing eqs (3) and (4), the momentum of the
photon is seen to be related to the wavelength of
light as
P=h/λ----- (5)
Where λ is the wavelength of the light.
Quantum Interpretation :
Explanation 2 : Einstein suggested that absorption
of energy from a photon by a free electron inside
the metal is a single event and involves transfer of
energy in one lump instead of continuous
absorption of energy as in the wave model of light.
Energy is conserved in the process. It can be
expressed by the relation.
Energy of the incident photon = maximum Kinetic
energy of the electron + work Function of the metal.
------ (6).
The kinetic energy of the emitted electron will be
maximum if the free electron, which is released
from the atom belongs to the group which has the
maximum energy inside the metal. By using the
Einstein relation for the energy of photons of
frequency n, we can write the photoelectric
emission equation, eq (6) as
Hv=KE + work Function-------- (7)
max

Let the work function be expressed in units of

frequency such that
Work function = no -------- (8)
Then the Einstein photoelectric equation, eq (7),
can be re-expressed as
KEmax = h (n-no) -------- (9)
This equation is identical to the experimentally
observed relationship given by eq. (1).
Hence, explanation 2 is accepted and Einstein
received the Nobel Prize in physics in the year 1921
for the quantam theory of the photoelectric effect.
This lead to the particle behaviour of light.

Particle Nature of Light :

Arthur Holly Compton investigated the scattering of
monochromatic X-rays from electrons. He observed
that the scattered X-rays had longer wavelength.
The change in wavelength was found to be
independent of the matter used for scattering but
varies with the angle between the incident and the
scattered rays. Compton could explained the effect
observed by him by assigning momentum of
magnitude hn/c to photons of energy hn. The
elastic scattering of a photon from an electron at
rest can be worked out by involving the principles of
conservation of energy and conservation of
momentum. The formula giving the change of
wavelength of the X-ray photon is
∆λ=h/mc(1-cosΦ )
Where j is the angle of scattering of the X-rays
photon and m is the mass of electron.
The elastic process is shown diagrammatically. The
recoil electrons were observed in Wilson’s cloud
chamber. Wilson shared the 1927 Nobel prize in
physics with Compton.

Photocell – A Technological Application :

The design of a photocell makes use of photo-
emission from a metal surface for measuring the
intensity of light. The photoelectrons emitted from
the cathode of the photocell are drawn to the
collector by an electric field. The resultant electric
current is measured by a sensitive meter in the
external circuit. The current obtainable from a
typical photocell is of the order of a microampere.
The fundamental use of a photocell is to convert a
change in the intensity of illumination into a change
in electric current. This change in electric current
may be used to operate controls and in light
measuring devices. For example, a person
approaching a door way may interrupt a light beam
which is incident upon a photo cell. The abrupt
change in photocurrent may be used to start a
motor which opens the door or rings an alarm. Light
meters in cameras work on this principle.

Conclusion

As we appreciated the simplicity and elegance of

Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric effect we
came to know about the particle behaviour of light.
He introduced revolutionary ideas which were
contrary to the scientific opinion of the time. The
photon hypothesis disturbed the scientific
community much more than the seventeenth
century Newton – Huygens heated debate on the
corpuscular and the wave nature of light. But the
new theory gave a better description of the physical
nature than the comfortable old classical ideas.

Hence, the world came to know about the dual

nature of light. That is, a monochromatic beam of
light of frequency , hence possessing wave
attributes, manifests in some experiments as
though it is a stream of quanta called photons.