Topic 4: Curriculum Foundations and Conceptions

Learning Objectives
At the end of the topic, you will be able to:
1. compare and contrast the characteristics of the major foundations of curriculum;
2. determine their significance and their influence to curriculum and their relationship/s with the
other foundations of curriculum; and
3. discuss the different curriculum conceptions using real school situations.

Activating Prior Learning

Activity 4a: Four Pics One Description

1. Look at the photos that follow and be able to tell:

a. what image/s do you see on each of the photo; and
b. what do/es the image/s suggest/s in relation to curriculum development?
2. Be able to:
a. Share your inference/s to your classmates using your phones or the social media ; and
b. Point out the comparison and contrast to your inference/s and those of your classmates.
3. Formulate your conception/s on curriculum development based on your previous tasks.

Presentation of
Contents

Bilbao (2008) stated

that curriculum is
generally influenced
by the four major
foundations which
are commonly found in most curriculum books and materials. But Tyler, in Pawilen (2019), stated that
most curriculum experts only consider three foundations excluding historical foundation. However in
this module, the four foundations shall be presented.

The Influence of Psychology to Curriculum

According to Merriam – Webster Dictionary, psychology is defined as 1. the mental or behavioral

characteristics of an individual or group and 2. the study of mind and behavior in relation to a
particular field of knowledge or activity.

The definition truly makes psychology an influence to curriculum because the first if not the most
important consideration that a teacher has to make in planning and developing a curriculum are the
learners – what they need to study, what they prefer to study and how much their needs were met in
order to help them best acquire and master knowledge and skills and in the end help them cope with
their future work and life.
The teachers and administrators then, who shall be helping in creating the curriculum, must consider the
thoughts and behaviors of their learner's learning activities. For example, teachers are strongly
encouraged to consider individual differences of their learners such as considering the use Multiple
Intelligences approach by Gardner and the Learning Styles by Dun and Dun among many others to
address these differences among learners.

The following are some psychological theories in learning that influence curriculum development taken
from Gaper in Academia (2020) with modifications:

1. Behaviorism
Dominated the 20th century education where the mastery of the subject matter is given more emphasis.
Using behaviorism, teachers organize learning in a step-by-step process and commonly use drills and
repetition. Concepts on behavioral psychology of the following experts are considered: connectionism
by Edward Thorndike which greatly influenced Tyler and Taba, classical conditioning by Ivan Pavlov,
operant conditioning by B.F.Skinner; modeling and observation by Albert Bandura and hierarchical
learning or sets of behaviour and five learning outcomes by Robert Gagne to name some.

However, many educational psychologists viewed the use of behavioral theories as mechanical and
habitual.

2. Cognitivism
Focused on how individuals process or understand information and monitor and manage their thinking.
The basic questions that cognitive psychologists zero in on are:
1. How do learners process and store information?
2. How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions?
3. How much information can they absorb?

Applying cognitive psychology and honing the learners’ mental cognition require teachers to promote
the development of problem-solving and thinking skills and popularize the use of reflective thinking,
creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning, among others which are all rooted on logical
method of organizing and interpreting learning that is rooted in the tradition of subject matter. Concepts
of the cognitive psychology experts are considered: cognitive development stages by Jean Piaget, social
constructivism by Lev Vygotsky, Multiple intelligences by Howard Gardner, learning styles by Felder
and Silverman on Emotional intelligences Daniel and Goleman to name some.

3.  Humanism
Concerned with the development of human potential where curriculum is after the process, not the
product; focuses on personal needs, not on the subject matter and clarifies psychological meanings and
environmental situations for curriculum founded on humanism considers learners as human beings who
are affected by their biology, culture, and environment. They are neither machines nor animals thus
curriculum is expected to promote human potentials with emphasis on the development of self-concept.
The learners feeling good about themselves will start something positive for themselves, their peers and
for learning.

Humanism is taken from the wholeness of the problem of Gestalt, human needs of Abraham Maslow
and the non-directive lives of Carl Rogers thus teachers educate both the minds and the hearts.

The Influence of Sociology to Curriculum

The Latin word socius means social or being with others and the Greek logos means study.
The term sociology basically means the study of social beings especially human behavior in groups,
social structure and social phenomena and different forms of human interrelations.

There really is a mutual and encompassing relationship between society and curriculum because the
school, along with other units of society, exists within the societal context that educates the learners to
work with their teacher, their peers, the school administrators and their staff, utility and canteen
personnel and many others. The cultural beliefs, societal expectations, values, norms and traditions of
the learners in the classrooms may at times vary and the curriculum must address these diversities
through their lessons or those integrated in their content areas through the videos, written and audio texts
that teachers use as learning materials.

Outside the classrooms, they conduct sports, literary and socio-cultural activities where differences may
occur but in the end are repaired. Therefore, when the learners get the chance to work outside their
town, province or abroad, they are able to cope in working and behaving with others and do as the
Romans do as the saying goes but without losing their love for country or for their local town.
According to Shubert (1985), “the job of schooling is to reproduce salient knowledge and values for the
succeeding generation”

Schools must also be relevant to the times by making its curriculum more innovative and
interdisciplinary. A curriculum that can address the diversities of global learners, the explosion of
knowledge through the internet, and the educational reforms and policies recommended or mandated by
the country and international organizations such as the United Nations is much needed without
neglecting the preservation of the country’s culture and aspirations for national identity.

Further, curriculum must be developed to help the learners understand current social issues and the
relative importance of these social issues are based upon the learners’ values taught by or caught from
their teachers with whom the learners stay most part of the day and most days of the year. Teachers are
thus expected to possess right attitude of social behavior, to be exposed to the concept of freedom,
dignity of the individual and rights and duties so as to transmit the same to the younger generation. They
are also expected to integrate these concepts and issues as part of their lessons and their school
curriculum in general.

The Influence of Philosophy to Curriculum

Combining what experts and the dictionaries say, philosophy is the study of the fundamental nature of
knowledge, experience, reality, and existence, especially when considered as an academic discipline.

In curriculum development, philosophy provides a framework for organizing schools and individual
learning activities. It answers questions about the school’s purpose, subjects, how teachers teach and
students learn and what materials and methods of evaluation shall be used. Moreover, it is the base or
starting point in curriculum development. And once the curriculum is utilized, it becomes the
anchor on which the curriculum is bound to help the students and the teachers especially to stay
focused and avoid deviation from the school’s purpose as well as the outcomes of the lesson, course
and/or program.

There are three major branches or areas of philosophy that will help curriculum developers to best help
the learners. These are as follows:
1. Metaphysics is concerned with questions about the nature of reality. Metaphysics literally means
beyond the physical which helps the classroom teachers plan real and realistic experiences for
their learners' interests, human problems and affairs to help them become life smart.

2. Epistemology is concerned with questions about the nature of knowledge.

Epistemological beliefs surface in curricular and instructional decisions where teachers are
guided in understanding in understanding their lessons and in the end help their students learn
what the curriculum dictates they need to learn.
3. Axiology is concerned with questions about the nature of values which is divided into ethics
(moral values and conduct) and aesthetics (values in the realm of beauty and art).

Through axiology, classroom teachers are encouraged to integrate, directly or indirectly, ethics in their
lessons and to behave ethically as mandated by certain laws of the land and their school. In practice, the
ethical beliefs of teachers also effect decisions concerning disciplining and grading their students; while
their aesthetics can effect decisions concerning what types of art/artistic endeavors should or should not
be a part of their lessons or curriculum in general.
Considering the three branches, philosophy truly helps the teacher organize the school and the
classroom. The teacher is provided with a framework for broad issues and tasks in determining the goals
of education, the content and its organization and the teaching and learning processes (Orstein and
Hunkins in Pawilen (2019).

Moreover, there are eight major philosophies and theories of education which can further help teachers
better develop a good curriculum. These are Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism, Perennialism, Essentialism,
Progressivism, Reconstructionism, and Existentialism all of which shall be discussed with you in your
other professional education courses such as Curriculum Development. But for further enhancement to
your lesson on the influence of philosophy to curriculum development, check John Dewey’s theory on
education as a way of life and Ralph Tyler’s framework of philosophy in relation to school
purposes.

The Influence of History to Curriculum

There are sayings on how important the past is. One that is popular worldwide is the aphorism, “Those
who don't remember the past, are condemned to repeat it,” from George Santayana. In the Philippines,
we havea famous saying, “Ang hindi marunong lumingon sa pinanggalingan ay di makakarating sa
patutunguhan (One who does not look back to his origin or past will not reach his /her destination or
future).” History is much more than an academic discipline and should embrace all attempts to describe
the past and illuminate the present.

The history of one’s country can affect its educational system and the kind of curriculum it has. If we are
going to trace the formal beginning of curriculum, we get back in time to Franklin Bobbit’s book The
Curriculum published in 1918. From the time of Bobbit to Tyler, many developments in the purposes,
principles and contents of the curriculum took place. Please read the Six Famous Curriculum Theorists
and their Contributions to Education for more information.

Moreover, history also shows how curriculum adapts to the time of its implementation specifically

how its purpose, principles and content change over time. The learners don't adjust; it's
the curricula because of the needs of the learners vary in relation to time. Thus, exploring
the historical foundations of curriculum can promote a sense of freedom and encourage educational
reform. It is also through history that we see how predominant philosophies have defined a society's
values, which in turn determined the current purposes of education. Let’s look into the six famous
curriculum theorists according to most writers:

1.  Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)

Bobbit believes that the learning objectives, together with the activities, should be grouped and
sequenced after clarifying the instructional activities and tasks. He also views curriculum as a science
that emphasizes the needs of the students. This viewpoint explains why lessons are planned and
organized depending on the needs of the students and these needs must be addressed by the teachers to
prepare them for adult life.
2.  Werret Charters (1875-1952)
Aside from emphasizing the students’ needs, he believes that the objectives, along with the
corresponding activities, should be aligned with the subject matter or content. For that reason,
department chairpersons or course coordinators scrutinize the alignment or matching of objectives and
subject matter prepared by the faculty members.

3. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965)

For him, the purpose of curriculum is child development, growth, and social relationship. He also
introduced the use of small group interaction, and the project method in which the teacher and students
plan together. Thus, it is called as the child-centered curriculum.
4.  Harold Rugg (1886-1960)
He introduced the concept of the development of the whole child, the inclusion of social studies, and the
importance of curriculum planning in advance.
5.  Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)
He believes that subject matter is developed around the interest of the learners and their social functions.
So, the curriculum is a set of experiences. Learners must experience what they learn.

6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)

And as to the hallmark of curriculum development as a science, Ralph Tyler believes that curriculum
should revolve around the students’ needs and interests. The purpose of curriculum is to educate the
generalists and not the specialists, and the process must involve problem solving. Likewise, subject
matter is planned in terms of imparting knowledge, skills and values among students.
All of these curricularists believe that the curriculum should be learner-centered – addressing the needs
and interests of the students. All of them have salient contributions to the educational system of the
world today.

In the Philippines, curriculum development, though informally, began in the early times when education
also began. The matrix that follows gives a summary of the development of curriculum in the country
tken from Features and Historical Aspects of the Philippines Educational system by Musa and
Ziatdinov (2012) with recent updates by this writer:
Period/Years Advantages Disadvantages Notes and features
Early Filipinos Education was used to preserve They were not open to new
900-1521 the cultural heritage of the changes towards the
country. advancement of methods of
Babaylan, Katalonan and other teaching.
teachers were highly respected.

Spanish Regime Founding of a complete system Priority of education was on There were inequalities in
1521- 1898 of education in the country Spanish and elites. It took time wealth, income, power,
comprising elementary, for girls’ education to be prestige and opportunities
secondary and college levels. established. in society at large

The establishment of teacher

training institutions.
American Era English language was used as a The Filipino language was Schools were provided by
1899- 1943 medium of instruction. barely used in the teaching and the state and no state
learning process. intends to establish
New subject areas were schools which subvert its
introduced - Reading, Writing, Filipino students felt purpose, values and ideals.
Arithmetic, Language, Good handicapped not only because of
Manners and Right Conduct, the language barrier, but also
Civics, Hygiene and Sanitation, because the system was
Gardening, Domestic Science, originally designed for
American History and American students.
Philippine History.

The students were given free

school materials.

Students who excelled were

sent to the U.S. to continue
their studies and to become
experts in their desired fields or
professions.

Remote places were not left

behind instead attention was
given to vocational and health
practices
Japanese Education aimed to foster a Nippongo served as another To be aware of
Occupation new Filipino culture based on oppressing language on the materialism to raise the
1943-1946 the self-consciousness of the Filipinos. morality of the Filipinos.
people as Orientals
Present Education for everyone Inadequate school facilities and The government only
regardless of class and gender. internet connectivity. spends 12% of the national
budget on education that is
 far from the suggested cut
Free education for public Lack of well-trained teachers in of the World Bank which
schools in basic and tertiary addition to insufficient is 20%. Education finance
levels instructional materials. is very far from other
Asian countries like
Graduates are expected to Private tuition fees are Malaysia and Thailand.
demonstrate 21st century skills increasing yearly.

The ticking of time cannot be stopped so is the history of a country and the historical development of its
education through the curriculum. As leader curricularists, teachers are encouraged to choose to move
forward, choose to learn new things and choose to serve as the agents satisfying the important educational
needs of the learners through meaningful experience.

Curriculum Conceptions

Curriculum is defined and described in many ways. Each of these definitions and descriptions,
especially in relation to its nature and purposes, is called curriculum conception. It is considered a
theory or an approach used to look at a curriculum through various viewpoints.

Curriculum conception is also considered a framework a on how a curriculum is designed in order for
the schools or the teachers to achieve their goals, provide the social and individuals needs of the learners
or the subject matter. This is what is noticed when one looks deeply into a curriculum and see how it
should be used or what should be focused on (Sowell, 2005).

The curriculum conceptions that follow are from curriculum experts Eisner and Print:

1. The development of cognitive processes

This conception of curriculum is focused of helping the learners acquire mastery and refinement of
intellectual operations most usually concerned with curriculum content but more on helping the learners
develop learn how to learn by sharpening their intellectual processes and developing a set of cognitive
skills that can be applied to learning virtually anything.

Approaches used to develop the cognitive abilities of the learners require process oriented curriculum
aimed in – identifying the goals of schooling as providing a repertoire of essentially content-independent
cognitive skills applicable to a variety of situations and understanding the processes by which learning
occurs in the classroom.

It is therefore expected that teachers always present their lesson’s learning outcomes as well as clearly
explain how the learning experiences for the lesson are to be performed by the learners.

2. Academic Rationalism
The academic rationalist concept is the oldest concept originating from the seven liberal arts that are in
the classical curriculum (Eisner, 1979) thus the concept puts a lot of emphasis on knowledge, values and
skills that are found in different academic fields.

Academic rationalism conception curriculum is distinctly different from other concepts for its greater
emphasis is on the responsibility of the school to enable the students to share the academic benefit
according to Eisner & Vallance, (1974). For those who embrace the academic rationalism conception,
being educated means being initiated to methods and thoughts that are represented by the different basic
disciplines.

Therefore, the significant aim of understanding the academic rationalism is to pass the knowledge and
aesthetics from one generation to another through a curriculum that contain academic courses,
disciplines or programs that are recognized and organized with the teacher strictly considering the
characteristics of curriculum content and its organization.

3. Humanistic Conception
Humanistic conceptions offer opportunities to improve an individual’s self- concept and to attain self-
actualization according to Print (1993). It is founded on the assumption that individuals have an
inclination of developing all their abilities then maintaining them.

In general, understanding and applying humanism conception help teachers facilitate the unlocking and
improving of the potentials of learners, who in the end will gradually let their self actualizing ability to
override barriers that they have experienced and probably have personally created.

Considering humanistic concepts in developing a lesson, teachers will have to use Multiple Intelligences
as an approach in designing their lessons and will only give suggestions but will never stop them to learn
according to their styles.

4. Social Reconstruction
The concept of social-reconstructionism in education was based on a 19th-century belief that education
can change society by influencing the learners which especially affecting the growth of tertiary-
level alternatives, management strategies and education of disadvantaged people, in both industrialized
and developing countries (Britannica Encyclopedia, 2020).

Further, the classrooms became the platforms in the practice of equality for the disadvantaged groups
due to sex, race, ethnic origin, age or physical disability. It also led to the application of knowledge on
emancipation or freedom of political expression, concern for the earth’s endangered environment,
emphasis on both intellectual and social life, need for cooperation rather than competition and the
importance of understanding interrelationships of the ecosystem to name a few. This led to the revisions
of instructional materials especially textbooks where for example a teacher in language course uses an
editorial on gender sensitivity as a writing prompt or a Mathematics class conducting a research study on
The Impact of the four Ps to CSU students.

5. Curriculum as technology
This approach to education focuses on process. As a process approach, curriculum technology differs
from cognitive processes in its focus of attention because it is concerned not with the processes of
knowing or learning, but with the technology by which knowledge is communicated and learning is
facilitated.

With very little reference to content, it is concerned with developing a technology of instruction where
the focus is less on the learner or even on his relationship to the material but more on the practical
problem of efficiently packaging and presenting the material to the learner.
To be able to do this effectively, pre-service teachers are given in their curriculum a course referred to
as Educational Technology for the fullest exposure to this mode of thought.

The curriculum technology approach speaks the language of production as an input to supply and
demand systems. Curriculum is viewed as a technological process, as a means to producing whatever
ends an industrial model education system might generate and the real task of the educator arises in
organizing the material sometime before the learner ever enters the classroom such as making sure the
computer or multi-media system is working or that the hard copies of a text are enough for all learners.

In the twenty-first century, the teacher is expected to use technology more dynamically
as means to introduce authentic problems designed to stimulate learners to understand the
knowledge that could help them in finding solution to the problem (McNeil, J. D., 2006). Also,
technology has made it easier for students and teachers in distant academic communities to share
their share lessons and conduct classes. During this time of pandemic, digital technology for
instance has become the learning mode in all levels of education.

6. Eclectic Conception
Eclectic concept in education combines various approaches and methodologies to teach depending on
the aims of the lesson and the abilities of the learners. The different teaching methods are borrowed and
adapted to suit the requirement of the learners but it is the teacher who decides
what method or approach to use still considering the aims of the lesson and the nature of the learners
usually as a group.

Finally, in order to best serve the interest of the Filipinos, an eclectic conception of curriculum is needed
for there is no one best method of teaching and learning. Filipinos need a curriculum that will develop
their intellectual capability to think critically (cognitive processes), that is based on specific learning
goals, educational outcomes and transmitted from various disciplines (academic rationalist), using the
aid of technology if feasible (technological) but not neglecting students’ needs and interests to unleash
their self-actualizing tendencies (humanistic) and thus building them a good foundation to take active
roles in solving the problems of society (social reconstruction).

Application

Activity 4b: Hear and Deliver

1. Group yourselves into 3s.
2. Interview one of the teachers in the College outside your major or discipline as well as one or
two of his/her students and ask for the following information:
a. Name of teacher/student,
b. Subject discipline,
c. Lesson and learning outcome/s,
d. Learning activity/ies conducted in class or outside class,
e. Materials used, and
f. Mode/type of evaluation given
3. Using the information taken from both the teacher and his/her students, answer the following
questions:
a. Prove whether the teacher considered the use or not of a major foundation of curriculum in
teaching his/her lesson. Explain with 2 or more evidences.
b. Cite at least 3 curriculum conceptions the teacher demonstrated in the delivery of his/her
lesson? Explain your answers with details from your interview.
4. Submit a common output for the group of your:
a. Written transcript or an audio or video clip of your interview, and
b. Answer to no. 3 in 2 separate papers for a and b.

Activity 4c: Curriculum Timeline

1. Check the internet for the different curriculum frameworks used in the Philippines in both the
Basic Education and the Higher Education. Use your gathered information to:
a. give a brief description of the characteristics of each framework; and
b. Create a timeline of the frameworks in both levels.