b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 7 5 e8 9

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Review

Mitigation of global warming through renewable biomass

R.S. Dhillon a,*, George von Wuehlisch b

a
Department of Forestry, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125004, India
b
Federal Research Institute for Rural Areas, Forestry and Fisheries, Institute for Forest Genetics, Sieker Landstraße 2,
22927 Großhansdorf, Germany

article info abstract

Article history: Rising level of atmospheric CO2 and consequent global warming is evident. Global surface
Received 4 March 2011 temperature have already increased by 0.8
C over the 20th century and is projected to
Received in revised form increase by 1.4e5.8
C during the twenty-first century. The global warming will continue till
26 October 2012 atmospheric concentrations of the major greenhouse gases are stabilized. Among them,
Accepted 15 November 2012 CO2 is mainly responsible and is expected to account for about 60% of the warming over the
Available online 23 December 2012 next century. This study reviews advances on causes and consequences of global climate
change and its impact on nature and society. Renewable biomass has tremendous
Keywords: potential to mitigate the global warming. Renewable biomass is expected to play a multi-
Global warming functional role including food production, source of energy and fodder, biodiversity
Greenhouse gases conservation, yield of goods and services to the society as well as mitigation of the impact
Renewable biomass of climate change. The review highlights the different management and research strategies
Mitigation in forestry, agriculture, agroforestry and grasslands to mitigate the global warming.
ª 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction increase by 1.4e5.8
C during the twenty-first century [1,2].

Besides sea-level rise of 15e23 cm, there have been substantial
Anthropogenic activities all over the world related to shifts in ecosystems [4]. With the Industrial revolution, atmo-
production, consumption and use of energy are responsible spheric GHGs and their radioactive forces have progressively
for global climate change. Substantial variation in tempera- increased. Activities like combustion, deforestation, biomass
ture, precipitation, snow cover, sea level and extreme weather burning and some agricultural land use pattern have either
events provide anecdotal evidence of global climate change. increased emissions from global carbon stocks and/or
Increasing concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the decreased the capacity of global carbon sinks to absorb these
atmosphere are expected to bring about several changes in gases [2]. Methane and nitrous oxide, two of the most impor-
climate. Impact can be expected in terms of greater incidence tant greenhouse gases in the atmosphere after water vapour
and magnitude of hurricanes, floods, and droughts [1], and CO2, have also increased gradually [5].
affecting productivity, natural ecosystems, agriculture, ran- In 1992, several countries agreed to the United Nations
gelands, forestry and the society [2,3]. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), with
Global surface temperatures have augmented by 0.8
C over the major objectives of reducing the emission of greenhouse
the 20th century; and Earth’s mean temperature is predicted to gases to 5% or more below 1990 levels by 2012. The Protocol

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ911662289255; fax: þ911662234952.

E-mail address: [email protected] (R.S. Dhillon).
0961-9534/$ e see front matter ª 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2012.11.005
76 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 7 5 e8 9

adopted in December 1997 in Kyoto, came into force in 2005, of the surface of a planet due to the presence of an atmo-
known as Kyoto Protocol. Later in 2009, in Copenhagen sphere containing gases that absorb and emit infrared radia-
(Denmark), it was aimed to make worldwide governments tion. About 50% of the Sun energy reaching the earth’s surface
impose behavioral changes in order to stop the pollution of is reflected back into space or absorbed in the upper atmo-
the global environment and climate. However, in the absence sphere. The other 50% is absorbed by the earth’s land and
of genuine actions, global climate changes are still continuing. water masses, which then emits a less intense form of energy
In fact, a more stout global agreement on how to limit at longer wavelengths as a result of this heating. Much of this
greenhouse gas emissions is necessary to mitigate the immi- infrared energy passes unimpeded through the atmosphere.
nent hazardous effects of global warming. If the real action is The dominant gases in the atmosphere nitrogen (77%) and
taken to prevent global climate change, and the modern oxygen (21%) have no effect on the long wavelength radiated
renewable biomass industry is developed in a sensitive and energy. But some trace gases in the atmosphere, like water
responsible manner, then the role for renewable biomass in vapour (1%) and carbon dioxide (0.03%) behave differently.
the future energy supply to substitute for fossil fuels, food They absorb the longer wavelength energy or reflect it back to
security and as a mitigation of global warming could be very the surface. Like a blanket, these minute concentrations of
substantial [6]. The goal of this review is to provide a timely, greenhouse gases trap the radiated energy, converting it to
short and understandable but nonetheless comprehensive heat. These trace gases in the atmosphere create roughly the
and critical overview on science of global warming effect, same effect as the glass panes of a greenhouse, allowing
natural carbon cycle, world scenario in CO2 emission, conse- sunlight to pass through but trapping some of the radiated
quences of global warming, biomass as a substitute for fossil heat. This accounts for the name of "greenhouse effect."
fuels and the links between renewable biomass and mitiga- Several gases absorb the longer-wavelength energy radiated
tion of global warming. from the earth and thus contribute to the greenhouse effect.
The key greenhouse gases, which are influenced by anthro-
pogenic activities, are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
2. Science of greenhouse effect and global chloroflurocarbon, hydroflurocarbon and perflurocarbons.
warming The most important greenhouse gas is water vapour. Its
concentration in the atmosphere is not influenced signifi-
Although, shifts in global temperatures have occurred cantly by direct emissions due to anthropogenic activities.
throughout human history however, the 20th century has However, water vapour amplifies any warming of the atmo-
seen a rapid rise in global temperatures. A recent warming of sphere. This is because the atmosphere holds more water
the Earth’s surface and lower atmosphere is believed to be the vapour as it warms. CO2 contributes the highest proportion of
result of an "enhanced greenhouse effect" mostly arising due the greenhouse effect, mainly due to its higher concentration
to human-activities. This human induced part is referred to as in the atmosphere, followed by chlorofluorocarbons (CFC),
anthropogenic global warming. Scientists attribute the which are very strong greenhouse gases but are present in low
temperature increase due to the rise in carbon dioxide and concentrations. Increase in CO2 concentration in the atmo-
other greenhouse gases released from the burning of fossil sphere contributes over half of the enhanced greenhouse
fuels, deforestation, agriculture and other industrial effect, the rest being mainly due to increases in nitrous oxides,
processes. They refer to this phenomenon as the enhanced halocarbons and methane [10]. However, some scientists are
greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect was firstly discov- of the view that the term "greenhouse effect" can be a source
ered by Joseph Fourier in 1824 [7]. Subsequently, in 1896, the of confusion as actual greenhouses [11,12]. The "greenhouse
Swedish scientist Arrhenius [8] used this knowledge to predict effect" is named by analogy to greenhouses. The greenhouse
the warming effect of greenhouse gases on earth’s tempera- effect and a real greenhouse are similar in that they both limit
ture compared to a planet without these gases. Performing the rate of thermal energy flowing out of the system, but the
thousands of calculations by hand, he was able to predict the mechanisms by which heat is retained are different. A
earth’s temperature remarkably well. It was also Arrhenius greenhouse works primarily by preventing absorbed heat
who hypothesized that the release of CO2 from the burning of from leaving the structure through convection, i.e. sensible
fossil fuels might increase the temperature of the earth’s heat transport. The greenhouse effect heats the earth because
surface. Charles Keeling’s [9] measurements of carbon dioxide greenhouse gases absorb outgoing radiative energy and re-
concentration in the atmosphere during and after the 1957- emit some of it back towards earth [12].
1958, (International Geophysical Year), showed an increasing
trend and created further interest in Arrhenius’s hypothesis.
Therefore, it is imperative to everyone to understand the 3. Natural global carbon cycle
phenomenon of greenhouse effect very evidently. The
greenhouse effect is neither new nor necessarily bad. The Presently, the natural carbon cycle has received more
greenhouse effect modulates the amount of terrestrial radia- awareness because 60% of the observed global warming is due
tion which is lost to space. This maintains the surface to the increase in carbon dioxide concentration [2,13]. The
temperature of the earth at 15
C, rather than at 18
C, which Earth has a natural carbon cycle. Carbon is naturally
would be the temperature in the absence of the greenhouse exchanged between terrestrial vegetation and the atmosphere
effect. In fact, without the greenhouse effect, life would through photosynthesis and respiration. Carbon flows from
probably not exist on the earth. The energy from the sun is the one reservoir to another over time scales ranging from days to
lashing force for climate. The greenhouse effect is the heating decades to millennia. It is one of the most important cycles of
 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 7 5 e8 9 77

the earth and allows for the most abundant element to be sequestration provides confidence that it may be feasible to
recycled and reused throughout the biosphere and all of its remove CO2 from the atmosphere and sequester it in other
organisms. The carbon cycle is usually thought of as four reservoirs in quantities sufficient to moderate the effects of
major reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways of anthropogenic CO2 emission [18].
exchange. These are; the geological, the oceanic, the terres-
trial, and the atmospheric reservoirs [14,15]. The annual
movements of carbon, i.e., the carbon exchanges between 4. World scenario in CO2 emission
reservoirs, occur because of various chemical, physical,
geological, and biological processes. During year 2006, USA ranked first closely followed by China
Geologic carbon stores are by far the largest. Geologic in CO2 [21] emission but now China has overtaken the United
deposits such as calcium carbonate hold approximately more States as the largest emitter [22]. It is reported that approxi-
than 60,000,000 Pg (Petagrams or 1015 g) of carbon (Table 1). mately 80 percent of the total which is about 30.4 billion tons
There is also a concentrated store of 4000e5000 Pg, in fossil is originated from only 20 countries [22]. Table 2 shows a list of
fuels but the majority of fossil carbon (15,000,000 Pg) is stored the most contributing countries in CO2 emission excluding the
in dilute concentrations (0-5%) in sedimentary rock in an consumption of embedded carbon in traded goods. As per the
insoluble form called kerogen. Comprised of plants that pho- latest report of the International Energy Agency [23], global
tosynthesised millions of years but did not fully decompose, carbon-dioxide (CO2) emissions from fossil-fuel combustion
leaving an excess of oxygen. The largest biologically-related reached a record high of 31.6 gigatonnes (Gt) in 2011, this
store of carbon near the surface of the Earth is in the represents an increase of 1.0 Gt on 2010, or 3.2%. Coal
oceans, but the deep ocean part of this pool does not rapidly accounted for 45% of total energy-related CO2 emissions, fol-
exchange with the atmosphere. Deeper zones of the ocean lowed by oil (35%) and natural gas (20%). In 2011, China made
hold 38,400 Pg of carbon, surface ocean holds 1020 Pg and the largest contribution to the global increase, with its emis-
sediments contain 150 Pg. Marine biota is an insignificant sions rising by 720 million tonnes (Mt), or 9.3%, primarily due
store of carbon (3 Pg), but play a critical role as a biological to higher coal consumption. India’s emissions rose by 140 Mt,
pump, removing carbon dioxide from the surface ocean. or 8.7%, moving it ahead of Russia to become the fourth largest
Carbon is also stored terrestrially. Nonliving organic matter emitter behind China, the United States, and the European
such as dead wood, soils and peat store at least 1580 Pg of Union. Although, this ranking do not include the carbon
carbon, and plants hold 610 Pg [16e18]. The atmosphere, by dioxide emissions from the burning of firewood and other
comparison, currently stores 760Pg of CO2eC, and carbon biomass, which are large source of energy in many developing
exists in the atmosphere primarily as the CO2 gas [19]. countries of the world. The emission levels of developing
Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere (0.04% on countries are projected to exceed those of industrialized
molar basis) but increasing at faster rate (3.5 Pg Cyr1). Other countries by 2020 [24]. But high in absolute terms, greenhouse-
gases containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane, and gas emissions from most developing countries are much
chlorofluorocarbon. The overall atmospheric concentration of
these GHGs has been increasing in recent decades. There are
huge exchanges among these reservoirs. Each year, the Table 2 e List of countries by 2009 emissionsa.
atmosphere exchanges an estimated 90 Pg C with the surface
Rank Country Annual CO2 % of Per capita
ocean and 120 Pg C with vegetation and soil [20]. These
emissions global tonnes
numbers imply that the residing time of CO2 in the atmo- (million tones) total
sphere is not more than w4 years. CO2 exchange currently
1 China 7710.50 25.4 5.83
sequesters roughly half the annual anthropogenic global CO2
2 United States 5424.53 17.8 17.67
emissions into the oceans and soils. This large-scale natural
3 India 1602.12 5.27 1.38
4 Russia 1572.07 5.17 11.23
5 Japan 1097.96 3.61 8.64
Table 1 e Major carbon reservoirs on earth. 6 Germany 765.56 2.52 9.30
7 Canada 540.97 1.78 16.15
Pool Approximate quantity of 8 Korea, South 528.13 1.74 10.89
carbon in Pg 9 Iran 527.18 1.73 6.94
1. Geological 10 UK 519.94 1.71 8.35
>60,000,000 11 Saudi Arabia 470.00 1.55 18.56
 Sedimentary carbonate
12 South Africa 450.44 1.48 9.18
 Kerogen 15,000,000
13 Mexico 443.61 1.46 3.99
 Fossil fuel 4000-5000
14 Brazil 420.16 1.38 2.11
2. Oceanic
15 Australia 417.68 1.37 19.64
 Deeper ocean zone 38,400
16 Indonesia 413.29 1.36 1.72
 Surface ocean zone 1020
17 Italy 407.87 1.34 7.01
 Sediments 150
18 France 396.65 1.30 6.30
 Marine biota 3
19 Spain 329.86 1.08 7.13
3. Terrestrial
20 Taiwan 290.88 0.95 12.66
 Vegetation 610
World 30398.23 100 4.49
 Soil 1580
4. Atmosphere 760 a Source from IEA [22].
78 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 7 5 e8 9

lower on per capita basis than emissions from the world’s will vary in distribution across people, places and times. For
industrialized nations (Table 2). On an average, each Amer- example, the heat wave across Europe in summer 2003 is
ican emits more than three times as much carbon dioxide estimated to have caused about 30,000 premature deaths. It
from energy use as a Chinese, and as much as 12 Indians.This has been linked to global warming with greater than 90
difference in per-capita CO2 emissions has important impli- percent probability [27]. Climate change is likely to have wide-
cations for reaching a binding international agreement on ranging and mostly adverse impacts on human health, with
global climate change. However, as per the recent report, all significant loss of life. Net climate-change-related increases in
developed countries have incurred considerable costs in the geographic distribution (altitude and latitude) of the vector
subsidising and regulating in favour of high cost energy organisms of infectious diseases (e.g., malarial mosquitoes,
sources with low emissions. At the G8 meeting in June 2009 in schistosome-spreading snails) and changes in the life-cycle
L’Aquila, leaders agreed an ambitious set of targets. These dynamics of both vector and infective parasites would, in
involved that the developed countries would reduce their aggregate, increase the potential transmission of many
emissions by 80% and the developing countries by 50% by vector-borne diseases and also increases in non-vector-borne
2050. Present per capita emission levels of carbon dioxide are infectious diseases such as cholera, salmonellas, and other
11.5 and 2.4 tonnes for the developed and the developing food- and water-related infections also could occur, particu-
world, respectively. All developed countries have incurred larly in tropical and subtropical regions, because of climatic
considerable costs in subsidising and regulating in favour of impacts on water distribution, temperature, and microor-
high cost energy sources with low emissions. In spite of this, ganism proliferation [28].
and the fact that the early gains are likely to be the easiest Agriculture sector would be the most vulnerable to climate
because they tap into the fabled “low hanging fruit”, few change. Agricultural production and productivity are
major signatories will meet their Kyoto obligations. impacted in multiple ways: (i) higher temperatures affect
plant health, increase the occurrences of pests, and lower
water availability; (ii) modified rainfall patterns reduce water
5. Consequences of global warming availability and shift rainy seasons, with consequences both
for irrigated and rainfed agriculture and for farming systems;
The world’s climate is continuing to change at rates that are (iii) enhanced frequency of weather extremes increase supply
projected to be unprecedented in recent human history. Pro- variability; (iv) enhanced carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration
jected impacts from global warming include disruption of in the atmosphere may improve yields and crop productivity
ecosystems, species extinctions, melting of polar and glacial in some cases; and (v) the rise in sea level and frequent
ice, inundation of coastal areas due to rise in sea level, flooding disturb global agricultural production patterns,
increasing precipitation and floods, and severe and frequent generating losses for some farmers and countries. While the
storms. Consequently ecology, economy and human society magnitude of the impact on global agricultural production is
are likely to suffer. The IPCC’s third report has already re- uncertain at this time, countries in the temperate zones of
ported that the average global surface temperature could rise North America, Northern Europe and Asia are expected to
by 1.4
Ce5.8
C during the 21st century, with potentially benefit from increased agricultural productivity. In contrast,
severe consequences of extreme weather and rising sea level regions around the Mediterranean and especially in tropical
[24]. Heat waves, droughts, floods and storms already zones are expected to be net losers from declining produc-
happening around the world with greater frequency and tivity. For most developing countries in semi-arid, arid and
intensity, are attributable in part to global warming. The tropical zones, yields are expected to drop significantly,
resulting sea level rise would be expected to have a number of reducing current production levels and making it more chal-
impacts, particularly on coastal systems. Such impacts may lenging to reach the even higher productivity goals needed to
include increased coastal erosion, higher storm-surge flood- meet their growing food demands in the next decades [29]. As
ing, inhibition of primary production processes, more exten- production possibilities shift across agro-ecological zones,
sive coastal inundation, changes in surface water quality and global agricultural trade flows will also shift dramatically.
groundwater characteristics, increased loss of property and Because the disruption of agricultural production is expected
coastal habitats, increased flood risk and potential loss of life, to be most severe in developing countries, both their import
loss of nonmonetary cultural resources and values, impacts food requirements and their import financing needs will
on agriculture and aquaculture through decline in soil and increase substantially. Thus, the expected effects of climate
water quality, and loss of tourism, recreation, and trans- change on global agricultural production will have serious and
portation functions. Further, the IPCC in its 4th report negative impacts on food security for many countries. The
cautioned that global sea level will rise from 0.18 to 0.59 m by disruption in global agriculture will occur as the world pop-
the end of this century would endanger human populations, ulation during the next 40 years increases to a projected 9.1
ecosystem, cities, ports, and wetlands in low-lying coastal billion in 2050, thus requiring that agriculture significantly
areas. Stern [25] emphasised due importance of fast action, step up production and productivity in the coming decades
otherwise several low lying areas around the globe would be [30]. The climate change will also aggravate the loss of biodi-
under water in near future. versity, increase the risk of extinction for many plant and
Impact of global warming in terms of escalating costs all animal species, especially those that are already at risk due to
around is becoming evident. Poor people suffer most [26]. In factors such as low population numbers, restricted or patchy
fact, no country is immune and the effects of climate change habitats and limited climatic ranges, and adversely impact
may have a greater impact on some nations than others and ecosystem services essential for sustainable development.
 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 7 5 e8 9 79

One study predicts 18%e35% of a sample of 1103 animal and renewable sources, energy from biomass is considered to be
plant species would be extinct by 2050, based on future one of the most promising to replace some of the fossil fuels
climate projections [31]. In general, climate change will affect [37]. The global energy potential of virgin biomass is very
the forest conditions (area, health and vitality and biodiver- large. It is estimated that the world’s standing terrestrial
sity), allowing increases in growth rates in some areas while biomass carbon (i.e., the renewable, above-ground biomass
endangering the survival of species and forest communities in that could be harvested and used as an energy resource) is
others. In some cases, climate change may lead to expansion approximately 50 times the world’s total fossil fuel related
of forest areas; for example, temperate forests are expected to carbon emission. The largest source of standing terrestrial
spread pole ward. In other cases it may lead to reduction of biomass carbon is forest biomass, which contains about
forest areas, such as in the northeast Amazonian region, 80e90% of the total biomass carbon (Table 3). Interestingly,
where forest dieback is expected to reach enormous propor- marine biomass carbon is projected to be next after the forest
tions due to reduced availability of water, in combination with biomass carbon in terms of net annual production, but is last
unsustainable land use practices. Stress caused by a change in in terms of availability because of its high turnover rates in an
the conditions of the ecosystem may also increase its oceanic environment [36]. Hall and Rosillo- Calle [38] esti-
vulnerability for pests and fires [32]. Deforestation and fires in mated 2900 EJ of potential biomass energy was available, of
the Amazon region, for example, form a vicious circle with which only 270 EJ could be utilized on a sustainable basis at
climate change [33], with the potential to degrade up to 55% of competitive prices. Hoogwijk [39] analyzed the use of biomass
the Amazon rain forests [34]. Therefore, the changing climate for 17 different scenarios and showed its ‘research focus’
would clearly have impacts on productivity and structure of potential by 2025e2050 was between 67 and 450 EJ, whereas
natural ecosystems, agriculture, rangelands and forestry with the ‘demand driven’ potential was between 28 and 220 EJ. The
consequential effects on component plant and animal species global technical potential of bioenergy is therefore large and
and on many aspects of human welfare [1,24]. could pro- vide around 200e400 EJ yr1 at competitive costs by
2050 [1].
Globally, biomass currently provides around 46 EJ of bio-
6. Renewable biomass as a substitute for energy in the form of combustible biomass and wastes, liquid
fossil fuels biofuels, renewable municipal solid waste, solid biomass/
charcoal, and gaseous fuels. This share is estimated to be
The present energy system is heavily depending on the use of 13.4% of global primary energy supply [40] but this is mainly
fossil fuels. Worldwide coal, oil, and gas account for 80 from ‘traditional biomass’ estimated to provide 32 EJ in 2002 of
percent of primary energy consumption [35]. Since millions of non-commercial firewood, charcoal and dung used for cook-
years are required to form fossil fuels in the earth, their ing and heating in developing countries [41]. Such low-grade
reserves are finite and subject to depletion as they are biomass provides around 35% of primary energy in many
consumed. The only natural, renewable carbon resource developing countries, but more than 70% in Africa [42].
known that is large enough to be used as a substitute for fossil Modern biomass (bioenergy) technologies that feature high
fuels is biomass. Included are all water and land-based efficiencies, cleanliness, and convenience are now becoming
organisms, vegetation, and trees, or virgin biomass, and all technically and commercially viable. Considering the renew-
dead and waste biomass such as municipal solid waste, bio- able biomass potential still available and the need to reduce
solids (sewage) and animal wastes (manures) and residues, consumption of fossil fuels, biomass will be among the most
forestry and agricultural residues, and certain types of important energy sources of the future. Table 4 provides
industrial wastes. Unlike fossil fuel deposits, biomass is a range of estimates regarding the future role of biomass. The
renewable in the sense that only a short period of time is large potential of biomass to substitute for fossil fuels can also
needed to replace what is used as an energy resource [36]. The be illustrated for the case of the European Union. According to
importance of solar-based renewable energy sources for the the European Commission’s White Paper [43], the overall aim
reduction of GHGs emissions has been widely recognized. is to double the share of renewable energy from 6 to 12% of the
Since the signing of the UN Framework Convention on total energy consumption in the European Union. According
Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, there has to this White Paper, the major part of this renewable energy
been an intensification of interest. Among these solar-based could come from energy crops (trees, perennial grasses etc.

Table 3 e Estimated distribution of world’s biomass carbona.

Forests Savanna and grasslands Swamp and marsh Remaining terrestrial Marine
6 2
Area (10 km ) 48.5 24.0 2.0 74.5 361
Percentage 9.5 4.7 0.4 14.6 70.8
Net C production (Gt/yr) 33.26 8.51 2.70 8.40 24.62
Percentage 42.9 11.0 3.5 10.8 31.8
Standing C (Gt) 744 33.5 14.0 37.5 4.5
Percentage 89.3 4.0 1.7 4.5 0.5

a Source from Klass [36].

80 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 7 5 e8 9

not cost-competitive yet under low fossil energy price

Table 4 e The role of biomass in future global energy use
(in EJ)a. regimes, and will have to be employed on a broader scale first
in order to take more advantage of economies of scale.
Scenario Year
Renewable biomass, through the substitution of coal, oil, or
2025 2050 2100 natural gas, will reduce CO2 emissions from energy systems. A
Shell (1996) 85 200e220 e
combination of biomass with sink options can result in
IPCC (1996) 72 280 320 a maximum benefit for GHG mitigation strategies. Afforesta-
Greenpeace (1993) 114 181 e tion of wastelands can increase the carbon density of the land,
Johansson et al. (1993) 145 206 e while also yielding a perpetual source for biofuels and wood
WEC (1993) 59 94e157 132e215 products. The use of the accumulated carbon in forests and
Dessus et al. (1992) 135 e e
wood products for biofuels alleviates the critical issue of
Lashof and Tirpak (1991) 130 215 e
maintaining the biotic carbon stocks over a long time.
a Source from Hall and Scrase [37]. Enhanced use of perennial biomass crops, while providing
a sustainable energy source, can also lead to increased levels
of soil carbon storage. Long-term and sustainable reductions
grown on just about 4% of the total EU land). This means that, of CO2 emissions through land-based activities will, to a large
additionally, over 160 million m3 of biomass per year (1 EJ/yr) extent have to come from the use of wood for bioenergy and
would be used for energy in Europe. products. The provisions of the Kyoto Protocol with respect to
Due to the limited availability of land, sometimes conflicts sinks can be seen as a valuable incentive to protect and
may arise between biomass and other options for land use, enhance carbon stocks now, while at the same time providing
especially food production. Concerns about future food the biomass resources needed for the continued substitution
supplies for the world’s population, which in many locations of fossil fuels in the future.
is still increasing, have sometimes been used to discount the
potential for biomass. These concerns are associated with the
assumption that in some regions, particularly in developing 7. Mitigation strategies through renewable
countries, land may not be available in significant quantities biomass
for biomass production for energy unless the agricultural
systems are substantially modernized. Nevertheless without Pacala and Socolow [14] delineated 15 options of mitigating
additional land use for biomass, there is a variety of possi- the atmospheric concentration of CO2 by 2050 at approxi-
bilities for improved use of existing biomass resources (energy mately 550 ppm. Of the 15 options, C sequestrations in
crops and short rotation forest plantations as well as ‘wastes’ terrestrial ecosystems with renewable biomass constitute
including forest, agricultural and livestock residues, munic- a major C sink. This is one of the vital component of natural
ipal solid waste and other organic waste streams) for energy. global carbon cycle of the terrestrial ecosystem in which
Residues from industrialized farming, plantation forests and plants harness the energy of the sun and accumulate carbon
food and fibre processing operations that are currently from the atmosphere to produce biomass on which the rest of
collected worldwide and used in modern bioenergy conver- the biota depend [45,46]. The great innovation of agriculture
sion plants contain approximately 9 EJ yr 1 of energy. Current 10,000 years ago was to manage the photosynthesis of plants
combustion of over 130 Mt of municipal waste annually and ecosystems so as to dependably increase yields. With 5
provides a further 6 EJ yr1 (although this includes plastics, billion hectares of Earth’s surface used for agriculture (69
etc) [42] percent under pasture and 28 percent in crops) in 2002, and
New technologies for the production of biofuels in large with half a billion more hectares expected by 2020, agricul-
quantities have been developed and have enormous potential tural production systems and landscapes have to not only
for generating employment. Once demand exceeds the deliver food and fibre but also support biodiversity and
amount that can be supplied from residues, a change of land important ecosystem services, including climate change
use and land-use practices may be required in some cases. mitigation [47e50]. A major strategy for achieving this is to
The utilization of biofuels does not depend on the develop- increase the role of perennial crops, shrubs, and trees, so that
ment of any fundamentally new technology. Only in some carbon is absorbed and stored in the biomass of roots, trunks,
applications the properties of biofuels are such that modifi- and branches while crops are being produced. Although more
cation of conventional fossil fuel technologies is required [44]. than 3000 edible plant species have been identified, 80 percent
Over the last decade, a great variety of biomass technologies of world cropland is dominated by just 10 annual cereal
have emerged (e.g., Biomass Integrated Gasification Cycle, full grains, legumes, and oilseeds. Wheat, rice, and maize cover
automatic residential wood-pellet heating system, etc.). half of the world’s cropland [51]. Since annual crops need to be
Biomass combustion for heat production is based on tech- replanted every year and the major grains are sensitive to
nologies that are fully developed and economically competi- shade, farmers gradually removed other vegetation from their
tive in many cases. The availability of efficient technologies fields. But achieving a high-carbon cropping system, as well as
for biofuel application in power production, in contrast, is still the year-round vegetative cover to sustain soils, watersheds,
rather limited, although modern technologies exist for the and habitats, will require diversification and the incorporation
combined-heat-and-power production in district heating of a far greater share of perennial plants. Owing to its
schemes and industry needs. For the transport sector, various numerous ancillary benefits, the terrestrial C sequestration is
technologies are available as well, although these are often often termed as winewin or no-regrets strategy [52]. It offers
 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 7 5 e8 9 81

multiple benefits even without the threat of global climate important tools for reducing net emissions of GHGs, conse-
change. Ability of forests, agroforestry, agricultural crops and quently countries may choose to apply forest management
other vegetation as terrestrial carbon sinks to absorb CO2 activities to fulfil their protocol commitments [59]. Brown
emissions and mitigate the climate change, has attracted et al. [60] suggested three ways to manage forests aimed at
worldwide attention. mitigating GHG effect. These are; (i) management for carbon
conservation,(ii) management for carbon storage, and (iii)
7.1. Forests management for carbon substitution. Conservation manage-
ment’s goal is to prevent C emissions by conserving existing C
The global forests cover 3952 million ha, or 30% of the earth’s pools in forest vegetation and soil as much as possible through
land area of which about 95% are natural forests and 5% are options such as controlling deforestation, protection forest in
plantations [53]. Tropical and subtropical forests comprise reserves, changing harvesting regimes and controlling other
56% of the world’s forests, while temperate and boreal forests anthropogenic disturbances such as fire, and pest outbreaks.
accounts account for 44%. Forests are capable of mitigating The goal of storage management is to expand the storage of C
large amount of carbon dioxide. The concept of compensating in the forest ecosystems by increasing the area and/or
for rising atmospheric CO2 concentration through global scale biomass and soil C density of natural and plantation forests
afforestation was first put forward in the late 1970s [54]. From and to increase storage in durable wood products [18].
then till date, forestry based carbon offsets have developed Substitution management aims at increasing the transfer of
from a hypothetical idea towards being a market-based and forest biomass C into products (eg. construction materials and
alleviating global warming instrument. Presently, the net rate biofuels) rather than using fossil-fuels based energy and
of C sequestration in forest ecosystems (other than those products, cement based products and other building mate-
being deforested) is 1.7  0.5 Pg Cyr1 [55,56]. Nevertheless, the rials. Forests with net growth are capable of net absorption of
IPCC 3rd assessment report concluded that the forest sector CO2, whereas mature forests with little growth hold carbon
has a biophysical mitigation potential of 5.4 PgCyr1 on stocks but are unable to absorb additional CO2 [60]. Since rate
average up until 2050 [24]. Further, global forest ecosystems of CO2 absorption is directly proportional to the rate of growth,
account for approximately 90% of the annual C flux between it means that ‘preservation’ of natural forests is a relatively
the atmosphere and terrestrial ecosystems [45]. Schlama- inefficient means of sequestering CO2. On the other hand, the
dinger and Marland [50] have listed several mitigation options rotation period is considered to have substantial effects on
in which forestry activities can affect the amount of CO2 in the carbon stocks in the forest, and thus is an important param-
atmosphere, namely by; (i) increasing carbon sequestration eter to optimise [61]. Increasing the rotation period generally
rate in the forest by altered forest management and increased results in increased carbon stock in biomass, but may not
sequestration in the entire life cycle of forest products increase the carbon stock in the soil [62]. Further, increasing
through altered use pattern and consumption, (ii) substituting the rotation period may decrease the potential for using
fossil fuels with forest biomass and possible engineered logging residues as substitutes for fossil fuel. Changing the
disposal of the captured CO2 in geological and oceanic tree species grown could also help to increase forestry’s
repositories, and (iii) Reduction of carbon emission from land potential to reduce CO2 levels. Klang and Ekö [63] and
disturbance (e.g., deforestation avoidance, fire and pest Johansson [64] reported that a mixture of Norway spruce (Picea
management) and the increased carbon sink capacity through abies (L.) Karst.) and silver and downy birch (Betula pendula
reforestation and afforestation. Unfortunately, gross defor- Roth and B. pubescens Ehrh.) could produce more biomass than
estation was recorded at a distressing rate of 12.9 million a pure stand of spruce. The extra biomass could be used to
ha yr1 between 2000 and 2005; mainly because of converting replace fossil fuel or energy-intensive material. Further, Berg
forests to agricultural land, but also due to expansion of et al. [65] showed that there were higher carbon stocks in the
settlements, infrastructure, and unsustainable logging prac- soil of spruce (P. abies) and birch (Betula species) stands than in
tices [53]. In addition, forests are severely affected by distur- the soil of corresponding Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands.
bances such as forest fires, pests (insects and diseases) and Thus, forest management based on harvesting at the optimal
climatic events including drought, wind, snow, ice, and floods. rotation, mixed plantation, efficient conversion of the wood
Such disturbances affect roughly 100 million ha of forests into durable products and appropriate regeneration would
annually [53]. But, according to the recent report of FAO [57], maximize the sequestering of CO2. Thus, increasing the
planted forests and natural regeneration have increased the production of industrial wood obtained on a sustainable basis
forest areas in the United States, Europe, China, some coun- from managed natural forest, and especially from plantations,
tries in Latin America and the Caribbean e.g., Chile, Uruguay, would be the most efficient means of using forests to
Cuba, and Costa Rica. On the other hand, some countries in sequester CO2.
Africa, Asia and the Pacific and the tropical counties of Latin Currently, afforestation and reforestation are one of the
America continue to be subject to deforestation, mainly due to viable options of C sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems
conversion of small scale agriculture to large one. Forest area [66,67]. They are the dominant mitigation options in specific
in industrialized regions is expected to increase further up to regions, The potential of C sequestration through afforesta-
230 million ha by 2050 [58]. Simultaneously, the forest area in tion is estimated at 3 Tg Cyr1 in Norway, 6 Tg Cyr1 in New
the developing regions will decrease by about 200e490 Zealand, 9 Tg Cyr1 in Sweden, 107 Tg Cyr1 in Russia and
million ha. 117 Tg Cyr1 in the USA [1]. Plantations consisting of multiple
Forest ecosystems are the major biological scrubber of species may be an attractive option as they are more resilient,
atmospheric CO2; forest management strategies could provide or less vulnerable, to climate change. This is because each
82 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 7 5 e8 9

species has different tolerance to climate change, different service’ try to address market failure by creating incentive to
migration abilities, and differential effectiveness of invading conserve, protect and restore forests. Assigning value to
species. The rate of afforestation in India is one of the highest emission reduction or removals (carbon storage) by creating
among the tropical countries, currently estimated to be 2 Mha tradable carbon credits is the most developed and promising
per annum [68]. Estimates of annual carbon uptake increment approach to assign value to standing forests. The carbon
suggest that Indian forests and plantations have been able to market relies on emission trading and the transfer of carbon
remove at least 0.125 Pg of CO2 yr1 from the atmosphere. credits. CDM (clean development mechanism) and JI (joint
Assuming that the present forest cover in India will sustain implementation) allow countries to invest in emission
itself with a marginal annual increase by 0.5 Mha in area of reducing projects in countries where the abatement cost for
plantations and these forests can continue to act as a net emission reductions are lower than in their own economies.
carbon sink in future. Hasenkamp [69] calculated that the In return for their payment, the investors or purchaser of
global climate problem could be solved by planting a total of carbon credits receives a right to the carbon credits generated
500 million ha of plantations, even without parallel efforts to by the project. These carbon credits can be used to meet
minimize carbon emissions from fossil-fuel combustion. Hall compliance obligations under the international or national
et al. [70] suggested that a total of 600 million ha of biomass regulatory regimes. The carbon market created under the
plantations with an average yield of 12 tons ha1 yr1 dry Kyoto Protocol and a number of regional and national emis-
mass could offset 50% emissions by the year 2050, if the sion trading schemes is worth billions of dollars each year [74].
biomass is used instead of fossil fuels for energy production. The Kyoto Protocol does not address forest conservation or
However, the assumed land availability for afforestation the prevention of deforestation; tropical countries are
options depends on the price of carbon and how that restricted in their opportunities to benefit from the CDM. The
competes with existing or other land-use financial returns, Kyoto Protocol thus fails to set an incentive to protecting
barriers to changing land uses, land tenure patterns and legal natural forests in developing countries. Most of the off-sets
status, commodity price support, and other social and policy generated by LULUCF projects are therefore traded in the so
factors. Cost estimates for carbon sequestration projects for called voluntary or retail market. Companies invest in
different regions compiled by Cacho et al. [71] and by Richards voluntary off-sets for marketing purposes, to meet certain
and Stokes [72] show a wide range. The cost is in the range of promises, or out of true environmental concern. More and
0.5e7 US$ t1 CO2 for forestry projects in developing countries, more individuals seek to off-set their carbon “foot print”. The
compared to 1.4 to 22 US$ t1 CO2 for forestry projects in UN climate conference at Cancun (Mexico) from November 29
industrialized countries. In the short-term (2008e2012), an to December 10, 2010 reached a compromise to set up a ‘Green
estimate of economic potential area available for afforesta- Fund’ of $ 100 Billion yr1 by 2020, which will be given to
tion/reforestation under the CDM (clean development mech- developing countries for adaptation and mitigation of global
anism) is estimated to be 5.3 million ha in Africa, Asia and warming.
Latin America together; with Asia accounting for 4.4
million ha [73]. For the CDM the issue became more compli- 7.2. Agroforestry
cated. It took almost six years of assessment and negotiation
before a final agreement on the definition and modalities for Agroforestry is an attractive and promising option for
the use of land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) sequestering carbon on agricultural lands because it can
projects in the CDM was reached at the 9th session of the sequester significant amounts of carbon while leaving the
conference of the parties to the UNFCC in 2003 in Milan. bulk of the land for agricultural production. Agroforestry plays
LULUCF in the CDM was limited to afforestation and refores- vital roles in mitigation of atmospheric accumulation of GHGs
tation projects and the use of sinks projects in developing [1]. Carbon sequestration rates are very encouraging for
countries restricted to only 1% of a country’s Kyoto obliga- complex agroforestry, boundary planting, hedgerow inter-
tions. The protection of existing carbon pools (avoided defor- cropping, and home gardens [74,75]. Nevertheless, highest
estation) was finally declared to be non-eligible as a CDM carbon storage results are found in “multi-storey/complex”
project category. This means that while there is an incentive agroforestry systems [76] that have many diverse species
to restore and conserve temperate forests in industrialized using ecological “niches” from the high canopy to bottom
countries and on the other hand, the tropical deforestation story shade-tolerant crops (Table 5). Examples are shade-
(due to LULUCF) which is the main source of emission is not grown coffee and cocoa plantations, where cash crops are
covered under the Kyoto Protocol and thus there is no incen- grown under a canopy of trees that sequester carbon and
tive for developing countries to protect their forest resources. provide habitats for wildlife. Simple intercrops are used where
As forests provide unlimited free services to society but no tree-crop competition is minimal. In fact, there is a need to
ownership right and consequently no monetary value are develop agroforestry models as per differential value of tree
being assigned to these services. The value of a forest is often crop species and also as per soil and climate differences. The
captured alone in the value of those items that can be potential of agroforestry seems to be substantial; but it
assigned and traded; the timber and the land on which the remains under recognized as a greenhouse gas mitigation
tree stand. This also means that those control or have access option for agriculture in the world [77].
to forests often have a greater incentive to clear the forest Agroforestry has such a high potential, not only because it
than to conserve it. Applying the logic of the market, forest is the land use practice with the highest carbon density, but
services need to be priced for people to acknowledge their true also because such a large area is susceptible for the land use
value. Scheme that envisage the payment for ‘ecosystem change [45]. The area suitable for agro-forestry is estimated to
 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 7 5 e8 9 83

a fundamental “rethink” of the way agriculture is practiced

Table 5 e Carbon sequestration rates for selected
agroforestry practicesa. needs to be initiated. Finding ways to reduce reliance on
chemicals and synthetic fertilizers and creating incentives to
Agro foresty practice Carbon Region
promote the use of renewable energy throughout the modern
sequestration
rate (tonnes C eq agricultural systems is of the utmost urgency and requires
ha1 yr1) concerted policy action [84]. The concern over climate change
and the need to shift to more sustainable systems has raised
Complex agroforestry 11 Central Africa
the profile of and interest in many long-standing practices,
Complex agroforestry 8e21 Costa Rica
Boundary planting 35e50 Central Africa including conservation agriculture and organic agriculture,
Hedgerow intercropping 1e37 Indonesia and and greater reliance on renewable energy for domestic use in
India rural households in developing countries. There are a number
Home gardens 145 Panama of management practices that are relevant to GHG emission
a Source from Sajwaj et al. [76]. reduction and sustainable development. These are: crop
management, nutrient management, soil management, and
livestock management, as well as energy, and incentives for
be 585e1215 Mha with a technical mitigation potential of eco-friendly agriculture.
1.1e2.2 Pg C in terrestrial ecosystems over the next 50 years
[75]. Agro-forestry can also help to decrease pressure on 7.3.1. Crop management
natural forests and promote soil conservation, and provide Currently two thirds of all arable land is used to grow food
ecological services to livestock. Improved agroforestry crops. The production depends on tilling, preparing seed beds,
systems that reduce the vulnerability of small-scale farmers and applying chemical inputs with each and every crop
and help them adapt to changing conditions often meet the season. This makes production more dependent on chemical
requirements for an eligible afforestation/reforestation (A/R) inputs, which in turn require a lot of fossil fuels in their
activity in CDM. These systems can be promoted through CDM production. Further, adding more nutrients, when deficient,
projects to create synergies between mitigation and adapta- can promote soil C gains but excessive application of nitrog-
tion and to meet the requirements that CDM projects produce enous fertilizer is a major source of nitrous oxide emissions.
social as well as environmental benefits. Emissions can be reduced by achieving a high-carbon crop-
ping system, as well as the year-round vegetative cover to
7.3. Agriculture sustain soils, watersheds, and habitats. This needs diversifi-
cation and the incorporation of a far greater share of perennial
Agriculture provides the primary source of livelihood for more plants. Indeed, unlike annual grains, perennial grasses retain
than one third of the world’s total workforce, producing the a strong root network between the growing seasons so that
food needed to sustain the population of our planet. To ach- a large amount of biomass remains in the soil instead of being
ieve food security, food production has to be doubled by 2050 released as GHG. Their large roots also help to hold soil
[78] to meet the increasing demands of world population but organic matter and water together, which reduces both soil
strategies for increasing agricultural production will have to erosion and GHG emissions. Shifting from producing annual
be designed in view of changing climate. Presently agricultural to perennial grains is not without challenges: the breeding of
activities are responsible for the release of significant perennials takes longer time and their seed yields tend to be
amounts of greenhouse gases [79]. Agriculture directly lower. However, researchers have already developed peren-
contributes between 5.1 and 6.1 Pg CO2-eq (10e12%) to global nial relatives of cereals (rice, wheat and sorghum), forages and
greenhouse gas emissions. These emissions are mainly in the sunflower [85e87] that are nutritious and good tasting [88].
form of methane (3.3 Pg CO2-eq yr1) and nitrous oxide (2.8 Pg Further research in this area will support the switch towards
CO2-eq yr1) whereas, the net flux of carbon dioxide is very high-carbon agricultural systems. The mitigation strategy
small (0.04 Pg CO2-eq yr1) [80]. Carbon dioxide is released through crop management can be achieved by conservation
largely from biomass burning, microbial decay and soil agriculture and improving agronomic practices that increase
organic matter. Methane is produced when organic materials yields and generates higher inputs of C residue, which will
decompose in oxygen-deprived conditions, notably from lead to increased soil C storage [84]. Examples of such prac-
fermentative digestion by ruminant livestock, stored manures tices include: using improved crop varieties; multiple crop-
and rice cultivation under flooded conditions. Nitrous oxide ping, alley cropping; and avoiding or reducing use of bare
emissions are mainly associated with nitrogen fertilizers and (unplanted) fallow [89e93]. For instance, conservation agri-
manure applied to soils. Fertilizers are often applied in excess culture achieves minimal soil disturbance by combining no-
and not fully used by the crop plants, so that some of the tillage, permanent organic soil cover and crop rotation.
surplus is lost as N2O to the atmosphere. Still, agriculture has These techniques result in healthier soil, enhanced carbon
a significant climate change mitigation potential, which could sequestration, decreased erosion as well as reduced use of
change the position of agriculture from the second largest water, energy and labour. This brings benefits in terms of
emitter to a much smaller one or even a net sink. There are productivity/profitability and sustainability, including miti-
a wide range of mitigation options in agriculture, with an gation of climate change. In rice cultivation, reducing flooding
overall potential of up to 6 Pg CO2-eq yr1, but with economic periods, incorporating rice straw residue and use of low
potentials of around 4 Pg CO2-eq yr1 at carbon prices up to methane-emitting rice varieties have all been identified as
100 US$ t CO2-eq1 [81e83]. In industrial economies, ways to reduce CH4 emissions [94,95]. Altogether, following
84 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 7 5 e8 9

integrated farming system approach having favourable productivity is higher than often criticized. Under best geo-
components to reduce GHG, may be the best approach in climatic conditions, it is 30e40% less. But in less favourable
agriculture and animal husbandry [84]. areas, its productivity tends to be equal to conventional
farming. In regions with drought or subsistence agriculture,
7.3.2. Manure and nutrient management organic farming is superior (þ112 %).
Manure is a major source of methane, responsible for some
400 million tons of CO2-equivalent and poor manure 7.3.3. Soil management
management is a leading source of water pollution [84]. Bare soil is susceptible to erosion and nutrient leaching and its
Nevertheless, by using appropriate technologies like an soil carbon content is very low. Cultivable lands contain
anaerobic biogas digester, farmers can profit from their farm a manageable pool of carbon. Most cultivated soils contain
waste while helping the climate. In warm regions, CH4 emis- about 1e5% carbon by weight, much of it stored in organic
sions are double of those in cool regions. Hence, producers in matter, derived from the residues of plants growing on the soil
warm climates have a greater potential for reducing CH4 [105]. The goal of soil management, for GHG mitigation, is to
emissions by switching from high to low-emission systems increase the soil organic matter, thus increasing the amount
[1]. The soils with nitrogen fertilizers release nitrous oxide, the of organic carbon that is retained in soils. Several soil
most potent greenhouse gas. The fertilized soils release more management practices favour increased soil C storage. These
than 2 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent GHGs every include: less intensive tillage, reducing the use of bare fallow,
year [96]. Around 160 million tons of inorganic fertilizers choice of crops and their rotation aimed at crop residues
(chemical nitrogen, phosphate and potash) are used world- return to the soil, and integrated nutrient management etc.
wide, mostly in industrial countries and in irrigated regions of According to Lal et al. [105] practices that reduce soil erosion
developing countries. After a short decline in 2008, attributed can also increase C storage in soils; however, Gregorich et al.
to a demand-driven price spike. The sustained growth rates in [89] suggest that eroded soil is merely soil displaced in the
fertilizer demand are expected over the next coming years in landscape and thus does not affect C sequestration. Adding
a business-as-usual scenario [97]. Nitrogen applied in biochar (biomass burned in a low-oxygen environment) can
manures and fertilizers is not always used efficiently by crops further enhance carbon storage in soil [106].
[98]. Improving this efficiency can reduce emissions of N2O;
generated by soil microbes largely from surplus N and it can 7.3.4. Livestock management
indirectly reduce emissions of CO2 from N fertilizer manu- Livestock now account for 50 percent of the emissions from
facture [99]. Practices that improve N use efficiency include: agriculture and land use change. Remarkably, annual emis-
adjusting application rates based on precise estimation of sions from livestock is about 7.1 billion tons (including 2.5
crop needs (e.g. precision farming), using slow-release fertil- billion tons from clearing land for the animals, accounting for
izer forms or nitrification inhibitors (which slow the microbial about 14.5 percent of emissions from human activities) [2].
processes leading to N2O formation), avoiding time delays The methane is produced primarily by enteric fermentation
between N application and plant N uptake (improved timing), and voided by eructation. Livestock management can have
placing the N more precisely into the soil to make it more a significant impact on CH4 and N2O emissions. The emissions
accessible to roots, avoiding excess N applications, or elimi- are primarily a function of population, feed quality, etc.
nating N applications where possible [96]. Now a day, organic Animal nutrition has the potential to reduce urine and
farming is being promoted as a climate friendly and sustain- manure N content, which will result in lower N2O emissions.
able farm system. It is thought to contribute to GHG mitigation Through breeding programmes, substantial progress has been
based on a number of factors. Organic agriculture has a much made in reducing CH4 emissions per litre of milk produced or
reduced consumption of fossil fuels for energy, less vulnera- per kilogram of meat. This will continue, in the absence of any
bility of soils to erosion, and an increase in carbon seques- mitigation programme, because of the direct benefits of
tration due to the recycling of farm-own nutrients and to increased livestock production efficiency to producers.
other techniques aimed at building up soil fertility [100]. Research has shown that feed additives can be used to reduce
Nevertheless, the conclusion is not straightforward when CH4 emissions [107,108]. Grazing management has also been
assessing the impact of the organic farming system on GHG shown to have a substantial potential to increase carbon
emissions and nitrate and phosphorous leaching; when sequestration in soil [109].
expressed per production area, organic farming performs
better than conventional farming for these impacts [101,102], 7.3.5. Energy management
but due to generally lower yields of organic farming, at least in Globally, biofuel contributes about 12 percent of primary
developed countries, this positive effect expressed per unit energy supply [1]. Increasingly, agricultural crops and residues
product is less pronounced [101]. Hiller et al. [103] also re- are seen as sources of feedstocks for energy to displace fossil
ported that over all crops and farm types (conventional, fuels. A wide range of materials have been proposed for use,
integrated and organic), 75% of the total emission result from including grain, crop residue, cellulosic crops (e.g. switch
nitrogen fertilizer use (both organic and inorganic)-from grass, sugarcane) and various tree species. These products can
production, application, and direct nitrous oxide emission be burned directly, but often are processed further to generate
from the soil resulting from application. Once nitrogen is liquid fuels such as ethanol or diesel fuel. These fuels release
accounted for, there are no major differences between CO2 when burned, but this CO2 is of recent atmospheric origin
organic, integrated and conventional farming system. (via photosynthesis) and displaces CO2 which otherwise
However, Niggli et al. [104] revealed that Organic farming would have come from fossil C. The net benefit to atmospheric
 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 7 5 e8 9 85

CO2, however, depends on energy used in growing and pro- take the needed steps once they realize that their choice of
cessing the bioenergy feedstock [110]. Most biofuel use is meat and dairy products, and their support for natural forests
traditional wood fuel in developing countries, but agricultural and grassland protection, can have as great an impact on the
and forest products provide significant industrial feedstock’s climate as how far they drive their cars. One immediate
for energy production in developed countries. In North action is for consumers, processors, and distributors to adopt
America, ethanol is mainly produced from corn, but can greenhouse gas footprint analysis for food and fibre products,
equally be produced from wheat, sugarcane and forestry addressing their full “life cycle,” including production,
products also. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection transport, refrigeration, and packaging, to identify strategic
Agency, the use of ethanol blended with gasoline can reduce intervention points.
motor vehicle emissions of carbon monoxide by 25%e30% and
also reduce ozone levels that contribute to urban smog. It is
expected that ethanol produced from cellulose such as wheat 8. Pastures/grasslands
straw or switch grass will increase in future years [111]. Cost-
effective enzyme technology that breaks down plant fibre and Tropical and temperate natural grasslands play a significant
release sugars that can be fermented into ethanol are ex- but poorly recognized role in the global carbon cycle. Like
pected to be available in the near future [112]. This would help many estimates of net primary productivity (NPP) for natural
to meet the demand for food, fibre and energy. ecosystems, their carbon fluxes may have been previously
Major transitions are required to exploit the large potential underestimated, especially in the tropics [114]. Grasslands are
for bioenergy. Improving agricultural efficiency in developing one of the most widespread vegetation types worldwide,
countries is a key factor. It is still uncertain to what extent, covering 15 million km2 in the tropics and a further 9 mil-
and how fast, such transitions can be realized in different lion km2 in temperate regions; together nearly one fifth of the
regions. Under less favourable conditions the (regional) bio- world’s land surface [115]. Grassland soil carbon stocks
energy potential(s) could be quite low. In addition, it should be amount to at least 10% of the global total [116], but other
noted that technological developments (in conversion, as well sources estimate up to 30% of world soil carbon [117]. In all
as long-distance biomass supply chains such as those farming systems of the world, interactions between climate
involving intercontinental transport of biomass-derived change and grassland biogeochemistry have received little
energy carriers) can dramatically improve competitiveness attention compared to forests [118]. The livelihood of almost
and efficiency of bioenergy. one billion people depends on grasslands [54]. Improved
[113]. It is theoretically possible to increase the storage of management of grasslands is a key to food production and
carbon in long-lived agricultural products (e.g. strawboards, sustainable development in many countries. Sustaining
wool, leather and bioplastics) but with an increase in C held in yields on the existing land base, whether under intensive
these products from 37 to 83 Mt C yr1 over the past 40 years pasture and agro-silvo pastoral systems production, or
and assuming a first-order decay rate of 10e20% per year, this extensive grassland and rangeland management, is critical to
is estimated to be a global net annual removal of 3e7 Mt CO2 mitigating greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture.
from the atmosphere [99] which is negligible when compared According to the IPCC [2], the global technical mitigation
with other mitigation measures, and the option is not potential of agriculture (excluding fossil fuel offsets from
considered further here. biomass-fuels) could be as high as 5.5e6 Pg CO2 eq per year by
2030 of which approximately 1.5 Pg CO2 eq is from grazing
7.3.6. Incentives for climate-friendly agriculture land management, over 0.6 Pg CO2 eq is from restoration of
Now, the challenge is shifting policy and investment priori- degraded lands (directly linked to grassland and rangeland
ties and supporting institutions to create incentives for management), and more than 1.5 Pg CO2 eq is from cropland
farmers, pastoralists, forest owners, agro foresters, agribusi- management (of which pasture management has an impor-
ness, and all other stakeholders within the agriculture and tant share). Approximately 30 percent of this potential can be
forestry supply chains to scale up best practices and continue achieved in developed countries and 70 percent in developing
to innovate new ones. This will require concerted efforts by countries.
different organizations and the governments. The central Tennigkeit and Wilkes [119] have already estimated that
players in any response to climate change are the farmers improved rangeland management has the biophysical
and communities those who actually manage land and the potential to sequester 1.3e2 Pg CO2 equivalents globally by
food and fibre industries that shape the incentives for the 2030. Therefore, grasslands (including grazing land manage-
choice of crops, quality standards, and profitability. Some ment, plus a share of restoration of degraded lands, plus
innovators are already showing the way. For example, the a share of cropland management) have a high potential to
Sustainable Food Lab, a collaborative of 70 businesses and promote build up of C if appropriate management practices
social organizations from throughout the world, has assem- will be adopted. Associated technologies to realise mitigation
bled a team of member companies, university researchers, across much grassland are cost effective thus suggesting an
and technical experts to develop and test ways to measure attractive economic mitigation potential. A range of inte-
and provide incentives for low-carbon agricultural practices grated grassland management interventions that can reduce
through the food supply chain, mainly by increasing soil GHG emissions and enhance C sequestration were described
organic matter, improving fertilizer application, and by Smith et al. [96]. These include the introduction of new
enhancing the capacity of crops and soil to store carbon [2]. A species and varieties, fire management, restoration of organic
key factor is consumer and buyer awareness. Consumers will soils and degraded lands, extending the use of perennial
86 b i o m a s s a n d b i o e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 7 5 e8 9

crops, increasing tree cover in silvi-pastoral systems,

managing grazing intensity and intervals, and improving Acknowledgments
pasture quality. Reducing the frequency and/or intensity of
grassland fires will reduce greenhouse gas emissions and The authors are highly thankful to the Deutscher Akade-
increase above and below ground carbon stock, but could mischer Austausch Dienst e.V. (DAAD), Germany for providing
reduce the value of the land for food and livestock produc- financial assistance to carry out the studies on short rotation
tion. They divided the world into four ‘climatic types’ and forest tree species and mitigation strategies of global
provided mean estimates of per area annual mitigation warming.
potential for grassland management in each zone: cool-dry
0.11, cool-moist 0.81, warm-dry 0.11, warm-dry 0.81(t CO2
ha1 yr1). Most improved grassland management techniques references
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