Mod 1:TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

• Hindu worship is embodied in the concept of darshan or experiencing the divine.

• It is not congregational in nature

• Hindu Gods and deities are divine counterparts of human beings and are imbued with a
combination of human needs and supernatural power

• Process of prayer includes clensing,dance and music

• Hindu gods maybe be thwarted and many of the rituals containing offering of
flowers,fruits,insence,money, anything deemed to be of value to the devotee are rituals
of propitiation (act of making peace)

• Deities are worshipped in the form of image or symbol enshrined In the temple.

• Hindu temple consists of one deity to whom the temple is dedicated

• It also has minor shrines to lesser gods or consort of the main god.
Parts of a temple
Garbha-griha
• Sanctum is a small cella with decorated door frame.

• Always square in plan and is elevated on a plinth.

• Its placement on site coincides with the point of harmony and equilibrium
calculated by vaastu shastra.

• Around it is a ambulatory passage.

• Cell and passage is called as prasada.

Shikhara
• As per hindu cosmology earth is a flat disc revolving around a pivot.

• Mount Kailasa ,the abode of gods is the pivot around which earth rotates.

• The apex of the shikhara is above the idol.

• The shikhara is topped with a finial/stupi which is installed at the consecration of the
temple.Its form is a synthesis of various elements ,including the kalashs or water urn.
Mandapa

• a hypostyle hall –to shelter devotees, and provide space for some of the public rituals.

• It proceeds the garbha griha.

• Open on all 3 sides.Ornate pillars support roof.

• Roof is lower than the shikhara.

• There will more than one mandapa in a temple.

• Separate functions will be allocated to each mandapa,and will be named accordingly

* Hall dedicated to dance –NAT Mandir
*Hall for divine marriages –Kalyana Mandapa.
Ardha mandapa.

• Porch leading to the mandapa

Hindu temple is planned strictly through vaastu shastra.

• The ardha mandapa ,mandapa and garbha griha are axially aligned.

Gopuram

• gateway

Temple Pond

• Presence of water used in ritual clensing and consecration rites is a necessity.

• Within the temple compound is a special tank /Kund containing water deemed to have
come from sacred river ganges.
A primitive Hindu Temple

Grabha-griha

Antarala

Mandapa

TIGAWA TEMPLE
 TEMPLES

SOUTH INDIAN TEMPLES NORTH INDIAN TEMPLE

(DRAVIDIAN STYLE) (INDO ARYAN STYLE)
 KAILASANATH TEMPLE, ELLORA (PANDYAN DYNASTY)
756-774 AD

• Situated at the Deccan Plateau

• Built by the Rastrakutas
• Kailasnatha is an example of both cave and freestanding rock cut architecture.
• Part of 34 caves at ellora in the Deccan hills. Of which 17 are hindu shrines.
• Dedicated to shiva
• Largest monolithic structure in the world.
• Shift from stone cut to stone made architecture.
• Cliffside was first excavated.
• Free standing island rock which was obtained was sculpted to create a complex
consisting of a central monolithic temple. And a series of caves hewn into the inner
face of excavation.
• Complex has 3 separate units.

• A gate house /gopuram

• A pavilion to house shivas vehicle –Nandi
• Cruciform temple with a pillared hall leading to the central shrine which
houses the shivalinga
• Built in dravidian style with a stupi-shaped finial
• Life sized elephants flank the entry of the complex..
• It also has free standing column /stambha.
• Narrative freizes include the descent of the river gange,depicted as a
goddess.
• An account of the demon king Ravana shaking mount kailasa- shivas
mountain abode.
• Panels inside were probably stuccoed and painte with colors.
• Testimony of evolution of art in india
• Largest Rock-cut temple
• 50m wide , 90m deep ,20m high
• Kailashnath is situated at the centre of a 3km long wall of basalt wall.
• Differs from the Buddhist rock-cut structures.
• Independent entity
 NANDI MANDAPA

GARBAGRIHA

BRIDGE
SUBSIDARY
SHRINE
MANDAPA SUBSIDARY
MANDAPA SHRINES

SHRINE

NANDI
SUBSIDARY SHRINE MAIN SHRINE
SHRINE
SOUTH INDIAN TEMPLES

• Entire townships evolved around a temple.

• Shrine forms nucleus of the town
• Constructing temples and developing temple towns was considered to be an expression
of power by rulers.

 Site of the original shrine around which the temple town grew was carefully selected for
its auspiciousness.
 Successive rulers deemed it necessary to make a statement of their authority and
religious intent by building new temples but it was not always possible to find a
auspicious site.
 Thus existing temples became the nucleus and kings added to this in a series of
concentric precincts.
 Each precint /enclore was axially alinged to the main shrine and entered through tall
gateways /gopurams.
 Soon these gopurams became markers of wealth and power of the patron and each
gopuram soared higher than the previous one.
 The gopurams gave the skyline of the temple town a seeping concave curve with the
shrine being the lowest point.
 Gopurams initially made of stone, soon began to be constructed of brick ,laid on stone
walls,with profusion of brightly colored terracotta covering the surface.
 Each storey /tala was clearly defined .There would be a staircase within the main
entrance aperture.
 Gopurams were rectangular in plan and an opening on the wider side punctured each
tala.
 As the gopurams evolved ,the tower which was a straight trapezoidal form of the
shikhara began to take a concave curve, accentuating the upward steep.
 Top of the gopuram tower had a wagon vaulted stupi, over which were finials .
 Gopurams were a unique and dynamic feature of temple towns.
 The concept of successive enclosures also gave the space for construction of huge free
standing mandapas meant for public rituals.
 These manadapas were flat roofed and some of these had nearly 1000 pillars and soon
the largest mandapa within a temple complex was called as 1000 pillared hall.
 The pillars were made of stone,were carved /painted and so were the ceilings
 People from all religions were allowed only upto a certain enclosure ,beyond which only
hindus are allowed.
 The temple complex was a self contained unit
 Within the complex were houses of priest,temple kitchen,shops etc.
CHOLAS
• Began to control
whole of
peninsular India
• Capital was
Tanjavur.

• Started temple
building to
spread shivaism.

• Cholas had the largest naval force in india until the modern times.
• Temples were the financial centres of the community
• Had the authority to make land grants and invest heir assests
• Acted like banks
• Village assemblies were held here
• Administration were under kings and only brahmins were allowed.

Typical chola town

 Stone plinth

Garba -griha
porch Nandi -mandapa

mandapa

Inner wall of garba-griha ( 5m square)

Exterior wall measures 15m square
Brihadeshwara Temple / Dakshinameru (1010 AD)

• Strict axial and symmetrical geometry

• Square garbhagriha(shiv linga) focus

• Inner mandapa is a square hall enclosed by massive stone walls.

• Inner madapa has 6 bays of six columns each.

• Outside the inner mandapa is another rectangular hypostyle mandapa

• Exterior mandapa leads to a porch containg 20 columns .

• The porch can be accessed by 3 staircases

• This again is preceeded by the nandi mandapa.

• Nandi mandapa shares a stone plinth that goes upto the temple porch
• Built by Rajaraja I.
• Dakshina Meru –known as Rajarajeshwara/
Brihadeshwara 16 storied
vimana
80 ton capstone

multiple stories/tala
60m high vimana
 STUPI

ENTRANCE GOPURAM
MEENAKSHI SUNDERESHVARA TEMPLE, MADHURAI (1623-1655 AD)

• NAYAKS CONTINUED TO CONSIDER TEMPLES AS SURROGATE COURTS

MADURAI, TANJORE,GINGEE,IKEREE WERE CAPITALS OF AUTONOMOUS KINGDOMS
MM
 SUNDERESHVARA’S SHRINE
1000 PILLARED HALL

CHITRA GOPURAM

MEENAKSHI’S SHRINE
• Spaces to accommodate the diverse functions

• Markets,private shrine,resting place,dwelling area for priests

• Processions could only be attended by all.

• 4 entrances facing 4 directions

• Gopurams demarcates temples presence to the city

• Temple complex is in an area of 45acres.

SRIRANGAM TEMPLE (10TH CENTURY)

• Srirangam is an island and part of the city Thiruchirapalli

• Bound by R. Cauveri in the south and distributatory of Cauveri ,Kollidam in the north
 • Three layers of walls before one
reaches the main temple
• Each has a gopuram at the centre
• The temple faces south
• The gopuram over the southern wall is
called Rajagopuram.

• Eastern entrance is capped by the

Vellaigopuram or white gopuram
• Temple complex is 156 acres.
• Temple has 7 prakaras ,elevated walls
• 21 gopurams.

• Stage wise expansion

• First- enclosure around temple
And subsidiary shrines with pillared halls

• Outer enclosure -hypostyle hall

• Square tank for ablutions.

SRIRANGAM –TEMPLE TOWN

• The Ranganath temple is dedicated to Lord Vishnu.
• Orientation is N-S
• Near the east gopuram in the fourth enclosure is a hall of 1000 pillars and
Horse court
WHITE GOPURAM AT SRIRANGAM
Pillars did not have a florid elegance
Pillars are carved with rampant animals with gryphon bracket system to support the
roof.
VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE (AD 1336-1646)

• Harihara and Bukka escaped from the captivity of Alauddin Khilji &established a new
kingdom
• Vijayanagara build up its wealth by investing in Cholan decentralized temple based
administration and by irrigating new lands.
• A complex system of canals ,dams and aqueducts were developed
• Commerce was between portugeese (Goa 1510) was important
• Capital was located to maximize defense
• Rocky hills and tungabandra river
• City was located on an uneven plateau, Urban areas were built into the gullies and
valleys

• Most of the city lies on the south bank of the Tungabandra river.
• The city was built around the religious center of the Virupaksha temple complex
at Hampi.
Vijayanagra could be divided into two:

1. Royal centre
2.Sacred centre

Royal Centre Sacred Centre

• Situated at the South-West part of the Temples

site
• Palaces, Bath pavilions,Royal stables
and temples
 • Main temples are
freestanding on the
southern banks of the
Tungabandra river but the
palaces and city are
enclosed in a fortified wall.

• Most of the structures are low in

height
• Spans large areas and courtyards
were present
• Use of granite and green chlorite
• Intricately decorated temples
• Pillars have horse
capitals,different shapes,pillars
decorated by small pillars.
• Drops made interesting
• Shrines,Kalyana manatapas
 VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE
• Main entrance is east facing
• 9 storied tower
• 2 large courtyards
• First courtyard- left corner hall
of 100 columns
• Far right corner –kalyana
mantapa
• Inner court has a
balipeeda,lamp
post,dhwajastabha,nandi
Detached compound columns were a hallmark of Vijayanagara empire
• Appearing at first glance to consist of 2 pillars .
• Each of the compound column is cut from a single piece of stone
• Virupaksha, started as a small Shiva shrine. Core of the village of Hampi.
• Over time it grew into a large urban complex
• Nandi enclosure was added in 15 th century
• Virupaksha like all temples opens out into a long market street ,effecting a direct
connection with commercial

VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE / PAMPAPATI TEMPLE

1. Covered walkway
2. Triple shrined shiva temple
3. Virupaksha temple with tower
• Virupaksha temple representd both northern and southern style of architecture
• Temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and his consort Pambha ( a local deity)
• A narrow channel of the Tungabhadra River flows along the temple's terrace and
then descends to the temple-kitchen and out through the outer court
VITTALA TEMPLE

VITTALA TEMPLE PLAN

KALYANA MANTAPA

• Used for the symbolic marriage of the temple god and his consort.
• It is an open pavilion
• The columns when tapped produces a musical sound
VITTALA TEMPLE

STONE CHARIOT AT THE VITTALA TEMPLE

• Dedicated to Lord Vishnu

• In front of the temple is a ratha ,One of the 3 famous stone chariots in India
7 MINOR PILLARS
ARRANGED AROUND
THE MAIN PILLAR

One of the notable features of the Vittala Temple is the musical pillars.

• Each of the pillars that support the roof of the main temple is supported by a pillar
representing a musical instrument,

• 7 minor pillars arranged around a main pillar. These 7 pillars, when struck,
emanate the 7 notes from the representative instrument, varying in sound quality
based on whether it represents a wind, string or percussion instrument.
Facing Virupaksha Temple, about 12 meter wide and 730 meter long double-storied
impressive structure is Virupaksha Bazar
ROYAL CENTRE OF VIJAYANAGRA EMPIRE
WATER CARRYING CHANNELS
• Aqueduct runs through the royal enclosure and into the great Tank where water was for
special events.
• Larger blocks of granite was used for lower levels and block size gradually reduce as we go
up.

IRRIGATION CANALS AT HAMPI

 ROYAL TANK WITH AQUEDUCT ,VIJAYANAGARA
• An elaborate ceremonial tank and bathing pond fed by aqueducts.
• The mason marks on the induvidual block indicate direction shows that the layout of the
tank was well thought out in advance and all blocks were prepared in advance.
Elephant Stables: Eleven large chambers with beautiful arched entrances, decorative
ceilings and domes over the roof.
• These are the chambers for royal family’s elephants
• Influence of Islamic Architecture.
• The area in front of them was a parade ground for the elephants, and for troops
Lotus Mahal /Zenana – Queens enclosure
• Located at the royal centre
• Indo Islamic architecture
• Base is a hindu architecture foundation with pyramidal towers
• Open at the lowerlevel and consists of balconies and windows on the upper level.
• Palace was air-cooled . Presence of pipeline work above and between the arches
The Lotus mahal was surrounded by fortyfing
wall which is rectangular in plan.

Four corners had fortifications to watch over the

palace
NAGARA STYLE

• Developed after the dravidian style

NAGARA STYLE

MADHYA PRADESH RAJASTHAN

ORISSA
AND GUJARAT
• Interior of a nagara shrine is always square ,exterior has a series of extensions
and as they increase in number to make the plan a cruciform in shape
• As per Vastu Shastra the projections alter only the outer face of the sanctuary,
giving the entire superstructure a distinctive form
• Shikhara stands over the garbha griha is distinguished by its convex curvilinear
profile.
• The planar projections occurs on the walls of the cella continue along the height
of the shikhara to emphasize the analogy of a mountain peak
• Surface of the shikhara has fine carvings
• Shikhara is crowned with a finial whose distinctive component is the fluted disc
shaped amalaka,representing amala ( fruit with medicinal properties)
• Mandapas in the later example has a trapezoidal roof. Lower than the
shikhara,Characterised by horizontal bands ,Topped by an amala sjhaped finial.
• Nagara temples has a plinth adorned with elaborately profiled and rhythmical
horizontal mouldings
CENTRAL INDIA
• Cruciform plan with series of entries

• The elements of the vimana,antrala ,ardha mandapa blend harmoniously to form a single
building with each element retaining its own identity

• In elevation the temple has 3 distinctive zones

• The lowest part of the temple is on a high platform-like plinth with series of horizontal
mouldings known as jagathi

• Over this rises the wall / bada having ornate sculptural mouldings

• The corners of the shikhara rise beyond the central position so as to accentuate the
verticality of the whole structure

• The finial consists of not one but 2 amalakas the higher and the smaller one bearing the
kalasha

• In the mandapa balconied windows punctuate the upper part of the wall

• As these windows project out between the horizontal bands of carved ornamentation they
create a contrast of light and shade on the exterior and interior
 KHANDARIYA MAHADEVA ,TEMPLE (1030 AD)

• Chandellas (rajputs) ,who called their kingdom Jejakabhukti built

around 80 temples in and around their capital Khajuraho

• Two temples were the Lakshmana Temple ( ca 950 AD) and the
Khandariya Mahadeva Temple (1000-1025 AD).
CHARACTERISTICS
JAGATHI

• No boundary wall

• Raised on a platform- Flight of steps

• Importance was given to the silhouette of

LAKSHMANA TEMPLE the temple
KALASHA
AMALAKA • The elevations were planned perspectively (
not mathematically and geometrically)

• At eye level all the mandapas seem to

nestle into each other

• Hindu temple were considered as model of

BADA (WALL) the universe

• Vertical Axis
KHANDARIYA MAHADEVA TEMPLE

• Dedicated to lord shiva

• Two other temples share the same 4 m high plinth
• Cruciform plan –aligned on E-W axis , 22m long and 12.5m wide
• Shikhara rises to a height of 32 m from the plinth
• Grabha griha measures 3m x 2.5m . Each interior unit has a independent roof
• Profile of the temple is remnicent of the rising mountain range culminating in a
shikhara
• A cluster of 84 miniature towers create a interplay of light and dark.
KHANDARIYA MAHADEVA ,TEMPLE
 • There are no corner shrines.
• The profile is silhouetted against the sky
• Largest of Khajuraho temples
• Deity is Shiva
• 30m ht , 4 m high platform

20m

30m
Khandariya Mahadeva Temple & Jagadambi temple (dedicated to Parvati in the
garba-griha),originally it was for Lord Vishnu
• All rooms are aligned in E-W axis
• Adhistana or base of temple is 4m high
• Each of the mandapas have mini shikharas over them.The mini-shikharas
surround the main shikhara
• Unlike Hindu Temples ,the Khandariya is lit by large openings above the eye
level
AMALAKA
CORNERS OF
THE SHIKHARA
• This effect is spectacular in the circumambulatory passage.

• The openings are furnished with platforms and steps for attendants and musicians.

• Its known for its erotic sculptures

 SUN TEMPLE, MODHERA (AD 1026)

• Built by the Solankis ( one of the Rajput kingdoms ruling Gujarat and Rajasthan
• Situated on the bank of river Pashupati.
• They were worshippers of Shiva ,Claimed lineage from Pandu (mythological king),
who were worshippers of the Sun God
• Main Shrine is in the west
• Mandapa is connected to the steps surrounding water by a free standing torana (gateway)
• Sabha mandap is the hall, where people gather for discussions on religious topics.
• The Surya-kunda also known as Rama-kunda is rectangular and measures 176 feet north to
south, by 120 feet east to west.
• It has many terraces and steps leading to the water level. On its sides and corners are
various small shrines with the images of gods and goddesses .
• Guda Mandap is the main temple.
• Designed so that the first rays of the sun falls on the idol at equinoxes.

SABHA MANDAP
 FREE STANDING
TORANA LEADING
TO POND/KUND

• Main features- columns ,brackets, cusped and wavy arches.

• Erected on a high platform
• the 'Toranas' (Archways) that lead to the main halls
• Spires or shikharas are absent.
• The exterior walls are engraved with intricate carvings

Surya Kund

• Surya Kund is a deep stepped tank in the front of the temple.

• In the earlier times, this 100 sq meter rectangular tank was used to store pure water for
ceremonial ablutions before moving towards the temple.
• 108 shrines mark the steps of this tank including the shrines dedicated to different Gods.
• In front of this tank, a huge 'torana' (archway) leads to the Sabha Mandap.

Sabha Mandap

• Literally, Sabha Mandap refers to an assembly hall where religious gatherings and
conferences are conducted.
• This hall is open from all the four sides and has 52 delicately carved pillars.
• The intricate carvings depict scenes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata (Indian Epics) and
scenes from the life of Lord Krishna. In order to get into the Sanctum ,one has to cross the
passage with pillars and arches.
Guda Mandap

• Guda Mandap is the sanctum supported by a lotus-base plinth.

• Once, this hall used to house the idol of the Sun God.
• The designing of the hall was done in a way, so that the idol gets the first glimpse of the
Sun at equinoxes.
• However, the idol was plundered by Mahmud Ghazni yet the walls represent the Sun God
in his 12 different facets of each month.
• the roof over the Guda Mandap was shattered.
ORISSAN TEMPLES

• Outer surface of the garbhagriha is largely unadorned

• Terminology of temple parts

• Shrine+ super structure (shikhara) – deul

• Mandapa _ Jagmohan
• Jagamohan has a trapezoidal roof called pidha

• Deul or the jagamohan consists of 4 vertical units based on the human body
• Plinth – pista – feet. It has horizontal mouldings but does not project out
• Bada – wall-legs-It has imitative pilasters covered with bands of sculpted friezes
alternating with carved motifs
• Gandi – trunk – curvilinear shikhara of the deul. Distinctive feature of the gandi is the
series of projections at the four corners that divides into horizontal layers /bhumi

• Each bhumi is marked by ribbed amalaka

• Head / mastaka includes the elements of the finial- amalaka and kalasha (water urn)
Crowning them all is the ayudha –emblem of the deity to whom the temple is
dedicated.
• Rident for shiva and disk for vishnu
Orissan Temple Style
LINGARAJA TEMPLE ,KONARK,ORISSA (10TH CENTURY)

REKHA DEUL

JAGMOHAN

BHOG-MANDHIR
NAT -MANDHIR
• With the growth of hindhuism rituals and practises became more illaborate.
• Rituals were held in different halls

Bhog Mandir (hall of offerings)

Nat-Mandir (dance hall)
JagMohan (assembly hall)
Rekha deul (shrine)
• Temples of Bhubeneshwar grew in size
• Mandapa had its own unique roof
JAGMOHAN

NATMANDIR REKHA DEUL

BHOG MANDIR
 REKHA-DEUL
JAGMOHAN

BHOG-MANDIR
NAT-MANDIR
kalasha

amalaka
• Lingaraja temple – King of bhubaneshwar Temples.

• Presence of a row of 3 jagamohans

• Nat mandir (dance hall)is airy and open.Its activities can be heard and seen every
where.

• Bog mandhir (collective religious performance hall) duplicates the jag-mohan .it was
later added to facilitate rituals by a larger group who could not enter the innermost
shrine.

• The lingaraja’s 37.5 m high rekha deul,has a distinctive profile.It rises vertically first
and then meets at the top. By curving inward.

• The recessed neck supports the amakala which rests on the back of the lion (indication
of royal patronage)

• Lingaraja sits in the middle of a quadrangular compound dotted with numerous small
subsidary shrines that were added to the sequence .Its common in Hindu temples and
is described as the parivar of the main shrine.

• Lingaraja temple is decommisioned now.

SUN TEMPLE,KONARAK (AD 1240)
• Ganges were the successors of Shaivites, preferred Vaishnavite religion.

• Sun temple has a single mandapa similar to the Brihadeshwara temple

• Mandapa survived intact in the modern era.The temple collapsed and only its base
remains.

• Main shrine is known as deul.

• It was built by King Narasimhadeva ,who after a series of successful battles decided
to dedicate all his wealth to build a temple for the sun God .

• Like Cholas ganges paraded their deities in procession.in huge wooden chariot
shaped like temples.

• Sun temple is designed for such a event.Narasimhadeva’s Sun Temple is a giant stone
chariot that carries the sun on its daily path across the sky.

• The mandapa has 3 sets of horizotal mouldings.

• The deul (which is lost now) was of the traditional vertical expression. 3 subsidary
shrines surround it, facing north ,south and west ,each with a cruciform pre-chambers
attached to the deul.
 JAGMOHAN

COLLAPSED
REKHA DEUL/SHRINE
• Twelve Pairs of wheels ,one for each month were carved into the base and were
accompanied by seven horses (three on the north and four on the south),one for
each day of the week.
• The wheels are 3m in diameter , had 8 major and minor spokes.
• Temple and team of horses face east, so that the chariot can be pulled towards east