Math 120: Homework 4 Solutions

October 26, 2018

Problem 3.1 # 34. Let D2n = hr, s|rn = s2 = 1, rs = sr−1 i.

(a) Prove that hrk i is a normal subgroup of D2n .
(b) Prove that D2n /hrk i ∼= D2k .
Solution. First suppose that X is a subset of D2n such that rXr−1 ⊆ hXi,
sXs−1 ⊆ hXi. We will prove that hXi is normal. Indeed, since r and s
generate D2n we have gXg −1 ⊆ hXi for all g ∈ G. Now since the conjugation
map cg : G −→ G defined by cg (x) = gxg −1 is an automorphism of G, it takes
the group generated by X to the group generated by cg (X), in other words
ghXig −1 = hgXg −1 i. Since gXg −1 ⊆ hXi this means that ghXig −1 ⊆ hXi
so hXi is normal.
We can apply this to X = {rk }. Clearly r(rk )r−1 = rk ∈ hXi and
s(rk )s−1 = r−k ∈ hXi, so by what we have already proved, hXi is normal.
This proves (a).
The order of |D2n /hrk i| is |D 2n |
|hrk i|
2n
= n/k = 2k.
Let us take the presentation

D2k = hR, S|Rk = S 2 = 1, SRS −1 = R−1 i.

Let r and s be the cosets rhrk i and shrk i in D2n /hrk i. These satisfy

rk = s2 = 1, srs−1 = r−1 .

Since these are the defining relations for D2k , so there is a homomorphism
φ : D2k −→ D2n /hrk i such that φ(R) = r and φ(S) = s. It is surjective since
r and s generate the quotient. However both groups have the same order, so
φ is an isomorphism. This proves (b).

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Problem 3.1 # 36. Prove that if G/Z(G) is cyclic then G is abelian.
Solution. Let g be an element of G such that the coset g = gZ(g) generates
the cyclic group G/Z(G). We will show that g ∈ Z(G). If not, let x be an
element of g that does not commute with g. Then x = g k since G/Z(G) is
cyclic, so xZ(G) = g k Z(G) and therefore x = g k z where z ∈ Z(G). Now g
with g k and with z (since z ∈ Z(G)) so g commutes with g k z = x. We have
proven that g ∈ Z(G). This means that the cyclic group G/Z(G) which is
generated by g is trivial, so Z(G) = G.

Problem 3.1 # 42. Assume that H and K are normal subgroups of G

with H ∩ K = 1. Prove that xy = yx for x ∈ H and y ∈ K.
Solution. Consider a = xyx−1 y −1 . Since H is normal, yxy −1 ∈ H. Writing
a = x(yxy −1 )−1 we see that it is a product of two elements of H, so a ∈ H.
Similarly a = (xyx−1 )y −1 writes it as a product of two elements of K, so
a ∈ K. Since a ∈ H ∩ K = 1 we see that xyx−1 y −1 = a = 1 and so xy = yx.

Problem 3.2 # 8. Prove that if H and K are finite subgroups of G whose

orders are relatively prime then H ∩ K = 1.
Solution: Let L = H ∩ K. It is a subgroup of H so by Lagrange’s theorem
|L| divides |H|. Similarly |L| divides |K|. Thus |L| divides both |H| and |K|
but these numbers are coprime so the only integer that divides both is 1. We
have proven that |L| = 1 so L = H ∩ K is trivial.

Problem 3.3 #2. Prove the lattice isomorphism theorem.

Solution. We will prove:

Theorem 1 Let G be a group and let N be a normal subgroup of G. Then

there is a bijection from the set of subgroups A of G that contain N and the
subgroups of A = A/N of G/N . In particular, every subgroup of G is of the
form A/N where A is a subgroup of G containing N . This bijection has the
properties that:
(1) A ⊆ B if and only if A ⊆ B,  
(2) If the equivalent conditions of (1) are satisfied, [B : A] = B : A .
(3) hA, Bi = hA, Bi
(4) A ∩ B = A ∩ B.
(5) A is normal if and only if A is normal.

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Proof Let S be the set of subgroups of G that contain N , and let S be the
set of subgroups of A. We will construct maps θ : S −→ S and τ : S −→ S.
First suppose that A ∈ S. Thus A is a subgroup of G containing N .
Since N is normal in G, it is obviously normal in A and we may form the
quotient group A/N . This is an element of S, and we define  θ(A) = A/N .
Conversely, if A ∈ S is a subgroup of G = G/N , let A = g ∈ G|gN ∈ A .
It is easy to see that this is a subgroup of G. We will argue that N ⊆ A.
Indeed, if g ∈ N then gN = N which is the identity element in G/N , hence
an element

of the subgroup A. We have shown that A ∈ S. We define
τ A = A.
Now we must show that θ and τ are inverse maps. First consider τ θ(A).
Combining the definitions of θ and τ , τ θ(A) = {g ∈ G|gN ∈ A/N }. It is
obvious that A ⊆ τ θ(A). To prove the converse, if g ∈ τ θ(A) then gN ∈
A/N , so gN = aN for some a ∈ A. We may then write g = an with n ∈ N ,
and since N ⊆ A this proves that g ∈ A. We have proved that τ θ(A) = A
and so τ θ is the identity map.

Conversely, consider θτ A . This is the set of cosets gN such that g ∈
τ (A), and by definition g ∈ τ (A)
if and only if gN ∈ A. So it is immediate
from the definitions that θτ A = A.
We have proved that τ and θ are inverse maps, which establishes the
existence of the bijection. It is obvious from the definition of θ that if A ⊆ B
then θ(A)
⊆ θ(B)
and it is obvious from the definition of τ that if A ⊆ B
then τ A ⊆ τ B . This proves (1).
Since we have a bijection we may now use the notation

A for elements of
S with A ∈ S to mean that either θ(A) = A or τ A = A.
Now hA, Bi may be characterized as the smallest subgroup C of G that
contains both A and B. Using (1), this is true if and only if the corresponding
subgroup C of G (containing N ) contains both A and B. In other words, C
is the subgroup hA, Bi of G generated by A and B. Therefore hA, Bi = C =
hA, Bi and we have proven (2).
The proof of (4) is similar: A ∩ B is the largest

subgroup D of B that is
contained in both A and B. But with D = τ D the inclusions D ⊆ A and
D ⊆ B are equivalent to D ⊆ A and D ⊂ B, so D is the largest subgroup
of A (containing N ) that is contained in both A and B and so D = A ∩ B.
Therefore A ∩ B = D = A ∩ B, and we have proven (3).
Finally we need to show that normal subgroups correspond to normal
subgroups. First suppose that A is normal. We will prove that A is also

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normal. Let x = xN ∈ G/N and consider xAx−1 . This equals the set of
cosets xN aN x−1 N = xax−1 N with a ∈ A. Since A is normal, xax−1 ∈ A
and so xax−1 N ∈ A. This proves that A is normal in G/N .
And conversely,

suppose that A is normal in G/N . We will prove that

A = τ A is normal. Let g ∈ G and a ∈ A. By definition of A = τ A
we have a = aN
∈ A. Now gag −1 N = gag −1
∈ A since A is normal. By
definition of τ A it follows that gag −1 ∈ τ A = A. This proves that A is
normal in G. 2

Problem 3.3 #3. Prove that if H is a normal subgroup of G of prime index

p then for all K 6 G either K 6 H or G = HK and [K : K ∩ H] = p.
Solution. Part of the second isomorphism theorem (Theorem 18) is that
HK is a subgroup of G since H is normal. We have H ⊆ HK ⊆ G and so
[G : HK] divides [G : H] = p. Thus either [G : HK] = 1 (so that HK = G)
or [G : HK] = p, so [HK : H] = 1 and therefore HK = p.
If G = HK then by the second isomorphism theorem we have H ∩K C K
and K/(H ∩K) ∼ = HK/H = G/H ∼ = Zp . Hence [K : H ∩K] = p, as required.

Problem 3.5 #1. In Exercises 1 and 2 of Section 1.3 you were asked
to find the cycle decomposition of some permutations. Write each of these
permutations as a product of transpositions. Determine which of these is an
even permutation and which is odd.
Solution. I’ll do the examples for Problem 1.3#2, only.
Referring to Homework Solutions 2, the permutations for Problem 2 in
1.3 were expressed in terms of

σ = (1, 13, 5, 10)(3, 15, 8)(4, 14, 11, 7, 12, 9) (1)

and
τ = (1, 14)(2, 9, 15, 13, 4)(3, 10)(5, 12, 7)(8, 11).
These are decompositions into products of disjoint cycles.
If a, b, c, · · · are distinct we have (a, b, c) = (a, b)(b, c), (a, b, c, d) = (a, b)(b, c)(c, d),
(a, b, c, d, e) = (a, b)(b, c)(c, d)(d, e) as may be easily checked. So we may
write:

σ = (1, 13)(13, 5)(5, 10)(3, 15)(15, 8)(4, 14)(14, 11)(11, 7)(7, 12)(12, 9).

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This is not a decomposition into disjoint cycles. However we see right away
that since there are 10 transpositions, σ is an even permutation. We could
also see this directly from (1) by noting that a cycle of odd length is even,
while a cycle of even length is odd, so this permutation is odd × even × odd =
even. Similarly

τ = (1, 14)(2, 9)(9, 15)(15, 13)(13, 4)(3, 10)(5, 12)(12, 7)(8, 11)

is odd. Similarly

σ 2 = (1, 5)(3, 8)(8, 15)(4, 11)(11, 12)(14, 7)(7, 9)(13, 10),

στ = (1, 11)(11, 3)(2, 4)(5, 9)(9, 8)(8, 7)(7, 10)(10, 15)(13, 14),
τ σ = (1, 4)(2, 9)(3, 13)(13, 12)(12, 15)(15, 11)(11, 5)(8, 10)(10, 14)
τ 2 σ = (1, 2)(2, 15)(15, 8)(8, 3)(3, 4)(4, 14)(14, 11)(11, 12)(12, 13)(13, 7)(7, 5)(5, 10).
Of these στ and τ σ are odd, σ 2 , τ 2 σ are even.

Problem 3.5 #7. Prove that the group of rigid motions of the tetrahedron
is isomorphic to A5 .
Proof. Label the vertices of the tetrahedron T as 1, 2, 3, 4. We show first
that every 3-cycle (abc), where a, b, c are distinct elements of {1, 2, 3, 4} is in
the group G of rotations of T . Indeed, let d be the unique vertex that is not
a, b or c. Then G contains the two rotations in the axis through d, which
must be the 3-cycles (abc) and (acb). So we see that G contains all of the
3-cycles.
Next we show that the 3-cycles generate A4 . Indeed, first note that the 8
3-cycles are all even permutations, hence are contained in A4 , so the group
H that the generate is contained in A4 and has at least 8 elements; since
|A4 | = 12, any proper subgroup can have at most 6 elements and therefore
H = A4 . Because G contains a set of generators of A4 we have G ⊆ A4 .
But we showed in Problem 1.2 # 9 (from an earlier homework) that
|G| = 12. Since |G| = |A4 | the two groups are equal.