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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Robotics is the branch of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and also
a computer science. That deals with the design, construction, operation, and application
of robots as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information
processing. These technologies deal with automated machines that can take the place of humans
in dangerous environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in appearance,
behavior, and or cognition. Many of today's robots are inspired by nature contributing to the field
of bio-inspired robotics.

A Robot is a mechatronic device which also includes resource fulness or autonomy. A A

mechatronic device is a degenerate robot with these components.
• Sensors, which detect the state of the environment.

• Actuators, which modify the state of the environment.

• A Control System, which controls the actuators based on the environment as depicted by
the sensors.
A device with autonomy does its thing "on its own" without a human directly guiding it
moment-by-moment. Some authors would contend that all mechatronic devices are robots, and
that this book's restriction on robot entails only specialized software. The light following robot is
a capable of detecting and following the light source on the traveling path. It is developed without
the help of a micro-controller for providing easier connections and understanding of the circuit. It
requires fewer numbers of electronic components and very cost-effective as well. The concept of
this light following robot is very simple. It includes two photodiodes, one on the right and other
on the left. When the light falls on the right photodiode, the robot will move on the right side.
Similarly, the robot will move on the left side when the light falls on the left photodiode.
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1.2 History

One of the first recorded designs of a humanoid robot was made by Leonardo da Vinci in
around 1495. Da Vinci's notebooks, rediscovered in the 1950s, contain detailed drawings of a
mechanical knight able to sit up, wave its arms and move its head and jaw. The design is likely to
be based on his anatomical research recorded in the Vitruvian Man. It is not known whether he
attempted to build the robot. An early automaton was created in 1738by Jacques de Vaucanson,
who created a mechanical duck that was able to eat grain, flap its wings, and excrete [2,3].Many
consider the first robot in the modern sense to be a teleoperated boat, similar to a modern ROV,
devised by Nikola Tesla and demonstrated at an 1898 exhibition in Madison Square Garden. Based
on his patents for the " teleautomation", Tesla hoped to develop the "wireless to rpedo" into an
automated weapon system for the US Navy. Tesla also proposed but did not build remotely
operated war planes and ground vehicles. He also predicted these remote controlled machines were
merely precursors of "machines possessed of their own intelligence" (Cheney 1989). In the 1930s,
Westing house made a humanoid robot known as Elektro. It was exhibited at the 1939 and 1940
World's Fairs while the first electronic autonomous robots were created by Grey Walter at Bristol
University, England in 1948.
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Chapter 2
TYPES OF ROBOTS
2.1 Types of Robot by Application
Nowadays, robots do a lot of different tasks in many fields and the number of jobs entrusted
to robots is growing steadily. Type of robot are as follows.
• Industrial robots: Industrial robots are robots used in an industrial manufacturing
environment. Usually these are articulated arms specifically developed for such
applications as welding, material handling, painting and others. If we judge purely by
application this type could also include some automated guided vehicles and other robots.
• Domestic or household robots: Robots used at home. This type of robots includes many
quite different devices such as robotic vacuum cleaners, robotic pool cleaners, sweepers,
gutter cleaners and other robots that can do different chores. Also, some surveillance and
telpresence robots could be regarded as household robots if used in that environment.
• Medical robots: Robots used in medicine and medical institutions. First and foremost –
surgery robots. Also, some automated guided vehicles and maybe lifting aides.
• Service robots: Robots that don’t fall into other types by usage. These could be different
data gathering robots, robots made to show off technologies, robots used for research, etc.
• Military robots: Robots used in military. This type of robots includes bomb disposal
robots, different transportation robots, reconnaissance drones. Often robots initially created
for military purposes can be used in law enforcement, search and rescue and other related
fields.
• Entertainment robots: These are robots used for entertainment. This is a very broad
category. It starts with toy robots such as robot sapiens or the running alarm clock and ends
with real heavyweights such as articulated robot arms used as motion simulators.
• Space robots: I’d like to single out robots used in space as a separate type. This type would
include robots used on the International Space Station, Canadarm that was used in Shuttles,
as well as Mars rovers and other robots used in space.
• Hobby and competition robots: Robots that you create. Line followers, sumo-robots,
robots made just for fun and robots made for competition.
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2.2 Types of Robots by Locomotion and Kinematics

As you can understand, robot's application alone does not provide enough information
when talking about a specific robot. For example an industrial robot - usually, when talking about
industrial robots we think of stationary robots in a work cell that do a specific task. That's alright,
but if there is an AGV (Automated Guided Vehicle) in a factory? It’s also a robotic device working
in an industrial environment. So, I propose to use both these classifications together. So there are.
• Stationary robots (including robotic arms with a global axis of movement)

• Cartesian/Gantry robots

• Cylindrical robots

• Spherical robots

• SCARA robots
• Wheeled robots
• Single wheel (ball) robots

• Two-wheel robots

• Three and more wheel robots

• Legged robots

• Bipedal robots (humanoid robots)

• Tripedal robots

• Qua drupedal robots

• Hexapod robots

• Swimming robots

• Flying robots
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Chapter 3
LIGHT FOLLOWING ROBOT
The light following robot is a capable of detecting and following the light source on the
traveling path. It is developed without the help of a micro-controller for providing easier
connections and understanding of the circuit. It requires fewer numbers of electronic components
and very cost-effective as well. The concept of this light following robot is very simple. It
includes two photodiodes, one on the right and other on the left. When the light falls on the right
photodiode, the robot will move on the right side. Similarly, the robot will move on the left side
when the light falls on the left photodiode. The Lego light sensor measures the light intensity
within its field of view. The field of view is cone-shaped, meaning that the farther the light sensor
is from the mat, the larger the elliptical portion of the mat that is within its field of view
Navigating by light sensors allows the robot to predetermine its location and orientation, and
remove most of the accumulated errors. In the mechanical part, the base of the mobile robot will
be designed and fabricated. In the electrical part, there are , PIC microcontroller board and motor
controller circuit. For software part, the robot will be programmed in Microcontroller.

Fig.3 light following robot

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3.1 Components of light following robot

3.1.1Battery and Battery Holder:

One 9V battery will be sufficient for powering the robot. For more usages, two pairs of 9V battery
may be required. Battery holder is used to connect the battery with the circuit.
3.1.2Breadboard:
One breadboard is used for designing the circuit. The electronic components are connected by
inserting it in the holes of the breadboard.
3.1.3Capacitor:
Two 10uf capacitors are implemented to store the current, equalize the power output, filter, and so
on.
3.1.4 Castor Wheel and Wires
One castor wheel is mounted in front of the hard board for providing easy and comfortable
moving of the robot.
Two meters of both two core and four core wires will be required. For bread board
connections, two core wires should be used and for motor connections, four core wires should
be used.
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3.1.5 Geared DC Motor:

Two 300rpm gear motors are connected with the wheel for moving the robot. Normally all robots
would require a geared DC motor to pull the weight of our robot and any additional components
placed. As you can see in the image, the motor shaft is connected to another bigger gear, which is
further connected to a larger gear. As the motor rotates, the rotation per minute (rpm) of Gear1 is
lesser than the motor. Gear2 has even less number of rotations per minute. However, each gear
increases the torque of overall setup. The above image shows a small DC motor fitted with gears.
I have marked it as 150 which mean the velocity of the motor is 150 revolutions per minute (RPM).

FIG.3.2 Geared DC Motor.

3.1.6 IC 7805:
One IC 7805 voltage regulator is incorporated for allowing 5V of power supply to the
circuit instead of 9V. 7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series
of fixed linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and
would not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at
a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805
provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and
output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels.
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FIG.3.3 Pin Diagram of IC7805.

Pin
Function Name
No
1 Input voltage (5V-18V) Input
2 Ground (0V) Ground
3 Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V) Output

3.1.7 IC L293D:
One L293D IC motor driver is used for driving two motors in both clockwise and
anticlockwise directions.

Working of L293D

There are 4 inputs pins for this L293D, pin 2,7 on the left and pin 15,10 the right as
shown in figure. Left input pins will regulate the rotation of motor connected across left side and
right input of the motor at right hand side.
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FIG.3.4 L293D
3.1.8 IC LM358:
One LM358 IC voltage comparator is attached to the circuit for comparing voltages across
the and terminals. The LM358 datasheet specifies that it consists of two independent, high gains;
internally frequency compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to
operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power
supplies is also possible and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude
of the power supply voltage. The LM358 and LM2904 are available in a chip sized package (8-
Bump micro SMD) using National’s micro SMD package technology.

FIG.3.5 LM358 pin configuration

Features
• Large dc voltage gain: 100 dB
• Wide power supply range:
• single supply: 3V to 32V
• Dual supplies: ±1.5V to ±16V
• Very low supply current drain (500 μA)—essentially independent of supply voltage

• Low input offset voltage: 2 mV

3.1.9LED:
A multi meter in voltage measurement mode detects voltage in a discrete LED when held
close to a light source. A high quality ultra-bright red LED by itself (no battery or other circuitry)
to a multi meter in voltage measurement mode. Put the LED against a light source, such as a desk
lamp. See the voltage? Now, hide the LED in a dark place. See a decrease in voltage?
An LED (light emitting diode) is a photosensitive semiconductor with a lens. The LED acts
as a photodiode. Photodiodes are used in robots and devices as light sensors. Photodiodes have a
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spectrum wavelength to which they are most sensitive, usually infrared. But, not surprisingly, a
reversed LED is most sensitive to the same color of visible light as it normally emits. For example,
if a circuit uses a reversed green LED, the most current will flow from exposure to green light.

FIG3.6 light emitting diode

3.1.10 Resistor:
One 1K & three 10K resistors are required for this process to reduce the voltage. The ranges
of the resistors can be calculated with the help of a multi meter.
Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs)
LDRs or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor
circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high, sometimes as high as 1000 000
ohms, but when they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically. The animation
opposite shows that when the torch is turned on, the resistance of the LDR falls, allowing
current to pass through it.
A photo resistor or light-dependent resistor (LDR) or photocell is a light-controlled
variable resistor. The resistance of a photo resistor decreases with increasing incident light
intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A Photo Resistor can be applied in
light-sensitive detector circuits, and light- and dark-activated switching circuits.
A Photo Resistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a Photo
Resistor can have a resistance as high as a few Mega Ohms (MΩ), while in the light, a Photo
Resistor can have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a Photo
Resistor exceeds a certain frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give
bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons
(and their whole partners) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance. The resistance
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range and sensitivity of a Photo Resistor can substantially differ among dissimilar devices.
Moreover, unique Photo Resistors may react substantially differently to photons within
certain wavelength bands.

FIG3.7 Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs)

3.1.11 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

An operational amplifier or OP-AMP is a DC-coupled voltage amplifier with a very high
voltage gain. Op-amp is basically a multistage amplifier in which a number of amplifier stages are
interconnected to each other in a very complicated manner. Its internal circuit consists of many
transistors, FETs and resistors. All this occupies a very little space. So, it is packed in a small
package and is available in the Integrated Circuit (IC) form. The term OP-AMP is used to denote
an amplifier which can be configured to perform various operations like amplification, subtraction,
differentiation, addition, integration etc. Example is the very popular IC 741. The symbol and its
actual appearance in the IC form is show below. The symbol appears as an arrowhead which
signifies that the signal is flowing from output to input.

FIG3.8 operational amplifier

• Input & Output Terminals of an OP-AMP

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An op-amp has two input terminals and one output terminal. The op-amp also has two
voltage supply terminal as seen above. It has a differential input and a single ended output. The
terminal marked as negative (-) is called as an inverting terminal And the terminal marked as
positive (+) is called as a non-inverting terminal of the operational amplifier. If we connect an
input signal at the inverting terminal (-) of the op-amp than the amplified output signal is π
radians (180°) out of phase with respect to the applied input signal, whereas if an input is
connected to the non-inverting terminal (+) than the output signal obtained will be in phase i.e.
it will have no phase shift with respect to the input signal.
• Power Supply for an OP-AMP
As seen from the circuit symbol above it has two input power supply terminals +VCC
and –VCC. For the operation of an op-amp a dual polarity DC supply is essential. In the dual
polarity supply the +VCC is connected to the positive supply of one power source or
battery and the –VCC terminal is connected to the negative supply of another source.
However few op-amps can also operate on a single polarity supply. Note that there is no
common ground terminal in the op-amps hence the ground has to be established externally.

3.1.12TRANSISTOR
The circuit works on the principle of wheat stone bridge. When IR rays falls on a
photodiode, its conductivity and current in the photodiode's branch increases which makes the
transistor biased and the LED glows. The variable resistor in series with photodiode helps to
set the threshold level. Adjust the variable resistor such that in absence of IR, voltage BE
should be less that 0.5 Volts. When IR intensity will increase this voltage would increase and
when it is greater than 0.8 Volts LED will glow brightest. To reverse the process (absence of
IR rays = LED glow), exchange the position of photodiode and variable resistance, and adjust
variable resistance such that in presence of IR rays Vbe is less than 0.5 Volts. IR Led is used
to produce IR rays. Human eyes can't see IR rays so in order to check that IR LED is glowing
or not after making the circuit see IR Led under a digital camera.

3.2 Construction and Working Principle of Light Following Robot

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Connect a 9V battery to the breadboard with the help of a battery holder. The positive
power supply is passed to the IN of IC 7805 (1), and sent out through the OUT (3). The negative
power supply is sent to the GND (2) connection of IC 7805. In between, two capacitors (C1 &
C2) are connected to the IN and OUT of IC 7805 respectively. As a result of this process, 5V of
current is obtained.
Now, connect an IC LM358 in the breadboard. As it is a voltage comparator, it will predict
the output from the photodiodes based on the input voltage. For instance, let us consider that the
voltage at 3rd pin is more than or equal to the voltage at 2nd pin. At this time, the 1 st pin of IC
LM358 will be high or else it will stay low. A 10K resistor is coupled with each photodiodes.
Then, place an IC L293D in the breadboard, and join the 2nd and 15th pin of it with 1st pin of IC
LM358. In between this connection, include a LED with the 10K resistor.
The four – core wire of left motor is connected to the 3rd & 6th pin of IC L293D, while the
right motor is attached with 11th & 14th pin. The two 10cm wheels are mounted with the motors.
A castor wheel is included at the front of the robot for balanced and comfortable movements. A
power supply of 5V is applied to the 1st, 7th, 8th, 9th, & 16th pins. The remaining 4th, 5th, 10th, 12th,
& 13th pins are connected to the ground.
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After finishing all the circuit connections, place the robot in the dark room. Connect the 9V battery
and power the robot. Now, show the light in front of the robot, and it will follow the light wherever
it goes.

Chapter 4
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
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4.1 Advantages:
• This robot is operating on pure source of light so easy operated in any direction.
• This technology is cheaper.
• Easy maintenance.
• Less initial cost.

4.2 Disadvantages:
• It follows only the path of light.
• Operation is difficult.
• Requires some different light sensor.

Chapter 5
APPLICATION
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• This robots are used in industries

• Street lights
• Alarm devices
• This technology can also be used to measure light intensity for Applications that require
greater precision.
• Cameras can use this technology to determine the proper exposure time
• Laptops may use in a circuit that varies screen brightness according to Ambient lighting
conditions