4.

0 THE ENERGY EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATION

4.1 Introduction
The transfer of energy into, or out of a fluid flow system, by introduction of mechanical
devices such as fans, pumps, or turbines, is considered leading to the introduction of the
general steady flow energy equation.

The representation of apparent energy losses due to friction separation effects will be defined
and the application of the energy equation to the measurement of the flow rate and velocity is
demonstrated for a range of pipe flow and free surface flow conditions.

4.1.1 Mechanical Energy of a Flowing Fluid

Consider an element of fluid (Fig 4.1) in motion.

Fig 4.1 Energy of a

flowing fluid

The element will possess potential energy due to its elevation 'z' above some chosen
horizontal datum, and kinetic energy due to its velocity 'v' like any other object.
If the weight of element is 'mg', then
mgz
Potential energy of element =
Potential energy per unit weight = z
1 2
mv
Kinetic energy of element = 2
2
v
Kinetic energy per unit weight = 2 g
A steady flowing fluid can also do work due to the force generated when the fluid pressure
acts on a given area in the flow. If the pressure at section AB of area 'A' is 'p', then

pA
Force exerted on AB =

1
After the weight 'mg' of fluid has moved along the stream tube, section AB will have moved
to A'B'.
mg m
ρg ρ
Volume passing AB = =
m
ρA
Therefore, Distance AA’ =
Work done = (Force) x (Distance AA’)
m pm
pA⋅
= ρA = ρ
p
And, Work done per unit weight = ρg ………………….................. (4.1)
p
ρg
Note: The quantity is known as the ‘flow work’ or ‘pressure energy’

4.1.2 Bernoulli's Theorem

Pr.E per unit weight P.E per unit weight T.E per unit weight
K.E per unit weight
+ + = = Constant

2
p v
+ +z=H
ρg 2 g
where
H = total head (meters)
If 1&2 are any two points in a stream, then
p1 v 1 2 p v 2
+ + z1= 2 + 2 + z2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g
…………………………………………….(4.2)
(T.E/wt) 1 = (T.E/wt) 2
Note: The above equation (4.2) assumes that no energy has been supplied to or taken from
the fluid between points 1&2. Energy could have been supplied by introduction of a pump.
Equally, energy could have been lost by doing work against friction or in a machine such as a
turbine.

In such a case, Bernoulli's equation can be modified to include these conditions.

thus,
p1 v 1 2 p v 2
+ + z 1 + q= 2 + 2 + z 2 + h+w
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g …………………………………(4.3)

2
 h = loss per unit weight
w = work done per unit weight
q = energy supplied per unit weight
Question
a) A tapering pipe of 2m length is placed in vertical position in such a manner that its
narrow end (10cm diameter) is at top and the big end (20cm diameter) is at the bottom. If
the discharge through the pipe is 30litres/sec, find the difference of pressures between the
two ends.
b) If a differential manometer with mercury is connected between the top and bottom
ends, and if gasoline of specific gravity 0.8 flows through the pipe, then calculate the
manometer reading.
c) If the pipe in part a) is inclined at 300 to the horizontal, then what will be the pressure
difference?

4.1.3 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor

The Bernoulli's equation was derived assuming uniform velocity across the inlet and outlet
sections. In a real fluid flowing in a pipe or over a solid surface, the velocity will vary from
the solid boundary, increasing with increase in distance from the solid boundary. The kinetic
energy per unit weight of the fluid will increase in a similar manner.

If the cross-section of flow is assumed to be composed of a series of small elements of area ‘

δA
’, and the velocity normal to each element is 'u', then;

ρδ A⋅u
Mass passing through element in unit time =
1
ρδ A⋅u3
2
K.E per unit time passing through the element =
1
∫ 2 ρu3 δA
Total K.E passing per unit time =

Total weight passing in a unit time =

∫ ρ guδA
Thus, taking into account the variation of velocity across the stream,

3
 1 ∫ ρ⋅u δA
3
2
⋅ u
2 g ∫ ρ⋅uδA 2g ;
True K.E per unit weight = ; which is not the same as
Q
u=∫ ⋅¿δA ¿
where A , is the mean velocity
α⋅u 2
Therefore, True K.E per unit weight = 2g
α
where ‘ ’ is the ‘Kinetic energy correction factor’, whose value depends on the shape of the
cross-section and velocity distribution

4.1.4 Representation of Energy Changes in a Fluid System

The changes of energy and its transformation from one form to another, which occur in a
fluid system, can be represented graphically. In a real fluid system, the total energy per unit
weight will not remain constant.

Unless energy is supplied to the system at some point by means of a pump, it will gradually
decrease in the direction of motion due to losses resulting from friction and disturbance of
flow at changes of pipe section, or as a result of changes of direction.

Consider the Fig 4.2,

Fig 4.2: Energy changes in a fluid system

The flow of water from the reservoir at ‘A’ to the reservoir at ‘D’ is assisted by a pump,
which develops a head ‘hp’ thus providing an addition to the energy per unit weight of ‘hp’.

4
At the surface of the reservoir ‘A’, the flow has no velocity and is at atmospheric pressure
(zero gauge pressure), so that the total energy per unit weight is represented by the head ‘HA’
of the surface above datum.

As the fluid enters the pipe with velocity ‘u1’, there will be loss of energy due to disturbance
of the flow at the pipe entrance and a continuous loss of energy due to friction as the fluid
flows along the pipe, so that the total energy line will slope downwards.

At ‘B’, there is a change of section with an accompanying loss of energy, resulting in change
of velocity to ‘u2’. The total energy line will continue to slope downwards but with a greater
u2 >u 1
slope since and friction losses are related to velocity.

At ‘C’, the pump will put energy into the system and the total energy line will rise by an
amount ‘hp’. The total energy falls again due to friction losses and losses due to disturbance at
entry to the reservoir, where the total energy per unit weight is represented by the height of
the reservoir surface above datum (the velocity of the fluid being negligible; and hence zero,
and pressure atmospheric).

If a piezometer tube were to be inserted at point 1, the water would not rise to the level of
u2
1
2g
total energy line, but to a level ‘ ’ below it, since some of the total energy is in form of
kinetic energy. Thus, at point 1, the energies present are:

Potential energy = z 1
Pressure energy = p1 / ρg
u2
1

Kinetic energy = 2g
the three energies adding up to the total energy at that point.

The line joining all points to which the water would rise, if an open stand pipe (piezometer
tube) were inserted is known as ‘Hydraulic gradient line’, and runs parallel to the ‘Total
energy line’ at a distance below it equal to the velocity head.

Since the loss of energy due to friction and separation of the stream from its boundaries
depend on velocity of the stream, the losses can be encapsulated in the kinetic energy
equation as

5
 1
Kρ⋅u 2
2 ;
where ‘K’ is a constant that depends upon the conduit parameters such as
length, diameter, roughness, or fitting type, and ‘u’ is the local flow velocity.

Thus, the energy equation applied to points 1 and 2 gives,

1 1 1
p1 + ρv 2 + ρ gz 1 =p 2 + ρv 2 + ρ gz 2 + ρ Ku2
2 1 2 2 2
p1 p2
When applied to reservoirs 1 and 2 with an open surface, the pressures ‘ ’ and ‘ ’ at the
reservoir open surface may be taken as zero since the atmospheric pressure is the gauge
pressure frame of reference.

Also, if the surface area of the reservoirs are very large as compared to the cross-section areas
v1 v2
of the connecting pipe, the velocities ‘ ’ and ‘ ’ may be disregarded compared with the
u
pipe flow velocity ‘ ’.

Thus, the steady energy equation reduces to

1
ρg ( z 1−z 2 )= ρ Ku2
2 ………………………………………………...(4.2)

4.1.5 The Siphon

Consider now flow in a pipe which rises above the hydraulic gradient (Fig 5.3),

Fig 5.3:The siphon

The pressure in portion ‘PQ’ will be below atmospheric, and will form a ‘Siphon’. Under
reduced pressure, air or other gasses may be released from solution, or a vapour pocket may
form and interrupt the flow.

6
In such a case, if the control volume is chosen between points 1 and 2, and the steady energy
equation applied at the extremities, it would give misleading results. The application of
steady energy equation between points 1 and the siphon (A), allows the practicability of the
siphon to be assessed.

Applying the principle of equation (4.2) to a siphon to assess its practicability, between points
1 and ‘A’, gives,

1 1 1
p1 + ρv 2 + ρ gz 1 =p A + ρv 2 +ρ gz A + ρ Ku 2
2 1 2 A 2
1
Kρ⋅u 2
Where the friction and separation loss term 2 refer to loss between 1 and ‘A’.
If the pipe between the two points is assumed constant diameter, then the

local velocity in the loss term = Velocity at A = u A

1
p A = ρg ( z1 −z A ) − ρ⋅u2 ( 1+K )
giving, 2 ; u = pipe flow velocity

4.2 Measurement of Flow and Flow Velocity

4.2.1 The Pitot tube
The pitot tube is used to measure velocity of the stream and consists of a simple L-shaped
tube facing into the oncoming flow (Fig 4.4)

Fig 4.4 The Pitot tube

If the velocity of the stream at ‘A’ is ‘u’, a particle moving from ‘A’ to the mouth of the tube
at ‘B’ will be brought to rest so that ‘u0’ is zero.

Applying Bernoulli’s equation,

(Total energy per unit weight at A) = (Total energy per unit weight at B)
7
 u2 p
u2 p
+ = 0 + 0
Giving, 2 g ρg 2 g ρg
u2 p p0
+ =
Such that 2 g ρg ρg …………………………………………………….(4.3)
p p0
=z =h+ z
But ρg and ρg
2
u
h+z= +z
Thus, from (4.3), we have 2g

Such that u= √2 gh
Note: When the pitot tube is used in a channel, the value of ‘h’ can be determined directly
(Fig 5.4 (a)), but if it is to be used in a pipe, the difference between the static pressure and the
pressure at the impact hole must be measured with a differential pressure gauge, using static
pressure tapping in the pipe walls (Fig 5.4 (b))

u= √2 gh
While, theoretically the measured velocity , pitot tubes may need calibration.
u=C √2 gh
Thus, the true velocity is given by , where ‘C’ is the coefficient of the instrument,
and ‘h’ is the difference of head measured in terms of fluid flowing.

4.2.2 The Venturimeter

The venturimeter (Fig 4.5) is a measuring device used to determine the volume rate of flow
through a pipeline. It uses the concept of pressure difference to determine the quantity of flow
passing per unit time for a particular configuration.

8
 Fig 4.5 Venturimeter
As shown in Fig 4.5, a venturimeter consists of a short converging conical tube leading into a
cylindrical portion, called the ‘Throat’, of smaller diameter than that of the pipeline, which is
followed by a diverging section in which the diameter increases again to that of the pipeline.

The pressure difference from which the volume rate of flow can be determined is measured
between the entry section 1 and the throat section 2, often by means of a U-tube manometer.

Assuming no loss of energy, and applying Bernoulli’s equation to sections 1 & 2, give:

p1 v 1 2 p v 2
z1+ + =z 2 + 1 + 2
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g

v 2−v 2 =2 g
2 1 ([ p ρg−p )+( z −z ) ]
1 2
1 2
…………………………………………(4.4)

For continuity of flow, A 1 v1 = A 2 v 2 Or

v 2=
( )
A1
⋅v
A2 1

[( ) ] [( ]
2
A1

Giving from (4.4),

v
12 A2
−1 = 2 g p 1− p 2
ρg )
+ ( z 1 −z 2 )

Such that
v 1=
A2

( A 12−A 22 )
1/ 2
√
⋅ 2g ( p1 −p 2
ρg
+ z 1−z 2 )
A1 A 2
⋅√ 2 gH
1 /2

And Volume rate of flow, Q= A1 v 1 = ( A12− A 22)

9
 p1 −p 2
H= + ( z 1−z 2 )
Where, ρg known as ‘departure from the hydraulic gradient’ is
determined by equating pressures at the datum level (i.e. X-X in the above case)
A1
A= =m
If the area ratio A2
A1
1/2 √
Q= ⋅ 2 gH
Then, ( m 2
−1 ) …………….(4.5)
Determination of H
To determine ‘H’, we equate pressures at level X- Xin both limbs.

p1 + ρg ( z 1 −z )= p2 + ρg ( z 2−z −h ) + ρ man gh
Thus,

Expanding and re-arranging gives,

H=
p1 −p 2
ρg
+ ( z 1−z 2 )=h ( ρman
ρ
−1 )
Substituting into equation (4.5) gives the gives the equation for the flow rate as

Q=
A1
( m2 −1 )1/ 2
√
⋅ 2 gh ( ρman
ρ
−1 ) ………………………………(4.6)
Notes:
 Equation (4.6) indicated that flow is independent of elevation, so that reading of the
manometer is not affected by the inclination of the meter.
p1 −p 2
 However, if the actual pressure ( ) is measured and equation (4.5) used, the values
z1 z2
of ‘ ’ and ‘ ’ and, therefore, the slope of the meter must be taken into account.
 In practice, some loss of energy will occur between the section 1 & 2, thus the value of
discharge ‘Q’ given by equation (4.6) is theoretical, which is slightly greater than the
actual value. A coefficient of discharge ‘Cd’ therefore, must be introduced.
Q Actual=C d⋅QTheoretical
Actual discharge,
i.e.

4.2.3 Pipe Orifices

The venturimeter described in the preceding article, operates by changing the cross-section of
the flow, so that the cross-sectional area is less at the downstream pressure tapping than at the
upstream tapping. A similar effect can be achieved by inserting an ‘Orifice’ plate (Fig 4.6),
which has an opening in it smaller than the internal diameter of the pipeline.

10
The arrangement is cheap compared with the cost of a venturimeter, but there are substantial
energy losses. The theoretical discharge can be calculated from equation (4.5) but the actual
discharge is less. A coefficient of discharge must therefore be introduced (Cd= 0.65 for a

sharp edged orifice.

Theory of small orifices discharging into the Atmosphere

Definition: An 'Orifice' is an opening, usually circular, in the side or base of a reservoir,
through which fluid is discharged in form of a jet, usually into the atmosphere. The volume
rate of flow discharged through an orifice will depend upon the head of the fluid above the
level of the orifice, and, it can therefore be used as a means of measurement.

The term 'small orifice' is applied to an orifice which has a diameter or vertical dimensions,
which are small compared to the head producing flow, so that it can be assumed that this head
does not vary appreciably from point to point across the orifice.

(Fig 4.7) shows a small orifice in the side of a large tank containing liquid with a free surface
open to the atmosphere.

Fig 4.7 Flow through a small orifice

11
 pA
At point ‘A’ on the free surface, the pressure ‘ ’ is atmospheric and, if the tank is large
vA
compared to the orifice, the velocity ‘ ’ will be negligible; and hence zero.

pB
At some point ‘B’ in the jet, just outside the orifice, the pressure ‘ ’ will again be
vB
atmospheric, and the velocity ‘ ’ will be that of the of the jet ‘v’.

Taking the datum for potential energy as the bottom of the tank and applying Bernoulli’s
equation between points ‘A’ and ‘B’, and assuming there is no loss of energy,

(Total energy per unit weight at A) = (Total energy per unit weight at B)

pA vA2 p B v B2
+ +z A = + +z
i.e. ρg 2 g ρg 2 g B

substituting for z A −z B =H , v A =0 , v B=v , and p A = p B , gives;

v=√2 gH
velocity of the jet …………………………………………………(5.6)
This is a statement of ‘Torricelli’s Theorem’, that the velocity of the issuing jet is
proportional to the square root of the head producing flow.

Note: Equation (5.6) applies to any fluid, 'H' being expressed as head of the fluid flowing
through the orifice.

Theoretically, if 'A' is the cross-sectional area of the orifice, then

Q= A √ 2gH
Discharge ………………………………………..(5.7)

In practice, the actual discharge is considerably less than the theoretical given by equation
(5.7), which must therefore be modified by introducing the coefficient of discharge ‘Cd, so

that;

Actual discharge, QActual = CdQtheoretical

Or Q Actual=C d A √2 gH …………….…(5.8)
Note: There are two reasons for the difference between the theoretical and actual discharges;
namely,
 The velocity of the jet is less than that given by equation (5.6), because there is loss of
energy between points 'A' and 'B'.

12
 therefore, Actual velocity at 'B' = C v⋅v=C v √ 2 gH

where ‘
C v ’ is the coefficient of velocity, which has to be determined experimentally
and is of order 0.97
 Considering the contraction of the jet (Fig 5.8). The particles of the fluid at the orifice
converge at the orifice, and the area of the issuing jet at 'B' is less than the area of the
orifice at 'C

Fig 4.8 Contraction of the issuing jet

In the plane of the orifice, the particles have a component of velocity towards the
centre and the pressure at 'C' is greater than atmospheric. It is only at 'B', a small
distance outside the orifice, that the paths of the particles have become parallel. The
section through 'B' is called 'vena contracta'.

Therefore, Actual area of the jet at B =

Cc A
where ‘Cc’ is the coefficient of contraction which can be determined experimentally,
and depends on the profile of the orifice. For a sharp edged orifice, of the form shown
above, it is order 0.64

Hence, Actual discharge = (Actual area at B) x (Actual velocity at B)

= C c A⋅C v √ 2 gH

= C c⋅C v⋅A √ 2 gH ………………………. (5.9)

Comparing equations (5.8) and (5.9),
C d =C c⋅C v
Note: The values of ‘Cc’ and ‘Cv’ are determined experimentally, and values are available for
standard configurations in British Standards Specifications (BSS).

13
To determine ‘Cd’, it is only necessary to collect or otherwise measure the actual volume
discharged from the orifice in a given time, and compare with the theoretical discharge.

Coefficient of discharge = Actual Measured discharge

such that,
Theoretical discharge

Question
A rectangular orifice in the side of a tank is 1.5m broad and 0.75m deep. The level of water in
the tank is 750mm above the top edge of the orifice. Calculate the discharge through the
orifice in litters per second if the coefficient of discharge is 0.6

Theory of Large orifices

If the vertical height of the orifice is large, so that the head producing flow is substantially
less at the top of the opening than at the bottom, the discharge calculated for the small orifice,
will not be the true value, since the velocity will vary substantially from top to bottom of the
opening. Such an orifice is termed as 'Large orifice'

The method adopted for this case is to calculate the flow through a ‘thin horizontal strip’
across the orifice (Fig 4.9), and then integrate from top to bottom of the opening to obtain the
theoretical discharge, from which the actual discharge can be determined if the coefficient of
discharge is known.

Fig 4.9 Flow through a large orifice

Area of strip = Bδh

Velocity of flow through the strip = √ 2gh

Discharge through the strip, δQ=( Area )⋅( Velocity )
1/2
= B √2 g⋅h δh
For the whole orifice, integrating from h=H 1 to h=H 2 , gives
H2

Q=B √ 2 g ∫ h1/2 dh
H1
Total Discharge,

14
 2
B √2 g⋅ H 3/2 −H 3 /2
3 ( 2 1 )
= …………..(5.10)

4.2.4 Elementary theory of Notches and Weirs

A 'Notch' is an opening in the side of a measuring tank or reservoir extending above the free
surface. It is, in effect, a large orifice which has no upper edge, so that it has a variable area
depending upon the level of the free surface.

A 'Weir' is a notch on large scale, used for example to measure the flow of a river. It may be
sharp-edged or have a substantial breadth in the direction of flow.

The method of determining the theoretical flow through a notch is the same as that adopted
for the large orifice. For a Notch of any shape (Fig 4.10),

Fig 4.10 Discharge through a notch

Considering a horizontal strip,

Area of strip = b⋅δh

Velocity through the strip = √ 2gh

δQ=bδh⋅√ 2gh
Discharge through the strip, ………………………..(5.11)

Integrating from h = 0 at the free surface to h = H at the bottom of the Notch, we have;
H
Q=√ 2 g ∫ bh 1/2 dh
Theoretical Discharge, 0 ………………... (5.12)
Note: Before integrating equation (5.12), the breadth ‘b’ must be expressed in terms of ‘h’.

15
For a ‘Rectangular Notch’, b = Constant = B
H
Q=√ 2 g⋅B∫ h1/2 dh
Therefore, Discharge, 0

2
B⋅√ 2 g⋅H 3/2
3
= ………………………….. (5.13)
θ
b=2 ( H −h ) tan
θ 2
For a ‘Vee-Notch’, with an inclined angle ‘ ’,
H
θ
Q=√ 2 g⋅tan ∫ ( H −h )⋅h 1/2 dh
Giving, Discharge,
20

( )
H
θ 2 2
2 √ 2 g⋅tan ⋅ H⋅h3 /2 − h5 /2
= 2 3 5 0
8 θ
Q= √ 2 g⋅tan ⋅H 5/2
Or 15 2 ……………………………………… (5.14)

4.3 Power of a Stream

The fluid flowing can do work as a result of its pressure ‘ p ’, velocity ‘ v ’ and elevation ‘z’
and the total energy per unit weight is given by:
2
p v
H= + +z
ρg 2 g
Weight Energy
x
Power = Energy per unit time = time Weight
If ‘Q’ is the volume rate of flow, then

Weight per unit time = ρ gQ

Giving Power
P=ρ gQH =ρ gQ ( p v
+ +z
ρg 2 g )
……………………..(5.15)

16
Questions
1) Just inside a fire whose, the gauge pressure is 4 bar. Estimate the velocity in the jet of
diameter 50mm just outside the nozzle, taking the inside hose diameter as 100mm.
Determine also how much high the jet from the hose might rise, if the hose is pointed
vertically upwards.

2) Water discharges from a tank via a pipe, which runs out horizontally from the bottom of
the tank. If the water in the tank is 20m deep, and the head loss in the pipe is known to be
10m, calculate the velocity of the water on exit from the pipe.
If the end of the pipe is now placed at a distance of 10m below the bottom of the tank,
and the head loss in the pipe is now given as 12m, calculate the new velocity of the water
on exit from the pipe.
Comment on the two values of exit velocity

3) Water is supplied to a building from a tank (in which the depth is 1.5m) on the 10 th storey.
Consider the flow from a tap located 1m above the floor of the 5 th storey, whose floor
level is 15m below the 10th storey level. The water emerges from the tap with a velocity
of 5m/s, in a jet of diameter 1cm.
a. What is the head loss in the piping system conveying water from the tank to the outlet
from the tap?
b. A 26mm pipe leads to the tap and starts 0.5m below it. The gauge pressure measured
at the beginning of the pipe is equivalent to a head of 5m of water. What is the head
loss between the tank pipe and the outlet from the tap?

17