Blockchain-driven supply chain finance:

Towards a conceptual framework from a buyer perspective

Yaghoob Omrana, Michael Henkeb, Roger Heinesc, Erik Hofmannd,

a
Research Associate, Fraunhofer Institute for Material Flow and Logistics IML, Bessie-Coleman-Straße 7,
60549 Frankfurt am Main, Germany, [email protected], +49 69 668118263
b
Professor, Fraunhofer Institute for Material Flow and Logistics, Joseph-von-Fraunhofer-Str. 2-4, 44227
Dortmund, Germany, [email protected] +49 231 9743100
c
Researcher, University of St.Gallen, Chair of Logistics Management, 9000 St.Gallen,
Switzerland, [email protected], +41 71 224 72 95
d
Professor, University of St.Gallen , Chair of Logistics Management, 9000 St.Gallen,
Switzerland, [email protected], +41 71 224 73 14

Abstract
The main objective of this article is to develop a conceptual framework for blockchain-driven
supply chain finance (SCF) solutions. The frame of reference intends to foster the coordination
in buyer-supplier relations and eliminates existing inefficiencies in the execution of discrete
SCF-instruments, such as reverse factoring and dynamic discounting. Moreover, we introduce
value drivers for blockchain technology (BCT) to elaborate unique characteristics for its
application in the field of SCF. While BCT is considered as one of the most disruptive enablers
in financial technology (FinTech), it received only little attention within the emerging field of
SCF. Therefore, the results contribute to future developments of appropriate SCF-solutions
based on the newest technology innovations.

Keywords: Blockchain technology, supply chain finance, reverse factoring, dynamic

discounting, conceptual framework

Submission Category: Working Paper (WP 29)

1. Introduction
The relevance of working capital optimization and cost of capital reduction is highlighted by
an increasing adoption of supply chain finance (SCF) instruments within industries. From a
single firm perspective, it is important to optimize the financial flow by applying low-cost
financing solutions (Klapper, 2006). From a broader supply chain perspective, SCF has further
the ability to create a win-win situation for both, buyers and suppliers by improving liquidity
and capital allocation across the value chain (Popa, 2013). Instruments as reverse factoring or
dynamic discounting enable companies to optimize working capital and to smoothen financial
risk. Although potential advantages of SCF solutions are already known in theory, the execution
of these instruments still show inefficiencies in practice. Whereas SCF offers a wide range of
techniques, blockchain technology (BCT) inheres a disruptive potential for the development,
deployment, and usage of convenient business applications as well in the area of SCF.
The digitization of physical supply chains received a lot of attention in recent years, but
the flow of goods, information and finance are often considered as isolated streams across
different functions and parties. Thus, the initiation of business processes is dependent on
sequential input and manual confirmation (Zhang and Dhaliwal, 2009). Additionally,
transactions involve a vast number of agents and intermediaries. High costs and complexity for
large IT-systems, security flaws as well as time consuming processing are just some of the
disadvantages of the operations today (Fellenz et al., 2009).
According to that, weak contract institution, tax, legal systems, and regulations
exacerbate effective interaction and standard procedures between supply chain partners
(Klapper, 2006). Moreover, inconsistent governance structures complicate the collection of
receivables for the focal firm and the access to historical data for credit risk evaluation. Pfohl
and Gomm (2009) mentions that the buyer will not be able to monitor the purchased receivables.
Subsequently, the seller performs the receivable monitoring process, which remains
unobservable to the buyer side. As a result, intransparency and fraud represent a major concern
in conventional reverse factoring practices (Beck et al., 2003; Klapper, 2006).
By aligning all relevant data streams on a digital scale establishing trust and
transparency, it is not only possible to make trading processes significantly more functional,
but also to improve regulatory control through elimination of redundant practices (Templar et
al., 2016). A digital, autonomous, decentralized, and distributed network of real value would
be applicable to a countless number of services and processes (Raval, 2016). So far, there is no
approach, which shows the potential in SCF by systematically exploring the challenges and
opportunities. The initial concept provides here a foundation to close the gap between vague
assumptions and practical contributions. If a grounded conceptual framework is developed,
appropriate strategies and directions can be taken. The areas for future research can be
determined and the scope for industry applications as well as business solutions can be
addressed. BCT has the ability to provide such technical infrastructure, as one of the most
promising and disruptive technologies in recent years. Regarding the assumption that
operational barriers prevent focal companies from a widespread adoption of SCF-instruments,
the paper explores the potential of BCT in general and discusses its practical value for SCF in
particular. The research questions are outlined as followed:

RQ1. What are inefficiencies of existing SCF-instruments from a technical perspective?

RQ2. What are the general potentials and benefits of BCT?
RQ3. How does BCT improve SCF-solutions by eliminating technological inefficiencies?

In order to address the research questions on how BCT improves SCF solutions from a buyer
perspective, conceptual research by Meredith (1993) is applied. According to the research
design, a study about the current state of SCF and two specific practices in particular, reverse
factoring and dynamic discounting, takes place. A further objective lies in identification of
BCT-value drivers. Based on a literature review and a desk research, it is possible to highlight
main abilities of BCT for characterizing its unique features from a technological viewpoint.
Moreover, a problem awareness is created by elaborating the need for improvement of existing
SCF instruments. Through an iterative approach, design propositions and requirements are
developed. Based on this input, a conceptual framework for the two practical cases is designed.
At last, the overall benefit from a theoretical and practical perspective is evaluated and
discussed. The reminder of this paper is as follows: The next section 2 provides the theoretical
background by outlining the most important aspects of BCT and relevant challenges of SCF.
Section 3 deals with the analysis and main findings by adding a technological dimension in the
first place to discuss the reverse factoring and dynamic discounting use cases. Before the paper
closes, a conclusion and outlook in section 4 takes place.

2. Conceptual background

2.1 Blockchain technology

The blockchain has become one of the most disruptive innovations in recent years and attracted
the interest of practitioners and executives in various industry sectors (Kelly and Williams,
2016). In general, the blockchain refers to a new form of decentralized data management and
is further a synonym for a public accessible distributed ledger that ensures the integrity of all
kinds of transactions. Mostly known as the main technical component running the
cryptocurrency Bitcoin, it raised growing interest since its invention in 2008. The increasing
attention for BCT, as an enabling technology, is the result of its ability to establish trust between
participants in a decentralized network without the need of a third party (Swan, 2011).
Conventional transactions, on the contrary, are often centralized and monitored through an
additional instance. Accordingly, the entity in charge verifies that the transaction is viable and
took place. Whereas assets, for instance real money, inheres sophisticated security marks and
cannot be physically in two places at once, digital data can be easily copied or intercepted. For
that reason, an intermediary in form of a bank is required to execute a digital payment. This
process also applies to the digitization of products, such as software licenses or music files.
Even in our day-to-day life, a verification at notaries or a registration through public authorities
is necessary and often inevitable. Consequently, the indirect interaction between two principal
entities is often costly, time-consuming and represents in terms of centralized systems a single
point of failure (Bertino and Sandhu, 2005). Instead of one authorized ledger that holds proof
that a transaction actually happened, a so-called shared ledger could replicate its content on
thousands of nodes. Trust would shift towards multiple copies as long as a majority of ledgers
is able to outnumber corrupted and manipulated information. As a result, a central
authentication of ledgers would not be required anymore. Although the decentralization of data
constitutes a viable option, one overriding entity is still necessary to manage which information
should be rightfully stored. From a technical perspective, it must be defined which systemic
truth is chosen to update the whole network (Mainelli and Milne, 2016). Whereas replication is
the key to decentralization, a so-called distributed ledger represents the concept to provide the
functional infrastructure among equipotent participants. It was not before the Bitcoin
Whitepaper in 2008, until a practical concept appeared that was technically able to establish
trust between unknown participants.
The blockchain is therefore the first functional solution to implement a fully public
permissionless distributed ledger. The ability of the system to establish trust between unknown
parties refers basically to the immutability of data and relates further to the way information is
structured, generated and distributed. As a result, the technology unified decades of research
and was built on four main pillars (Antonopoulus, 2015):

• Peer-to-peer network: The architecture provides the database structure for a public
distributed ledger.
• Transaction logic: Cryptography and a digital signature is used to secure the transactions
process between anonymous accounts.
• Immutability of data: The ledger consists of consecutive data blocks individually
secured and cryptographically sealed, interlinked to previous data within a chain
• Consensus mechanism: An algorithm enables a global election allowing users to agree
about one true systemic-state of the network for synchronizing the shared ledger.

Although the terms blockchain and distributed ledger are often used interchangeably in
discussion, a shared ledger approach is technically not always dependent on employing
blockchains. Today, the developments in BCT enable a multitude of distributed database
solutions that store a growing list of transaction records. Any exchange of an asset, physical
object or fund can be digitally maintained. Everyone confirms that the transfer has actually
taken place, as the data records are consistently validated by the system. For that reason, no
third party nor intermediary is required. While the blockchain includes all information about
every transaction ever completed, it provides full data integrity (Swan, 2011).
Given the fact that there are countless possibilities for applications in various areas, we
want to derive three key characteristics based on the technical capabilities. Starting with
efficiency, it is possible to improve processing throughout various aspects in administration,
verification, approval, transactions and settlements. For example, in terms of administrative
procedures, BCT can be applied to automate and distribute the execution of standard operations
or accounting. The technology reduces time and errors, lowers costs, eliminates waste and
improves resource allocation and friction. The second key feature refers to greater transparency
through availability of full records and the immutability of a distributed public ledger. As a
result of deficient information, rules, collaboration, governance and distrust of authorities,
many businesses operate still in opacity. BCT improves the visibility of errors,
misappropriation, and misdirection. The availability of information about procedures and
processes, increases accountability and provides more accurate monitoring and evaluation. The
last key aspect to be mentioned, relates to autonomy by decentralization of control and
delegation of power. These greater self-governance structures allow effective consensus and
foster trust among all participants leading to more amenable, equitable, and representative
execution. Despite some technical challenges and limitations, the interdisciplinary exploration
of blockchain-based applications represents an interesting and growing area for future research
(Swan, 2011; Burgess, 2015).

2.2 Supply chain finance and its challenges within supply chain
Due to globalization, increased competition and higher levels of risks in the supply chain, many
companies are facing complexity and uncertainty in their businesses (De Boer et al., 2015). A
major consequence of this complexity is the need for transparency in the supply chain in order
to manage the basic supply chain processes, risks, and financial flows properly. In order to cope
with these challenges, independent companies are required to coordinate and collaborate with
each other to cut unnecessary costs and to improve inefficiencies (Omran et al., 2016). In fact,
many firms have recognized to optimize not only the flow of materials and information, but
also the financial streams. Furthermore, companies realize that optimization of financial flows
and the allocation of working capital in the supply chain has led to improvements of the overall
supply chain performance and to a reduction of financial risk. Addressing these challenges,
SCF has emerged and evolved to provide innovative financial services for partners in the supply
chain. Accordingly, SCF has been defined in many different ways in literature. Pfohl and
Gomm (2009) describe SCF as an intercompany optimization of financing through integration
of financing processes with supply chain partners. Wuttke et al. (2013) have considered
financial supply chain management as optimized planning, managing and controlling of cash
flows among the value chain to facilitate the optimal control of material flows. In addition,
Hofmann (2005) defines SCF as an integrated approach for two or more organizations in a
supply chain, including external service providers, to jointly create value through means of
planning, steering, and controlling of financial resources on an inter-organizational level.
SCF is an interesting approach used by many focal firms to optimize the flows and
allocation of financial resources in the supply chain. As a result, it leads to higher profits and
cost reduction in company financing. SCF includes a wide range of financial instruments and
techniques to improve financial flows. In a broader sense, these solutions aim to facilitate
transactions between supply chain partners. By providing financing and payment options, they
optimize the liquidity and the financial standing for all partners within the network. Reverse
factoring and dynamic discounting are two instruments of SCF within post shipment (after
invoice is released), which aim to relieve buyer and supplier payment tension.
Reverse factoring is a buyer centric approach, where big buyers work closely with
financial institutions to provide cheap and short term financing for their suppliers. Both buyer
and supplier benefit by implementing reverse factoring. The buyer negotiates with the supplier
to extend the payment terms and the supplier takes advantage from an early payment. With the
help of reverse factoring, suppliers sell their account receivables to a financial institution to to
increase liquidity. The suppliers receive a discounted payment from the finacier and the interest
rate charged is deducted from the invoice value. The buyers pay the payment on due date to the
bank eventually (Seifert and Seifert, 2011). Figure 1 shows the process of reverse factoring.

Figure 1 Example of reverse factoring

In reverse factoring, the buyer is an initiator and needs to onboard its suppliers one by one,
which is a time consuming and even costly process. Moreover, financial institutions demand
know-your-customer checks on suppliers as new trading partners. Dynamic discounting, similar
to reverse factoring, is a buyer-driven approach helping the companies to optimize the cash
flow by dynamic settlement of invoices in buyer-supplier relations. (Nienhuis et al, 2013).
Dynamic discounting allows the buyer to receive a discount from the supplier in terms of a
dynamic payment behavior. Moreover, in dynamic discounting, suppliers and buyers are both
connected to the same platform. On this basis, the involved parties optimize the timing of
invoice payments by exchanging an early payment proposal. The earlier the supplier receives
its payment, the higher is the discount the buyer gets from the supplier. Apart from this, cash
rich buyers initiate an early payment in exchange for an agreed discount rate. There are also
non financiers involved as both the buyer and supplier interact directly (Nienhuis et al., 2013).
Figure 2 shows the process of dynamic discounting. Within the context of dynamic discounting,
the suppliers are funded directly by the buyer, not relying on a financier. Additionally, there is
no need for KYC check in dynamic discounting once the supplier is funded.

Figure 2 Example of dynamic discounting

Reverse factoring and dynamic discounting offer possibilities for participants to utilize SCF
and to cooperate with each other for an effective capital allocation and management (Popa,
2013). In reverse factoring, financial institutions purchase account receivables from high
quality buyers and collect credit information to calculate the credit risk for selected buyers
(Klapper, 2006). In contrast, dynamic discounting helps to optimize the cash flow by dynamic
invoices in buyer-supplier relations (Nienhuis et al., 2013). However, the general lack of
appropriate technology-based platforms for financial and material flows has caused major costs
in many areas, such as disputed invoices (Fellenz et al., 2009). Since reverse factoring and
dynamic discounting are buyer centric programs, buyers initiate these arrangements to extend
the payment and to hold cash for working capital optimization in the first place. Additionally,
account receivables of more than one buyer are sold by suppliers to financial institutions or
factors. Therefore, financial institutions need to evaluate the buyers credit portfolio before
approval that results in a time consuming process. Despite positive efforts to stimulate the
adoption of SCF, a large group of SMEs are excluded and have limited financing options.
Financing SMEs has always been considered a risky business by banks and other types of
lenders due to the lack of an automated infrastructure that provides real-time visibility about
the SMEs financial situation. This prevents full adoption and collaboration, such as regular
banking, mobile technology, and internet services (Nienhuis et al., 2013). Furthermore, paper-
based transactions and a lack of automation increase the total transaction costs for supply chain
partners. In the current SCF context, supplier onboarding is a complex activity when a big buyer
is required to integrate a large number of suppliers. The execution involves a wide range of
tasks and requires multiple parties to work together in effective and easy manner. There are still
inefficiencies in the process of supplier onboarding such as manual operations, inaccurate
information or missing real-time data. Apart from this, onboarding processes should also be
transparent for all stakeholders to avoid a communication gap. Given the intangible benefits,
operational inefficiencies and high investments often prevent the focal companies from the
adoption of specific SCF solutions (Wuttke et al., 2016). It has been clearly observed that data
and information sharing, trust, transparency and collaboration among supply chain partners are
important elements of a successful adoption of supply chain finance solutions in the whole
network. Missing and timely information such as purchase order data, order quantities, and ID
numbers cause moreover a delay in cash flow calculations and payments (Gavirneni et al.,
1999). Emerging technologies, such as web-based cloud applications in the past, play therefore
an important role for successful implementation. New hardware enables further the access to
real-time data across the boundaries of physical supply chains. Accordingly, transparency and
automation will constitute a key basis for buyer-supplier relationships and collaboration
(Hofmann and Belin, 2011).
The digitalization of official documents and sensitive information often inheres a lack
of authenticity. Contracts, licenses, certifications all come with security features to carry official
status. Digital property can be copied, so trust must commonly be established through a
centralized data management or authorized intermediaries. This involves on one-hand large IT-
systems located within single institutions and on the other authorities, such as banks, traders,
exchangers, clearing houses, which legitimate information and proceed transactions. Especially
ledgers are an integral part of commerce and therefore centrally stored or managed by
trustworthy partners. Now, for the first time, algorithms enable the collaborative creation of
fully digitized registers. BCT has the power to transform ledgers as tools to record, enable and
secure an enormous range of transactions. Like the Internet, it has no central authority. Instead
it is a shared record of information distributed over a vast network of users (Raval, 2016).
Physical documents are no longer the only means to create trust between unknown disparate
parties. According to this, the basic blockchain approach can be further modified to incorporate
rules, smart contracts, digital signatures and an array of other applications.

3. Analysis and main findings

3.1 General framework

Innovative technologies and growing information availability in the supply chain enable new
developments of SCF solutions. This trend has been accelerated by the negative economic
circumstances, which has increased the importance of working capital and liquidity. In such a
complex environment with difficulty to access financial resources, it is important to strive for
a full adoption among large and small firms. Where every actor individually controls how to
organize SCF, the dependency towards financial institution decreases, such as onboarding and
KYC processes. This inspiration comes from a digital trust infrastructure, such as BCT, as a
new form of a permissionless and collaborative platform. On this basis any actor is able to build
an ecosystem by offering innovative services. At first, we will take a look at post shipment
financing, where supplier will be financed after the invoice is approved by the buyer. However,
there are additional risks for financial institutions, because the goods have not been transported
and supplied to the buyer yet. Besides this, further technological developments based on a full
integration of all parties in the financial supply chain will improve transparency among the
value chain. Creating such open platforms allow multiple financial institutions and companies
to organize SCF within their own control. As a result, there is no dependency on a new
onboarding activity. These developments will provide the active collaboration between
companies, knowledge institutes and the government in the near future.
BCT is a disruptive solution that has the ability to make trading processes among supply
chain partners more efficient, to improve the buyer-supplier relation in terms of payment
process and to eliminate the inefficiencies in financial flows. Similar to the rise of the internet,
blockchain has the potential make processes truly more secure, transparent, and efficient. There
is still huge potential growth in SCF with digitization of processes. However, in order to create
news solution within the boundaries of technology, a new perspective is needed. In particular,
the digitization of the whole value chain brings all participants together on a digital and
collaborative scale. Such integrated approaches, unites not only the material flow, but it also
considers information and financial streams. Based on an extensive literature review, an
integrated BCT-driven supply chain finance framework (Figure 3) has been developed.

Figure 3 Integrated SCF with digitalization

SCF today is an isolated series of steps taken to optimize financial flows and working capital
through supply chains. Complexity and operational inefficiencies of existing financial services
has caused a major risk for companies to effectively manage their working capital. Moreover,
the lack of transparency and visibility results in distrust and a certain sense of insecurity among
supply chain partners. Technology is a key enabler of SCF to make processes and information
sharing more efficient. With digital technology, the supply chain partners will be integrated into
one ecosystem that is fully efficient and transparent to all. From suppliers, buyers, financial
service providers to LSPs and to technology providers. The logistics service providers (LSPs)
play an important role, especially when they manage large parts of the customers supply chain.
The financial supply chains are still mainly the domain of banks. With further developments of
SCF practices, for instance an increased managing of invoices, LSPs can provide cross-
functional offers. LSPs have much data about logistics processes as they continuously monitor
the status of goods. Risks are more visible and it allows LSPs to collaborate with partners, for
instance financial institutions, to develop innovative services in the field of SCF. Quick
approval of invoices by buyers is essential for reverse factoring. Due to inefficiencies within
the invoicing process by LSPs, the payment processing time can increase. Therefore, an
automated transaction, invoice and payment status, as well as the access to real time information
for all involved partners are only achieved through digitization and technology. All partners
will benefit from this inclusive supply chain finance approach through transparency and the
reduction of costs associated with disputes and transaction processes.
The digitalization of supply chain finance relies not only on the technology side, but
also on the need for a proactive collaboration. The goal is to bring all partners together on basis
of an integrated supply chain finance ecosystem. In fact, a new generation of collaborative
networks will help companies to streamline invoice processing and to facilitate supplier
onboarding or working capital allocation. However, these benefits will not be achieved in an
isolated and disconnected business network. BCT is a disruptive innovation that has the
potential to radically change business operations. By fully integrating this technology into
existing networks, it can significantly improve SCF and transparency along the supply chain.

3.2 The reverse factoring use case

In today´s business environment, there is still a huge potential for supply chain finance and its
practical instruments. Reverse factoring has become a short term approach to finance the tier-1
suppliers. This instrument has shown a great practice to unlock cash along the supply chain and
to finance the suppliers with an early payment. However, there is still considerable potential for
this instrument according to the benefit of suppliers. Additionally, supply chain finance has not
been fully integrated into upstream and downstream supply chains, as it is only applicable for
cooperation of strong credit rating buyers with its direct suppliers. The network of partners
involves the complete end-to-end supply chain from point of origin to the point of destination.
Therefore, SCF barely effects indirect suppliers that are traditionally allocated beyond first tier
suppliers. On an operational level it is assumed that reverse factoring, for instance, experiences
untimely information about receivables and credit limits. On a strategic level, authorized
institutions are necessary to establish trust. It takes days to verify if firms have actually received
goods in order to arrange the movement of funds and to lock ownership data. It is concluded
that a match between inefficiencies of SCF-practices and BCT-value drivers takes place.
In order to evaluate and explain the impact on reverse factoring, we take integrated
supply chain finance with digitalization into consideration, as shown in figure 3. Therefore, we
systematically explain the major BCT value drivers to further extend the reverse factoring tools
with the benefits and unique features of this technology. However, to create new solutions, a
perspective is needed that involves all partners within a digital collaborative network. An
integrated BCT-based SCF solution for reverse factoring is therefore presented in figure 4.
Such an integrated approach needs to be adopted through the entire supply chain
ecosystem of partners. The results will enable the participants to have access to real-time
information related to material, information and financial flows with more visibility into supply
chain and reducing the risk of supply chain disruption. BCT has the potential to trigger a new
innovation perspective in the area of SCF especially in reverse factoring. In comparison to other
IT-infrastructures, BCT has the potential to enable a database that is directly shared among the
boundaries of trust. Every participant in a blockchain independently verifies and processes
transactions. This is possible because every actor within the system has visibility into the
current database accessing status and real-time validation of transactions through a digital
signature and a private key.
By using BCT as an underlying infrastructure for an entire supply chain ecosystem,
every buyer can electronically connect with every supplier along the whole upstream supply
chain. In addition, there is no dependency on a new onboarding activity for the suppliers at
financial institutions. Invoice status information are transferred securely, and financiers can
offer high-frequency financing services for any transaction value at lower risk. The suppliers
will be also able to connect with any customer within this digital system. Credit ratings and
supplier evaluations will be saved and cryptographically secured in the blockchain. A dynamic
adaption and automated evaluation takes place, if buyers pay too late or supplier do not deliver
goods in time. The information will be further visible to every actor that participates in reverse
factoring to set an incentive for all partners and to increase reliability. As a result, all actors will
benefit from real-time access to data, which relates to transactions, invoices, or payments.

Figure 4 Conceptual framework for a BCT-based reverse factoring solution

BCT can also increase transparency within supply chains and allows trading partners to
collaborate more effectively to achieve new levels of efficiency and responsiveness.
Blockchain is also a valuable technology for tracking inventory, monitoring product
components, and tracing of the global footprint. It reveals the provenance of a product to
everyone involved, from origin to end user. There is no longer a need to manually keep track
of items. Blockchains can create a formal registry to identify individual goods and track
possession of materials through different points in a supply chain.
Robustness is another advantage of BCT in comparison to other IT-infrastructures. It
ensures high availability of data and shows an increased fault tolerance to centralized systems.
BCT allows participants to write smart contracts, which can automatically execute the terms of
a contract. If a set of preconditions are met among participants in a smart contract, the
contractual agreement can automatically initiate payments in a transparent and efficient
manner. Additionally, blockchain can create a distributed database that stores any type of
records, which are potentially open access to all participants in the system. If appropriate within
reverse factoring, data can be accessed, shared, and added, but cannot be changed or deleted by
an individual at all. Everyone has access to a shared ledger and a single source of truth,
increased transparency and trust through a tamperproof and fraud less system. These aspects
play the key role for BCT as a preferred IT-architecture within a SCF-context.

4.2 The dynamic discounting use case

Where an effective collaboration between supply chain partners is mainly based on a valuable
exchange of information, an appropriate integration of information and communications
technology (ICT) is required to automate business processes and transactions (Pramatari, 2007).
As a result, new financing instruments in SCF mostly rely on such supply chain links, using
electronic data interchange and integrated business solutions to optimize the working capital
and to create financial value for the organizations involved (Gelsomino, 2016). For a detailed
investigation of the dynamic discounting use case, it is therefore appreciated to follow the
broader concept of supply chain collaboration. This approach helps to compare BCT with
conventional IT-solutions in general and alternative SCF applications in particular.
According to its potentials, we define supply chain collaboration as a business process
where supply chain partner work together to execute supply chain operations (Mentzer et al.,
2001). Bowersox et al. (2003) further extends this definition by introducing information,
resource, and risk sharing. Through a combination of both concepts, we add a first conceptual
element into the framework. It consists of six interconnecting components for collaborative
advantage by reducing costs, response time, leveraging resources, and improving innovation
(Cao and Zhang, 2010). In order to describe and assess the different principles and mechanics
of BCT, we apply further concepts of the general systems theory. Following Boulding (1956),
a second dimension is introduced based on the function, structure and dynamics of technical
systems. Figure 5, presents here the conceptual framework for integrated blockchain-based
solutions in SCF. Dynamic discounting utilizes trade process visibility to initiate the dynamic
settlement of invoices in a buyer-supplier relationship and relies therefore on an enabling
technology (Polak et al., 2012). The conceptual framework serves here as a starting point to
discuss the premises for an integration of BCT into dynamic discounting practices.

Figure 5 Conceptual framework for a BCT-based dynamic discounting solution

Following Gelsomino et al. 2016, the basic process of dynamic discounting is structured into
four phases. In order to identify and assess relevant value drivers, each phase is applied to the
elements of the conceptual framework. For the purpose of this study, we further consider a
buyer centric approach with self-funding of payments and assume that goods invoiced are pre-
shipped. The activities presented are conventionally conducted through individual applications,
cloud solutions, or third party add-ons based on the existing ERP system.
In general, the buyer organization starts the program by offering early payments to
suppliers in case of a discount. Upon agreement, an invoice processing follows where the
supplier creates, uploads and exchanges relevant documents electronically through electronic
data interchange (EDI). This phase is finished when the buyer receives the electronic invoice.
Within a second step, the buying organization initiates the receipt, reconciliation, and final
registration of the needed payments to start an iterative approach defining an early payment
proposal (EPP). Accordingly, the purpose of this third stage is to agree upon the day in which
the payment is going to be settled and the discount proposed for such early payments. Therefore,
after the buyer submits the proposed EPP, the supplier can accept or decline it. In case of
rejection, the buyer has the possibility to further adapt the terms and conditions. If an agreement
has been reached, this stage is completed through archiving. Regarding this final step, both
supplier and buyer store the invoices in an electronic or physical manner.
In comparison to common ICT platforms, BCT shows valuable advantages in its
structure. Especially in multi-echelon supply chains or supply networks, the distributed
database and interoperability improves information, and resource sharing. In combination with
its functions, in particular smart contracts, BCT facilitates and even anticipates the initiation of
a dynamic discounting program. Analogous to multi-criteria approaches during the supplier
onboarding process, the improved availability and auditability of trustworthy information
automate decision-making. With the interconnection of different blockchains, it is possible to
implement an autonomous approach through so-called pegged side chains. If the financial flows
of the whole value-chain are structured on the same interconnected ledger, the risks for early
payments and reduced liquidity is automatically transferred. The parameters of an early
payment proposal would be consistently calculated regarding also the more solvent partners
within the downstream supply chain. Concerning the dynamics of BCT, a scenario would be
applicable where not only vertical but also horizontal structures would be taken into
consideration. Decisive is not the current financial state of the buyer anymore, but more likely
the expected demand in terms of customer orders within pull oriented supply chains. This multi-
criteria approach can be further extended by transforming physical objects into smart property
and monitoring of the material flow on the blockchain.
In general, BCT always represents an easier accessible, more secure and cheaper
solution. Especially, within a scenario where the ICT-service provider offers external financial
resources to the buyer. In this case, BCT is capable to provide an open and direct funding
between parties on basis of a full peer-to-peer network not relying on intermediaries. Whereas
the levels of transparency do not differ between the technologies, the lack of effectivity of BCT
will be still a major obstacle in the future. Within dyadic configurations, a centralized ICT-
solution is still faster enabling real-time data without any delay. BCT is still limited to its
consensus mechanism. As a result, it takes several minutes to create one block, as the security
of the whole chain only increases with time. Beside these technical aspects, the use case outlines
also qualitative aspects of the supplier buyer relationship according to the key characteristics
of self-governance and autonomy. As complexity is rising, a solution is appreciated where
decision-making is executed within a predefined set of rules based on decentralized resources
and group consensus. All participants can benefit if the whole supply chain relies on the same
visible information and agreements. According to conventional buyer-initiated dynamic
discounting, the operations show strong centralization among independent actors. In order to
take full advantage of a BCT-based solution, a paradigm shift is necessary to achieve a global
instead two single local optimums between the buyer and the supplier. Therefore, it is assumed
that the main value driver for adoption lies rather in qualitative key aspects, such as
transparency and autonomy, than in efficiency. In the end, the adoption of a BCT solution will
be strongly dependent on the supply chain configuration and market environment itself. Once
the technical limitations are removed and new consensus mechanisms are established, BCT has
eventually the chance for major adoption within highly integrated supply chains.

5. Conclusion
Financial flows can be increasingly streamlined using digital technology like blockchain, where
all involved partners will be able to share and monitor financing related information such as
latest invoice status, check credit limit and payment in a transparent manner. The new digital
infrastructure environment allows all participants to have easy access to real-time SCF
information. Participants are able to continuously monitor the detailed goods and transactions
digitally. Such an inclusive infrastructure relies on a shared ledger that provides any supply
chain related information and ensures global authenticity and security for data and information
at the same time. This significantly reduces the costs and complexity of today´s systems.
By addressing the first research question and identifying the inefficiencies of existing
SCF instruments, it can be stated that the existing challenges create a need for SCF in
digitalization. New technologies can close the gap for an effective management. By
synchronizing the material, information and financial flows, which have been considered as
isolated streams, all partners can dramatically benefit from a digital infrastructure. Beside
supply chain collaboration and conventional centralized technologies, BCT is here a paramount
technology to streamline the flow of information, goods and money on one digital platform.
By identifying the general potentials of this new innovation, we relate to the second
research question. We conducted a conceptual approach to identify the value drivers. The study
revealed such unique value proposition of BCT, to facilitate the implementation of SCF
practices. According to this, the supply chain partners strongly benefit from three key
characteristics in form of efficiency, transparency and autonomy. In order to answer how these
BCT value drivers improve SCF-solutions, we discussed two practices in SCF referring to
reverse factoring and dynamic discounting.
As a result, a conceptual framework was developed on basis of supply chain
collaboration to define the technological requirements for SCF-practices. Thereby, the paper
shows how companies can benefit from BCT for managing their financial flows through supply
chains and it identifies the value drivers how reverse factoring and dynamic discounting
services can be improved. BCT based reverse factoring and dynamic discounting helps the
supply chain partners to make decision independently and helps to smooth financial flows along
the supply chain. Furthermore, it improves the security and service quality of reverse factoring
in a way that the whole process is monitored in a visible and trustworthy manner. We have
shown that, interoperability, trust, and robustness play the key drivers for BCT over
conventional IT-infrastructure. Furthermore, the results indicate that BCT creates an open and
permissionless platform where all supply chain partners can organize SCF individually. By
taking a closer look on dynamic discounting, we compared BCT with conventional ICT
technologies using the capability levels of structure, functions and dynamics. Whereas
conventional and centralized technologies show higher efficiency in terms of quantitative
factors, such a responsiveness and speed, BCT enables more qualitative aspects in dynamic
discounting. Because of a blockchain-based solution, the interoperability, availability and
trustworthiness of information enables autonomy within full peer-to-peer information’s
systems. The results reveal that the choice for BCT or conventional solutions is strongly
dependent on the individual supply chain configuration and the initial tradeoff between
quantitative and qualitative factors. It is very likely that BCT is much more applicable in
responsive and multi-echelon supply chains, where trustworthiness and availability of
information as well as autonomy of decision-making processes result in higher cost savings. In
stable supply chains with higher levels of vertical integration and focus on efficiency,
centralized ICT solutions are maybe the preferred choice.
Our results show that unlike other IT-architectures, Blockchain technology is a
promising technology platform for creating transparency, automation, and trust for SCF-
instruments. Following this, it is suggested to conduct a practical case-based research to
investigate and provide usable applications. Although two solutions have been presented, they
still lack concrete evaluation on their effectiveness. Beside a theoretical discussion, a more
practical research approach is necessary. A scenario analysis or even a simulation would be
appreciated to measure both qualitative and quantitative aspects. This would be beneficiary for
further developments of BCT applications and a widespread adoption.

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