3178 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 56, NO.

3, MAY/JUNE 2020

Grid Integration of Small-Scale Photovoltaic Systems

in Secondary Distribution Network—A Review
Ramanuja Panigrahi , Student Member, IEEE, Santanu K. Mishra , Senior Member, IEEE,
Suresh C. Srivastava, Senior Member, IEEE, Anurag K. Srivastava , Senior Member, IEEE,
and Noel N. Schulz , Fellow, IEEE

Abstract—The relative share of renewable energy, specifically the DG Distributed generations.

solar photovoltaic (PV), is increasing exponentially in the world MPP Maximum power point.
electric energy sector. This is a cumulative result of reduction in MV Medium voltage.
the cost of solar panels, improvement in the panel efficiency, and
advancement in the associated power electronics. Among different LV Low voltage.
types of PV plants, installation of small-scale rooftop PV is growing PLL Phase locked loop.
rapidly due to direct end-user benefits and lucrative governmental DER Distributed energy resources.
incentives. There are various standards developed in regards to EMI Electromagnetic interference.
grid integration of PVs and other distributed generations (DGs). THD Total harmonic distortion.
Different power converter topologies are developed to interface the
PV panel with the utility grid. To keep up with the stringent regula- pPLL Product type PLL.
tions imposed by the standards, various control strategies and grid LPF Low-pass filter.
synchronization methods have been developed. This review article NF Notch filter.
amalgamates and summarizes all of the aforementioned aspects MAF Moving average filter.
of a grid-integrated PV system including various standards, power DFAC Double frequency and amplitude compensation.
stage architectures, grid synchronization methods, operation under
extreme events, and control methodologies, pertaining to small- OSG Orthogonal signal generator.
scale PV plants. This article will help freshman researchers to gain SOGI Second-order generalized integrator.
some familiarity with the topic and introduce them to some of the FFSOGI Fixed frequency SOGI.
key issues encountered in this field. TD Time delay.
Index Terms—Current control, dc–ac power converters, ETD Enhanced TD.
distributed power generation, hybrid power systems, inverters, VTD Variable-length transfer delay.
microgrids, photovoltaic (PV) systems, power distribution, MGDSS Multiple generalized delayed signal superposition.
pulsewidth modulation (PWM), PV integration, smart grids, solar SRF Synchronous rotating frame.
power generation.
NRF Natural reference frame.
NOMENCLATURE FOV Fractional open-circuit voltage.
PV Photovoltaic. P&O Perturb and observe.
IC Incremental conductance.
FLC Fuzzy logic control.
Manuscript received April 11, 2019; revised July 15, 2019, September 24, RCC Ripple correlation control.
2019, and December 6, 2019; accepted January 9, 2020. Date of publication SMC Sliding mode control.
March 9, 2020; date of current version April 24, 2020. Paper 2019-IACC-
0450.R3, presented at the 2018 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual NDZ Non detection zone.
Meeting, Portland, OR, USA, Sep. 23–27, and approved for publication in the ROCOF Rate of change of frequency.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the Industrial Automation LVRT Low voltage ride through.
and Control Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society. This material
is based upon work supported by the Indo-US Science and Technology Forum in FTSMC Finite-time sliding mode control.
partnership with Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, PBSMC Proxy-based sliding mode control.
under grant no. IUSSTF/JCERDC-Smart Grids and Energy Storage/2017 and HVRT High voltage ride through.
the Department of Energy under Award Number DE-IA0000025. The views and
opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of
the United States Government or any agency thereof. (Corresponding author:
Ramanuja Panigrahi.)
I. INTRODUCTION
Ramanuja Panigrahi, Santanu K. Mishra, and Suresh C. Srivastava are with the A. Preamble
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur,
Kanpur 208016, India (e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; scs@ HE smart grid is identified by the bidirectional flow of
iitk.ac.in).
Anurag K. Srivastava and Noel N. Schulz are with the School of Electrical
Engineering and Computer Science, Washington State University, Pullman, WA
T energy and data to achieve an automated and widely dis-
tributed energy delivery system. It incorporates various DER,
99164 USA (e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]). distributed computing, and communications to balance power
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this article are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. supply and demand while providing optimal socio-economic
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIA.2020.2979789 benefits [1]. The successful implementation of this initiative

0093-9994 © 2020 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
PANIGRAHI et al.: GRID INTEGRATION OF SMALL-SCALE PV SYSTEMS IN SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION NETWORK 3179

requires participation and compatibility among various disci- the load requirement. Therefore, if the load does not match the
plines and technologies such as the following. maximum power output of the PV source, it is not possible to
1) Power Electronics: This is used for efficiently converting extract the maximum power continuously.
the available power from one form to another, and to To avoid the requirement of bulky, short-lived, and costly
integrate different distributed energy sources with the grid, batteries, PVs are preferably operated in grid-connected mode.
ensuring high power quality and energy efficiency [2]. One of the major objectives associated with all the PV plants is
2) Power Systems: The power system must retain its ability to extract maximum power available from the solar panel. But
to operate efficiently and isolate faults with faster service depending on the load requirement, the PV plants can operate
restoration. Various studies are required to be conducted off-MPP too. Hence, MPP is a desirable but not a necessary
focusing on achieving balance between supply and condition. Table I lists out various conditions for the PV plant
demand, optimal network reconfiguration, contingency to operate in the MPP/off-MPP mode.
analysis, short-circuit analysis, and relay protection
coordination, etc. [3]. C. Power System Architecture
3) Communications: Communication networks are essential
The entire power system network, as shown in Fig. 1, can
to achieve advanced grid functionalities required for sys-
be broadly divided into three parts [13]. Typically, power is
tem operation, monitoring, pricing, and protection. It is
generated in various power plants with a voltage level varying
necessary to digitally connect various power system stake-
between 10.5 and 25 kV. This voltage is stepped up and power
holders through communication links to achieve required
is transmitted through the transmission network. The voltage
data flow [4].
level of the transmission network is between 220 and 765 kV.
4) Economics: The major objective of the smart grid initiative
This power is further transferred through the subtransmission
is to reduce the overall production cost while taking care
network (66 or132 kV) and finally to the distribution system.
of various rules and regulations for its promotion and
The distribution network is classified into two types, viz., pri-
the power trading. Such new initiative requires various
mary/medium voltage (MV) distribution network (11 kV), and
techno-economic analysis to be carried out [5].
secondary/low voltage (LV) distribution network (415 V). Indus-
This article mainly focuses on the review of power electronic
trial and residential loads are connected to MV and LV distri-
aspect of the smart grid initiative, specifically relevant to the
bution network, respectively. All the rooftop PVs are connected
roof top PV integration. The article surveys various technical
to the secondary distribution network. As this article mainly
requirements for integration of the roof-top PV into the existing
focuses on grid integration of roof-top PVs, all the discussion in
low voltage distribution network and identifies some important
this article is limited to the secondary distribution network only.
research gaps to facilitate this objective.
D. PV Plant Architecture
B. PV Scenario
The grid-connected PV systems can be classified into three
The penetration of solar photovoltaic (PV) sources in the types based on the installation capacity [14], which are as
energy sector is increasing rapidly. The generation cost of solar follows.
power is lower compared to conventional energy sources. The 1) Utility-scale (1–10 MW).
levelized cost of energy for utility scale PV (36-44 USD/MWh) 2) Medium-scale (10–1000 kW).
is in the range of on shore wind (29–56 USD/MWh) and even 3) Small-scale (<10 kW).
lower depending on the region of installation [6], [7]. Solar The small-scale roof-top PVs cover approximately 12%
PVs are gaining popularity due to a continuous reduction in (≈1247 MW) of India’s total PV capacity. Additional 40 GW
the cost of solar panel, improvement in the panel efficiency, of rooftop PV installation is expected, in India, by 2022 [15].
advancement in the associated power electronics, and, most Though the relative wattage of roof-top PV is less as compared to
importantly, ambitious goals set by different countries to deploy the utility-scale PVs, the number of installations is significantly
PV sources into the existing electrical network [8]. The focus on higher. Fig. 2(a) illustrates various modules of a small-scale grid
deploying large no. of PVs into the existing electrical network feeding PV plant [16]. Power is transferred from the PV panel
is also supported by the abundance of solar irradiation in India, to the grid through a power converter. The associated control
with most parts receiving 4–7 kWh per sq. m per day and around governs both the quality and quantity of power transferred.
5000 trillion kWh per year energy incident over India’s total land Both power and control stage must adhere to certain rules and
area [9]. regulations, known as standards, while feeding power to the grid.
From the utility perspective, the PV system can be divided There are various international and national standards [18]–[30]
into two types, 1) stand-alone system and 2) grid feeding system developed regarding integration of PVs in the utility. These
[10]. The standalone PV system [11], [12] can further be divided standards dictate basic operational principles, power quality
into two types, namely, PV system with and without storage. In recommendations, safety measures, and response of the PV to
case of standalone PV system with storage, the harvested power abnormal grid conditions, etc., to ensure proper grid integration
charges a battery and gets utilized in feeding the load. However, [18]. Among these standards, international standards such as
when the PV system is used without storage, the harvested power IEEE 1547 [19], IEC 61727 [20], and IEEE 929 [21] are the
has to be used entirely by the load to maintain power balance. most popular. Apart from these, national standards such as
In other words, the power generation should be exactly equal to VDE-AR-4105 [22], RULE 21 [23], and AS 4777 [24]–[26]

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
3180 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 56, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2020

TABLE I
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PV SYSTEM FROM UTILITY PROSPECTIVE

Fig. 1. Pictorial representation of a typical power system along with voltage levels at various buses.

Fig. 2. (a) Various building blocks of a small-scale grid feeding PV plant and (b) from microgrid [17] to active distribution network.

are developed by California USA, Germany, and Australia, with PV plants is twofold. 1) Ensure maximum power extraction,
respectively. and 2) proper conditioning of injected current [79]. To achieve
Power electronics, the method of efficiently converting these requirements, several control architectures [80]–[93] and
the available power from one form to another, is used as the MPPT algorithms [94]–[100] are proposed. Advanced control
interface between the dc output of the PV panel and ac grid strategies for anti-islanding protection [101]–[117], LVRT
[31]–[58]. Different power electronic converters and topologies [118]–[129], reactive power injection [120], and improving the
are proposed for this purpose, which, in general, converts the resiliency of power distribution systems [130]–[139] were also
available dc power to ac power and feed it to the grid [31]–[35]. reported.
Most of the grid integration standards recommend that the PV
plant must feed current in phase with the fundamental of the grid
E. Distribution System Versus Microgrid
voltage. This requires synchronization between the grid and
the PV plant. A variety of grid synchronization techniques are Most of the research in the field of PV grid integration is
proposed in [59]–[78]. Among these, the PLL-based methods focused on microgrids. The MICROGRID is defined by the U.S.
are the most popular [63], [64]. The control objective associated Department of Energy as “a group of interconnected loads and

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
PANIGRAHI et al.: GRID INTEGRATION OF SMALL-SCALE PV SYSTEMS IN SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION NETWORK 3181

DERs with clearly defined electrical boundaries that acts as a TABLE II

POPULAR STANDARDS RELATED TO PV INTEGRATION AND THEIR ATTRIBUTES
single controllable entity with respect to the grid and can connect
and disconnect from the grid to enable it to operate in both grid-
connected or island modes” [17]. According to this definition,
the electrical network can be considered as a microgrid if it has
the following.
1) A clearly defined electrical boundary.
2) A controller to control the DERs and loads such that they
behave as a single controllable entity.
3) The peak critical load must be less than the installed
generation capacity. II. STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES
4) The connection with the distribution network is through
an active switch such that it can operate either in grid- Different standards and guidelines, regarding design, con-
connected or islanded mode. trol, and operation of PV systems, are developed to ensure
The rooftop PV integration brings a lot of active sources proper operation, reliability, and safety. Different countries
directly connected to the distribution network. This vast active and international organizations have developed standards to
distribution network is not always equivalent to a microgrid facilitate the inclusion of PVs in the existing utility system.
because of the following: Among the existing standards, the most popular standards, along
1) no single point of interconnection; with their attributes, are listed in Table II. IEEE 1547 standard
2) no controllable switch to connect and disconnect it from applies to the integration of DGs below 10 MVA. IEC 61727 is
the main grid; pertaining to the PV systems connected to the utility with less
3) the installed generation capacity may be much less than than 10 kW capacity. IEEE 929 is also specifically meant for
the peak critical load. the PV systems with a capacity of less than 10 kW. Apart
Hence, the active distribution network cannot be treated as from aforementioned international standards, various national
microgrid always. Smaller installations such as a new apartment, standards such as VDE-AR-4105, RULE 21, and AS 4777 are
market buildings, or small islands can be treated as microgrids if popularly used and all of them are applicable for any kind of
they satisfy the aforementioned conditions. A neighborhood of DGs. Application guidance and recommendations of various
rooftop solar with a single point of coupling to the distribution standards are summarized below. A detailed review of different
network only ensures the first requirement, i.e., a clearly defined PV related standards can be found in [18].
electrical boundary. If the network satisfies all the remaining
three conditions, it can be considered a microgrid. A. Voltage Fluctuation
The intermittent nature of PV affects the voltage quality of
F. Contribution and Organization of the Article the distribution network. Some standards (IEC 61727 and IEEE
1547) suggest that the PV must not control the PCC voltage
The contributions of this article can be summarized as follows. actively while others (IEEE 1547 a) suggest that PV may control
1) Attempts to incorporate various technical requirements the PCC voltage by controlling the active and reactive power
for integrating roof-top PV into the existing distribution input. Voltage fluctuation is defined as systematic variation of
network using small-scale single-phase inverters. the voltage envelope or a series of random voltage changes, the
2) Highlights different aspects of microgrid research, which magnitude of which does not normally exceed the prespecified
can directly be used in a grid feeding PV plant to bridge voltage range [27]. Typically, loads that exhibit continuous and
the gap between the microgrid research and infusion of rapid variation in current magnitude can cause voltage fluctua-
the PV into the existing distribution network. A pictorial tions. A similar phenomenon may also arise while PV plant is
representation of this idea is shown in Fig. 2(b). connected with the grid, and as a result, the voltage at the point
3) Summarizes various standards, power interface archi- of common coupling may increase. Voltage fluctuation limit set
tectures, grid synchronization techniques, and control by different standards is given in Table III. In other words, if PV
methodologies pertaining to grid-tied small-scale, low- plant is connected to the grid at t = 0, the voltage fluctuations
voltage PV plants. in the PCC voltage at t = 0+ , due to the PV integration, should
4) Discusses the system response with PV in normal and be within the limits specified in Table III.
abnormal operating conditions.
This article is organized as follows. Various standards, related
B. Power Factor and Synchronization
to the PV integration, are discussed in Section II. Power stage
architecture, for integrating roof-top PV to the utility grid, is Most standards suggest that the PV plant must not actively
introduced in Section III. Various grid synchronization methods control the PCC voltage and must keep the power factor above
and control strategies are discussed in Sections IV and V, 0.9 along with three different conditions, as mentioned in
respectively. The behavior of the PV system during abnormal Table III. However, according to IEEE 1547 a [28], following
grid conditions is reported in Section VI. Section VII concludes due permission from the electrical power system (EPS) and
this article. DR operators, the DR may actively participate in regulating

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
3182 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 56, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2020

TABLE III
ALLOWABLE VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION, POWER FACTOR, AND SYNCHRONIZATION PARAMETERS

TABLE IV TABLE V
RESPONSE TO ABNORMAL GRID VOLTAGE RESPONSE TO ABNORMAL GRID FREQUENCY

D. Harmonic and DC Injection

Harmonics in the power systems are the sources of EMIs that
affect the operation of various equipment and reduces the overall
power factor. The power conversion stage of the PV plant may
the voltage by changing its real and reactive power output by inject harmonics into the grid. However, the plant must keep the
coordinating with the EPS. However, the DR shall not cause harmonics in its output below the prescribed limits. Different
the Area EPS service voltage to go outside the requirements standards set a similar margin for harmonics and dc injection.
mentioned in Table III. Table VI illustrates the harmonic injection limit, dc injection
Synchronization is the process of closely matching the voltage limit, and THD limit according to different standards. The DG
magnitude (V), frequency (f), and phase angle (ϕ) of the incom- filter systems are designed to keep the harmonics injection within
ing inverter with the grid before closing the paralleling switch. the specified limit. A discussion regarding the filters is reported
These quantities must be within certain limits to minimize the in Section IV.
transients both in the PV system and the grid. Table III provides
the synchronization limits imposed by different standards. The E. Leakage Current and Isolation
maximum allowable deviation in the voltage magnitude (ΔV), The clearing time, specified in VDE-AR-N-4105, for different
frequency (Δf), and phase angle (Δϕ) are reported. magnitude of leakage current, is shown in Table VII. This
leakage current is due to the presence of parasitic capacitances
of the PV panel and unavailability of isolation [29]. This ground
C. Response to Abnormal Voltage and Frequency current is a major concern for nonisolated grid feeding converters
[29]. Many countries do not allow PV plants to feed power
An anomalous voltage at the terminal of the PV plant reduces
into the grid unless they are connected through an isolation
the safety and efficiency of the system. Hence, when subjected
transformer.
to extreme voltage magnitude, the PV plant is expected to trip.
A similar trip is expected from the PV plant when the frequency
F. Flicker, Reverse Power, and Other Requirements
of the grid falls outside a specified limit. The clearing time of the
PV plant, when subjected to abnormal voltage and frequency, The term flicker is derived from the impact of the voltage
are listed in Tables IV and V, respectively. fluctuation on lighting intensity. It is defined as “An impression

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
PANIGRAHI et al.: GRID INTEGRATION OF SMALL-SCALE PV SYSTEMS IN SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION NETWORK 3183

TABLE VI
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE HARMONIC CURRENT FROM PV PLANTS

TABLE VII two-stage, and two stage with dc optimizers [32]. Different
ALLOWABLE LEAKAGE CURRENT AND CLEARING TIME
power stage architectures and classifications of grid feeding
PV systems are discussed in detail in [32]–[35]. Isolation is a
requirement for grid interfaced inverters. Different components
of the power stage are discussed below.

A. Power Converters
In order to boost the low voltage output of the PV panel for
grid integration, a dc–dc converter is used between the PV panels
of unsteadiness of visual sensation induced by a light stimulus and the inverter. This dc–dc converter is also responsible for
whose luminance or spectral distribution fluctuates with time” maximum power point tracking. The reduction in power con-
[30]. IEEE 1547 states that the PV must not produce objec- version efficiency, as a result of cascaded power stages, is some-
tionable flicker. IEEE 929 dictates that flicker must satisfy the what compensated by the improved extraction efficiency [8].
conditions stated in IEEE 519. There are few standards that The selection of switching devices is mainly dependent on the
specify conditions regarding reverse power flow. GB/T 1993989 blocking voltage, ON-state resistance, and switching frequency
(Chinese standard) states that if the magnitude of reverse power [36]. Below 650 V, MOSFETS provide lower conduction loss
is higher than 5% of the plant rating then the plant must isolate as compared to the insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs).
within 0.5–2 s. Various interconnection standards require the Above 650 V, IGBTs are preferred due to lower conduction
presence of a manual switch after the PV plant. This isolation loss. MOSFETS are preferred in roof-top PV systems, as the
switch must be lockable in the open-circuit position, and it must blocking voltage is around 160 or 320 V. With the use of wide
provide a visual indication of isolation. This manual switch bandgap devices (GaN and SiC) the switching frequency can be
is expected to be installed in an easily accessible location for increased. These devices have lower parasitic which leads to bet-
maintenance and operation. ter switching performances [14]. The thermal properties of these
devices are better, which leads to high density power converter
III. POWER INTERFACE ARCHITECTURE implementation. Various topologies and device performance at
different power levels are the primary research objective in this
Power electronic converters are utilized to interface the PV field.
panel with the utility grid for roof top applications as shown
in Fig. 2(a). It extracts the maximum possible dc power from
the PV panel and feeds the power to the grid in the form of B. Decoupling Capacitor
ac current [14]. The power stage achieves these goals with Irrespective of the topology used for implementation of the
maximum possible efficiency and over a wide range of PV converter, shown in Fig. 2(a), in order to take care of instanta-
power output. Based on the number of power conversion stages, neous power balance, the dc-link voltage experiences a second
the PV converter can be divided into three types: single-stage, harmonic ripple, as shown in Fig. 3. This ripple decides the size

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
3184 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 56, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2020

PV plant can be divided into three categories [32], which are as

follows:
1) plant with a low-frequency transformer;
2) plant with a high-frequency transformer;
3) plant without isolation.
Many countries do not allow the grid integration of the PV
plant without an isolation transformer. However, due to their
Fig. 3. (a) Block diagram representation of PV plant showing position and higher efficiency, power density, and lower cost, these non-
(b) voltage waveform of the decoupling capacitor. isolated PV inverters are constantly getting the research focus.
There are two major issues associated with the transformer-less
PV inverters as discussed in the following, and various topolo-
of the decoupling capacitor. The size of the decoupling capacitor gies are derived to address these issues.
can be found out using the following equation [32]: 1) A typical nonisolated grid feeding PV inverter is shown
Ppv in Fig. 5. Due to the presence of PV parasitic capacitances
Cdc = (1) (CPVg ), a leakage current flows through the power
2 ∗ ωgrid ∗ Vdc ∗ Δvdc
electronic interface [29]. This leakage current poses
where ω g is the grid angular frequency, Ppv is the power output serious safety issues [29] and must be kept under the
of the PV panel, Vdc is the average dc-link voltage, and Δvdc limits mentioned in Table VII. Various nonisolated
is the ripple in the dc-link voltage [32]. This equation gives the topologies are derived to address this issue [35]. These
theoretical minimum value of the capacitance and the following nonisolated converters are broadly classified into two
information can be inferred. groups, viz., symmetrical inductor-based inverters
1) With the increase in the PV power, for fixed dc-link voltage (L1 = L2 ) and asymmetrical inductor-based inverters (L1
and Δvdc , capacitance requirement increases. ࣔ L2 ). These symmetrical inductors based topologies are
2) Similar decoupling can be achieved with a smaller capac- further divided into two types.
itor if dc-link voltage is higher. a) DC decoupling network based (decoupling network
3) To have a very small ripple in the dc-link voltage (Δvdc ), is inserted between the converter and the dc link).
the dc-link capacitance is increased. b) AC decoupling network based (decoupling network is
The size of this decoupling capacitor affects the power density inserted between the converter and the filter network).
of the converter. To reduce the capacitor size, there are several 2) Due to the small size of roof-top PV installations, the
advanced power decoupling circuits and methods [37] presented available voltage of the PV panel is very low. This puts a
in the literature. A review of the various power decoupling severe restriction on the PV output voltage. High voltage
methods is reported in [38]. gain power stages [44] are required to convert this low dc
voltage to higher ac output (230 V). A detailed classifica-
C. Filter tion of single stage PV inverter topologies is reported in
[45], [46]. Various single stage high gain topologies are
The grid side converter of the PV plant is a pulsewidth
compared on the basis of power rating, efficiency, THD,
modulated inverter, and it produces harmonics in the order of
and cost, etc. [45], [46].
switching frequency [39], as shown in Fig. 4. These harmonics
cannot be injected directly into the power system, and the PV
plant must adhere to the limits specified in Section II. An LPF is E. Summary and Future Scope
used at the output of the PV plant to reduce harmonic injection Work reported in the literature on power interface aims at
[40]. This filter must provide the following [40]: developing new topologies utilizing modern semiconductor de-
1) high attenuation at switching frequency (–40 db); vices. These wide band gap devices have very fast commutation
2) unit gain at the fundamental frequency; and better thermal performance, which result in higher efficiency
3) robustness toward external parameter variations; and power density. The efficiency of a few different topologies
4) improved damping and low EMI; is presented in Table VIII. As given in Table VIII, in general, the
5) minimal voltage drop and power loss in the filter. efficiency of single-stage topologies is higher compared to their
There are three different types of filter which are popularly two stage counterparts. The efficiency of the nonisolated topolo-
used. L-filter, L-C filter, and L-C-L filter. Proper methods to gies is relatively higher as compared to the transformer-based
design the output filters and their effect on the overall dynamics topologies. Smart inverter is a future area of research where
of the system is discussed in [40]–[43]. the inverter provides reactive power support and modern grid
functionalities. Decoupling capacitor size reduction is another
D. Isolation Transformer important area of research.
The PV plant is typically connected to the grid via an LC filter
IV. GRID SYNCHRONIZATION
and isolation transformer, as shown in Fig. 4. A transformer is
generally used as a direct solution to the grounding and leakage The voltage amplitude (V), frequency (f), and phase (ϕ) of
current problem. This transformer can also be utilized to provide the PV plant must be matched closely to those of the grid
voltage amplification. Depending on the transformer used, the before they can be interconnected. These quantities are also used

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
PANIGRAHI et al.: GRID INTEGRATION OF SMALL-SCALE PV SYSTEMS IN SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION NETWORK 3185

Fig. 4. Generic structure of a boost-VSI based small scale grid-feeding PV plant along with the output filter and isolation transformer.

TABLE VIII
COMPARISON OF EFFICIENCY AND THD OF A FEW POPULAR SINGLE STAGE AND TWO STAGE TOPOLOGIES

in the estimated quantities. These types of PLLs, in general,

provide no information about grid voltage amplitude [63].
To mitigate these shortcomings, different filtering methods
are investigated in the literature. A typical pPLL with added
filter is shown in Fig. 8. Based on the filter introduced, the pPLL
is further classified into LPF-based pPLL [66], NF-based pPLL
[67], MAF-based pPLL [68], DFAC-based pPLL [69], etc. For
rejecting the double frequency disturbance, the LPF must have a
Fig. 5. Pictorial representation of grounding issue in a typical non-isolated
PV interface and probable solution methodologies. low cutoff frequency. This low cutoff frequency makes the tran-
sient behavior of the PLL loop sluggish. In the case of NF-based
pPLL, the notch bandwidth is decided by the expected variation
to continuously monitor the grid conditions. Hence, exact and of the grid frequency. In DFAC-pPLL, the double frequency
rapid determination of amplitude, phase, and frequency of the disturbance term is compensated by the addition of equal and
grid voltage is essential. With more stringent grid codes and opposite double frequency component. This method is known
standards (see Section II), the requirement for proper synchro- as DFAC, and pPLL is known as DFAC based pPLL. In [63],
nization unit is in peak demand. Different grid synchroniza- the performance of different pPLLs is compared extensively and
tion methods based on zero crossing detection [59], Kalman the DFAC-based pPLL is recommended. It is due to the fact that
filtering [60], artificial neural network [61], frequency locked DFAC-based pPLLs completely eliminates the second harmonic
loop [62], and PLL [63], etc., are proposed in the literature. A disturbance and provides a satisfactory tradeoff between filtering
detailed classification of various grid synchronization methods is ability, dynamic performance, and computational complexity.
shown in Fig. 6. Among these, PLL-based grid synchronization SRF-PLL, as shown in Fig. 9, is popularly used in 3-ph
methods are popular in the power electronics domain due to applications. In the case of 3-ph systems, Park’s transformation
their design simplicity, robustness, and satisfactory performance can directly be used to obtain d–q components from the sensed
[64], [65]. three-phase information (a, b, c). However, as the number of
PLLs are typically of two types, as shown in Fig. 6, 1) pPLL variables available in a single phase system is less compared to
and 2) OSG based. The pPLL are commonly used in the field of that in case of a 3-ph system, SRF-PLL cannot be used directly.
communication and also being used in different power electronic These PLLs require a set of mutually exclusive vectors (α, β) to
systems. A block diagram of a pPLL is shown in Fig. 7. The basic transform the information into the d–q domain [70]. Typically,
operational principle of the pPLL is based on the fact that the an OSG, as shown in Fig. 10, is used to synthesize two per-
sensed grid voltage vgrid is multiplied by the estimated voltage. pendicular components (α, β) from the available single-phase
Due to this multiplication, the double frequency error is present information [65].

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
3186 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 56, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2020

Fig. 6. Classification of grid synchronization techniques with a special focus on PLLs.

Fig. 11. Block diagram representation of orthogonal signal generator based

on (a) time delay and (b) derivative blocks.

Fig. 7. Block diagram representation of a typical product type PLL (pPLL).

Fig. 12. Block diagram of SOGI-based orthogonal signal generator where the
shaded portion represents a conventional SOGI.
Fig. 8. Block diagram representation of a product type PLL (pPLL) with
additional second harmonic filter.

conditions. To address this issue, ETD-PLL and VTD-PLL are

developed. In ETD-PLL, an additional delay signal cancellation
block is used. Whereas, in VTD-PLL, the TD (T/4) is varied
following the grid frequency variation. The orthogonal signal
generation blocks of delay-based PLL and derivative-based PLL
are shown in Fig. 11(a) and (b), respectively. In derivative-based
PLLs, a differentiator is used to generate the quadrature compo-
Fig. 9. Block diagram representation of a typical three-phase SRF-PLL.
nent. This differentiator is, typically, evaluated using backward
difference. This makes degrades the noise immunity of the PLL
circuit.
SOGIs are popularly used to extract a particular frequency
component from a polluted signal. But with certain additions, it
can also be used as an orthogonal signal generator as shown in
Fig. 12. The shaded portion in the figure represents a conven-
Fig. 10. Block diagram representation of a single-phase SRF-PLL. tional SOGI. The TD-based PLL suffers from grid frequency
variation. However, the SOGI-PLL is less prone to the grid
frequency variation due to the presence of the frequency feed-
Based on the OSG used, SRF-PLLs are classified into differ- back term. This extra feedback makes the dynamics slower, and
ent types, viz., time/transfer delay based [64], derivative based requires more accurate design. Another variation of SOGI-PLL
[71], and SOGI-based [72] PLL. In transfer delay-based PLL, known as FFSOGI-PLL [73] is also found in the literature. A
the quadrature signal is obtained by delaying the original signal detailed review and performance analysis of various OSG-based
by T/4, where T is the fundamental period. This delay makes PLLs are reported in [63], [65], and [74]. The voltage at the LV
the TD-PLL frequency dependent. The delayed signal is not distribution network is far from sinusoidal. Hence, the funda-
orthogonal to the original signal in off nominal grid frequency mental must be extracted from the polluted voltage waveform.

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
PANIGRAHI et al.: GRID INTEGRATION OF SMALL-SCALE PV SYSTEMS IN SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION NETWORK 3187

Fig. 13. Complete control architecture of a PV plant.

Fig. 14. Classification of controllers used in PV plant.

Thus, the SOGI-OSG-based PLL is most suited for small-scale V. CONTROL FOR THE POWER INTERFACE
roof-top PV applications. In [75] generalized delayed signal
As discussed in Section I, the control objective associated with
superposition capable of extracting any harmonic information PV plants is twofold. 1) Ensure maximum power extraction and
is proposed. This is further applied in a PLL (MGDSS-PLL)
2) proper conditioning of injected current [79]. Typically, the PV
to track multiple harmonics alongside the fundamental. In [71],
side converter is responsible for maximum power point tracking,
both frequency adaptive and nonadaptive delayed signal cance- and the grid side converter is responsible for synchronization and
lation based PLLs for single phase application are introduced.
grid interaction. Irrespective of the topology used, the control
These PLLs completely rejects the dc and harmonics present in
of a PV plant can be divided into two parts, ac side control,
the grid voltage. An adaptive filter-based PLL is reported in [77]. and dc side control, as shown in Figs. 13 and 14. The ac side
This PLL is capable of providing high disturbance rejection to
controller (grid side control) is used to control the switching of
subharmonics and interharmonics. the inverter to achieve grid synchronization, control the dc-link
voltage, power quality, islanding, reactive power control, and
A. Summary and Future Scope meet the grid standards. The dc side controller is responsible
for operating the PV panel at the maximum power point by
The major objective of the grid synchronization methods controlling the voltage across the PV panel (Vpv ).
has been to balance the tradeoff between grid synchroniza-
tion accuracy and circuit complexity. For integration with the
A. AC Side Controller
secondary distribution network, grid synchronization methods
must be tested for weak and distorted grid voltage conditions. The ac side control consists of two control loops, viz., outer
The research on synchronization methods should also focus on voltage and inner current loop. The outer voltage loop is a
removing the requirement of grid voltage sensors for synchro- feed-forward structure and is implemented to maintain the
nization purpose [78]. dc-link voltage (VDC ) constant. This voltage loop has slower

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
3188 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 56, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2020

dynamics compared to the current loop and produces a reference TABLE IX

COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT CURRENT CONTROLLERS
for the inner current loop. The current loop has fast dynamics
and is responsible for grid interactions [80]. Hence, the control
of reactive power, power quality requirements, and protection
of the system are the objectives of this inner current loop.
Typically, the power fed into the grid is controlled by control-
ling the current output of the inverter. As this current is a sinusoid
time-varying quantity, it can be represented as a phasor rotating
with an angular frequency ω with respect to a stationary refer-
ence frame. As reported in [81], the current controllers designed
in stationary reference frame have poor tracking performance
resulting significant steady-state error in both amplitude and
phase. To achieve better steady-state performance, the current
controller is designed in the SRF.
The SRF consists of two orthogonal axes, namely, d-axis
and q-axis that are synchronized with the grid voltage phasor,
i.e., this reference frame rotates with an angular velocity of ω.
Control implemented in this rotating reference frame is also
known as SRF control. Hence, as shown in Fig. 14, based on the
reference frame the current controllers can be divided into two
categories 1) NRF control and 2) SRF control. The complete
control architecture of a PV plant, along with all its component,
is shown in Fig. 13. The complete structure of the ac side control,
as shown in this figure, can be divided into four different sections
as discussed below. designed to calculate the current reference without the dc-link
1) Signal Conditioning (Sensed to α–β and α–β to d–q): The voltage information.
signal conditioning part is responsible for sensing the grid volt- 3) Current Controller: The current controller, as shown in
age/current and converting them to a form suitable for controller Fig. 14, can be classified into several types. Typically, in SRF
input. This conditioning depends on the type of controller used control, two PI controllers will suffice. A detailed method to
and also on the implementation method. In the case of SRF con- design these controllers and their performance is discussed in
trol, the time-varying voltage and current phasors are converted [81] and [86]. In NRF control, PI controller cannot track the
to synchronously rotating reference frame (d–q). In case of NRF sinusoidal current reference exactly. Hence, a PR controller is
control, though no conversion is required, the sensed signal is used [87]. More advanced controllers like, dead-beat controller
scaled, and level shifted depending on the implementation of [88], and various nonlinear controllers [83] are also found in
the controller. For example, as most of the digital controllers literature. A comparison of different current controllers and
receive the input in the range of 0–3.3 V, the voltage signal must their advantages and disadvantages is listed in Table IX [80],
be scaled, and level shifted before it can be fed into the device [83]. Ideally, the injected current does not have any lower order
[82]. harmonics. However, due to various nonidealities such as the
2) Voltage Controller: The dc-link voltage controller is used presence of dead band and magnetizing currents, the injected
to maintain a constant dc-link voltage. This ensures that the current may have lower order harmonics. To address this issue,
maximum power extracted by the dc–dc converter is completely an adaptive harmonic compensation technique with a PRI con-
fed into the grid, obeying capacitor charge balance. Note that troller is reported in [89].
there is no external power reference (P∗) in case of grid feeding The research till now mostly focuses on improving the in-
PV systems as the power fed into the grid is decided by the MPPT jected grid current quality irrespective of the grid voltage pro-
controller. Typically, a PI controller is used as the dc-link con- file. With the requirement of advanced grid functionalities, the
troller [84]. A self-tuned adaptive dc-link controller to improve current controller must also be able to support reactive power
the transient response of the voltage loop is proposed in [84]. control and harmonic mitigation [90]. The future research may
This controller ensures a fast transient response, low fluctuation focus on achieving the aforementioned qualities with a lower
in the dc-link voltage, and low THD in the grid current. This implementation complexity and without affecting the system
fast response also helps the inverter during the ride through dynamics.
operation. A single loop control method is reported in [85] that 4) PWM Block: PWM or pulsewidth modulation is a special
utilizes the available PPV information to derive the grid current way of controlling inverter switches to remove the low-order
reference. harmonics in the output. Most widely used PWM strategies
The cost of voltage sensor used for dc-link voltage sensing are carrier based where the switching signals are obtained
is very high. The overall system cost may be reduced by elimi- by comparing a reference (modulating) signal with a high-
nating the voltage sensor. Hence, the outer voltage loop may be frequency carrier signal. These techniques are chosen based on

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
PANIGRAHI et al.: GRID INTEGRATION OF SMALL-SCALE PV SYSTEMS IN SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION NETWORK 3189

the tradeoff between low harmonic distortion, the shape of the 1) Summary and Future Scope: The ac side controller is de-
harmonic spectrum, and minimum switching loss. A review of signed to achieve the highest injected current quality and proper
all modulation techniques is provided in [91]. To further improve tracking of the reference signal. The dc side controller should
the inverter performance, PWM methods such as closed-loop ensure maximum extraction efficiency. In recent times, the main
modulation technique [92], modulation schemes to reduce the research focus has been to design controllers capable of advance
leakage current, and modulation techniques with reactive power grid functionalities. Future research must focus on advanc-
capabilities [93] are reported in the literature. However, these ing these methods and developing various sensorless schemes
methods are mostly applicable to the nonisolated topologies. while achieving better performance at a lower implementation
PWM schemes must be developed to reduce the switch stress complexity.
and the harmonic power loss. PWM schemes can also be made
adaptive to reduce the dead band between the switching of the VI. RESPONSE TO ABNORMAL GRID CONDITIONS
same leg devices. This will minimize the dead band which in
In all the previous sections, the normal operation of the grid
turn will increase the injected current quality.
feeding small-scale PV plant is discussed. However, the PV plant
must be designed to behave suitably during faults and voltage
B. DC Side Controller fluctuations occurring in the power system. Based on the fault
The dc-side controller is responsible for the maximum power type and location, three major situations are encountered by the
point tracking. The power output of the solar panel changes with PV plant as discussed below.
variation in the solar insolation. Hence, to track the maximum
power point voltage across the PV panel must be changed. As the A. Islanding Detection
voltage across the dc link (VDC ) is constant, the voltage across Islanding is a condition in which a section of the power system
the PV panel (VPV ) can be changed by varying the duty cycle remains energized even if they are isolated from the rest of the
(D) of the boost converter obeying, Vpv = VDC ∗ (1 − D). power network [101]. In case of fault in the power system, the
A variety of maximum power point tracking methods are faulty section is isolated using circuit breakers. In conventional
proposed in the literature [94]. Among these methods, FOV [95], power systems, with no active source in the distribution net-
P&O/hill climbing [96], IC [97], FLC, RCC [98], and SMC work, the isolation of the faulty section is enough. However,
[99] are very popular. In the FOV method, the MPP voltage in active distribution networks (distribution network having
(Vmpp ) is calculated by using Vmpp = K∗ VOC , where K is renewable sources), even though the conventional sources are
a constant, and it varies between 0.78 and 0.92. This method disconnected, the grid feeding PV plants still feed power to the
is the simplest of all the methods. In P&O method, a small fault. As the utility does not have any control over the islanded
perturbation is applied either in the voltage (ΔVpv ) or the duty area, significant variations in voltage and/or frequency occur.
cycle. The change in output power (ΔPpv ) corresponding to This can damage the equipment and poses a severe safety issue
this perturbation is recorded. If ΔPpv is positive, then pertur- for consumers and utility workers. Therefore, islanding must
bation is in the right direction. Otherwise, the direction of the be detected as soon as possible, and the islanded PVs must be
perturbation is changed. The efficiency of this method depends disconnected. This scheme is called anti-islanding protection.
mainly on the perturbation magnitude and the time step. In the Islanding detection methods [101]–[117] are broadly classi-
IC method, MPP is tracked by comparing the instantaneous con- fied into two groups: 1) communication-based methods and 2)
ductance (IPV /VPV ) to the IC (ΔIPV /ΔVPV ). ΔV ΔIPV
PV
= − VIPV
PV DG resident methods, as shown in Fig. 15. Communication-
IPV
represents operation at MPP. Similarly, ΔV ΔIPV
PV
> − VPV and based methods consist of power line carrier communication
IPV
ΔVPV < − VPV represent operation at left and right of MPP,
ΔIPV
scheme [102], transfer trip scheme [103], supervisory control
respectively. In RCC, the ripple imposed by the power converter and data acquisition. These techniques have zero NDZ, zero
is utilized to track the MPP. As this inherent switching frequency impact on power quality and system transients, high reliability,
ripple is used to track the MPP, this method does not require and works efficiently in multiple DG systems. However, they
additional perturbation to be applied. Intelligent MPPT methods are costly and involve many design complications.
such as FLC, and SMC, etc., provide high extraction efficiency DG resident methods are subgrouped as passive and active
but requires complex controllers. Detailed performance analysis methods. In passive methods [101], [104], the variation in
and comparison of various MPP tracking methods are discussed grid quantities is continuously measured and observed. Exam-
in [94]. For small-scale PVs, typically, cheap and low complexity ples of passive techniques are over /under voltage protection,
MPPT techniques are preferred. This is also supported by the over/under frequency protection, the ROCOF, and THD method,
fact that, in general, the roof top PVs have one panel. Hence, etc. Passive detection techniques are cost-effective, have fast
inter panel power mismatch and partial shading are minimal. detection speed and does not have any power quality impact
However, in multipanel systems, it is impossible to avoid partial on the system. However, these methods have a finite NDZ. A
shading and other power mismatch conditions. In this case, the detailed review of passive islanding methods is reported in [101]
presence of multiple local maxima on the P–V curve affects and [104].
the tracking performance. A detailed performance analysis of In active islanding detection methods, an external disturbance
various MPPT techniques based on tracking characteristics is is injected into the grid and based on the response, islanding is
reported in [100]. detected. Active islanding methods, as they inject disturbance

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
3190 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 56, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2020

Fig. 15. Classification of islanding detection methods used in PV plant.

TABLE X
ANTI-ISLANDING PROTECTION AND RECONNECTION

Fig. 16. Fault characteristic of a DG plant.

into the grid, affects the power quality. Among these active
techniques, PLL-based methods [105], HI-based methods [106],
[107], GI-based methods [108], [109], frequency drift method
[110], and voltage drift method [111], etc., are popular. A
detailed performance of various active islanding methods is
presented in [112].
The PV plant is expected to reconnect to the grid once the
disturbance is eliminated. Table X shows the operating time,
clearing time, and attributes of islanding protection according
to various standards. Reigosa et al. [113] have used the inverter
nonlinearities, caused by the presence of dead band between
inverter switches, as a mean to detect islanding. Haider et al.
[114] measure an index named selective harmonic distortion
using Kalman filter and use it for detecting islanding. Detailed
Fig. 17. Block diagram representation of reference calculator in PV plant.
evolution and performance evaluation of various islanding de-
tection methods is reported in [115]–[117].

In Italy, PV systems higher than 6 kW are expected to provide

B. Low Voltage Ride Through grid support. Currently, grid codes are modified to provide
In the last section, it is discussed that the PV plant is discon- ancillary services such as controlled active power, steady-state
nected during a fault in the grid. But most faults in the power voltage regulation, Fault/ Low voltage ride through, etc. LVRT
system network are temporary in nature. In high PV penetration violates anti-islanding. Fig. 16 shows the region for which LVRT
scenarios, the disconnection of PVs may lead to severe voltage is incorporated [119]. Different integration standards dictate
and dynamic stability issues. Hence, next generation PV plants different values for V1 –V3 and T1 –T5 . During LVRT operation,
are expected to stay connected during temporary faults and the injected grid current reference is modified to feed reactive
provide support during postfault recovery. This ability of PV power into the grid. The modified control architecture is shown
plants to support the grid during voltage sag is known as LVRT in Fig. 17. The reactive power reference (Q∗ ) is calculated by
[79], [118]. Q controller based on the sag in the grid voltage. This Q∗ is fed

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
PANIGRAHI et al.: GRID INTEGRATION OF SMALL-SCALE PV SYSTEMS IN SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION NETWORK 3191

Fig. 18. Calculation of reactive power reference during voltage sag.

to a reference calculator which calculates the reference for the

inner current loop.
Fig. 19. (a) Conventional and (b) resilient operation of distribution system.
Depending on the calculation of grid current reference, the
reactive power injection method is classified into four types
[120], which are as follows:
1) constant active power control; conditions and withstand and rapidly recover from disruptions
2) constant current control; [130]. In other words, resiliency can be defined as “the ability of
3) constant peak current control; the power network to withstand high impact unfavorable events
4) thermal optimization control. and adapt the system to minimize the damage in successive
A review of various reactive power injection strategies is events of similar strength” [131]–[134]. To achieve these re-
discussed in [121]. With the change in active power fed into quirements, the resilient system downgrades its functionality
the grid, the dc-link voltage shoots up instantaneously. Various and alters its structure in an agile way [131]–[134].
methods to keep the dc-link voltage within the allowable limit Efficient and fast restoration, after extreme events, is an
are reported in [121] and [122]. In [123], a hybrid structured important step to increase the resiliency of the distribution
PLL is used to achieve LVRT. The sliding mode-based control system. Reconfiguration has traditionally been the main means
approach is reported in [124]. Two different algorithms, viz. of restoration. However, the presence of distributed generators
FTSMC and PBSMC were implemented. FTSMC enhances the on the distribution network reduces vulnerabilities caused by
LVRT capability of the dc–dc converter and PBSMC governs the centralized generation. To facilitate the resiliency in the
the postfault recovery of dc–ac converter. The amount of reactive distribution system, the operation of the PV systems needs to be
power to be fed during the LVRT operation is decided by the modified to support energy availability during extreme events.
grid voltage level and inverter VA capabilities [125]. A pictorial This may require operating the grid-connected PV in islanded
representation of this philosophy is shown in Fig. 18. As dis- mode [135], [136]. Though the actual implementation is much
cussed previously, the simultaneous implementation of islanding more complex, the concept of resiliency in distribution networks
and LVRT is necessary for proper grid integration [126], [127]. can be explained by Fig. 19. During catastrophic events, the grid
Similar to LVRT, HVRT is also a requirement PV plant in high power supply is unavailable. Hence, the distribution network
PV penetration scenarios. In the daytime when the PV output is changes its structure, from Fig. 19(a), and only the critical loads
maximum and the load on the power system is minimum, the are supplied by the PVs, as shown in Fig. 19(b). In this case,
grid voltage may swell above its nominal value. In this condition, the PV plants operate in islanded mode and are responsible for
the PVs are not allowed to feed the maximum power to the grid maintaining the voltage. The critical load is shared by the PVs
and must curtail their output. During this HVRT/constant power depending on their capacity. Similar to the islanded microgrids
operation mode, the PV no longer operates at the MPP. Various [137]–[139], control schemes such as single master operation,
constant power generation strategies and their performance are multi master operation, secondary load-frequency control, droop
reported in [128]. Different smart-inverters are developed to concept, etc., may be explored to achieve this operation.
accommodate advance functionalities such as islanding, LVRT, Resiliency of a system is also affected by the availability of
HVRT, reactive power support, etc. These smart inverters are DG resources, storage availability, and critical load demand, etc.
expected to have fault ride through, reactive power sharing, Much research is expected in this field to explore various engi-
decentralized control, ramp rate control, communication, and neering and economic aspects of resiliency. There is also a need
condition monitoring capabilities [129]. to develop standards and guidelines to incorporate resiliency into
existing distribution networks.
1) Summary and Future Scope: The major objective of all
C. Resiliency
the protection features is to ensure the safe operation at varying
The U.S. Department of Energy defines resiliency as the grid conditions. The objective of the islanding detection methods
ability of the power system or its component to adapt to changing is to reduce the nondetection zone without affecting the power

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
3192 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 56, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2020

quality. Similarly, all the LVRT algorithms focus on providing [15] "Revision of cumulative targets under national solar mission from 20,000
dynamic grid support without violating the system boundary MW by 2021-22 to 1,00,000 MW.” 2015. [Online]. Available: http://pib.
nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid = 122566
conditions, and without affecting the system lifetime. The re- [16] R. Panigrahi, S. K. Mishra, and S. C. Srivastava, “Grid integration of
search should focus on ensuring proper coordination between small-scale photovoltaic systems-a review,” in Proc. IEEE Ind. Appl.
the islanding and LVRT operations and developing algorithms Soc. Annu. Meeting, 2018, pp. 1–8.
[17] M. Smith and D. Ton, “Key connections: The U.S. Department of En-
to ensure system safety during various grid scenarios. Similarly, ergy’s Microgrid initiative,” IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 11, no. 4,
the resiliency studies must also be carried out to improve system pp. 22–27, Jul./Aug. 2013.
reliability irrespective of the distribution system topology. [18] Y. K. Wu, J. H. Lin, and H. J. Lin, “Standards and guidelines for grid-
connected photovoltaic generation systems: A review and comparison,”
IEEE Trans. Ind Appl., vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 3205–3216, Jul./Aug. 2017.
[19] IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources With Electric
VII. CONCLUSION Power Systems, IEEE Std 1547-2003, Jul. 2003.
[20] Photovoltaic (PV) Systems—Characteristics of the Utility Interface, IEC
In this article, various aspects of a grid feeding small-scale 61727-2004, 2004.
PV plant are discussed. Different standards to regulate the grid [21] Recommended Practice for Utility Interface of Photovoltaic Systems,
integration are summarized. Variations in power stage con- IEEE Std 929-2000, 2000.
[22] Power Generation Systems Connected to the Low-Voltage Distribution
figuration of grid-connected PV system is explored. Different Network—Technical Minimum Requirements for the Connection to and
grid synchronization methods and control philosophies are also Parallel Operation With Low-Voltage Distribution Networks, VDE-AR-
discussed at length. The article surveys various technical re- N 4105-2011, 2011.
[23] Rule 21 Generating Facility Interconnections, California Public Utilities
quirements for integration of the roof-top PV into the existing Commission (CPUC), San Francisco, CA, USA, 2014.
low voltage distribution network and identifies some important [24] Grid Connection of Energy Systems via Inverters Part 1: Installation
research gaps. This article will help freshman researchers to gain Requirements, Council of Standards Australia, AS 4777.1-2005, 2005.
[25] Grid Connection of Energy Systems via Inverters Part 2: Inverter Re-
some familiarity with the topic and introduce them to some of quirements, Council of Standards Australia, AS 4777.2-2005, 2005.
the key issues encountered in this field. [26] Grid Connection of Energy Systems via Inverters Part 3: Grid Protection
Requirements, Council of Standards Australia, AS 4777.3-2005, 2005.
[27] M. F. McGranaghan, S. Santoso, H. W. Beaty, and R. C. Dugan, Electrical
REFERENCES Power Systems Quality, 3rd ed. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill, 2012.
[28] IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources With Electric
[1] J. Fan and S. Borlase, “The evolution of distribution,” IEEE Power Energy Power Systems - Amendment 1, IEEE Std 1547a-2014 (Amendment to
Mag., vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 63–68, Mar./Apr. 2009. IEEE Std 1547-2003), May 2014.
[2] J. M. Carrasco et al., “Power electronic systems for the grid integration of [29] E. Gubía, P. Sanchis, A. Ursúa, J. López, and L. Marroyo, “Ground
renewable energy sources: A survey,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 53, currents in single-phase transformerless photovoltaic systems,” Prog.
no. 4, pp. 1002–1016, Jun. 2006. Photovolt. Res. Appl., vol. 15, pp. 629–650, 2007, doi:10.1002/pip.761
[3] F. Bouhafs, M. Mackay, and M. Merabti, “Links to the future: Com- [30] IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality,
munication requirements and challenges in the smart grid,” IEEE Power IEEE Std 1159-1995, 1995.
Energy Mag., vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 24–32, Jan./Feb. 2012. [31] F. Blaabjerg, Z. Chen, and S. B. Kjaer, “Power electronics as efficient
[4] L. Maurer, A. Stevens, and W. Reder, “Tales from the frontline: Keys to interface in dispersed power generation systems,” IEEE Trans. Power
successful self-healing distribution projects,” IEEE Power Energy Mag., Electron., vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 1184–1194, Sep. 2004.
vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 100–106, Mar./Apr. 2012. [32] S. B. Kjaer, J. K. Pedersen, and F. Blaabjerg, “A review of single-phase
[5] F. Li et al., “Distribution pricing: are we ready for the smart grid?” IEEE grid-connected inverters for photovoltaic modules,” IEEE Trans. Ind
Power Energy Mag., vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 76–86, Jul./Aug. 2015. Appl., vol. 41, no. 5, pp. 1292–1306, Sep./Oct. 2005.
[6] EIA (U.S. Energy Information Administration), Annual Energy Outlook [33] D. Meneses, F. Blaabjerg, Ó. García, and J. A. Cobos, “Review and
2018 With Projections to 2050. Washington, DC, USA: U.S. Dept. comparison of step-up transformerless topologies for photovoltaic AC-
Energy, Feb. 6, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/ module application,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 28, no. 6,
aeo/pdf/AEO2018.pdf pp. 2649–2663, Jun. 2013.
[7] Annual Technology Baseline, Nat. Renewable Energy Lab., Golden, CO, [34] Q. Li and P. Wolfs, “A review of the single phase photovoltaic module in-
USA, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://atb.nrel.gov/ tegrated converter topologies with three different DC link configurations,”
[8] J. T. Bialasiewicz, “Renewable energy systems with photovoltaic power IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 1320–1333, May 2008.
generators: Operation and modeling,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, [35] W. Li, Y. Gu, H. Luo, W. Cui, X. He, and C. Xia, “Topology review
no. 7, pp. 2752–2758, Jul. 2008. and derivation methodology of single-phase transformerless photovoltaic
[9] MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy), Grid Connected inverters for leakage current suppression,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,
Power/Solar. 2018. [Online]. Available: https://mnre.gov.in/solar vol. 62, no. 7, pp. 4537–4551, Jul. 2015.
[10] S. Kouro, J. I. Leon, D. Vinnikov, and L. G. Franquelo, “Grid-connected [36] R. W. Erickson and D. Maksimovic, Fundamentals of Power Electronics,
photovoltaic systems: An overview of recent research and emerging PV 2nd ed. Norwell, MA, USA: Kluwer, 2001.
converter technology,” IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag., vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 47–61, [37] A. Gambhir, S. K. Mishra, and A. Joshi, “Power frequency harmonic
Mar. 2015. reduction and its redistribution for improved filter design in current-fed
[11] T. V. Thang, A. Ahmed, C. I. Kim, and J. H. Park, “Flexible system switched inverter,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 66, no. 6, pp. 4319–
architecture of stand-alone pv power generation with energy storage 4333, Jun. 2019.
device,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 1386–1396, [38] H. Hu, S. Harb, N. Kutkut, I. Batarseh, and Z. J. Shen, “A review of power
Dec. 2015. decoupling techniques for microinverters with three different decoupling
[12] O. Ray, S. Mishra, A. Joshi, V. Pradeep, and A. Tiwari, “Implemen- capacitor locations in PV systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 28,
tation and control of a bidirectional high-gain transformer-less stan- no. 6, pp. 2711–2726, Jun. 2013.
dalone inverter,” in Proc. IEEE Energy Convers. Congr. Expo., 2012, [39] N. Mohan, T. Undeland, and W. Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters
pp. 3233–3240. Applications and Design. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley, 1995.
[13] R. G. Yadav, A. Roy, S. A. Khaparde, and P. Pentayya, “India’s fast [40] S. B. Dewan and P. D. Ziogas, “Optimum filter design for a single-phase
growing power sector - from regional development to the growth of solid-state UPS system,” IEEE Trans. Ind Appl., vol. IA-15, no. 6,
a national grid,” IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 39–48, pp. 664–669, Nov. 1979.
Jul./Aug. 2005. [41] S. Jayalath and M. Hanif, “Generalized LCL-filter design algorithm
[14] F. Katiraei and J. R. Aguero, “Solar PV integration challenges,” IEEE for grid-connected voltage-source inverter,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,
Power Energy Mag., vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 62–71, May/Jun. 2011. vol. 64, no. 3, pp. 1905–1915, Mar. 2017.

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
PANIGRAHI et al.: GRID INTEGRATION OF SMALL-SCALE PV SYSTEMS IN SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION NETWORK 3193

[42] D. Dong et al., “A PV residential microinverter with grid-support func- [66] S. Golestan, F. D. Freijedo, and J. M. Guerrero, “A systematic approach
tion: Design, implementation, and field testing,” IEEE Trans. Ind Appl., to design high-order phase-locked loops,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron.,
vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 469–481, Jan./Feb. 2018. vol. 30, no. 6, pp. 2885–2890, Jun. 2015.
[43] Z. Zou, Z. Wang, and M. Cheng, “Modeling, analysis, and de- [67] F. D. Freijedo, J. Doval-Gandoy, O. Lopez, and C. Jacobo, “Robust
sign of multifunction grid-interfaced inverters with output LCL fil- phase locked loops optimized for DSP implementation in power quality
ter,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 29, no. 7, pp. 3830–3839, applications,” in Proc. IEEE 34th Annu. Conf. Ind. Electron. Soc., Nov.
Jul. 2014. 2008, pp. 2390–2395.
[44] S. Mishra, R. Adda, and A. Joshi, “Switched-boost inverter based on [68] S. Golestan, M. Ramezani, J. M. Guerrero, F. D. Freijedo, and
inverse Watkins-Johnson topology,” in Proc. IEEE Energy Convers. M. Monfared, “Moving average filter based phase-locked loops: Per-
Congr. Expo., 2011, pp. 4208–4211, doi: 10.1109/ECCE.2011.6064343. formance analysis and design guidelines,” IEEE Trans. Power. Electron.,
[45] K. Alluhaybi, I. Batarseh, H. Hu, and X. Chen, “Comprehensive review vol. 29, no. 6, pp. 2750–2763, Jun. 2014.
and comparison of single-phase grid-tied photovoltaic microinverters,” [69] S. Golestan, M. Monfared, F. D. Freijedo, and J. M. Guerrero, “Design and
in IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Topics Power Electron., to be published. tuning of a modified power-based PLL for single-phase grid-connected
[46] Y. P. Siwakoti, F. Z. Peng, F. Blaabjerg, P. C. Loh, and G. E. Town, power conditioning systems,” IEEE Trans. Power. Electron., vol. 27,
“Impedance-source networks for electric power conversion Part I: A topo- no. 8, pp. 3639–3650, Aug. 2012.
logical review,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 699–716, [70] V. Kaura and V. Blasko, “Operation of a phase locked loop system
Feb. 2015. under distorted utility conditions,” IEEE Trans. Ind Appl., vol. 33, no. 1,
[47] Y. Fang and X. Ma, “A novel PV microinverter with coupled inductors pp. 58–63, Jan./Feb. 1997.
and double-boost topology,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 25, no. 12, [71] A. Roshan, R. Burgos, A. C. Baisden, F. Wang and D. Boroyevich, “A
pp. 3139–3147, Oct. 2010. D-Q frame controller for a full-bridge single phase inverter used in small
[48] Y. Tang, X. Dong, and Y. He, “Active buck-boost inverter,” IEEE Trans. distributed power generation systems,” in Proc. 22nd Annu. IEEE Appl.
Ind. Electron., vol. 61, no. 9, pp. 4691–4697, Sep. 2014. Power Electron. Conf. Expo., 2007, pp. 641–647.
[49] R. Hasan, S. Mekhilef, M. Nakaoka, and K. Nishida, “Soft-switching [72] M. Ciobotaru, R. Teodorescu, and F. Blaabjerg, “A new single-phase
active-clamp flyback microinverter for PV applications,” IEEE 2nd Annu. PLL structure based on second order generalized integrator,” in Proc.
Southern Power Electronics Conf., 2016, pp. 1–6. 37th IEEE Power Electron. Spec. Conf., 2006, pp. 1–6.
[50] M. Gao, M. Chen, C. Zhang, and Z. Qian, “Analysis and implementation [73] F. Xiao, L. Dong, L. Li, and X. Liao, “A frequency-fixed SOGI-based
of an improved flyback inverter for photovoltaic AC module applica- PLL for single-phase grid-connected converters,” IEEE Trans. Power
tions,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 29, no. 7, pp. 3428–3444, Electron., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 1713–1719, Mar. 2017.
Jul. 2014. [74] S. Golestan, M. Monfared, F. D. Freijedo and J. M. Guerrero, “Dynamics
[51] O. Abdel-Rahim, M. Orabi, and M. E. Ahmed, “High gain single-stage assessment of advanced single-phase PLL structures,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
inverter for photovoltaic AC modules,” in Proc. Annu. IEEE Appl. Power Electron., vol. 60, no. 6, pp. 2167–2177, Jun. 2013.
Electron. Conf. Expo., 2011, pp. 1961–1967. [75] Y. Lu, G. Xiao, X. Wang, and F. Blaabjerg, “Grid synchronization with
[52] K. Chomsuwan, P. Prisuwanna, and V. Monyakul, “Photovoltaic grid- selective harmonic detection based on generalized delayed signal super-
connected inverter using two-switch buck-boost converter,” in Proc. IEEE position,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 33, no. 5, pp. 3938–3949,
Photovolt. Spec. Conf., 2002, pp. 1527–1530. May 2018.
[53] H. Chiu et al., “A module-integrated isolated solar micro-inverter,” IEEE [76] S. Golestan, J. M. Guerrero, J. C. Vasquez, A. M. Abusorrah, and
Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 781–788, Feb. 2013. Y. Al-Turki, “Advanced single-phase DSC-based PLLs,” IEEE Trans.
[54] W. J. Cha, Y. W. Cho, J. M. Kwon, and B. H. Kwon, “Highly efficient Power Electron., vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 3226–3238, Apr. 2019.
microinverter with soft-switching step-up converter and single-switch- [77] F. K. A. Lima, R. G. Araujo, F. L. Tofoli, and C. G. Castelo Branco,
modulation inverter,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 62, no. 6, pp. 3516– “A phase-locked loop algorithm for single-phase systems with inher-
3523, Jun. 2015. ent disturbance rejection,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 66, no. 12,
[55] Enphase.com, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://enphase.com/sites/ pp. 9260–9267, Dec. 2019.
default/files/downloads/support/IQ7X-DS-EN-US.pdf [78] S. Mukherjee, V. R. Chowdhury, P. Shamsi, and M. Ferdowsi, “Grid
[56] Anon, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://w3.usa.siemens.com/ voltage estimation and current control of a single-phase grid-connected
us/internetdms/btlv/Residential/Residential/docs_Home/SIE_DS_ converter without grid voltage sensor,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron.,
Microinverter_Data_Sheet_250.pdf vol. 33, no. 5, pp. 4407–4418, May 2018.
[57] Solarpanelsplus.com, 2018. [Online]. Available: http://www. [79] Y. Yang, P. Enjeti, F. Blaabjerg, and H. Wang, “Wide-scale adoption
solarpanelsplus.com/pdfs/Micro-inverter/MI250-240A.pdf of photovoltaic energy: Grid code modifications are explored in the
[58] Influxgreen.com., 2018. [Online]. Available: http://www.influxgreen. distribution grid,” IEEE Ind Appl. Mag., vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 21–31,
com/data/Micro%20PV%20Inverters%20Datasheets/IGSM-220% Sep./Oct. 2015.
20Datasheet.pdf [80] F. Blaabjerg, R. Teodorescu, M. Liserre, and A. V. Timbus, “Overview
[59] O. Vainio, S. J. Ovaska, and M. Polla, “Adaptive filtering using multi- of control and grid synchronization for distributed power generation
plicative general parameters for zero-crossing detection,” IEEE Trans. systems,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 53, no. 5, pp. 1398–1409,
Ind. Electron., vol. 50, no. 6, pp. 1340–1342, Dec. 2003. Oct. 2006.
[60] A. Routray, A. K. Pradhan, and K. P. Rao, “A novel Kalman filter for [81] M. Monfared, S. Golestan, and J. M. Guerrero, “Analysis, design, and
frequency estimation of distorted signals in power systems,” IEEE Trans. experimental verification of a synchronous reference frame voltage con-
Instrum. Meas., vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 469–479, Jun. 2002. trol for single-phase inverters,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 61, no. 1,
[61] L. L. Lai, C. T. Tse, W. L. Chan, and A. T. P. So, “Real-time frequency pp. 258–269, Jan. 2014.
and harmonic evaluation using artificial neural networks,” IEEE Trans. [82] R. Adda, O. Ray, S. Mishra, and A. Joshi, “DSP based PWM control
Power Del., vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 52–59, Jan. 1999. of switched boost inverter for DC nanogrid applications,” in Proc. 38th
[62] R. N. Dean and A. K. Rane, “A digital frequency-locked loop system for Annu. Conf. IEEE Ind. Electron. Soc., 2012, pp. 5285–5290.
capacitance measurement,” IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., vol. 62, no. 4, [83] M. L. Timbus, R. Teodorescu, P. Rodriguez, and F. Blaabjerg, “Evaluation
pp. 777–784, Apr. 2013. of current controllers for distributed power generation systems,” IEEE
[63] S. Golestan, J. M. Guerrero, and J. C. Vasquez, “Single-phase PLLs: A Trans. Power Electron., vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 654–664, Mar. 2009.
review of recent advances,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 32, no. 12, [84] M. Merai, M. W. Naouar, and I. Slama-Belkhodja, “An improved DC-
pp. 9013–9030, Dec. 2017. link voltage control strategy for grid connected converters,” IEEE Trans.
[64] S. Golestan, J. M. Guerrero, A. Vidal, A. G. Yepes, J. Doval-Gandoy, Power Electron., vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 3575–3582, Apr. 2018.
and F. D. Freijedo, “Small-signal modeling, stability analysis and design [85] N. E. Zakzouk, A. K. Abdelsalam, A. A. Helal, and B. W. Williams,
optimization of single-phase delay-based PLLs,” IEEE Trans. Power “PV single-phase grid-connected converter: DC-link voltage sensorless
Electron., vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 3517–3527, May 2016. prospective,” IEEE J. Emerg. Sel. Topics Power Electron., vol. 5, no. 1,
[65] Y. Han, M. Luo, X. Zhao, J. M. Guerrero, and L. Xu, “Comparative per- pp. 526–546, Mar. 2017.
formance evaluation of orthogonal-signal-generators-based single-phase [86] U. A. Miranda, L. G. B. Rolim, and M. Aredes, “A DQ synchronous
PLL algorithms—A survey,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 31, no. 5, reference frame current control for single-phase converters,” in Proc.
pp. 3932–3944, May 2016. IEEE 36th Power Electron. Spec. Conf., 2005, pp. 1377–1381.

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
3194 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. 56, NO. 3, MAY/JUNE 2020

[87] M. Castilla, J. Miret, J. Matas, L. Garcia de Vicuna, and J. M. Guerrero, [108] A. V. Timbus, R. Teodorescu, F. Blaabjerg, and U. Borup, “Online grid
“Control design guidelines for single-phase grid-connected photovoltaic impedance measurement suitable for multiple PV inverters running in
inverters with damped resonant harmonic compensators,” IEEE Trans. parallel,” in Proc. 21st Annu. IEEE Appl. Power Electron. Conf. Expo.,
Ind. Electron., vol. 56, no. 11, pp. 4492–4501, Nov. 2009. (APEC’ 06), Mar. 19–23, 2006, pp. 5.
[88] Y. Abdel-Rady Ibrahim Mohamed and E. F. El-Saadany, “An improved [109] M. Ciobotaru, R. Teodorescu, P. Rodriguez, A. Timbus, and F. Blaabjerg,
deadbeat current control scheme with a novel adaptive self-tuning load “Online grid impedance estimation for single-phase grid-connected sys-
model for a three-phase PWM voltage-source inverter,” IEEE Trans. Ind. tems using PQ variations,” in Proc. IEEE Power Electron. Spec. Conf.,
Electron., vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 747–759, Apr. 2007. Jun. 2007, pp. 2306–2312.
[89] A. Kulkarni and V. John, “Mitigation of lower order harmonics in a [110] W. Bower and M. Ropp, “Evaluation of islanding detection methods
grid-connected single-phase PV inverter,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., for utility-interactive inverters in photovoltaic systems,” Sandia Na-
vol. 28, no. 11, pp. 5024–5037, Nov. 2013. tional Labs, Albuquerque, NM, USA, SANDIA Rep. SAND2002-3591,
[90] X. Liang and C. Andalib -Bin- Karim, “Harmonics and mitigation tech- Nov. 2002. [Online]. Available: http://www.doe.gov/bridge
niques through advanced control in grid-connected renewable energy [111] L. A. C. Lopes, and H. Sun, “Performance assessment of active frequency
sources: A review,” IEEE Trans. Ind Appl., vol. 54, no. 4, pp. 3100–3111, drifting islanding detection methods,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers.,
Jul./Aug. 2018. vol. 21, no. 1, Mar. 2006, 171–180.
[91] D. G. Holmes and T. A. Lipo, Pulse Width Modulation for Power [112] G. Petrone, G. Spagnuolo, R. Teodorescu, M. Veerachary, and M. Vitelli,
Converters: Principles and Practice, vol. 18. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley, “Reliability issues in photovoltaic power processing systems,” IEEE
2003. Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 7, pp. 2569–2580, Jul. 2008.
[92] R. Ren, F. Zhang, B. Liu, F. Wang, Z. Chen, and J. Wu, “A closed loop [113] D. D. Reigosa, F. Briz, C. Blanco Charro, and J. M. Guerrero, “Passive
modulation scheme for duty cycle compensation of PWM voltage dis- islanding detection using inverter nonlinear effects,” IEEE Trans. Power
tortion at high switching frequency inverter,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., Electron., vol. 32, no. 11, pp. 8434–8445, Nov. 2017.
vol. 67, no. 2, pp. 1475–1486, Feb. 2020. [114] R. Haider, C. H. Kim, T. Ghanbari, and S. B. A. Bukhari, “Harmonic-
[93] T. K. S. Freddy, J. Lee, H. Moon, K. Lee, and N. A. Rahim, “Modulation signature-based islanding detection in grid-connected distributed genera-
technique for single-phase transformerless photovoltaic inverters with tion systems using Kalman filter,” IET Renewable Power Gener., vol. 12,
reactive power capability,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 64, no. 9, no. 15, pp. 1813–1822, 2018.
pp. 6989–6999, Sep. 2017. [115] N. Gupta and R. Garg, “Algorithm for islanding detection in photovoltaic
[94] B. Subudhi and R. Pradhan, “A comparative study on maximum power generator network connected to low-voltage grid,” IET Gener. Transmiss.
point tracking techniques for photovoltaic power systems,” IEEE Trans. Distrib., vol. 12, no. 10, pp. 2280–2287, 2018.
Sustain. Energy, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 89–98, Jan. 2013. [116] F. Valsamas, D. Voglitsis, N. Rigogiannis, N. Papanikolaou, and A. Kyrit-
[95] M. A. S. Masoum, H. Dehbonei, and E. F. Fuchs, “Theoretical and exper- sis, “Comparative study of active anti-islanding schemes compatible with
imental analyses of photovoltaic systems with voltage and currentbased MICs in the prospect of high penetration levels and weak grid conditions,”
maximum power point tracking,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 17, IET Gener. Transmiss. Distrib., vol. 12, no. 20, pp. 4589–4596, 2018.
no. 4, pp. 514–522, Dec. 2002. [117] S. K. G. Manikonda and D. N. Gaonkar, “Comprehensive review of IDMs
[96] Y. H. Lim and D. C. Hamill, “Simple maximum power point tracker in DG systems,” IET Smart Grid, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 11–24, 2019.
for photovoltaic arrays,” Electron. Lett., vol. 36, no. 11, pp. 997–999, [118] S. Mortazavian and Y. A. R. I. Mohamed, “Dynamic analysis and im-
2000. proved LVRT performance of multiple DG units equipped with grid-
[97] A. Garrigos, J. M. Blanes, J. A. Carrascoa, and J. B. Ejea, “Real time support functions under unbalanced faults and weak grid conditions,”
estimation of photovoltaic modules characteristics and its application to IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 33, no. 10, pp. 9017–9032, Oct. 2018.
maximum power point operation,” Renewable Energy, vol. 32, no. 6, [119] X. Liang and J. Hofman, “Trip curves and ride-through evaluation for
pp. 1059–1076, 2007. power electronic devices in power system dynamic studies,” in IEEE
[98] T. Esram, J. W. Kimball, P. T. Krein, P. L. Chapman, and P. Midya, Trans. Ind Appl., vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 1290–1296, Mar./Apr. 2016.
“Dynamic maximum power point tracking of photovoltaic arrays using [120] Y. Yang, H. Wang, and F. Blaabjerg, “Reactive power injection strategies
ripple correlation control,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 21, no. 5, for single-phase photovoltaic systems considering grid requirements,”
pp. 1282–1291, Sep. 2006. IEEE Trans. Ind Appl., vol. 50, no. 6, pp. 4065–4076, Nov./Dec. 2014.
[99] C.-C. Chu and C.-L. Chen, “Robust maximum power point tracking [121] G. Ding et al., “Adaptive DC-link voltage control of two-stage photo-
method for photovoltaic cells: A sliding mode control approach,” Sol. voltaic inverter during low voltage ride-through operation,” IEEE Trans.
Energy, vol. 83, no. 8, pp. 1370–1378, 2009. Power Electronics, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 4182–4194, Jun. 2016.
[100] A. K. Podder, N. K. Roy and H. R. Pota, “MPPT methods for solar PV [122] Y. Wang, B. Ren, and Q. Zhong, “Robust power flow control of
systems: A critical review based on tracking nature,” IET Renewable grid-connected inverters,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 63, no. 11,
Power Gener., vol. 13, no. 10, pp. 1615–1632, 2019. pp. 6887–6897, Nov. 2016.
[101] F. De Mango, M. Liserre, A. Dell’Aquila, and A. Pigazo, “Overview [123] H. A. Hamed, A. F. Abdou, E. H. E. Bayoumi, and E. E. EL-Kholy,
of anti-islanding algorithms for PV systems. Part I: Passive methods,” in “A fast recovery technique for grid-connected converters after short dips
Proc. 12th Int. Power Electron. Motion Conf., Aug. 2006, pp. 1878–1883. using a hybrid structure PLL,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 65, no. 4,
[102] M. Ropp et al., “Discussion of power line carrier communications-based pp. 3056–3068, Apr. 2018.
anti-islanding scheme using a commercial automatic meter reading sys- [124] A. Mojallal and S. Lotfifard, “Enhancement of grid connected PV arrays
tem,” in Proc.4th IEEE World Conf. Photovolt. Energy Convers., May fault ride through and post fault recovery performance,” IEEE Trans.
2006, pp. 2351–2354. Smart Grid, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 546–555, Jan. 2019.
[103] M. Liserre, T. Sauter and J. Y. Hung, “Integrating renewable energy [125] C. Tang, Y. Chen, and Y. Chen, “PV power system with multi-mode
sources into the smart power grid through industrial electronics,” IEEE operation and low-voltage ride-through capability,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
Ind. Electron. Mag., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 18–37, Mar. 2010. Electron., vol. 62, no. 12, pp. 7524–7533, Dec. 2015.
[104] Z. Ye, A. Kolwalkar, Y. Zhang, P. Du, and R. Walling, “Evaluation of anti- [126] M. Dietmannsberger, F. Grumm, and D. Schulz, “Simultaneous imple-
islanding schemes based on nondetection zone concept,” IEEE Trans. mentation of LVRT capability and anti-islanding detection in three-phase
Power Electron., vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 1171–1176, Sep. 2004. inverters connected to low-voltage grids,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers.,
[105] M. Ciobotaru, V. Agelidis, and R. Teodorescu, “Accurate and less- vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 505–515, Jun. 2017.
disturbing active anti-islanding method based on PLL for grid-connected [127] P. P. Das and S. Chattopadhyay, “A voltage-independent islanding detec-
PV inverters,” in Proc. IEEE Power Electron. Spec. Conf., Jun. 2008, tion method and low-voltage ride through of a two-stage PV inverter,”
pp. 4569–4576. IEEE Trans. Ind Appl., vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 2773–2783, May/Jun. 2018.
[106] M. Ciobotaru, R. Teodorescu, and F. Blaabjerg, “On-line grid impedance [128] A. Sangwongwanich, Y. Yang, F. Blaabjerg, and H. Wang, “Bench-
estimation based on harmonic injection for grid-connected PV inverter,” marking of constant power generation strategies for single-phase grid-
in Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Ind. Electron., Jun. 2007, pp. 2437–2442. connected photovoltaic systems,” IEEE Trans. Ind Appl., vol. 54, no. 1,
[107] F. Bertling and S. Soter, “A novel converter integrable impedance mea- pp. 447–457, Jan./Feb. 2018.
suring method for islanding detection in grids with widespread use of [129] B. Arbab-Zavar, E. Palacios-Garcia, J. Vasquez, and J. Guerrero, “Smart
decentral generation,” in Proc. Int. Symp. Power Electron., Elect. Drives, inverters for microgrid applications: A review,” Energies, vol. 12, no. 5,
Autom. Motion, 2006, pp. 503–507. Mar. 2019, Art. no. 840.

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
PANIGRAHI et al.: GRID INTEGRATION OF SMALL-SCALE PV SYSTEMS IN SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION NETWORK 3195

[130] “Quadrennial report,” United States Dept. Energy, Tech. Rep., 2015. Suresh C. Srivastava (Senior Member, IEEE) re-
[Online]. Available: https://www.energy.gov/quadrennial-technology- ceived the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from
review-2015 the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi, New
[131] “Enhancing distribution resiliency: Opportunities for applying innovative Delhi, India.
technologies,” in Proc. IEEE Elect. Power Res. Inst., Tech. Rep. 026889, He is currently serving as a Professor with the
2013. Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT Kanpur,
[132] S. Chanda and A. K. Srivastava, “Defining and enabling resiliency of Kanpur, India. His research interests include power
electric distribution systems with multiple microgrids,” IEEE Trans. system stability & security analysis, synchrophasor
Smart Grid, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 2859–2868, Nov. 2016. applications, power system restructuring, ac/dc mi-
[133] E. Hollnagel, D. D. Woods, and N. Leveson, Resilience Engineering: crogrid and smart grid.
Concepts and Precepts. Farnham, U.K.: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007. Dr. Srivastava is a fellow of the Indian National
[134] R. Arghandeh, A. von Meier, L. Mehrmanesh, and L. Mili, “On the Academy of Engineering (INAE), Institution of Engineers (India), Institution of
definition of cyber-physical resilience in power systems,” Renewable Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers (IETE), and Indian Academy of
Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 58, pp. 1060–1069, 2016. Mathematical Modeling and Simulation.
[135] Z. Bie, Y. Lin, G. Li, and F. Li, “Battling the extreme: A study on the
power system resilience,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 105, no. 7, pp. 1253–1266,
Jul. 2017.
[136] Y. Wang, C. Chen, J. Wang and R. Baldick, “Research on natural
disasters—A review,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 1604–
1613, Mar. 2016.
[137] I.Diahovchenko, G. Kandaperumal, and A. Srivastava, “Distribution
power system resiliency improvement using distributed generation and
automated switching,” in Proc. IEEE 6th Int. Conf. Energy Smart Syst.,
2019, pp. 126–131.
Anurag K. Srivastava (Senior Member, IEEE) re-
[138] S. Chanda, and A. K. Srivastava, “Quantifying resiliency of smart power
ceived the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering
distribution systems with distributed energy resources,” in Proc. IEEE from the Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago,
24th Int. Symp. Ind. Electron., 2015, pp. 766–771.
IL, USA, in 2005.
[139] J. A. P. Lopes, C. L. Moreira, and A. G. Madureira, “Defining control
He is an Associate Professor of electric power engi-
strategies for microgrids islanded operation,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst.,
neering with Washington State University, Pullman,
vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 916–924, May 2006. WA, USA, and the Director of the Smart Grid Demon-
stration and Research Investigation Lab within the
Energy System Innovation Center, Pullman. He has
Ramanuja Panigrahi (Student Member, IEEE) re- authored or coauthored more than 300 technical pub-
ceived the B.Tech. degree from the Biju Pattnaik lications including a book on power system security.
University of Technology, Odisha, India, in 2013, His research interests include data-driven algorithms for power system operation
and the M.Tech. degree in electrical engineering in and control.
2016 from the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur,
Kanpur, India, where he is currently working toward
the Ph.D. degree.
His research interests include design and control of
power converters, energy harvesting, power electron-
ics for advanced grid functionality, and integration of
photovoltaics in secondary distribution network.

Noel N. Schulz (Fellow, IEEE) received the B.S.E.E.

Santanu K. Mishra (Senior Member, IEEE) re- and M.S.E.E. degrees from the Virginia Polytechnic
ceived the B.Tech. degree in electrical engineering Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA,
from the College of Engineering and Technology, in 1988 and 1990, respectively, and the Ph.D. de-
Bhubaneswar, India, in 1998, the M.Tech. degree in gree in electrical engineering from the University of
energy systems engineering from the Indian Institute Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA, in 1995.
of Technology, Chennai, India, in 2000, and the Ph.D. She is the Edmund O. Schweitzer III Chair in
degree from the Department of Electrical and Com- Power Apparatus and Systems with the School
puter Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science,
FL, USA, in 2006. Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA.
He worked as a Senior Application Engineer with She has served as a Faculty Member with Mississippi
the International Rectifier Corporation, Rhode Island, State University, Michigan Tech, and a Paslay Professor of electrical and
USA, from 2004 to 2008. Currently, he is the MoSDE Chair Professor with the computer engineering with Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA, in
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India. During Fall of 2017, he was a the past. Her research interests include computer applications in power system
Visiting Professor with Center for Power Electronics Systems (CPES), Virginia operation including artificial intelligence techniques.
Tech., Blacksburg, VA, USA. His research interests include power converter Dr. Schulz is a member of SWE, Eta Kappa Nu, Tau Beta Pi, and a fellow of
design, implementation, control, and applications in rural scenario. the American Society of Engineering Education (ASEE). She has been active in
He serves as an Associate Editor of several journals including the IEEE the IEEE Power and Energy Society, and served as its President. She has been
TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON a recipient of the IEEE/PES Walter Fee Outstanding Young Power Engineer
POWER ELECTRONICS, IEEE CONSUMER ELECTRONICS MAGAZINE, and IET Award and the National Science Foundation CAREER Award.
Power Electronics.

Authorized licensed use limited to: REGINA (Peru). Downloaded on April 13,2021 at 00:02:18 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.