2

TOS 3: Unit 1: Fixed Beams and Continuous Beams and Torsion

1.a Fixed Beams:
1.a.1 Revising the Concept of Supports and Concept of Statical Determinacy from TOS 1:
 Definition: Support is a Physical Entity that offers Reactions to the loads acting on it.
 Simple Support: A simple support offers only one kind of reaction i.e. a Vertical Reaction.
 This support does not offer any reaction to Horizontal Loads
 This support does not offer any reaction to Moments.
 There are really no simple supports in a building but for sake of simplicity of calculation we
assume that single beams are simply supported on both sides.

 Fixed Support: A Fixed Support offers all the three Reactions i.e. Horizontal Reaction, Vertical Reaction and
Moment Reaction. The fixed support does not allow the rotation and translation motion to the structural
members. It is also called a Built In Support
 The fixed support is also called as rigid support.
 It provides the greater stability to the structure as compared to all other supports.
 A flagpole fixed in the concrete base is the best example of fixed support.
 The reactions acting in the fixed support is shown in the figure given below

 Statical Determinacy: Any structure with 3 or lesser than 3 unknowns can be resolved using the 3
equations of Equilibrium i.e. ΣFV= 0, ΣFH= 0 and ΣFM= 0. Such Structures are called Statically
Determinate Structures. Any structure with more than 3 unknowns cannot be resolved for the
Unknown Reactions using only these 3 equations. Such Structures are called Statically In-
Determinate Structures.
 Degree of Indeterminacy: The difference between the number of Unknown Reactions and
3(Number of equations) is called Degree of Indeterminacy.

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 3

1.a.2 Definitions:
1. A Simple Supported Beam is one with a single Span with Simple Supports at Both Ends
2. A Fixed Beam is one with a single Span with Fixed Supports at Both Ends

Let us now make a Comparative Study of Both the Beams

Simple Supported Beams Fixed Beams

Definition Simple Support at Both Ends Fixed Support at Both Ends

Reactions Only one vertical reaction at each end = Total Three reactions at each end. Horizontal, Vertical
2 Reactions and Moment. Total 6 Reactions

Statical Statically determinate structure. Statically Indeterminate structure

Determinacy Degree of Indeterminacy = 3

Deflection The deflection curve begins right at the The deflection curve begins a little away from
and supports and hence maximum deflection the supports because of fixity at supports and
Deflection greater than that of a fixed Beam; deflection at hence maximum deflection lesser than that of a
Curve the center of a simple supported beam with simple supported Beam. Deflection at the center
full UDL wkN/m is 5wl⁴/384EI of a fixed beam with full UDL w kN/m is
I.e. five times the deflection for a fixed beam. wl⁴/384EI i.e. 5 times lesser than that for a
s.s.beam

Bending The Beam is acted upon by only by Positive As there are negative Bending Moments over
Moments Bending Moments e.g. A simple supported the supports the + ive B.M at the center of span l
beam with an u.d.l of w over a span of I will of a fixed beam with an u.d.l is much reduced =
Compression have a B.M max of wl²/8 at the center wl²/24. Negative B.M at supports
and
Tension
Across the
Length of the
Beam

This Positive B.M Causes Compression at the This Positive B.M Causes Compression at the top
top and Tension at the Bottom through-out and Tension at the Bottom in the middle portion
the length of the Beam of the span and Tension at Top and Compression
at Bottom near the Supports
Depth As the Depth required to support the load is As the Depth required to support the load is
Required directly proportionate to the B.M max, the directly proportionate to the B.M max, the depth
depth required is greater than that for a Fixed required is lesser than that for a Simple
Beam Supported Beam
d α M Hence d α wl²/8 (See page no 15) d α M Hence d α wl²/12 (See page no 15)
R.C.C Beams In case of R.C.C Beams this means that In case of R.C.C Beams this means that
reinforcement needs be provided only at reinforcement needs to be provided at top near
bottom in case of such a beam the supports till point of contra- flexure.

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 4

1.a.3 Solution of a Fixed Beam: Method: Solving as a Fixed Beam from Scratch.
Many text books solve a fixed beam as a Simple Supported Beam and then Super-impose the Negative B.M on the
positive B.M.D to get the solution of a fixed beam. However we are going to solve a fixed beam from scratch.
Well these are the steps we are going to follow.
1. Find F.E.M as follows and Redraw the Diagram Showing F.E.M as per the following conditions.

2. Calculate Vertical Reactions by Computing Moments about any one support. Remember
Clockwise Moments are positive and Anti-Clockwise Moments are Negative.

3. Find S.F Values and Draw S.F.D and

Find point of Zero Shear. (Follow the same sign convention as TOS1 (Shown above)
4. Find B.M Values at intermediate points and +ive B.M max and Draw B.M.D. Follow the same
sign convention as TOS1. Sagging Moments are Positive and Hogging Moments are
Negative.(Shown above)
TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 5

Problem.1 (UDL over entire span + 1 eccentric point load) (The point load is near rhs)
A Fixed Beam of span 9m is subjected to a UDL of 24kN/m over its entire span. It is carrying a point load
of 60kN at a distance of 2.0m from R.H.S. support. Find Fixed End Moments and Draw S.F.D and B.M.D for
the Beam.

Solution:
1. Find F.E.M: For eccentric point load shown here a = 7m and b = 2m

Fixed End Moments MA MB Fixed End Moments

UDL= wl²/12 24 x9²/12 = 162.0 24x9²/12 = 162.0 UDL= wl²/12

Eccentric Point Load 60x7x2²/9²= 20.7 60x7²x2/9²= 72.59 Eccentric Point Load
=Wab²/l² =Wa²b/l²
MA =182.7kNm MB =234.6kNm

Redraw the Diagram Showing F.E.M

2. Calculate Vertical Reactions by Computing Moments about any one support

1. ΣFV = 0 will give us VA + VB = 24 x 9 + 60 = 216 + 60 = 276 kN.
Compute Moment about lhs Support A
2. -MA + (24 x 9 x 4.5) + (60 x 7) +234.6 – (VB x 9) = 0. (Clockwise Moments +ve)
-182.7 + 972 + 420 +234.6 = 9 x VB
VB = 160.43kN and Hence VA = 276 – 160.43 = 115.57kN

3. Find S.F Values and Draw S.F.D and find point of Zero Shear.

LHS RHS
A 0 +115.57
C +115.57 -(24 x 7) = -52.43 -52.53 - 60 = -112.43
B -112.43 -(24 x2) = -160.43 -160.43 +160.43 = 0
To Find Point of Zero Shear, Let p be the distance of Zero Shear point from A (See SFD on next page)
At point of Zero Shear Upward Force = Downward Force will give us (Refer Diagram on Adjacent Page)
115.57 = 24 x p (Considering lhs of point p)
Hence p = 4.815m

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 6

4. Find B.M Values and Draw B.M.D (Sagging Moment +ive, Hogging Moment –ve)
1. B.M at point A = -182.7kNm
2. B.Mmax +ve at point of Zero Shear = - 182.7 – (24 x 4.815 x 4.815/2) + (115.57 x 4.815) (From lhs)
(From lhs) = - 182.7 - 278.21 – 556.46 = +95.55 kNm
3. B.M at point C (From rhs) = - 234.6 – (24 x 2 x 1) + (160.43 x 2) = +38.26kNm
4. B.M at point B = -234.6kNm = B.Mmax -ve
(Notice that B.M values have been worked out from the side which has minimum forces)

Let us Calculate B.M values using Area of SFD and subtracting –ve B.M
B.M max at point of Zero Shear = Area of triangle pqr – MA (lhs of S.F.D at point of Zero Shear)
= ½ (115.57 x 4.815) – 182.7 = 278.23 – 182.7 = 95.53kNm
B.M at point C = Area of wxyz – MB (rhs of S.F.D at point C)
= ½ (160.43+112.43) x 2 – 234.6 = 38.26kNm

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 7

Problem.2 (UDL over entire span + 1 central point load) TOS III October 2016
A Fixed Beam of span 7m is subjected to a UDL of 15kN/m over its entire span. It is carrying a central point load of
22kN. Solve the Fixed Beam.

1. Find F.E.M

Fixed End Moments MA MB Fixed End Moments

UDL= wl²/12 15 x 7²/12 = 61.25 15 x 7²/12 = 61.25 UDL= wl²/12
Central Point Load =Wl/8 22 x 7 / 8 = 19.25 22 x 7 / 8 = 19.25 Central Point Load = Wl/8
MA =80.5kNm MB =80.5kNm

2. Calculate Vertical Reactions by Computing Moments about any one support.

1. ΣFV = 0 will give VA + VB = (15 x 7)+ 22 = 127kN
As the beam is symmetrically loaded no need to compute ΣFM = 0
VA = VB = Total Load /2 = 127/2 = 63.5kN

3. Find S.F Values and Draw S.F.D and find point of Zero Shear.
LHS RHS
A 0 +63.5
C +63.5 –(15 x 3.5) =+11 +11 – 22 = -11
B -11 – (15 x 3.5 ) = -63.5 -63.5 +63.5 = 0
Point of Zero Shear is at Point C i.e. under the central point load.
4. Find B.M Values and Draw B.M.D
1. B.M at point A = -80.5kNm
2. B.M max at point C = -80.5 – 15 X 3.5 X 1.75 + 63.5 X 3.5
= -80.5 – 91.875 + 222.25 = 49.875kNm
3. B.M at point B = -80.5kNm

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 8

Notice that:
1. The SFD and BMD both
are symmetrical
2. The Shear Force at the
central point load is half
the value of the point load
and the Drop is equal to
the Point Load

B.M by Area of S.F.D

B.Mmax+ve
= Area of SFD – Negative
B.M
= ½ (63.5 + 11) x 3.5 – 80.5
= 49.875kNm

1.a.4 Example of a fixed beam – A RCC lintel: Courtesy Ar. Prashant Joshi.

If the lintel would have been simply supported- before brick masonry above
Simply supported beam is a beam which is
1) Either resting on two walls or columns. I.e. offering only vertical reaction no matter what the load is. Such a
beam would not be able to effectively resist a horizontal load like earthquake load.
2) A beam with one end hinged and the other end roller, which can offer horizontal reactions at hinged support,
thus resisting horizontal loads effectively and allowing horizontal expansion at the other as roller is provided at the
other support.

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 9

RCC Lintel acting likes a fixed beam – after brick masonry above
Note: Deformation / deflection in the illustrations are exaggerated for conceptual understanding.

Problem.3 (UDL over entire span + 1 eccentric point load) (The point load is near lhs)
A Fixed Beam of span 8m is subjected to a UDL of 36kN/m over its entire span. It is carrying a point load
of 80kN at a distance of 3.0m from lhs support. Find Fixing End Moments and Draw S.F.D and B.M.D for
the Beam.

1. Calculate Fixed End Moments = F.E.M

2 2
wl² 36 x 8 36 x 8 wl²
= = 192 192 = =
12 12 12 12
MA 1 2 2 1 MB
Wab² 80 x 3 x 5 80 x 3 x 5 Wa²b
=
l² 2 = 93.75 56.25 = 2 = l²
8 8
MA = 285.75 kNm MB = 248.25 kNm

Redraw the Load Diagram

Showing F.E.M

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
2. Calculate Reactions
10
1 ΣFV = 0 VA + VB = 36 x 8 + 80 + 0 = 368 kN
2 ΣFM = 0 Take Moments @ point A
-285.75 + 36 x 8 x 4.0 + 80 x 3 + 248.25 = VB x 8
-285.75 + 1152 + 240 + 248.25 = VB x 8
VB = 169.31 kN
VA = 368 - 169.31 = 198.69 kN
3. Calculate Shear Forces
lhs rhs
A 0 kN 198.69 kN
C 198.69 - 36 x 3.0 = 90.688 kN 90.688 + -80 = 10.69 kN
B 10.688 + -36 x 5.0 = -169.31 kN -169.31 + 169.31 = 0.00 kN
To Calculate Point of Zero Shear Downward Force = Upward Force
Let P be the Distance from of the point 36 x p = 169.31
of Zero Shear from RHS Support p = 4.703 m
4. Calculate Bending Moment
B.M at A = -285.75 kNm
B.M at C = -248.25 + 169.31 x 5.0 - 36 x 5.0 x 2.5 = 148.31 kNm
considering rhs 2
B.M at Zero Shear = -248.25 + 169.31 x 4.703 - 36 x 4.703 = 149.90 kNm
considering rhs 2
B.M at B = -248.25 kNm

Using Area of S.F.D for

Calculating B.M i.e. Area of
S.F.D – Negative B.M
B.M at C (lhs of point c)
= Area of pqrs - MA
= ½ (198.69+90.69) x 3 –
285.75
= 148.32kNm
B.M at Zero Shear Point
(rhs)
= Area of xyz – MB
= ½ (4.7 x 169.31) – 248.25
= 149.62 kNm

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 11

1.b Continuous Beams:

1.b.1 Introduction: When we look at multiple span structures we could have a series of Simple Supported
Multiple Spans or Continuous Spans

Examples of Simple Supported Multiple Spans and the S.F.D and B.M.D therein are as illustrated below.

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 12

In this sort of structure each Span acts independently and is subject to a B.Mmax of wl²/8 with a full udl and the
depth needs to be designed for this B.Mmax.
1.b.2 Definition of Continuous Beam: A Continuous Beam is one with as many spans as would be required in
the structure, continuous over the supports, with a fixed or simple supported end at either end or one end or
even a free end as shown below.

Continuous Beams are statically In-Determinate Structures as the number of reactions are more than 3.

1.b.3 Understanding of Continuity over Supports:

Beams are made continuous over the supports to increase structural integrity. A continuous beam provides an
alternate load path in the case of failure at a section. In regions with high seismic risk, continuous beams and frames
are preferred in buildings and bridges.

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 13

Negative Bending Moments will be created at a fixed end or at a continuous support leading to reductions in
positive B.M towards center of spans. The Shear Forces or the reactions at the supports will also change as per rate
of change of B.M.
1.b.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Continuity
The Advantages of a continuous beam as compared to a simply supported beam are as follows.
1. For the same span and section, vertical load capacity is more.
2. Mid span deflection is less.
3. The depth at a section can be less than that of a simply supported beam for the same span. Else we can easily
say that for the same depth the span can be more than that of a simply supported beam and it follows that, the
continuous beam is economical in material.
4. A continuous beam provides an alternate load path in the case of failure at a section. The load which tends to
cause failure at a section is redistributed to some other parts of the Beam which then take up more load.
There are of course several Disadvantages of a continuous beam as compared to a simply supported beam.
1. Difficulty in the analysis and the design procedures.
2. Difficulties in construction, especially for precast members.
The system many a times will have more than 3 unknowns and hence will be a statically indeterminate structure.
Methods will have to be devised to calculate Support Moments and Support Reactions. The support moments are
calculated by methods listed below.

1. Moment Distribution Method

2. Slope Deflection Method
3. Theorem of Three Moments.
These methods give the exact support moments developed at a fixed end or at a continuous support. However the
changes in support reactions will have to be calculated as addition and subtraction of Rate of Change of B.M across
the spans.
For two or more, more or less equal spans with not more than a 15% deviation the I.S.456 gives Moment and S.F
coefficients with the relevant sections is given below.
Given Below are Clauses 22.5.1 and 22.5.2 From I.S.456:
22.5.1 Unless more
exact estimates are
made, for beams of
uniform cross-
section which
support
substantially
uniformly
distributed loads
over three or more
spans which do not
differ by more than
15 percent of the
longest, the
bending moments
and shear forces
used in design may
be obtained using
the coefficients
given in Table 12
and Table 13
respectively. For
moments at supports where two unequal spans meet or in case where the spans are not equally loaded, the
average of the two values for the negative moment at the support may be taken for design. Where coefficients
given in Table 12 are used for calculation of bending moments, redistribution shall not be permitted.
22.5.2 Beams and Slabs Over Free End Supports: Where a member is built into a masonry wall which develops only
partial restraint, the member shall be designed to resist a negative moment at the face of the support of WL/24
TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 14

where W is the total design load and I is the effective span, or such other restraining moment as may be shown to
be applicable. For such a condition shear coefficient given in Table 13 at the end support may be increased by 0.05
Table 12 and 13 are shown below the S.F.D and B.M.D
Accordingly the S.F.D and B.M.D for a three span continuous Beam is as given below.

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 15

The B.M.D can also be shown as a single (not superimposed) as shown below.

1.b.5 One Actual Application to explain how the B.M.D influences the Shape of a Structure:
The Actual Constructed Bridge is a 4 Span Continuous Bridge, End Spans are small and Middle Spans are Long

The Depth is based on the B.M.D Shown Below and Arch Shapes are used to Change Depth Profiles in graceful
Curves. Notice the depths are greater where the B.M is greater

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 16

The Section of the Bridge Beam is a Hollow Concrete Section

1.b.6 One Practical Application how Fixity Affects the depth of a beam.
Imagine a beam as shown in Problem 2

Let us find the depth of this beam from our study in TOS 2 Bending Stresses. Let us assume that we are using Indian
Oak with a permissible stress value of 14.52N/mm² with a width of 200mm.

1. Simple Supported Beam: will have

B.Mmax = wl²/8 + Wl/4 = 15 x 7²/8 + 22 x 7/4 = 130.375KNm = 130.375 x 106Nmm
M = σ Z.
σ = 14.52N/mm² and Z = 200 x d²/6
6 2
130.375 x 10 = 14.52 x 200 x d /6
d ≈ 520mm
2. Fixed Beam: We have solved earlier and found that
B.Mmax is negative = 80.5kNm = 80.5 x 106Nmm
M = σ Z. σ = 14.52N/mm² and Z = 200 x d²/6
6 2
80.5 x 10 = 14.52 x 200 x d /6
d ≈ 410mm
So the Beam Size has reduced from 200 x 520 for Simple Supported Beam to 200 x 410 for Fixed Beam
How this fixity is to be achieved is a matter of another discussion

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 17

1.c Understanding Torsion:

1.c.1 Definition: When a Linear Element like a Beam is subjected to a Twisting Moment that exists in a plane that
is perpendicular to the Longitudinal Axis of the Element the Effect is called Torsion
Torsion is developed in a number of ways in building structures most notably in the Beams and Columns of
Structural Frame Works. However the need to investigate stresses or deformations due to Torsion and to Design
specifically for Torsional Resistance is relatively uncommon in Design work. Structural Members that experience
Torsion are also subject to various other actions and hence often not designed primarily for Torsional Effects.
However it is important to have a general understanding of the nature of Torsion and the situations that generate it.
It is to that end we have included this topic in the syllabus and are presenting this study in a limited manner

Moment about the longitudinal axis of a structural

element causes torsion as shown in Torsion Fig 01
for a beam. Torsion causes cracking of the beam,
where cracks originate on the surfaces at 45
degrees with respect to the edge.

1.c.2 Some Situations where Torsion is Developed

1. A Beam on which is supported a Fixed Beam:
 Bending of one beam is transferred as torsion on the other one. My
shown in Torsion Fig 02 is bending moment for beam B2 is causing
torsion in beam B1.
 This is one of the reasons why secondary beams are kept simply
supported (continuous support) and not fixed on the primary beams.
 As it may cause torsion in primary beam which will require larger
cross-section and heavier design.
 The Flexure on Beam B1 occurs along Z axis and torsion on XY plane.

2. A Beam Supporting a Cantilever Porch or Chajja

 Cantilever slab or Chajja is a fixed element where the fixed
support is the beam supporting the cantilever.
 The supporting beam is subjected to torsion of the same
amount as bending moment generated by cantilever slab.
Reference Torsion Fig 03

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 18

3. End beam supporting a slab

 When a beam has slab cast on both sides of it
e.g. beam B, Reference Torsion Fig 04 the
moment generated in both the slabs nullify each
other. Such a beam is called laterally supported
beam.
 While the beam is not supported by slabs on
both sides it is termed as laterally unsupported
beam e.g. beam A. Beam A is subjected to
moment transferred from slab Causing Torsion

1.c.3 Primary and Secondary Torsion:

 Primary Torsion arises when the structure has no other options but to resist the external loads by a twist.
In this case, the only way to resist the torsion due to the external load is by the strength of the materials. A
simple beam receiving eccentric line of loading along its span, cantilever, or eccentrically loaded box
girders are some examples of primary torsion. Accordingly, this Torsional Moment must be considered in
the design as it is a major component
 Secondary Torsion arises in statically indeterminate structures due to requirements of continuity. In this
case, redundant members or supports are present to resist some twist and, thus, are not as seriously
concerned for primary torsion; however, it may lead to excessive cracks. The edge beams of frames,
secondary beams, landing beams, etc., are some instances of members in a building which experience
secondary torsion. These Minor torsional effects may be ignored in statically indeterminate structures due
to the advantage of having more than one load path for the distribution of loads to maintain the
equilibrium. This may produce minor cracks without causing failure.

1.c.4 Small Problem to Understand Torsion a little more:

The Beam B1 will be subject to Torsion of
T = load per running m x Lever Arm
= Volume of Slab /m x Density x Overhang/2
= 0.2m x 2.5m x 1m x 25kN/m³ x 2.5/2
= 15.625kNm

So Units of Torsion are kNm

Torsion Notes Compiled with the help

of Er. Sujata Mehta.

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 19

Suggested Theory Questions: TOS 3 Unit 1 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous
Beams and Torsion:
1. Differentiate between a simple supported beam and a Fixed Beam w.r.t the following points
a. Deflection
b. Rigidity
c. Bending Moments
d. Bending Moments at Supports.
e. Statically Determinate Structure.
f. Reactions at Supports.
g. Depth of the Beam

2. By two Examples show how a continuous beam is a Statically Indeterminate Structure. Also mention 3 methods
of Solving Continuous Beams

3. Explain the Advantages and Disadvantages of Continuous Beams.

4. Draw the B.M Diagram for a 3 equal span continuous Beam Showing Max Values of Positive and Negative B.M
at Mid Span and over Supports.

5. Define Torsion and explain the Deformations caused due to Torsion

6. Explain Two cases in a Building where a Building Element undergoes Torsion

7. Explain Primary and Secondary Torsion..

TOS 3 Unit 1 Fixed Beams & Continuous Beams and Torsion Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 69

TOS 3: Unit 3b: Limit State Design:

Introduction: In Unit 2b we already studied Working Stress Method and its Limitations and also applied the same
to Wooden Structures. Let us revise them especially in context of Concrete Material
3b.1. Limitations of W.S.M leading to the devising of a new Method
1. The Stress Strain relationship of Concrete is non-linear and Modulus of Elasticity and Modular Ratio with Steel
(R.C.C Composite section) is not a constant. W.S.M assumes a constant modular ratio and Modulus of
Elasticity to derive the equations, which is very erroneous.
2. The W.S.M assumes the linear elastic behavior not only of the material but also of the structure. W.S.M
ignores its inelastic behavior and the redistribution of moments occurring along the length of the structure
leading to Plastic deformations at Critical Sections. The additional strength or load bearing capacity due to this
phenomenon remains unaccounted for leading to Uneconomical Sections.
3. W.S.M neglects the effect of creep and shrinkage of Concrete, which changes the modulus of Elasticity and
transfers load from Concrete to Steel with time.
4. The W.S.M uses the concept of stress as a measure of safety i.e. the structure is considered unsafe when any
material in any part of the structure reaches its ultimate value. However, experimental research has shown
that that a structure neither fails nor becomes unsafe just by this. Visible factor is Strain and not Stress (Stress
being an abstract mathematical quantity, it can neither be visualized nor measured directly). The primary
function of a Structure is to carry load safely. Hence, it is important to devise a method based on load
causing failure and not stress.
The last point resulted in the devising the next method called as the Ultimate Load Method.

 Ultimate load Method and its Limitations leading to Limit State Method.
1. In this method, the structural elements are proportioned to withstand the Ultimate Load (obtained by
multiplying the Service load by Load factor).
2. It uses actual Stress Strain Curve and not the Linear Part only and hence uses the Plastic region of the
Curve and uses additional Reserve Capacity of the Material.
3. It not only takes into consideration the strength of the constituent materials (concrete and steel) but also
the composite action of both the materials.
I will not discuss this Method in more Detail but directly go to its Limitations that being
1. This method gives Slender Sections. This leads to excessive deformations and cracking. The structure
loses its functional utility and serviceability shown by excessive sagging of slabs and beams and cracking
of partition walls.
2. The method does not take into account effects of creep and shrinkage in concrete. This influences
deflections.

The above discussions lead to the conclusion that the ideal approach to design of a structure is one which
recognizes and takes into consideration all the states like Cracked, Un-cracked, Elastic, Plastic and Ultimate
State through which all parts of a structure and its materials pass through from Service Load to Ultimate Load
so that neither the safety at service load nor the serviceability at Service loads are put into danger. A new
concept of “fitness” of structure to perform its function satisfactorily for its life span emerged.
The State at which any Structure becomes Unfit for the use it was intended for is called Limit State.

TOS 3 Unit 3b Limit State Design in R.C.C. Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 70

3b.2. The Design philosophy based on this concept is called Limit State Philosophy.
1. This method takes into consideration the different states and conditions of material and structure i.e.
actual behavior from loading to collapse.
2. It introduces multiple criterion of safety and introduces multiple criteria of Limit States with the
acceptance that any one criterion can be critical for a structure.
3. Instead of ad-hoc judgment the Philosophy uses Classical Reliability Theory and Statistical Probability
Theory for its mathematical Computations
4. Herein it must be admitted that the Limit State Philosophy even though Logical, Realistic and
Mathematically Sound, is yet to come into full implementation on ideal lines because of lack of sufficient
Statistical Data especially in case of Steel Design (Plastic Theory). However, its real merit lies in its
generality of accepting more data that would be available in the future and incorporating the same in
design for improving the outcome.
3b.3. Various Limit States: The various Limit States that need to be taken into account when designing a
structure are
1. Limit States of Collapse
2. Limit States of Serviceability
3. Limit States of Durability

1. Limit State of Collapse: Design to this limit state ensures safety of structures from Collapse. The structural
failure can be of the following types.

i. Flexure

ii. Shear Collapse occurring because of force coming on the member

iii. Axial Compression exceeding its strength to be studied in the subsequent chapters

iv. Axial Tension

v. Torsion

vi. Sliding

vii. Overturning Displacement of Structure due to lack of Equilibrium

viii. Sinking Specially in case of Retaining Walls dealt in T.Y. BArch

The above Limit States and Design Based on these Limit States shall be explained in the next few chapters.

2. Limit State of Serviceability: These relate to performance or behavior of structure at Service Load Levels
I. Limit State of Deflection – Taken care of by Span to Depth Ratios
II. Limit State of Cracking – Taken care of by specifying maximum crack width
III. Limit State of Vibration – Not within the purview of our syllabus

TOS 3 Unit 3b Limit State Design in R.C.C. Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 71

i. Limit State of Deflection: Effects of excessive deflection are as given below

 Creates feeling of lack of safety
 Mars the appearance of the structure
 Leads to Mis-alignment of sensitive Machinery and their smooth functioning.
 Leads to deformations of door and window frames
 Leads to objectionable cracks in walls, ceiling finishes and water retaining walls
 Leads to poor Drainage and ponding on roofs
This Limit State is taken care of by: This Limit State is achieved by prescribing maximum allowable deflection or
also by defining minimum depths of various R.C.C members. This is done by a technique called Span to Depth
Ratios.
Span to Depth Ratios: These will help us in defining minimum depth of a R.C.C element. These ratios as per I.S.
Code define minimum effective depth i.e. de. However, for simplicity sake, I have recalculated these. These are the
Span to Depth overall ratios that we shall use in our study
No R.C.C. Element do = Clear Span/Ratio

1 Slab - One Way Simple do = Clear Span/25

Supported
2 Slab - Two Way Simple do = Clear Span/30
Supported
3 Slab - Cantilever do = Clear Span/10
4 Slab – One Way Continuous do = Clear Span/28
5 Slab – Two Way Continuous do = Clear Span/35
6 Beam – Simple Supported do = Clear Span/10 for spans < 6m
Singly Reinforced do = Clear Span/12 for spans > 6m
7 Beam Cantilever do = Clear Span/7
8 Beams – T , L do = Clear Span/12 to Clear Span/16

For the Sketch shown along side

For Slab S1 do = 3200/25 = 128mm
For FB1 do = Span/10 = 3200/10 = 320mm
For FB2 do = Span/12 = 6800/12 = 566.66mm
We provide these depths to the Beams and
Slabs so as to avoid excessive Deflection

ii. Limit State of Cracking: Effects of excessive cracking are as given below
 Mars the appearance of the exposed surface
 Creates feeling of lack of safety
 Creates leakage problems and renders Water tanks unserviceable
 Leads to corrosion of steel
 It creates maintenance problems

TOS 3 Unit 3b Limit State Design in R.C.C. Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 72

This Limit State is taken care of by: This Limit state is attended to by specifying maximum crack width. It can also
be attained by detailing rules and restrictions on bar diameter, Spacing, Cover etc. for common structures.
Remedial measures to control crack width include the following 7 points
1. Using more number of smaller diameter bars than less number of larger diameter bars
2. Decreasing Stress in the bars at Working Loads
3. Increasing Grade of concrete
4. Providing Sufficient cover
5. Providing Minimum Percentage of steel as Reinforcement
6. Satisfying rules of Splicing, Curtailing, End Anchorage
7. Maintaining quality control over Mixing, Placing and Curing
Some Detailing is given below
 Percentage of Reinforcement
 Minimum Reinforcement for Beam is given by Ast/b x d < 0.85/fy
 Minimum Reinforcement for slabs is 0.15% of Cross Sectional Area for Fe250 and 0.12% for Fe 415
and Fe 500
 Minimum Reinforcement in Walls of a Water Tank is 0.3%
 Providing Proper Cover: We talked in detail about covers out in the last chapter
 Spacing of Reinforcement: We will detail this out in the chapter on Beams, Slabs etc.

iii. Limit State of Vibration: This Limit state is applicable to structures subjected to Dynamic loads and out of
purview of our syllabus.

3. Limit State of Durability: These Limit State relates to Durability of a structure against actions and forces of
Nature such as Fire, Rain, Water, Floods, Earthquake, Weathering and Chemical Resistance

 Limit State of Fire Resistance: This Limit State is critical in Structures like Godowns storing inflammable
Material also in ordinary structures to get some time for fire fighting and evacuation before collapse so that
lives may be rescued.
This Limit State is taken care of by: This is attended to by providing minimum cover to steel as it is
deformation in steel due to rise in temperature that is going to cause the failure. We have already talked
about covers on the last page of last chapter and provided I.S. Code for the same.

 Limit State of Resistance to Chemical and Environmental Actions: This Limit state is applicable to
structures used for storing chemicals and or subjected to permanent environmental actions like Piles, Earth
retaining structures, Dams, Jetties, and Docks etc.

This Limit State is taken care of by: This Limit state is attended to by increasing durability of concrete by
paying attention to material specification, quality control, good workmanship, meticulous supervision, also by
minimum cover standards and minimum cement contents

 Limit State of Resistance to Accidental Catastrophe: This is in case of Special Structures like Dams
Bridges Balcony Girders in Assembly Halls, Large Span Stadiums where collapse could mean loss of human life
on large scale, affecting the economy of a region etc. etc.

This Limit State is taken care of by: This Limit State is attended to by increasing the partial factor of safety for
loads by introducing a Modification factor to increase Durability and reduce probability of Failure.

TOS 3 Unit 3b Limit State Design in R.C.C. Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 73

Now that we have discussed various Limit States let us discuss two important terms before we go ahead.

 Characteristic Load and Design Load: Characteristic Load is defined as that value of load, which has 95%
probability of not being exceeded during the service life span of the structure. The Characteristic Load Fk is
multiplied by a Partial Factor of Safety to get Design Load Fd
Design Load (Fd) = Fk (Characteristic Load) x Load Factor (Partial Safety Factor)Ϋf
Different factors of safety are applied to Dead Loads, Live Loads, Imposed Loads, Wind Loads etc. etc.
However, for sake of Simplicity we shall apply a Partial Safety Factor of 1.5 to the total of dead load and live load in
our calculations
Thus Fd = Fk x 1.5

 Characteristic Strength and Design Strength: Characteristic strength would be that strength below which not
more than 5% of the samples are expected to fail.
The Design Strength (fd) of a material is calculated by dividing the Characteristic Strength (fk) by a Partial Safety
Factor Ϋm.
So Design Strength = Characteristic Strength / Partial Safety Factor

As Per above the Multiplication factor for Concrete

Design Strength = 1/1.5 = 0.67fck

As Per above the Multiplication factor for Steel, Design

Strength = 1/1.15 = 0.87fy

1. fck = 25 N/mm² as we are going to be using M25

grade Concrete

2. fy = 500 N/mm² as we are going to be using

Fe500 Steel

TOS 3 Unit 3b Limit State Design in R.C.C. Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 74

3b.4. Limit State of Collapse – Flexure - Stress Block Diagram and M.R of Section:
Assumptions and Explanations
1. A normal section plane before bending remains plane after bending right up to collapse. This implies strain
varies linearly from the neutral axis till failure.
2. The Ultimate state of collapse is said to have reached in flexure when the maximum compressive strain in
concrete in the outermost fiber reaches the ultimate crushing strain e , which as per I.S. Code is 0.0035.
This is reflected in the strain diagram. The corresponding stress diagram shows a parabola emerging from the
neutral axis up to a strain of 0.0022 and a rectangle in the region beyond that point up to compressive face.
The division of the stress diagram is 4/7 Xu and 3/7 Xu
A partial factor of safety of 1.5 applied to the idealized stress got by multiplying the fck value by 0.67 makes
the maximum compressive stress =0 .67/1.5 = 0.446 fck as shown
3. Concrete under tension is ignored and Tension is entire carried by the reinforcement.
4. The distribution of compressive strain in concrete across the section is defined by an idealized stress strain
curve of concrete.
5. Perfect bond exists between steel and concrete up to collapse
6. The design stress in steel reinforcement is obtained by respective stress strain curve for the type of steel used
and is applied a factor of safety of 1/1.15 = 0.87fy
7. According to I.S. Code the maximum strain in steel in Tension shall not be less than
0.002 + fy/(1.15Es) at collapse.

1. The Average Compressive stress is 0.36 fck

2. The c.g. of the compressive stress diagram when calculated lies at
0.416Xu from the top compressive fiber. The Compressive Force Cu acts
at this c.g.
3. As per I.S.456 the Xu Position depends upon type of steel used and for
Fe 500 Xu = 0.46de
4. The Tensile Force Tu acts at the center of Steel reinforcement

TOS 3 Unit 3b Limit State Design in R.C.C. Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 75

5. The lever arm is the distance between Cu and Tu

Lever arm of the couple formed by Cu and Tu = de – 0.416Xu = de – 0.416 x 0.46de (For Fe500)
Hence Lever Arm = 0.81de
6. M.R from concrete side = Compressive Force x Lever Arm = Cu x Lever Arm
= Av. Compressive Stress x Compressive Area x Lever Arm
= 0.36fck x (b x Xu) x 0.81de
= 0.36fck x (b x 0.46de) x 0.81de
M.Rconc = 0.134fck x b x de²
7. M.Rsteel = Tensile Force (Tu) x Lever Arm = Tensile Stress x Area of Steel x Lever Arm
M.Rsteel=0.87fy x Ast x 0.81de
M.Rsteel = 0.87fy x Ast x 0.81de or Ast = M.R/(0.87fy) x (0.81de)
8. For A Balanced Section (When Strain in Concrete and Steel reach their peak values simultaneously)
Cu = Tu
0.36fck x Xu x b = 0.87fy x Ast
(Average Compressive Stress x A r e a) = (Average Tensile Stress x Area)

A problem for you to understand to use these equations is solved Below

Problem 1. Design the depth and steel required for flexure for a 230 wide beam simply supported over an
effective span of 6.23m carrying a u.d.l of 22kN/m over the entire span w.r.t to flexure only. Use M25 Grade
concrete and Fe 500 Steel.
Span = Le= 6.23m
U.d.l on span = 22 kN/m. Hence Factored Load or Design Load Fd = 1.5 x 22 = 33 kN/m
B.M max = Fd Le²/8 = 33 x 6.23²/8 = 160.10kNm = 160.10 x 10⁶ Nmm
i. M.Rconc = 0.134 fck b de²
160.10 x 10⁶ = 0.134 x 25 x 230 x de² fck = 20 for M25 concrete, b = 230 as per problem
de = 455.84mm
ii. M.Rsteel = 0.87 fy x Ast x0.81 d
Ast = 160.10 x 10⁶/0.87 x 500 x 0.81 x 455.84 (fy = 500 for Fe 500)
Ast = 996.79mm².
This was just a problem for you to understand to use these equations.

Suggested Theory Questions: TOS 3: Unit 3b: Limit State Design in R.C.C
Answer the Following Questions
1. Define Limit State and explain the L.S. Philosophy in brief.
2. List of Various Limit States and sub Limit States
3. Explain Limit State of Service-ability and how it is taken care of
4. Explain Span to Depth Ratios and Limit State of Service-ability
5. Explain Limit State of Cracking how it is taken care of
6. Explain Limit State of Durability how it is taken care of
7. Define: Characteristic Load and Design Load/ Characteristic Strength and Design Strength
8. Draw Stress Block Diagram for a Flexural Member in R.C.C in L.S.M

TOS 3 Unit 3b Limit State Design in R.C.C. Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 78

TOS 3: Unit 4: Design of R.C.C. Slabs for Small Span

Introduction: In Unit 4 we will be studying the Design of different slabs
4.1. Concept of One Way and Two Way Slabs

Let the total of dead and live load on the slab be w. Let wx be load taken along x direction and wy be load taken
along y direction
Δx = 5wx lx⁴/384 E I ----------①Δx = deflection max along X direction
Δy = 5wy ly⁴/384 E I ----------②Δy = deflection max along Y direction
As Δx = Δy that is deflection max along X axis will be at the center along both axis and equal to deflection max
along Y axis
5wx lx⁴/384 E I = 5wy ly⁴/384 E I
Hence wx lx⁴ = wy ly⁴ equating ① and ②
wx = wy {ly/lx}⁴

 Case 1: ly=lx hence ly/lx = 1 Hence wx = wy (1)⁴ = wy. This is a two-way slab.
In a Two Way Slab
1. The load is distributed along both directions
2. We Provide Main steel along both directions.
Load Distribution in a Two Way Slab
If ly/lx = r then wx = wy r⁴
wx + wy = w Hence wy x r⁴ + wy = w or
1. wy = w/(1+r⁴)
2. wx = w- wy

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 79

 Case 2: ly=2lx hence ly/lx = 2 Hence wx = 2⁴wy = 16wy. This means the load taken along the X direction is 16
times the load along the y direction.
Hence as per I.S.456 a slab wherein ly/lx>2 is called a One Way Slab
1. The maximum load is along the shorter span
2. Main steel is provided along this direction i.e. along the shorter span
3. Along the longer span, We provide bars of smaller diameter. This reinforcement is called Distribution
Steel.
There are many other functions of the distribution steel. These are as follows

4.2. Importance of Distribution Steel

The FUNCTIONS and the NAMES hence given to Distribution Steel are as follows
a. Distribution steel distributes a small load along the longer span and hence the name DISTRIBUTION STEEL
b. Distribution steel also binds the main steel and keeps it in position during the process of concreting and hence
is also known as BINDING STEEL
c. Distribution steel prevents temperature and shrinkage cracks in the concrete caused by the heat of hydration
(concreting being an exothermic reaction). This is why it is also known as TEMPERATURE STEEL.
The last statement gives rise to a large number of corollaries.
1. Greater the concrete volume greater the heat of hydration and hence Temperature steel is calculated as a
percentage of Concrete Volume as follows. Ads = Area of Distribution Steel
 Ads = 0.15% of cross section area (c.s.a) for Fe250
 Ads = 0.12% of cross section area (c.s.a) for Fe415 and F500
2. For thicker concrete sections Distribution Steel is provided on both faces
3. For Water Tank walls where even a small crack could render the structure useless, Minimum 0.3% of concrete
cross sectional area is provided as distribution steel.

4.3. Design of a One Way Slab:

If ly/lx > 2 we design a one way slab: Steps in Design of One-Way Slab
1. Calculate do and de for Deflection Control. We shall call this de assumed
Calculate do = Clear Shorter Span/25 and round it off to the higher multiple of 5mm (e.g. 120mm, 125mm…)
Calculate de = do – Cover – ½ (Main Steel Diameter) = do – 15mm – ½(10mm)
Note: •We shall use either 10mm or 8mm main steel mostly 10mm. •Cover for slab in mild exposure is 20mm
however for up-to bar diameters of 10mm one may subtract 5mm from this = 20mm – 5mm = 15mm
•We shall use a minimum depth of 100mm from the practical point of view of concreting
2. Calculate the effective span Le as least of the following
a. Centre to Centre between supports
b. Clear Span + de
3. Calculate Load w and Fd as follows: The slab is an element 1m wide and hence we multiply every load by 1m
a. Self-Weight = 1m x do x 25kN/m³ =
b. Floor Finish = 1m x 1.25kN/m² (Standard Floor Finish Weight) or as given in the problem.
c. Brick Bat Coba Water Proofing (If mentioned in the problem = 1m x thickness of w.p. x 19kN/m³
d. Live Load = 1m x Live Load simplified as per the chart given in the notes
Calculate the total load w and Fd (Design Load) = 1.5w. (Fd is also known as Factored Load)

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 80

Type Normal Floor Staircase and Balconies

Residential 2 kN/m² 3 kN/m²
Office Buildings 3 kN/m² 4 kN/m²
School Buildings 4 kN/m² 5 kN/m²
Institutional 5 kN/m² 6 kN/m²
4. Calculate B.Mmax = Fd x Le²/8
5. Check Depth for Flexure by the equation
M.R. = 0.134 x fck x b x de² fck = 25N/mm² (M25 Grade Conc), b = 1000mm for slabs
If de (calculated) < de assumed in first step then it is safe for deflection and we shall now call it de provided
Id de (calculated) > de assumed in first step, we shall provide de calculated and call it de provided
.
6. Calculate Area of Steel in Tension Ast = . .
fy = 500N/mm² for Fe 500 Steel
Calculate Spacing of Main Steel. Spacing = Area of 1 Bar x 1000/Ast. Area of 10mm bar = 78.5mm²
As per I.S.456, We provide Main Steel at spacing that is least of the following
1. Calculated Spacing
2. 300mm
3. 3 x de Generally Spacing is provided at a lower multiple of 5mm
. .
7. Calculate Area of Distribution Steel. Ads = x Cross Sectional Area = x do x 1000
Calculate Spacing of Distribution Steel. Spacing = Area of 1 Bar x 1000/Ads. Area of 8mm bar = 50.3mm²
As per I.S.456., We provide Distribution Steel at spacing that is least of the following
1. Calculated Spacing
2. 500mm
3. 5 x de Generally Spacing is provided at a lower multiple of 5mm
8. Make Schedule of Slab for execution at site and Draw Sketch Of Reinforcement.
Slab Schedule
Slab Depth Steel along Shorter Span Steel Along Longer Span Remark

Explanation for the Formula of Spacing or pitch of Steel (Main or Distribution)

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 81

Reproduced Below is the Ground Floor Plan of a Hostel Building

Note: The above plan is an Architectural Plan. No Framing i.e. Beams or Columns has not been shown
Problem 1. Design the Floor Slab of the Dormitory Room 1 of the Hostel Building
Let me reproduce an enlarged part of
the Dormitory Room 1
A Hostel Building is like a Residential
Building but being commercial I will
use a live load of 3kN/m²
ly = 7200mm, lx = 3450mm
 ly/lx = 2.09 > 2 Hence One way Slab
I have already shown a symbol of a

One Way Slab i.e. .The

direction of the arrow in the drawing
indicates the span of the load
distribution and also along Main Steel
Direction.
(The slab may be supported on end
7200mm long load bearing walls or
beams along two sides)

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 82

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 83

4.3.1 Explanation for Reinforcement detailing:

Even though the slab is simple supported the ends have either parapet walls or full walls built upon them and lead
to some fixity and hence negative B.M and hence tension at the top at the supports. As explained in Fixed Beams
in this semester it becomes necessary to provide reinforcement at the top. Alternate main bars are bent up on
either side and taken to the top at a distance of le/7. These Bent Up Bars are also called Cranked Bars

How do we write answers to theory questions? E.G. (Try to give your answers in the point form)
The reasons why Alternate bars are bent up in a Simple Supported Slab are as follows.
 The Slab is Simply Supported. Hence we expect only Positive B.M throughout i.e. Compression at the top
and Tension at the Bottom. However Negative Bending Moment develops at the support because of the
following reasons
1. Monolithic Construction: Slab being cast monolithically with the beam
2. Weight at Supports: We build Parapet Walls or Full Walls on the Slab at the Supports
To take care of this negative B.M or partial fixity at supports, creating Tension at top and Compression at bottom,
we bend alternate main bars at a distance of Le/7 and take them to the top. This takes care of the Partial Fixity
Created.

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 84

Note: Any Slab or Beam is a bending Member and has to be designed for
1. Bending Stress which is taken care of by M.R=0.134fck bd² and Ast = M.R/(0.87fyX0.81de)
2. Deflection which is taken care of by Span to Depth Ratios
3. Shear Stress: Slabs are not designed for shear stress as the value of shear stress will be quite low because
we have taken width as 1000 mm. Beams however need to be designed for Shear
E.g.1 Shear Force max in Slab S1 = Fd X le/2 = 11.63 x 3.62/2 = 21.05kN = 21.05 x 10³ N = Vu
Hence Shear Stress = Vu/b x de = 21050/1000x120 = 0.17N/mm² < 0.29 N/mm² (0.29 N/mm² is the Design Shear
Strength for M25 for 0.15% Steel. The Design Shear Strength Table is on page no 73 of I.S.456
For a Similar Problem on One Way Slab Go to page number 95 and See the
Solution of Slab S1 from Plan 1
Let us now look at a very small span slab like the Passage Slab of the Hostel Building, in these slabs you
will notice that the minimum standards need to be followed.
Problem 2. Design the Passage Slab S2 of the Hostel Building. Consider Live Load as
3kN/m².
As is mentioned in the problem let us not refer to the table of live loads but take Live Load as mentioned in the
Problem. There is not much point in proving that it is a one-way slab. We shall use 8mm as Main Steel Dia.
1 Calculate do and de for Deflection Control
do = Smaller Span 1500 60 ≈ 100 Hence do = 100 mm
= =
25 25 (Rounded off to the nearest higher mul tipl e of 5mm)
de = do - cover - Main Steel Ø = 100 - 15 - 8 = 81
2 2
Hence de = 81 mm
N.B: Notice that we have used here a much larger depth i.e. 100mm instead of 60mm as the depth 60mm is not
practicable
2 Calculate Le = Effective Span of the Slab as Least of the Following
1 c/c Between Supports = 1500 + 230 = 1730 Hence Le = 1581 mm
2 Clear Span + de = 1500 + 81 = 1581  = 1.581 m
3 Calculate Loading on the Slab Density is in kN/m ³ so all dimension in m, width of slab = 1000mm = 1m
1 Slab Self Weight = 1m x do x 25 = 1m x 0.100 x 25 = 2.5 kN/m
2 Floor Finish = 1m x 1.25 if given take given value otherwise take 1.25kN/m ² = 1.25 kN/m
3 Live Load = 1m x 3 if Given take given value otherwise as per chart of L.L = 3.00 kN/m
w = 6.75 kN/m
Fd = 1.5 x w = 1.5 x 6.75 = 10.13 Hence Fd = 10.13 kN/m
4 Calculate B.Mmax
2 2 6
B.Mmax = Fd x Le 10.13 x 1.581 = 3.16 kNm = 3.16 x 10 Nmm
=
8 8
5 Check for depth i.e. Design of Depth for Flexure
2
B.Mmax = M.R = 0.134 x fck x b x de
6 2
3.16 x 10 = 0.134 x 25 x 1000 x de
Hence de = 30.73 < 81 (de assumed for deflection) Hence Safe for Depth Assumed
Hence Provide de = 81 mm and do = 100 mm

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 85

N.B: Notice that we have provided Main Steel at spacing of 240mm (3 x de) and not the calculated one (450mm)

N.B: Notice that we have provided distribution Steel at spacing of 405mm (5 x de) and not the calculated one
(415mm)
N.B: Notice that the minimum amount of steel in a slab (0.12% of cross sectional area (120mm²) is greater than
the Area of Main Steel Calculated (110.8mm²)

4.4. Design of a Two Way Slab: If ly/lx < 2 we design a two way slab: Steps in Design of Two-Way Slab:
 Load Distribution in a Two Way Slab: We have already seen that if ly/lx< 2 we design a two way slab
1. Economics: In Actual Practice, however a two-way slab is an uneconomical proposition for ly/lx ratios >
1.4 or as per some structural designers 1.5. In Slabs exceeding these ratios the load carried along the
longer span is too small and providing main steel in both directions could prove costly
2. Load Distribution:
 We have already studied the load distribution in two-slabs as wy = w/(1 + r⁴) and wx = w – wy,
This is the method that we shall follow.
 However I.S.456 gives us the following table for calculating B.M along the shorter and the longer
span
 Steps in Design of a Two-Way Slab
1. Calculate do and de for Deflection Control. We shall call this de assumed
Calculate do = Clear Shorter Span/30 and round it off to the higher multiple of 5mm (e.g. 120mm, 125mm…)
•We shall use a minimum depth of 100mm from the practical point of view of concreting

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 86

In case of two-way slabs we have main steel we will have to calculate dexx and deyy
dexx = do –15mm– ½
(Dia)
deyy = dexx – 1 x Dia
15mm = Clear Cover
Diameter of Main Steel =
10mm most of the times,
sometimes 8mm as seen
earlier for very small spans
Dia = Diameter

2. Calculate Lexx and Leyy as follows

Lexx is least of the following
1. c/c between supports along shorter span
2. Clear Span xx + dexx
Leyy is least of the following
1. c/c between supports along longer span
2. Clear Span yy + deyy
3. Calculate Total Load w and Fd = 1.5w and distribute it as Fdxx and Fdyy
This load calculation is same as One – Way Slab
Fdyy = Fd/(1 + r⁴) and Fdxx = Fd- Fdyy
4. Calculate B.Mmax xx = Fdxx x Lexx²/8 and B.Mmax yy = Fdyy x Leyy²/8
5. Check for depth de along span of greater B.M. using
M.R. = 0.134 x fck x b x de² fck = 25N/mm² (M25 Grade Conc), b = 1000mm for slabs
6. Calculate Ast xx and Ast yy and Spacing along both directions using
. .
Astxx = . .
, Astyy = . .
, Spacing = Area of 1 Bar x 1000/Ast.
The spacing along both directions should be the least of the following
1. Calculated Spacing
2. 300mm
3. 3 x de Generally Spacing is provided at a lower multiple of 5mm
7. Calculate Area of Distribution Steel and Spacing of Distribution Steel
. .
Ads = x Cross Sectional Area = x do x 1000 and Spacing = Area of 1 Bar x 1000/Ads.
We provide Distribution Steel at spacing that is least of the following
1. Calculated Spacing
2. 500mm
3. 5 x de Generally Spacing is provided at a lower multiple of 5mm
Where exactly is the Distribution Steel required in, a two-way slab will be clear after studying the Sketch on the
next page
8. Make Schedule and Draw Details of Reinforcement

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 87

Problem 3. Design the Slab S3 over the Reception cum Recreation Room of the Hostel
Building. Consider Live Load as 5kN/m², Also Consider it as a terrace slab with 75mm thick water
proofing of Brick Bat Coba and a Floor Finish Load of 1.25kN/m²

ly = 5500mm
lx = 4400mm
ly/lx = 1.25 < 2
Hence Two-Way Slab
We have used a symbol to indicate that the slab is a two-way
slab and the direction of the Main Steel Reinforcement

(The slab may be supported on all four sides either by beams or

load bearing walls)

1 Calculate do and dexx and deyy for Deflection Control

do = Smaller Span 4400 147 ≈ 150 do = 150 mm
= =
30 30 (Rounded off to the nearest higher multiple of 5mm)
dexx = do - cover - Main Steel Ø = 150 - 15 - 10 = 130 dexx = 130 mm
2 2
deyy = dexx - Main Steel Ø = 130 - 10 = 120 deyy = 120 mm
2 Calculate Lexx and Leyy
Lexx = Shorter Effective Span of the Slab as Least of the Following
1 c/c Between Supports = 4400 + 230 = 4630 Lexx = 4530 mm
2 Clear Span + dexx = 4400 + 130 = 4530  = 4.53 m
Leyy = Longer Effective Span of the Slab as Least of the Following
1 c/c Between Supports = 5500 + 230 = 5730 Leyy = 5620 mm
2 Clear Span + deyy = 5500 + 120 = 5620  = 5.62 m

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 88

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 89

4.4.1: Torsion Reinforcement : Some Special Provisions for Simply Supported Two-Way Slabs

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 90

4.5. Design of a Cantilever Slab:

 Steps in Design of a Cantilever Slab:
1. Calculate do and de for Deflection Control. We shall call this de assumed. However do = Over Hang/ 10
2. Calculate the effective span Le as Follows
a. In case of the cantilever slab being continuous with the inside room slab the Le = Over Hang + ½ Support
b. In Case of a Stand Alone Cantilever Slab supported on a Beam Le = Over Hang + de/2
3. Calculate Load w and Fd as earlier
4. Calculate B.Mmax = Fd x Le²/2
5. Check for Depth Using M.R = 0,134fck b de²
6. Calculate Ast and Spacing same like One-Way Slab
7. Calculate Ads and Spacing
8. Make Schedule and Draw Sketch of Reinforcement Details

The essential differences between a One – Way Slab and a Cantilever Slab are as follows

1. do = Clear Span/10
2. B.Mmax = Fd x Le²/2,
3. Le is Overhang + de/2 for stand-alone slab and Le = Overhang + ½ Support for Slab extending inside
4. The Steel will have to be provided at the top face as the Tension Zone for a Cantilever Slab is at the top

I have reproduced the relevant clauses for Effective span from I.S.456.

Problem 4. Design Slab S5 of the Balcony adjoining Dormitory Room 1 from The Hostel
Building. Consider Floor Finish of 2kN/m² and Live Load as 4kN/m².

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 91

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 92

 The Red Bars are the Bottom Bars of Slab S1. They are cranked or taken up at the other support
 THE Black Bars are the alternate bars of Slab S1 Cranked at this support and taken up and then taken as
top steel into the cantilever
 The Grey Bars are the alternate top bars in the cantilever taken upto a distance of 1500 (cantilever span)
into the Slab S1
The Following is a section of the same for understanding.

Section Showing Arrangement of Steel Bars in the Cantilever Portion Slab S5. Spacing of the Cantilver Portion
Modified to suit slab S1, Similarly both slabs can have same depth of 150mm for ease of construction. (Slab s1 as
per Schedule is ony 140mm.

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 93

An Example of a Structural Drawing: However please restrict reading of this drawing to reading of
slabs only. (Here Floor Beams marked as FB1 etc etc for supporting the slabs)

Slab Schedule: (Slab S1,S2,S3 and S5 calculations done in this chapter but, S4 calculations not done here)

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 94

Q Paper Problem: Let us call this as Plan 1

Problem 5. Design the Slab S1 of the Office Block Shown in the Sketch Plan1 : Consider
Floor Finish of 1.25kN/m² and Live Load of 3kN/m²
ly = 6530mm , lx = 2900mm ly/lx = 6530/2900 = 2.25 > 2 Hence One Way Slab
1 Calculate do and de for Deflection Control
do = Smaller Span 2900 116 ≈ 120 Hence do = 120 mm
= =
25 25 (Rounded off to the nearest higher multiple of 5mm)
de = do - cover - Main Steel Ø = 120 - 15 - 10 = 100
2 2
Hence de = 100 mm
2 Calculate Le = Effective Span of the Slab as Least of the Following
1 c/c Between Supports = 2900 + 230 = 3130 Hence Le = 3000 mm
2 Clear Span + de = 2900 + 100 = 3000  = 3.000 m
3 Calculate Loading on the Slab Density is in kN/m ³ so all dimension in m, width of slab = 1000mm = 1m
1 Slab Self Weight = 1m x do x 25 = 1m x 0.120 x 25 = 3.00 kN/m
2 Floor Finish = 1m x 1.25 if given take given value otherwise take 1.25kN/m ² = 1.25 kN/m
3 Live Load = 1m x 3 if Given take given value otherwise as per chart of L.L = 3.00 kN/m
w = 7.25 kN/m
Fd = 1.5 x w = 1.5 x 7.25 = 10.88 Hence Fd = 10.88 kN/m

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 95

Please draw the reinforcement sketch yourself

Problem 6. Design the Slab S2 of the Office Block Shown in the Sketch Plan1: Consider
Floor Finish of 1.25kN/m² and Live Load of 3kN/m². Use 8mm as main steel
1 Calculate do and dexx and deyy for Deflection Control
do = Smaller Span 3230 108 ≈ 110 do = 110 mm
= =
30 30 (Rounded off to the nearest higher multiple of 5mm)
dexx = do - cover - Main Steel Ø = 110 - 15 - 8 = 91 dexx = 91 mm
2 2
deyy = dexx - Main Steel Ø = 91 - 8 = 83 deyy = 83 mm

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 96

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 97

Please draw the reinforcement sketch yourself

Problem 7. Design the Slab S5 of the Office Block Shown in the Sketch Plan1: Consider
Floor Finish of 2.5kN/m² and Live Load as 4kN/m².

1 Calculate do and de for Deflection Control

do = Smaller Span 1250 125 ≈ 125 Hence do = 125 mm
= =
10 10 (Rounded off to the nearest higher multiple of 5mm)
de = do - cover - Main Steel Ø = 125 - 15 - 10 = 105
2 2
Hence de = 105 mm
2 Calculate Le = Effective Span of the Slab as follows
1 Upto Centre of Supports = 1250 + 115 = 1365 Hence Le = 1365 mm
= 1.365 m

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 98

Please draw the reinforcement sketch yourself

4.6. Reinforcement Details in a Slab: We have already discussed this and drawn the relevant Sections

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 99

4.7. Minimum Standards for the Reinforcement in a Flexural Member:

A few details revised as we have already used most of these standards when we designed the slabs
1. Minimum Area of Steel: (Page 48 of I.S.456)
Minimum Area of Steel in a Slab = 0.12% of cross sectional area for Fe 415 & Fe 500
Minimum Area of Steel in a Slab = 0.15% of cross sectional area for Fe 250
Minimum Area of Steel in a Beam Ast = 0.85 b de/fy
2. Maximum Area of Tension Reinforcement shall not exceed 0.04b x D or 0.04b x do (Page 47 of I.S.456)
3. Maximum Spacing of Main Steel in a Slab is least of the following (Page 46 of I.S.456)
a. 3de
b. 300mm
4. Maximum Spacing of Distribution Steel in a Slab is least of the following (Page 46 of I.S.456)
a. 5de
b. 500mm
5. Minimum Spacing of Steel Bars is greatest of the following (Page 45 of I.S.456)
a. Maximum size of aggregate + 5mm
b. The Diameter of bar if diameters are equal
c. The Diameter of the largest bar if diameters are unequal
6. Where there are two or more rows of bars (We will see in detail in study of Beams)the bars shall be vertically
in line and the minimum vertical distance between bars shall be greatest of the following
a. 15mm
b. 2/3rd the nominal maximum size of aggregate
c. Maximum diameter of bar
4.8. Reinforcement Detail in a Chajja: A Chajja is a Cantilever Slab in most cases with a 600mm overhang.
1 Calculate do and de for Deflection Control
do = Smaller Span 600 60 ≈ 100 Hence do = 100 mm
= =
10 10 (Rounded off to the nearest higher multiple of 5mm)
de = do - cover - Main Steel Ø = 100 - 15 - 8 = 81
2 2
Hence de = 81 mm
2 Calculate Le = Effective Span of the Slab as follows
Upto Centre of Supports = 600 + 40.5 = 641 Hence Le = 640.5 mm
or Clear Span + de/2 = (See Le for a Cantilever Slab) = 0.641 m
3 Calculate Loading on the Slab Density is in kN/m ³ so all dimension in m, width of slab = 1000mm = 1m
1 Slab Self Weight = 1m x do x 25 = 1m x 0.100 x 25 = 2.5 kN/m
2 Floor Finish = 1m x 1.25 if given take given value otherwise take 1.25kN/m ² = 1.25 kN/m
3 Live Load = 1m x 3 if Given take given value otherwise as per chart of L.L = 3.00 kN/m
w = 6.75 kN/m
Fd = 1.5 x w = 1.5 x 6.75 = 10.13 Hence Fd = 10.13 kN/m
4 Calculate B.Mmax
2 2 6
B.Mmax = Fd x Le 10.13 x 0.641 = 2.08 kNm = 2.08 x 10 Nmm
=
2 2
5 Check for depth i.e. Design of Depth for Flexure
2
B.Mmax = M.R = 0.134 x fck x b x de
6 2
2.08 x 10 = 0.134 x 25 x 1000 x de
Hence de = 24.90 < 81 (de assumed for deflection) Hence Safe for Depth Assumed
Hence Provide de = 81 mm and do = 100 mm
TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 100

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 101

Sunken Slab Details:

Most Toilet Slabs are small requiring minimum depth and steel by minimum standards. They are usually two-way
slabs. I have not shown detail calculations here (as I did for the chajja slab).

Suggested Theory Questions: TOS 3: Unit 4: Design of R.C.C. Slabs

Answer the Following Questions
1. Distinguish between a one way slab and a two way slab w.r.t the following points
a. Load Distribution
b. Main Steel provided
c. Distribution Steel Provided
2. Explain in detail the load distribution in a two way slab
3. Explain the various functions of Distribution Steel in an R.C.C Structure
4. Explain Why Alternate bars are bent up in a Simple Supported Slab
5. Write down the provisions from I.S.456 Provisions for the following
a. Maximum spacing of main steel
b. Minimum spacing of Steel
c. Maximum Spacing of Distribution Steel
d. Minimum Area of Steel
e. Maximum Area of Steel
f. Provision of Torsion Reinforcement in a Simply Supported Two Way Slab
g. Calculation of Effective span for a Simple Supported Slab and a Cantilever Slab
h. When is a slab a one way and when is it two way

6. Explain the difference in reinforcement placement between a Simple Supported slab and a Cantilever Slab.

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 102

Standard Hook and Bend shall be provided as follows. This is as per I.S.2502 1963

Reinforcement Splicing, Anchorage Value and Development Length

To increase the length of a bar it needs to ne overlapped (Spliced)
Splicing or Overlapping should be away from the sections of maximum stress and be staggered.
IS 456 recommends that splices in flexural members should not be at sections where the bending moment is
more than 50 per cent of the moment of resistance and not more than half the bars shall be spliced at a
section.
They should be used for bar diameters only up to 36 mm. Bars 36mm and above are Welded
The Length of Splice or Overlap needs to be calculated as per Development Length for Bars in Compression and
Tension
Bond Stress: The design bond stress (ζbd) is defined as the shear force per unit nominal surface area of reinforcing
bar. The stress is acting on the interface between bars and surrounding concrete and along the direction
parallel to the bars.
 The length of a member required to develop the full bond is called the Anchorage Length.
A tensile member or compressive member has to be anchored properly by providing additional length on either
side of the point of maximum tension, which is known as Development Length.
Development Length for Fe 500 steel used with M25 Grade Concrete is 48 times the diameter
The anchorage value of standard bend shall be considered as 4 times the diameter of the bar for each 45 degrees
bend subject to a maximum value of 16 times the diameter of the bar.
The anchorage value of standard U-type hook shall be 16 times the diameter of the bar
Deformed bars may not need end anchorages if the development length requirement is satisfied.

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 103

So in this Chapter we have learnt the

 First Limit State i.e. L.S. of Collapse: 1. Limit State of Flexure

And
 Second Limit State of Serviceability: Limit State of Deflection

TOS 3 Unit 4 Design of R.C.C. Slabs L.S. for Flexure Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 105

TOS 3: Unit 5: Design of R.C.C. Beams

Introduction: In Unit 5, we will be studying the Design of Beams
5.1. Elements of a Singly Reinforced R.C.C Beam :

1. Bottom Main Steel or Tension Steel at the Bottom may be in one, two, or more layers. The de is to be
calculated up-to the centre of the Reinforcement as shown in the adjoining diagram
2. Main Steel in the second layer placed vertically above the first row of steel
3. Pins are placed above the first layer at intervals along the length of the Beam to separate the First and
Second Layer.
4. Anchor Bars usually 2no 10mm to act as anchors for Shear Stirrups
5. Shear Stirrups are provided to take care of Limit State of Shear. These are closely spaced at the supports
where Shear Force or Diagonal Shear action is maximum and spaced farther near the centre of the beam
where Shear Force tends towards the minimum.
6. Top Main Steel is provided at the supports to take care of Negative Bending Moment leading to Tension at top

TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 106

de = do – 25mm cover – Φ of Main Steel – ½ (Φ of pin) de = do – 25mm cover – ½ Φ of Main Steel

5.2. Loads on a Beam and Load Transfer to a Beam: We will study this in the following manner
a. Transfer of Load from Slabs to Beams : Page no 41 of I.S.456

TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 107

b. Transfer of load to an Intermediate Beam and to an End Beam: Consider the following plan

The following Section XX shows the loading on FB1 AND FB2 (FB stands for floor Beam)
ds = depth of slab
dw = depth of beam
below the slab w=web
h1 = height of wall
t1 = thickness of
internal wall
t2 = thickness of
external wall

As shown below load on

Beam FB1, FB2 and FB3
is to be calculated for
distances q, p and r
respectively

Load on Beam FB3 is to be calculated for distance q. Load on Beam FB2 is to be calculated for distance p
1. Slab Load = q x 1m x ds x density of concrete 1. Slab Load = p x 1m x ds x density
2. Floor Finish Load = q x 1.25kN/m² 2. Floor Finish Load = p x 1.25kN/m²
3. Live Load = q x Live Load 3. Live Load = p x Live Load
4. Brick Wall Load = t2 x h1 x density of brick 4. Brick Wall Load = t1 x h1 x density of brick
5. Beam Self Weight = b x dw x density of concrete 5. Beam Self Weight = b x dw x density of concrete

TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 108

c. Transfer of load from Beams to Beams. This we will see when we study more complicated structural
configuration in the next semesters.

5.3. Design of a R.C.C Beam for Flexure: Steps

1. Calculate do and de for Deflection Control: This is de assumed: Round off do to a higher multiple of 25
do = Clear Span/10 for s.s.span < 6m , do = Clear span/12 for s.s.span > 6m. and do = Clear Span/7 for Cantilever.
de = do – 25mm cover - ½ (Dia of main bar) for one layer of steel
de = do – 25mm cover – 1 Dia of Main Bar – ½ Dia of Pin for two layers of steel
Whether we require One Layer of Steel or Two Layers of steel, we will understand only by experience. This is
because we are designing and designs are subject to change. Remember this is not arithmetic
2. Calculate Le as least of the following
a. c/c between supports
b. Clear Span + de
3. Calculate Load as explained in 5.2 Load on a Beam as per the following
1. Slab Load Transfer
2. Floor Finish Load Transfer from Slab to Beam
3. Live Load Transfer from Slab to Beam
4. Brick Wall Load if any
5. Self - Weight
6. Any other Point Load
Calculate total load w and Fd = 1.5w
4. Calculate B.M max
B.Mmax = Fd x Le ²/8 for Simple supported with a full udl
B.Mmax = Fd x Le ²/2 for Cantilever with a full udl
B.Mmax = could be any formula depending on the type of span and load
5. Check for depth for Flexure: L.S of Flexure
B.Mmax = 0.134 fck b de² fck = 25N/mm² as we are using M25 grade Concrete, b = 230 or 300 or as given
The de calculated will most times be greater than the de assumed in step 1 so we do the following
do = de + 25mm cover + ½ dia of main bar or do = de + 25mm cover + 1 dia of main bar + ½ dia of pin.
Round off do to a nearest higher multiple of 25mm, and Recalculate de
We shall use the de for further calculations
6. Calculate Ast
.
Ast = fy = 500N/mm² as we are using Fe 500 Steel. Calculate Number of Bars to Be Provided
. .
7. Design for Shear: We provide Shear Stirrups to take care of L.S. of Shear
Explanation
Concrete can resist shear. The maximum Shear Stress Concrete can bear is given on page no 73 of i.S.456
This is called ζcmax
ζcmax = 3.1N/mm²
If the section cannot
bear this stress, we
will have to resize the
Section

TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 109

a. Calculate Shear Force Max = Vu

Vu = Fd x Le/2 for Simple Supported/2 and Vu = Fd x Le for Cantilever
b. Calculate Actual Shear Stress
Actual Shear Stress = Vu/ b x de should be lesser than ζcmax otherwise will have to resize the section
c. Calculate % of Steel as 100 Ast/b x de and Design Shear Strength
Explanation: Shear is similar to Tension tearing apart the concrete. The Steel in Tension can hold concrete together
and Resist Shear. Greater the % of Steel Greater the Shear Strength of Concrete
b x de Ast
100 ?
By simple cross multiplication we can find % of steel as 100 Ast/b x de
From Design Shear Strength Table on page 73 of I.S.456 let us interpolate to find the Shear Strength for the
provided % of Steel. Let us call this as ζc

d. Calculate Shear taken by concrete as Vuc = b x de x ζc and

1. if Vuc > Vu then
Provide 8Tor 2 legged stirrups at spacing least of the following
a) 300mm
b) 0.75 x de
c) 0.87 x fy x Asv /0.4 x b { Asv = Area of Steel in Shear = 2 x 50.3mm² ( 2 legs of 8mm each)}
2. if Vuc < Vu and Vus = Vu – Vuc
Provide Stirrups at Spacing least of the following
a) 300mm
b) 0.75 x de
c) 0.87 x fy x Asv / O.4 x b
d) 0.87 x fy x Asv x de / Vus
8. Make Schedule and Draw the Reinforcement Details
V Stands For Shear. Vu is Shear Force Ultimate. Vuc = Shear Taken by Concrete and Vus = Shear Taken By Steel

TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 110

Problem 1. Design the Beam FB2 from the plan 1 shown below. Assume depth of slab S1 as
120mm, standard floor finish of 1.25kN/m². The Beam supports a brick wall 150thick.floor to
floor Height = 3.0m. Consider Live Load as 4kN/m²
Let us first draw a sketch of the Section XX to understand the loading pattern.

TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 111
1 Calculate do and de for Deflection Control
Clear Span 6530 do = 550 mm
do = = = 544 ≈ 550
12 12
de = do - Cover - Main Steel - Pin Dia Use 20 mm dia Main Bars
1 2 Use 2 Rows of Bars
= 550 - 25 - 20 - 20
= 495
1 2 de = 495 mm
2 Calculate Le as least of the following
1 c/c between supports = 6530 + 230 = 6760 mm
as per I.S.456
2 Clear Span + de = 6530 + 495 = 7025 mm
Le = 6.760 m
3 Calculate Loading on the Beam m m kN/m³
Slab Load = 3.09 x 0.12 x 25 = 09.27 kN/m
Floor Finish = 3.09 x 1.25 kN/m² = 03.86 kN/m
Live Load = 3.09 x 4.00 kN/m² = 12.36 kN/m
Self Weight = 0.23 x 0.43 x 25 = 02.47 kN/m
Brick Wall = 0.15 x 2.45 x 19 = 06.98 kN/m
Height of Brick wall = 3.00 - 0.55 = 2.45 m w = 34.95 kN/m
= Floor to Floor Height - Beam Depth
2.94 2.94
Distance for load Cal = + 0.15 + = 3.09 m
2 2
= slab on one side/2 + Support + cantilver slab or (slab on other side/2)
Fd = 1.5 x 34.95 = 52.42 kN/m
4 Calculate B.Mmax
2 2
Fd x Le 52.42 x 6.76
B.M = = = 299.44 kNm
8 8
6
B.Mmax = 299.44 x 10 Nmm
5 Check For Depth i.e. Design Depth for Flexure
2
M.R = 0.134 x fck x b x de
6 2 Round off Depth to a
299.44 x 10 = 0.134 x 25 x 230 x de higher multiple of
de = 623.4 > 495 = de assumed in 1st Step Revise Depth 25mm
do = 623.4 + 25 + 20 + 20 = 678.4 = 700 mm
1 2
de = 700 - 25 - 20 - 20 = 645 do ≈ 700 mm
1 2 de ≈ 645 mm
6 Calculate Area of Steel
6
M.R 299.4 x 10
Ast = =
0.87 x fy x 0.81 x de 0.87 x 500 x 0.81 x 645
= 1317.58 mm²
Provide 2 no 16 Tor + 3 no 20 Tor
= 2 x 201 + 3 x 314 = 1344 Ast = 1344 mm²

TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 112

Note:
1. The assumed depth for deflection control failed in flexure and we had to revise it to a much higher value
2. In case of beams, the bars are of higher diameters so it is tough task cranking these bars. So some bars are
discontinued at Le/7 from the supports. At the top are two anchor bars of 10mm. In addition at the
supports reinforcement that was curtailed at Le/7 is provided at the top up-to Le/7 + Ld. (Ld is the
development length required to develop full bond with concrete)

TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 113

Problem 2. Design the Beam FB1 from the plan 1. All assumptions are as per the previous problem
1 Calculate do and de for Deflection Control
Clear Span 6530 do = 550 mm
do = = = 544 ≈ 550
12 12
de = do - Cover - Main Steel - Pin Dia Use 20 mm dia Main Bars
1 2 Use 2 Rows of Bars
= 550 - 25 - 20 - 20
= 495
1 2 de = 495 mm
2 Calculate Le as least of the following
1 c/c between supports = 6530 + 230 = 6760 mm
as per I.S.456
2 Clear Span + de = 6530 + 495 = 7025 mm
Le = 6.760 m
3 Calculate Loading on the Beam m m kN/m³
Slab Load = 1.70 x 0.12 x 25 = 05.10 kN/m
Floor Finish = 1.70 x 1.25 kN/m² = 02.13 kN/m
Live Load = 1.70 x 4.00 kN/m² = 06.80 kN/m
Self Weight = 0.23 x 0.43 x 25 = 02.47 kN/m
Brick Wall = 0.23 x 2.45 x 19 = 10.71 kN/m
Height of Brick wall = 3.00 - 0.55 = 2.45 m w = 27.20 kN/m
= Floor to Floor Height - Beam Depth
2.94 0
Distance for load Cal = + 0.23 + = 1.70 m
2 1
= slab on one side/2 + Support + cantilver slab or (slab on other side/2)
Fd = 1.5 x 27.20 = 40.81 kN/m

TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 114

4 Calculate B.Mmax
2 2
Fd x Le 40.81 x 6.76
B.M = = = 233.09 kNm
8 8
6
B.Mmax = 233.09 x 10 Nmm
5 Check For Depth i.e. Design Depth for Flexure
2
M.R = 0.134 x fck x b x de
6 2 Round off Depth to a
233.09 x 10 = 0.134 x 25 x 230 x de higher multiple of
de = 550.0 > 495 = de assumed in 1st Step Revise Depth 25mm
do = 550.0 + 25 + 20 + 20 = 605.0 = 625 mm
1 2
de = 625 - 25 - 20 - 20 = 570 do ≈ 625 mm
1 2 de ≈ 570 mm
6 Calculate Area of Steel
6
M.R 233.1 x 10
Ast = =
0.87 x fy x 0.81 x de 0.87 x 500 x 0.81 x 570
= 1160.59 mm²
Provide 0 no 16 Tor + 4 no 20 Tor
= 0 x 201 + 4 x 314 = 1256 Ast = 1256 mm²
7 Design for Shear
7.a Calculating Vu = Shear Force Ultimate
Fd x Le 40.81 x 6.76
Vu = = = 137.92 kN
2 2
3
Vu = 137.92 x 10 N
7.b Calculating Actual Shear Stress to Compare it with τcmax
τ Vu 137.9 x 1000
= = = 1.05 < 3.1 N/mm²(τcmax)
actual b x de 230 x 570 Safe For Size
7.c Calculate % of Steel and Design Shear Strength τc
100 x Ast = 100 x 1256 = Interpolate for 0.96 %
0.96 %
b x de 230 x 570 0.57 + 0.64 - 0.57 x 0.21
From τc Tables % ζc N/mm² 0.25
0.75 0.57
1.00 0.64 Design Shear Strength τc = 0.629 N/mm²
7.d Calculate Vuc and Find if Vuc < Vu or Vuc > Vu
Vuc = τc x b x de = 0.629 x 230 x 570 = 82436 N
Vuc < Vu = 82.436 kN
if Vuc < Vu
Calculate Vus = Vu - Vuc = 137.92 - 82.4 = 55.489 kN = 55489 N

TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 115

Please draw the Reinforcement Details Yourself

Note: The end beam bears lesser load and hence the depth is much lesser.
The Main Steel may be placed in one layer leading to a greater de and hence a greater M.R, So safe.
Now that we have understood that Load affects the depth of the beam, let us understand a bigger deciding factor
in the depth of the beam i.e. Span
Problem 3. Design the Beam FB1 from the Hostel Building as shown in the sketch below. Assume
depth of slab S1 and S5 as 150mm, standard floor finish and Live Load = 3kN/m². The Beam
supports a brick wall 230thick. Floor to floor Height is 3.5m. Clear span of Beam = 7080mm
with350 wide supports on each side.

Notice that Columns are numbered C1, C2, C3 etc. while similar beams are given same names. FB1 spans across C1,
C2 with clear span 7080mm & due to Column C4 placed in between C3, and C5, FB3 has clear span of 3425mm

TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 116
1 Calculate do and de for Deflection Control
Clear Span 7080 do = 600 mm
do = = = 590 ≈ 600
12 12
de = do - Cover - Main Steel - Pin Dia Use 20 mm dia Main Bars
1 2 Use 2 Rows of Bars
= 600 - 25 - 20 - 20
= 545
1 2 de = 545 mm
2 Calculate Le as least of the following
1 c/c between supports = 7080 + 350 = 7430 mm
as per I.S.456
2 Clear Span + de = 7080 + 545 = 7625 mm
Le = 7.430 m
3 Calculate Loading on the Beam m m kN/m³
Slab Load = 3.46 x 0.15 x 25 = 12.96 kN/m
Floor Finish = 3.46 x 1.25 kN/m² = 04.32 kN/m
Live Load = 3.46 x 3.00 kN/m² = 10.37 kN/m
Self Weight = 0.23 x 0.45 x 25 = 02.59 kN/m
Brick Wall = 0.23 x 2.90 x 19 = 12.67 kN/m
Height of Brick wall = 3.50 - 0.6 = 2.90 m w = 42.90 kN/m
= Floor to Floor Height - Beam Depth
3.45 1.5
Distance for load Cal = + 0.23 + = 3.46 m
2 1
= slab on one side/2 + Support + cantilver slab or (slab on other side/2)
Fd = 1.5 x 42.90 = 64.35 kN/m
4 Calculate B.Mmax
2 2
Fd x Le 64.35 x 7.43
B.M = = = 444.06 kNm
8 8
6
B.Mmax = 444.06 x 10 Nmm
5 Check For Depth i.e. Design Depth for Flexure
2
M.R = 0.134 x fck x b x de
6 2 Round off Depth to a
444.06 x 10 = 0.134 x 25 x 230 x de higher multiple of
de = 759.2 > 545 = de assumed in 1st Step Revise Depth 25mm
do = 759.2 + 25 + 20 + 20 = 814.2 = 825 mm
1 2
de = 825 - 25 - 20 - 20 = 770 do ≈ 825 mm
1 2 de ≈ 770 mm
6 Calculate Area of Steel
6
M.R 444.1 x 10
Ast = =
0.87 x fy x 0.81 x de 0.87 x 500 x 0.81 x 770
= 1636.73 mm²
Provide 2 no 16 Tor + 4 no 20 Tor
= 2 x 201 + 4 x 314 = 1658 Ast = 1658 mm²

TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 117

 IS.456 page no 47 States that where the depth of the web in a beam exceeds 750 mm, side face reinforcement
shall be provided along the two faces. The total area of such reinforcement shall be not less than 0.1 percent
of the web area and shall be distributed equally on two faces at a spacing not exceeding 300 mm or web
thickness whichever is less. (In this case 0.1/100 x 230 x 770 @ 178mm² i.e.2 bars of 10mm extra on each side)
 How do we reduce the depth?
 One way is to increase the width. In this case if we make it 300mm then the following situation arises
441.4 x 106 = 0.134 x 25 x 300 x de²
Hence de = 662.72. do = 662.72 + 25 + 20 + ½ (20) ≈ 725mm < 825mm
 The other way is to reduce span. Add Column C4 in between C3 and C5 to reduce span to 3425mm
Let us now solve Beam FB3 with that reduced span
TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 118

Problem 4. Design the Beam FB3 from the Hostel Building with the same assumptions. Clear span of
Beam = 3425mm with 350 wide supports on each side.
Let us assume only one row of main bars as the Beam Span is small and hence depth required is also small.
1 Calculate do and de for Deflection Control
Clear Span 3425 do = 350 mm
do = = = 343 ≈ 350
10 10
de = do - Cover - Main Steel - Pin Dia Use 20 mm dia Main Bars
2 1 Use 1 Rows of Bars
= 350 - 25 - 20 - 0
= 315
2 1 de = 315 mm
2 Calculate Le as least of the following
1 c/c between supports = 3425 + 350 = 3775 mm
as per I.S.456
2 Clear Span + de = 3425 + 315 = 3740 mm
Le = 3.740 m
3 Calculate Loading on the Beam m m kN/m³
Slab Load = 3.46 x 0.15 x 25 = 12.96 kN/m
Floor Finish = 3.46 x 1.25 kN/m² = 04.32 kN/m
Live Load = 3.46 x 3.00 kN/m² = 10.37 kN/m
Self Weight = 0.23 x 0.2 x 25 = 01.15 kN/m
Brick Wall = 0.23 x 3.15 x 19 = 13.77 kN/m
Height of Brick wall = 3.50 - 0.35 = 3.15 m w = 42.56 kN/m
= Floor to Floor Height - Beam Depth
3.45 1.5
Distance for load Cal = + 0.23 + = 3.46 m
2 1
= slab on one side/2 + Support + cantilver slab or (slab on other side/2)
Fd = 1.5 x 42.56 = 63.83 kN/m
4 Calculate B.Mmax
2 2
Fd x Le 63.83 x 3.74
B.M = = = 111.61 kNm
8 8
6
B.Mmax = 111.61 x 10 Nmm
5 Check For Depth i.e. Design Depth for Flexure
2
M.R = 0.134 x fck x b x de
6 2 Round off Depth to a
111.61 x 10 = 0.134 x 25 x 230 x de higher multiple of
de = 380.6 > 315 = de assumed in 1st Step Revise Depth 25mm
do = 380.6 + 25 + 20 + 0 = 415.6 = 425 mm
2 1
de = 425 - 25 - 20 - 0 = 390 do ≈ 425 mm
2 1 de ≈ 390 mm
TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 119

1. Reduction of Depth of Beams: If we want to restrict the depth of the Beam , we will have to restrict
the span by providing intermediary columns:

TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 120

2. Span the Slabs to avoid large depths of slabs: It is important to note how the framing plan is worked
out. In the Sketch below of the Dormitory Room 3, The Room has been divided into 2 small slabs
supported on Beams FB7 and FB8. The slabs S4 are supported on these Beams. In the Balcony Portion S4
is supported across Cantilever Beams FB6.
3. Cantilever to One Way: The Balcony Slab is no longer a Cantilever but the Supporting Beams are
Cantilevers

Problem 5. Design the End Beam FB6 from the Hostel Building. Assume Slab S6 of depth 120mm,
Live Load = 4kN/m², Floor Finish of 1.5kN/m². End Beam F6 supports a Parapet wall 1.2m high
and 230thk. (Hint: FB6 is a Cantilever Beam)
1 Calculate do and de for Deflection Control
Clear Span 2800 do = 400 mm
do = = = 400 ≈ 400
7 7
de = do - Cover - Mai n Steel - Pin Dia Use 20 mm dia Main Bars
2 1 Use 1 Rows of Bars
= 400 - 25 - 20 - 0
= 365
2 1 de = 365 mm
2 Calculate Le As
1 Clear Span + 1/2 Support = 2800 + 115 = 2915 mm 
Le = 2.915 m

TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 121

3 Calculate Loading on the Beam m m kN/m³

Slab Load = 1.9725 x 0.12 x 25 = 05.92 kN/m
Floor Finish = 1.9725 x 1.50 kN/m² = 02.96 kN/m
Live Load = 1.9725 x 4.00 kN/m² = 07.89 kN/m
Self Weight = 0.23 x 0.28 x 25 = 01.61 kN/m
Brick Wall = 0.23 x 1.20 x 19 = 05.24 kN/m
Height of Brick wall = 1.20 - 0 = 1.20 m w = 23.62 kN/m
= Given
3.49 0
Distance for load Cal = + 0.23 + = 1.97 m
2 1
= slab on one side/2 + Support + cantilver slab or (slab on other side/2)
Fd = 1.5 x 23.62 = 35.43 kN/m
4 Calculate B.Mmax
2 2
Fd x Le 35.43 x 2.92
B.M = = = 150.53 kNm
2 2
6
B.Mmax = 150.53 x 10 Nmm
5 Check For Depth i.e. Design Depth for Flexure
2
M.R = 0.134 x fck x b x de
6 Round off Depth to a
2
150.53 x 10 = 0.134 x 25 x 230 x de higher multiple of
de = 442.0 > 365 = de assumed in 1st Step Revise Depth 25mm
do = 442.0 + 25 + 20 + 0 = 477.0 = 500 mm
2 1
de = 500 - 25 - 20 - 0 = 465 do ≈ 500 mm
2 1 de ≈ 465 mm
6 Calculate Area of Steel
6
M.R 150.5 x 10
Ast = =
0.87 x fy x 0.81 x de 0.87 x 500 x 0.81 x 465
= 918.75 mm²
Provide 0 no 16 Tor + 3 no 20 Tor
= 0 x 201 + 3 x 314 = 942 Ast = 942 mm²
7 Design for Shear
7.a Calculating Vu = Shear Force Ultimate
Fd x Le 35.43 x 2.92
Vu = = = 103.28 kN
1 1
3
Vu = 103.28 x 10 N
7.b Calculating Actual Shear Stress to Compare it with τcmax
τ Vu 103.3 x 1000
= = = 0.97 < 3.1 N/mm²(τcmax)
actual b x de 230 x 465 Safe For Size
TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 122

TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho
 123

Suggested Theory Questions: TOS 3: Unit 5: Design of R.C.C. Beams

Theory Questions:
 Explain the I.S.Provisions for Design of Shear Reinforcement for Beams
 Explain the I.S.Provisions for beams deeper than 750 mm
 Explain what can be done to reduce the depths of Beams.
 Explain with Sketches transfer of load from a One-Way and Two Way Slab to a Beam as per I.S.456.
 Explain Why Shear Stirrups are Closely Spaced at the Supports.
 Explain the Primary Difference between the Reinforcement Provided for a Simple Supported Beam
and a Cantilever Beam.
So in this Chapter we have learnt the
 First Limit State i.e. L.S. of Collapse: 1. Limit State of Flexure And
 First Limit State i.e. L.S. of Collapse: 2. Shear

And
 Second Limit State of Serviceability: Limit State of Deflection
TOS 3 Unit 5 Design of R.C.C. Beams L.S. for Flexure and Shear Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho