Proceedings of the 7th Triennial Conference of European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM 2009) Jyväskylä,

Finland
Jukka Louhivuori, Tuomas Eerola, Suvi Saarikallio, Tommi Himberg, Päivi-Sisko Eerola (Editors)

Groove Experience:
Emotional and Physiological Responses to Groove-Based Music
Maria A.G. Witek
Dept. of Musicology, University of Oslo, Norway
[email protected]

ABSTRACT and repetitive popular music is preferred for socio-cultural

studies. Physiological responses to music has been empirically
Theories of music and emotion suggest that subjective affective researched through qualitative reports (Sloboda 1991),
experience and physiological arousal are elicited by anticipation of hand-raising (Panksepp 1995), button-pressing (Waterman
musical-structural events. However, little is known about to what 1996) and physiological measurements (Krumhansl 1997;
extent groove-based music elicits such expectancies, and Rickard 2004; Guhn et al. 2007; Grewe et al. 2007; Gomez &
consequently how it is experienced. Due to the repetitiveness of the
groove, it was hypothesised that microtiming in groove might
Danuser 2007). By studying responses in for instance heart
facilitate a type of arousal that is not peak-based, but rather reflects rate, skin conductance and respiration, researchers have been
the groove state of listening, which has been conceptualized as a able to trace the intrinsic sources for arousal in music. The
steady mental state in synchronization with the music. An initial theory most often supported in these studies is Meyer’s theory
qualitative interview study with three groove-based music producers of expectation (1956). Here Meyer draws on Gestalt theory
and musicians investigated the subjective affective experience of when proposing that structural events in music are perceptual
groove, the extent to which musical structures facilitated the tendencies. Focusing on teleologically composed classical
experience, and to what degree the experience could be understood music, he claims that through inhibition of, deviation from
as emotional. A second experimental study investigated the extent to and delay of tendencies, expectations are frustrated and the
which structural deviations within and across the groove affect
physiological responses by measuring heart rate, skin conductance
listener experiences tension and arousal. In one of the first
and respiration of 10 participants. The GEMS-model was used to empirical studies of this theory, such structures were named
investigate to what extent emotions and feelings were elicited. “peak events” (e.g. sudden harmonic change, appoggiaturas,
Interviews were also conducted to obtain subjective accounts of the descending cycle of fifths, see Sloboda 1991), and they have
experience. The results reveal that large-scale variations in been directly identified as eliciting ‘peak physiological
groove-based music can be understood as ‘peak events’ that elicit responses’ or ‘chills’ in listeners (Guhn et al. 2007). A few
‘peak physiological responses’. Effects of microtiming could not be physiological studies include popular music in their
identified using physiological measurements. A groove listening experimental designs, however the structural characteristics of
state was however reported in the interviews, albeit with differing the music are largely ignored. Panksepp’s study (1995) used
understandings of its emotional quality. The research therefore poses
implications for future investigations of alternative
exclusively songs of the popular genre, but the discussion
conceptualizations of the affective experience of groove-based focused on the general emotional expression of the music,
music. rather than specific musical structures. Grewe et al. (2007)
used a number of popular genres, including groove-based
music, but as the classical pieces seemed to foster more
I. INTRODUCTION consistent responses, only these were chosen for closer
There are properties of music that have the ability to tap analysis and discussion. There are, in short, no empirical
into our emotions, change our moods and send shivers down investigations of physiological arousal elicited by
our spines. It has become increasingly common to view such groove-based music and the structures that may facilitate such
responses as reflective of the multicomponential nature of responses.
emotion. Scherer (2004; 2005) distinguishes between Huron’s theory of anticipation and the prediction-effect
cognitive, motor-expressive, physiological responses and (2006) is a more recent contribution to the theoretical
subjective feelings elicited by music and sees an emotion approaches to emotional arousal. In addition to effects of
episode as including most or all of these psychological effects. deviations, he states that successful prediction of structural
He stresses the often overlooked difference between emotions events elicits positive cognitive responses. The
and feelings, stating that feelings should be understood as the prediction-effect relies on repetition and familiarity. The more
experiential result of an emotion episode, while emotions are a pattern is repeated the stronger our expectations towards
more closely related to functional effects and humans’ similar patterns become and the more likely we are to
survival mechanisms. In his view, researchers investigating successfully predict them. Popular music, and groove-based
affective responses to music should take feelings as points of music in particular, might therefore seem a particularly
departure and study the ways in which changes in the suitable route to emotional stimulation through prediction, due
components in an emotion episode are felt. to its repetitive structure. However, this hypothesis has not
Unfortunately, researchers investigating the structural been empirically investigated.
properties of music that elicit emotional arousal have largely Zbikowski (2004) provides a useful structural definition of
ignored popular music, and groove-based music in particular. groove as: “a large scale, multilayered pattern that involves
It seems to have been assumed that the complex and both pitch and rhythmic materials, and whose repetitions form
teleologically composed structures of classical music are more the basis for either a portion or all of a particular tune” (p.
adept for stimulating listeners affectively, while immediate 275). Such structures can be found in a number of music
genres, such as funk, soul, hiphop, triphop, drum’n bass,

URN:NBN:fi:jyu-2009411334 573
Proceedings of the 7th Triennial Conference of European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM 2009) Jyväskylä, Finland
Jukka Louhivuori, Tuomas Eerola, Suvi Saarikallio, Tommi Himberg, Päivi-Sisko Eerola (Editors)

house, jazz and world music. In recent years, groove has breaks in funk. These are points where the groove is
received some psychological-theoretical attention. Madison momentarily replaced with one or a few instruments
(2006) found that the desire to move and dance was the performing a short and intensified rhythmic gesture,
second largest factor in factor analysis of subjective ratings of temporarily disrupting the repetition and taking the listener
groove-based music. A recurring feature in cognitive out of the groove state of listening. In Butler’s analyses of
approaches is the incorporation of embodied knowledge. This electronic dance music (2006), he describes how large-scale
concept refers to cognition “as activity that is structured by changes create structural tension and ambiguity. By gradually
the body situated in its environment – that is, as embodied introducing textural layers, tension is progressively built in
action” (Iyer 2002: 389). Zbikowski (2004) argues that groove the groove, letting each new layer add something to the
invites bodily motion because of the structural similarities it rhythmic design while completing the texture of the groove
shares with rhythmic regularities in the human body, such as over time. Temporary removal of textural layers is another
heartbeat, breathing and walking. Iyer (2002) directs an effective variation. Removing the drumbeat is a powerful way
ecological approach to the perception of microtiming in for a DJ to stimulate his clubbers. It achieves an anacrustic
groove. Microtiming is a rhythmic structure in which effect, building tension towards the return of the layer that has
phenomenal accents are microscopically shifted ahead or been removed.
behind their metrical locations, playing rhythmic events “late” In a sense, large-scale variations in groove-based music can
or “early”. Iyer sees these structures as invariants that be interpreted as structural deviations similar in theory to
facilitate perception of the source behind the rhythmic event, those described by Meyer (1956): Gradually introducing or
i.e. the movement and initiation behind the sound and the temporarily removing textural layers inhibits the completion
body/entity that produces it. As well as incorporating of the groove as a full-textured entity, while instrumental
embodied knowledge, Pressing (2002) considers the cognitive breaks abruptly deviate from the repetitive groove. However,
component of the emotional experience of groove, which he as groove-based music is not teleologically composed, to what
attributes to what Huron would name the prediction effect: extent will these variations function as ‘peak events’ and elicit
“[Groove] arises from refinements of special conditions of ‘peak physiological responses’? Furthermore, microtiming
heightened cognitive prediction of time” (Pressing 2002: 196). can be seen as deviations from quantized metrical locations
Furthermore, he claims that arousal is elicited by perceptual occurring within the basic unit. Although microtiming is an
rivalry, multiplicity, tension and ambiguity in groove-based integrated part of the performance- and production-style of
music, as these structures facilitate cognitive dissonance and groove, on the level of perception one might expect that they
uncertainty. facilitate a certain degree of tension and arousal. However,
Coming in from a humanistic perspective, Danielsen’s even if we understand microtiming as deviations, they
(2006) phenomenological account of the experiences of funk manifest themselves on a different level than large-scale
music provides some compelling hypotheses of the experience variations. Since they are microscopic and constantly repeated
of groove. She describes the groove mode of listening as – because the basic unit is constantly repeated – they are not
phenomenologically different from the experience of listening as obviously deviant as large-scale variations. If we assume
to more teleologically composed music (i.e. classical). Rather that microtiming stimulates expectations, although more
than directing expectations forward, based on tendencies subtly than large-scale variations, one might expect that they
perceived in the past, listeners in a groove mode of listening will be reflected in physiological responses. The groove mode
are immersed into an “eternal present”. Because the music is of listening proposed by Danielsen (2006) seems less
repetitive, attention is directed inwards, to what is happening compatible with peak-based arousal and we might imagine
at that moment. However, this does not mean that time, and that “moving together with the groove” elicits a more steady
groove, is static. Danielsen sees this way of listening as a and sustained level of arousal. To what extent will structural
mental “moving together with the music” because the deviations within the repeated basic unit of the groove be
listener’s attention is always synchronized with the reflected in physiological arousal? In addition to these
forward-moving and repetitive groove. Although the music is questions concerning physiology in particular, the cognitive
repeated, the time in which it is experienced is not. In this and phenomenological theories of the experience of groove
sense, repetition is not habituating, but enhancing. lack empirical support. These theories give reason to suspect
In terms of structure, groove-based music and groove is that there are sources for affective experience in the structures
often analyzed on two levels; within and across the repeated of groove-based music. But to what extent do listeners
basic unit of the groove (usually between 1-2 measures). In experience groove emotionally and what characterizes this
Danielsen’s study (2006) the primary focus is on structural experience?
tension occurring within the basic unit, such as rhythmic
displacement, counter- and cross-rhythmic patterns and II. FIRST STUDY: A QUALITATIVE
microtiming. Microtiming is traditionally seen as a EXPLORATION
performance strategy for adding expressivity and tension to The first qualitative study investigated the subjective
rhythmic patterns, and in studies of groove, it is recognized as affective experience of groove. Groove-based
an integrated part of the groove performance- and musicians/producers were interviewed, as it was hoped that
production-style (Waadeland 2001; Danielsen 2006, their skills and knowledge of the composition and
Danielsen, forthcoming). performance of groove-based music, as well as their general
Although microtiming adds tension within the repetitive experience as groove-based music listeners, might yield rich
groove, larger-scale variations often occur across the basic accounts of the extent to which the musical structure is
unit. Danielsen (2006) describes the function of instrumental influential to the experiences induced. The research questions

URN:NBN:fi:jyu-2009411334 574
Proceedings of the 7th Triennial Conference of European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM 2009) Jyväskylä, Finland
Jukka Louhivuori, Tuomas Eerola, Suvi Saarikallio, Tommi Himberg, Päivi-Sisko Eerola (Editors)

for this study were: What characterizes the affective arousal have some resonance in the subjective reflections in
experience of groove and to what extent do the structural the present study.
characteristics of groove-based music affect this experience?
Furthermore, the study investigated the extent to which the 4) Effects of Microtiming and Change. Both L and A
experience could be understood as emotional. emphasized the significance of microtiming and its
enhancement of the groove state of listening. L seemed to
experience microtiming as having an anacrustic function,
A. Method
contributing to the feelings of anticipation:
1) Participants. Three participants were recruited through
personal contacts of the author. They were all male If you had a beat where you had a hit on the first and the third beat
of every bar [in a 4/4 meter], and it’s always there within the beat,
individuals currently active in groove-based music milieus in
and you knew it was there and you could feel it being there, and
London, performing and producing within a number of
the other [microtemporally shifted] beats are there to sort of accent
different groove-based genres (e.g. hiphop, jazz-fusion, world
the whole rhythm in general, that kind of make you stumble onto
music, R’nB, drum’n bass). Their age ranged from 28 to 49. those beats that you know are gonna be there, almost like you roll
In the following, they will be referred to with their first initial. onto them (L).

2) Procedure and Analysis. Semi-structured interviews The stumble-analogy is particularly illustrative: walking
were conducted and recorded at the homes or studios of the involves a pattern of impacts with the ground in a rhythmic
participants, and the duration was approximately 1½ hrs. and regular pattern. Because of the repetition and cyclicity of
Participants were asked to choose a piece of groove-based this motor-expressive rhythm, each impact is highly predicted.
music that they particularly responded to. It was hoped that When stumbling on something, another impact occurs
listening to actual music during the interviews would facilitate unexpectedly, resulting in an acceleration of speed and
discussion and provide concrete musical examples that would movement towards the predicted impact. In a way, the
help them articulate and pinpoint structures and sources for stumble is a deviation from a structural tendency, in the sense
their responses. The interviews were analyzed using described by Meyer (1956), as the unexpected event inhibits
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (see Smith 2001). the regularity of the rhythm in the walk. Furthermore, the
B. Results and Discussion words used by L to describe this experience seem to fit well
with Iyer’s (2002) and Zbikowski’s (2004) theories of
3) Getting into the Groove. One expression frequently embodied knowledge, as motor-expressive behavior is related
reoccurred among all three participants when describing their to rhythm perception. However, the subjective reflections in
experiences of groove-based music: getting into the groove. this study cannot be confidently inferred to reflect cognitive
This phrase seemed to reflect a mental state: the participants processes in a one-to-one relationship.
spoke of “tuning into” the interlocking of rhythms and Interestingly, one of the participants, who was a drummer,
experienced becoming “in sync” with the music. Repetition seemed aware of the experiential effect of microtiming in
was named the uttermost important ingredient in the structure groove but had a hard time identifying its source, referring to
of groove and the facilitation of this state of listening: it simply as: “one of those little je ne sais quois” (T). One
might expect that as a performer he would know how such
It’s just going backwards and forwards and backwards and structures were facilitated. However, his struggle to identify
forwards and backwards and forwards and you settle into a groove the exact strategies behind this experience precisely denotes
because it’s repetitious and eventually you’ll know where it is,
microrhythmic structures as subtle and microscopic. They are
and you can kind of move into it (A).
not obvious deviations, but an integrated part of the stylistic
In the sense described here, repetitive groove-based music is expression in groove. It is worth keeping T’s reflections in
not experienced as static, but rather as moving in a circular mind when interpreting the highly detailed descriptions of L
manner. Reflections of this quality seem to stand in and A, who were both producers. Without the practical
accordance with Danielsen’s phenomenological theory of knowledge achieved from digitally programming grooves,
groove, in which the repetitiveness causes the listener to microrhythmic structures might not be consciously
mentally “move with the music” (Danielsen 2006). experienced.
The effects of repetition were further described as Large-scale changes occurring across the basic unit, such as
facilitating constant feelings of anticipation: drum-beaks, hooks and gradual introduction and temporary
removal of textural layers, were reported by all participants as
Whatever groove you have, there’s always gonna be an element in influencing their experiences, eliciting feelings of anticipation
it that’s just always on time and you know when its gonna be there. and expectation. It might therefore seem that the experience of
It’s always solidly, solidly bang on time! (…). A repetitive groove is somewhat similar to that of more teleologically
drumbeat is the most important in having a great groove. And you composed music, in which arousal is elicited by inhibition of
know where… you can feel where the drums are gonna hit (L).
structural tendencies. However, a reflection made by A
These reflections fit well with the feelings of pleasantness suggests that in the case of groove, these structures may in
elicited by what Huron refers to as “the prediction effect” fact have a somewhat different function:
(Huron 2006). The rhythmic regularity of the groove The way it all sits together, it’s got you hooked in a really
facilitates accurate temporal predictions, which elicit rhythmic way. And then you just sit and wait. And the groove sits
positively valenced cognitive responses. It seems Pressing’s on that for ages, and you just wait and wait, and you can dance to
(2002) theoretical suggestions for such a cognitive route to that rhythm all night really (…), you’re just waiting for it, waiting

URN:NBN:fi:jyu-2009411334 575
Proceedings of the 7th Triennial Conference of European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM 2009) Jyväskylä, Finland
Jukka Louhivuori, Tuomas Eerola, Suvi Saarikallio, Tommi Himberg, Päivi-Sisko Eerola (Editors)

in anticipation and whether it changes or not, who gives a damn! structure in groove-based music that particularly influenced
(…) What it does whilst you’re waiting for it, that’s the trump of a this experience, albeit only consciously in terms of production.
tune for me (A). Variations across the basic units? were also recognized as
affecting the experience. However, the feelings of anticipation
Although he anticipates the changes, it is not the changes
elicited by these changes do not necessarily denote these
themselves which are the experiential goal. The groove is not
events as teleological goals in experience. Finally, the
supposed to lead up to these changes, but the changes are
differing recognition of the emotional quality of the
meant to strengthen the experience during the groove.
experience of groove reflects the multicomponential nature of
5) Feelings and Emotional responses. Although participants emotional experience.
reported experiencing pleasantness from prediction and The findings selected for investigation in the second study
feelings of anticipation from microtiming and large-scale resulted from the tendencies and contradictions that emerged
changes when listening to groove-based music, it leaves the from the interviews. There were indications that structures in
question whether these are emotional experiences. In fact, all groove-based music stimulate listeners through feelings of
three participants used the word “emotional” in their anticipation, both due to microtiming and large-scale
interviews, but their definitions of emotionality seemed to variations. However, physiological arousal was not reported
differ. L was the most confident in his recognition of the by all participants and the sources for and quality of
experience as emotional and reported experiencing feelings of physiological responses were not revealed in detail. Therefore
joy. A explicitly rejected groove’s ability to elicit specific it was decided to investigate physiological responses to
emotions, but described the experience more in terms of groove-based music in an experimental context.
feelings associated with the physical effect of groove.
Interestingly, he reflected upon how a physical reaction could III. SECOND STUDY: A PHYSIOLOGICAL
be interpreted as emotional: INVESTIGATION
This study investigated the physiological and emotional
I would probably be nodding my head and getting really into it.
And when I’m physically getting into it I would say that feels
responses to groove-based music in a laboratory setting.
good. But the feeling would transfer from a physical feeling to an Previous research has shown that stimulation of expectation
emotional response. So I suppose it would start being physical, but through structural deviations in classical music elicits
then that would make me feel good, so that’s an emotional thing, physiological arousal (e.g. Sloboda 1991, Guhn et al. 2007).
isn’t it (A). In the present study, these tendencies were investigated in
groove-based music by use of physiological measurements.
To A, the pleasantness associated with moving to the music The research questions were: What characterizes
was seen as a more general emotional reaction, rather than physiological responses to groove-based music and to what
eliciting specific emotions. When participants were asked extent are its structural characteristics, such as large-scale
about their physiological responses to groove, their answers variations and microtiming, reflected in these responses?
revealed considerable heterogeneity. L seemed to recall Furthermore, feelings, emotions and affective states elicited
experiencing ‘chills’ elicited by groove-based music: by groove-based music were explored with scale-ratings.
It’s like a sort of tingling feeling I get in my back and my chest…
D. Method
It’s like fizzing, kind of like sherbert or something, inside me (L).
5) Participants. 10 participants (3 females and 7 males)
Contrastingly, A explicitly rejected groove’s ability to elicit
‘chills’, while T seemed uncertain about his physiological were recruited from the University of Sheffield music
reactions to groove-based music. It seems the participants had department and through personal contacts of the author. The
differing understandings of the ways in which emotional mean age was 23.7 years (SD=5.4). From ratings on a 5-point
experiences were elicited by groove-based music. This likert scale, it was revealed that they on average considered
multiplicity is perhaps a reflection of the different components groove to be one of their favourite genres of music (mean=4.3,
of an emotional response (2004; 2005). Feelings of joy, St.d=0.82).
pleasantness and anticipation are cognitive effects; feeling 6) Apparatus. Physiological responses were measured
like wanting to dance is a physical and motor-expressive using biofeedback hardware and software Procomp Infiniti
response; a ‘fizzing’ feeling is indicative of physiological and BioGraph Infiniti (2.5.3) via a Dell LATITUDE D505
arousal. As feelings are defined by the changes felt in all or laptop. Measurements were taken for heart rate (HR) in beats
most of the different components, one might interpret the per minute, skin conductance (SC) in microsiemens and
different accounts in the interviews as descriptions of respiration (RESP) in breaths per minute. A macbook OS X
affective feelings elicited by groove-based music. 10.4.11 Intel played the music to the participants via closed
C. Summary and Implications for Second Study headphones at a loud but comfortable sound level.
The findings from this study reveal that there seems to be a The GEMS list of emotions-, feelings- and affect labels
(Zentner et al. 2008) was used to design a 5-point likert scale
certain way of listening to groove-based music, referred to as
to record participants’ emotional and affective experiences of
getting into the groove, which stands in accordance with
Danielsen’s theory of “moving together with the music” the music. These labels have been shown to particularly suit
(2006). Groove also seems to elicit feelings of anticipation investigations of musical emotions. The list contains nine
and pleasantness, which Huron attributes the prediction effect categories of labels from which, in this study, two labels were
(Huron 2006). Furthermore, microtiming emerged as a used: ‘wonder’ (happy, moved), ‘transcendence’ (inspired,

URN:NBN:fi:jyu-2009411334 576
Proceedings of the 7th Triennial Conference of European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM 2009) Jyväskylä, Finland
Jukka Louhivuori, Tuomas Eerola, Suvi Saarikallio, Tommi Himberg, Päivi-Sisko Eerola (Editors)

thrills), ‘tenderness’ (sensual, tender), ‘nostalgia’ (dreamy, measurement noise and artifacts, which were rejected from
melancholic), ‘peacefulness’ (relaxed, meditative), ‘power’ calculations. Due to the discovered patterns of recovery from
(energetic, fiery), ‘joyful activation’ (stimulated, joyful, the attachment of sensors in the baseline-measure of SC, it
makes me want to dance), ‘tension’ (agitated, tense) and was decided to use only the last 10 sc of this measure as
‘sadness’ (sad, sorrowful). Three labels were used from the baseline as this would more closely represent a “resting state”.
category ‘joyful activation’, as this category showed The baseline-periods for HR and RESP exhibited no such
prominence in measurements of the experience of patterns and were therefore used in their entirety.
groove-based genres in previous research (Zentner et al. As well as calculating the average physiological arousal for
2008). the whole pieces, the first three minutes of each piece were
divided into one-minute segments. It was suspected that
7) Stimuli. The stimuli consisted of one piece chosen by the averaging over the whole piece might not fully capture the
participant and two pieces chosen by the researcher which nature of the responses, as music might be arousing at
were played to the participants in their entirety. In accordance different times. Only values for the first three minutes were
with previous research, the expectation was that music with used in this analysis, as some participant-chosen pieces did
which participants had a personal connection would foster not exceed this time length. All absolute values were
rich results (Panksepp 1995; Rickard 2004). Participants were normalized over their respective base-line periods to obtain
asked to choose a piece they felt they particularly responded measures of relative percent change from baseline controlled
to. The pieces chosen were of a wide range of groove-based for individual differences.
genres, such as hiphop, drum’n bass, soul, jazz, funk and
world music. The experimenter-chosen pieces were chosen for E. Results and Discussion
their assumed familiarity among the participants, since 11) Effects of familiarity and liking. To investigate any
previous research reveals stronger emotional reactions to relationship between familiarity, liking and overall arousal for
familiar music (e.g. Rickard 2004). The pieces were also experimenter-chosen pieces, Pearson’s correlations tests were
chosen due to their differing expressions and structural conducted. A significant positive correlation of familiarity
characteristics. “Sex Machine” (1970) by James Brown is a with liking was revealed for “Sex Machine” (r=0.867, df=8,
classic funk tune with an up-tempo expression commonly p=0.001), but not for “Teardrop” (r=0.436, df=7, p=0.241),
associated with dancing. Its structures include microtiming, giving some indications of accordance with previous research
syncopation, displacement and repetition, as well as showing that pieces with which listeners are familiar also
larger-scale variations, such as piano solos, horn breaks and a seem to be liked (e.g. Rickard & Ritossa 2004). No significant
bridge. The lyrics comprise mostly of James Brown correlations were found for familiarity or liking with overall
communicating with his band and encouraging his listeners to arousal. These results most probably reflect the small number
dance. “Teardrop” (1998) is a piece by the triphop band of participants and uniformly high ratings of familiarity and
Massive Attack. Triphop is a genre combining down-tempo liking for both pieces (“Sex Machine” familiarity mean=4.6,
hiphop beats with the sounds of ambient electronica. Its St.d.=0.70, liking mean=4.4, St.d.=0.84, “Teardrop”
expression, often amplified by poetic lyrics, is believed to familiarity mean=4.22, St.d=0.83, liking mean=4.44,
encourage contemplative listening rather than dancing. The St.d.=0.73).
musical structures of “Teardrop” include gradual introduction
of textural layers, temporary removal of textural layers while 10) Effects of music. Dependent t-tests compared levels of
maintaining groove-based through repetition. physiological arousal during each of the one-minute segments
with baseline-periods. The results are provided in table 1.
8) Procedure. Experiments were held at the University of Levels of arousal were significantly higher in SC during
Sheffield music department. Each session lasted participant-chosen pieces for all three minutes, but only the 1st
approximately one hour. Participants were seated facing a minute segment was significantly higher in HR. None of the
wall with their arms on a table in front of them. After being minutes measured in RESP were significantly higher than
attached to electrodes, participants were asked to relax, focus baseline. During “Teardrop”, the 1st minute segment was
on the music and not move while measurements were being significantly higher in SC and RESP. The 1st minute segment
taken to avoid measurement noise. The experiment had a was significantly higher than baseline in SC only for “Sex
repeated-measures design, in which the pieces were balanced Machine”. These results indicate that groove-based music
in order. Each piece was preceded by two minutes of silence physiologically arouses listeners, but only for a certain
in order to obtain a “resting state” baseline measure with amount of time and not in all physiological parameters. Figure
which music responses could be compared. After each piece, 1 presents levels of arousal in SC for all one-minute segments
participants filled out the GEMS questionnaire and rated their in each piece. The graph indicates a tendency of habituation in
familiarity with and liking of the experimenter-chosen pieces arousal for the experimenter-chosen pieces. However, as
on 5-point likert scales. 15 minute long semi-structured levels of arousal in the last two minutes were not statistically
interviews were conducted and recorded immediately after the significant, the apparent decrease from the first minute should
experiment, in which participants were asked to describe their be interpreted with caution. Nonetheless, the statistically
experiences and report any sections or parts of the music they significant levels of arousal in all three minutes for the
had particularly responded to. participant-chosen pieces and the lack of decrease indicates
that groove-based music with which listeners have a personal
9) Analysis. The physiological data were analyzed using relationship is less susceptible to habituation. It should,
BioGraph Infiniti. All responses were visually screened for however, be noted that only the first three minutes of the

URN:NBN:fi:jyu-2009411334 577
Proceedings of the 7th Triennial Conference of European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM 2009) Jyväskylä, Finland
Jukka Louhivuori, Tuomas Eerola, Suvi Saarikallio, Tommi Himberg, Päivi-Sisko Eerola (Editors)

pieces were analyzed, and it is possible that the arousal during conducted to investigate differences in arousal between the
the rest of the pieces exhibited other patterns. three music conditions. A significant main effect of music
condition was found in SC (F(2,16)=7.153, p=0.006), but not
Table 1. Mean relative percent increase from baseline in HR, SC
and RESP during one-minute epochs. *p<0.05, 2-tailed t. in HR (F(2,16)=0.89, p=0.915) or RESP (F(2,16)=0.126,
p=0.883). A Bonferroni post-hoc test revealed that
Teardrop (df=8) participant-chosen pieces elicited significantly higher arousal
Mean St.d. t p in SC (mean=29%, St.d=22%) compared to “Teardrop”
HR 1st min 3.0 5.2 1.73 0.122
(mean=3%. St.d=17%) (p=0.025), but not compared to “Sex
2nd min 2.6 6.2 1.22 0.256
3rd min 3.3 7.3 1.37 0.208 Machine” (mean=6 %, St.d=14%) (p=0.104). No statistically
SC 1st min 24.8 20.1 3.70 0.006* significant differences were found between the two
2nd min 23.2 31.0 2.24 0.055 experimenter chosen pieces (p=1). Therefore, it seems that
3rd min 11.2 27.8 1.21 0.260 groove-based music with which listeners have a personal
RESP 1st min 20.6 22.6 2.72 0.026* connection elicits higher levels of arousal than pieces with
2nd min 13.9 21.0 1.98 0.083 which listeners simply like and are familiar with.
3rd min 14.0 35.6 1.15 0.283
12) ‘Peak responses’ to ‘peak events’. When visually
Sex Machine (df=9)
screening physiological responses for recurring patterns,
Mean St.d. t P
several peaks were identified and matched with corresponding
HR 1st min 3.1 5.0 1.97 0.080
2nd min 2.1 6.0 1.11 0.295
musical structures that could be interpreted as ‘peak events’.
3rd min 2.2 6.3 1.10 0.300 These structures include introduction of new textural layers,
SC 1st min 16.7 16.4 3.21 0.011* temporary removal of textural layers, high pitch vocal events,
2nd min 10.9 16.8 2.05 0.071 instrumental breaks, harmonic variations in otherwise
3rd min 5.0 20.1 0.78 0.453 repetitive harmonic progressions, introduction of new formal
RESP 1st min 10.7 24.6 1.37 0.203 sections (e.g. B sections, bridges, choruses), metrical
2nd min 12.3 41.4 0.94 0.372 dissonance and displacement. In the experimenter-chosen
3rd min 8.9 21.2 1.32 0.218 pieces, responses to such events showed consistency across
several participants. However, an interesting observation was
Participant-chosen pieces (df=9)
that ‘peak responses’ did not always occur across
Mean St.d. t p
physiological parameters for each participant. The highest
HR 1st min 29.0 3.0 3.02 0.014*
consistency was observed in the participant-chosen pieces.
2nd min 3.9 5.5 2.24 0.052
3rd min 3.4 8.2 1.3 0.225 RESP responses exhibited high levels of variability and
SC 1st min 24.3 20.6 3.73 0.005* should therefore be interpreted with caution, as this
2nd min 34.2 31.6 3.42 0.008* physiological parameter is subject to conscious alteration (i.e.
3rd min 26.4 23.5 3.56 0.006* the participant could consciously choose to breathe faster or
RESP 1st min 12.4 22.8 1.72 0.119 slower).
2nd min 14.4 31.9 1.43 0.187 In the interviews, temporary removal of textural layers was
3rd min 13.8 33.3 1.31 1.223 reported as the most stimulating structure. Participant 1’s
responses provide a good example of how such structures
might be reflected in HR, SC and RESP. Her chosen piece
was “Jimmi Diggin’ Cats” (1993) by the hiphop group
Digable Planets. At several instances during the otherwise
repetitive groove, the whole groove or most of the layers in it
are removed for the last half of a measure, leaving the rapper
to conclude the basic unit of the groove on his own. At other
times, the groove is replaced with interludes of mellow talking
accompanied by a quiet synthesizer pattern. At each of the
moments when the groove or the removed layers are
reintroduced, the participant’s responses exhibit peaks, as can
be seen in figure 2. It seems that at these moments, the
participant experienced anticipation of the return of the
groove, and once it was reintroduced, arousal increased. This
participant’s qualitative reflections during the identifications
of these events in the interview further supports this
assumption:
I feel like I can still hear the groove (…), and when the beat
finally comes back in it just reaffirms what I’ve been listening to
Figure 1. Mean relative percent change from baseline in SC
and I think it’s then even more intensified, because I know it
during one-minute segments. * Statistically significant (p<0.05)
already and it makes sense, and I can just get with it (…). It just
increase from baseline, defined as 0%.
reinforces what I really like about it. Like, it’s been extracted
away from me, so I’m a bit lusting for it (P1).
These indications were further supported by results from
repeated measures one-way ANOVA’s, which were

URN:NBN:fi:jyu-2009411334 578
Proceedings of the 7th Triennial Conference of European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM 2009) Jyväskylä, Finland
Jukka Louhivuori, Tuomas Eerola, Suvi Saarikallio, Tommi Himberg, Päivi-Sisko Eerola (Editors)

Keeping the beat in mind while it is removed creates anticipation might in part stem from actually knowing that the
anticipation and satisfaction at the eventual return of the beat. break is approaching.
For this participant, these cognitive processes and feelings of
anticipation seem to be reflected in her physiological
responses.

HR Baseline A B C CC D C

HR Baseline A B

SC A B C CC C

SC A B

RESP A B

RESP A B

Figure 2. Peaks in HR, SC and RESP of participant 1 from

temporary removal of textural layers in “Jimmi Diggin Cats”.
HR y-axis=beats per minute, SC y-axis=microsiemens, RESP
y-axis=breaths per minute. All x-axes=time in minutes of
recording session. A=introduction of music. B=first introduction
of drumbeat. C=return of drumbeat/groove after temporary
removal. D=drum break. Figure 3. Peaks at horn break in “Sex Machine”. HR of
Several musical structures in “Sex Machine” elicited ‘peak participant 1, y-axis=beats per minute. SC of participant 5,
responses’. These include introduction of new textural layers y-axis=microsiemens. RESP of participant 2, y-axis=breaths per
minute. All x-axes=time in minutes of recording session.
(piano solos), introduction of formal sections (the bridge) and
A=music begins. B=horn break. Length of music score does not
high pitch vocal events (James Brown’s screams and vocal correspond proportionally in time with physiological graphs.
hooks). However, the structural events that elicited the most
consistent responses and that were mentioned most frequently “Teardrop” elicited ‘peak responses’ at structural events such
during the interviews were the horn breaks. A characteristic of as temporary removal of textural layers, harmonic variations
James Brown is to vocally announce his breaks, explicitly in otherwise repetitive harmonic progression and high pitch
facilitating anticipation of their arrival. In “Sex Machine” vocal events. The structures that elicited the most
there are three such horn breaks, all of which are announced physiological peaks occurred during the introduction. The first
approx. 15 seconds in advance; at the beginning of the piece, minute of the piece provides a good example of how gradual
at the return of the groove after the bridge and at the end of introduction of textural layers might be experienced
the piece. Peaks were most frequent at the return of the groove physiologically. Participants’ physiological responses
after the bridge. However, they were not observed in all exhibited peaks at three moments in this introduction,
physiological parameters for all participants. Figure 3 shows particularly at the introduction of the harpsichord, the
examples of physiological manifestations of three participants introduction of the bass and piano and the final entry of the
at the time of this horn break. Participant 3’s reflections voice. Figure 4 presents physiological responses of three
during the interview provide a useful subjective account of the different participants at these moments. The introduction was
experience of these instrumental breaks: identified as particularly arousing by several participants
during the interviews, especially the moment when the piano
I remember feeling, sort of anticipating, like, what’s it gonna be and bass is introduced. Participant 5 described the experience
this time, what’s it gonna be next time… (P3). with words similar to those used by the participants in the first
study when describing the groove state of listening:
Due perhaps to the expectations elicited vocally by James
Brown, the participant anticipated these changes. Furthermore, It’s the beat, I think that’s what it is, it’s the dark bass, when that
as this music was highly familiar to all participants, the kicks in, I’m just away then, I’m hooked (P5).

URN:NBN:fi:jyu-2009411334 579
Proceedings of the 7th Triennial Conference of European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM 2009) Jyväskylä, Finland
Jukka Louhivuori, Tuomas Eerola, Suvi Saarikallio, Tommi Himberg, Päivi-Sisko Eerola (Editors)

The gradual introduction can be understood as building conditions that were revealed by Bonferroni post-hoc tests are
tension towards the entry of the groove in its full form, presented in figure 5. These results indicate that groove-based
causing the feelings of anticipation to enhance the groove music elicits differing emotions, feelings and affective states
mode of listening. Instead of effortlessly getting into the depending on the expression and genre of the music.
groove at the first instance, the gradual introduction of the
Table 2. Significant main effects, mean ratings and standard
groove’s layers and the feelings of anticipation amplify the deviations of GEMS ratings. *p<0.05, df=2,16
pleasantness of the groove state of listening when it is finally
entered. These processes might explain the observed peaks at Sex Participant-
Teardrop Machine chosen
the gradual introduction of textural layers that emerged as a
F p M SD M SD M SD
tendency among the participants in this study.
Won. 0.29 0.755 3.67 0.50 3.67 0.87 3.83 0.66
Tran. 2.26 0.136 3.28 0.71 3.50 1.00 4.00 0.66
Tend. 8.54 0.003* 3.22 1.00 1.94 0.53 2.39 1.11
Nost. 14.88 0.001* 3.28 1.15 1.28 0.44 1.83 0.83
Peac. 61.19 0.001* 4.28 0.44 1.89 0.55 2.00 0.71
Pow. 26.06 0.001* 1.44 0.39 3.78 1.09 4.11 0.99
HR AB CD
J.Act. 12.87 0.001* 2.59 0.76 4.11 0.67 3.89 0.67
Tens. 1.96 0.173 1.50 0.75 1.61 0.99 2.28 1.64
Sadn. 4.17 0.035* 1.94 0.77 1.00 0.00 1.39 0.56

SC AB C D

RESP AB C D

Figure 5. Mean GEMS-ratings. * significantly different from

Figure 4. Peaks at gradual introduction of new textural layers in “Sex Machine”. ** significantly different from “Sex Machine”
the intro of “Teardrop”. H of participant 1, y-axis=beats per and participant-chosen pieces. p<0.05. Error bars=St.d.
minute. SC of participant 7, y-axis=microsiemens. RESP of
participant 6, y-axis=breaths per minute. All x-axes=time in It seems that music with an up-beat expression, such as the
minutes of recording session. A=music begins. B=intro of funk tune “Sex Machine”, particularly facilitates feelings of
harpsichord. C=intro of bass and piano. D=intro of vocals. positive valence and high intensity, as reflected in the high
Length of textural graph does not correspond proportionally in ratings of for example ‘power’ and ‘joyful activation’.
time with physiological graphs. Groove-based music associated with a more contemplative
Microtiming was not mentioned by any of the participants quality of listening and atmospheric expression, such as the
in the interviews, supporting the indication from the first triphop piece “Teardrop”, also seems to elicit positive feelings,
study that these structures are primarily experienced although with a low intensity, as in feelings of ‘nostalgia’ and
consciously by producers. It should be noted that the ‘peacefulness’. Generally, negative feelings, such as ‘tension’
responses of two participants exhibited arousal resembling a and ‘sadness’, were relatively uncommon across all music
heightened response sustained throughout the music. However, conditions (although significantly more common for
the large majority of physiological responses of the “Teardrop”). Furthermore, as there were no significant
participants in this study exhibited peaks that seemed to be differences between ratings of “Sex Machine” and
elicited by large-scale events occurring across the basic unit participant-chosen pieces, it seems that the experience of “Sex
of the groove. Machine” more closely resembles the experience of
groove-based music with which listeners have a personal
13) GEMS-scale ratings. Repeated measures one-way relationship. This assumption was supported in the interviews,
ANOVA’s were applied to investigate any differences in in which participants referred to dance and movement as the
emotions, affects and feelings elicited by the three music most effective response when getting into the groove:
conditions, as rated on the GEMS questionnaire. Significant
differences were found for 7 of the 9 GEMS categories, as can It’s got a direct line through my heart to my feet, you know. You
be seen in table 2. The significant differences between music don’t need drink or drugs to get up and dance, for met it’s just
from your heart to your feet (P5).

URN:NBN:fi:jyu-2009411334 580
Proceedings of the 7th Triennial Conference of European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM 2009) Jyväskylä, Finland
Jukka Louhivuori, Tuomas Eerola, Suvi Saarikallio, Tommi Himberg, Päivi-Sisko Eerola (Editors)

These indications give reason to assume that up-beat IV. GENERAL DISCUSSION
dance-inducing music represents groove-based music to a
Theoretically, large-scale variations, such as temporary
greater extent than contemplative triphop, in terms of
removal of textural layers, gradual introduction of textural
listeners’ recognition. These findings also concur with
layers and instrumental breaks, can be interpreted as structural
Madison’s research (2006), as the physical response seems to
deviations inhibiting structural tendencies. However, although
be particularly influential when listening to groove-based
these structures function as ‘peak events’ eliciting ‘peak
music.
responses’, as revealed in the second study, it does not
F. Summary and Limitations necessarily imply that these moments dominate the listening
This experimental study reveals that groove-based music experience of groove. According to Danielsen (2006) and the
can elicit physiological responses, and that listeners participants in the first study, listeners “move with the music”
experience arousal particularly when they, in addition to being or “get into the groove”, a way of listening that is not
highly familiar with the music and liking it, have a personal peak-based but steady and forward-moving in synchrony with
connection with it. Furthermore, ‘peak responses’ in HR, SC the music. However, the physiological arousal recorded in the
and RESP were elicited by ‘peak events’. These were second study chiefly exhibited ‘peak responses’ similar to
large-scale variations, such as temporary removal of textural those recorded in studies investigating classical music
layers, instrumental breaks and gradual introduction of new (Sloboda 1990; Guhn et al. 2007). It might seem like these
textural layers. The peaks seemed to be accompanied by results are contradictory and reflect a paradox: The groove
feelings of anticipation, which therefore seem plausible as mode of listening is stable and sustained, but physiological
cognitive processes eliciting physiological responses to responses are peak-based. However the reflections made by A
groove-based music. Indications of heightened and sustained in the first study pose an interesting answer to this paradox:
arousal were not consistent enough to be confidently He described the feelings of anticipation of the large-scale
interpreted as characteristic for the experience. The changes as more important than the experience of the actual
experience of specific emotions, feelings and affective states changes themselves. In this sense, the anticipation of
seems to depend on the expression and genre of the music. large-scale variations is an indirect facilitator of the groove
Up-beat funk elicits positive responses with high intensity, mode of listening. It thus seems Meyer’s theory can be used to
while feelings experienced through contemplative listening to identify ‘peak events’ in groove-based music, but the affective
down-beat triphop are positively valenced while low in meaning of groove cannot be fully accredited to ‘peak
intensity. It appears that up-beat groove-based music more responses’. In fact, Danilesen (2006) makes an interesting
closely represents listeners conceptions of groove, due to its philosophical interpretation of the function of large-scale
physical effect of making listeners want to move and dance. variations in groove. She claims that the groove mode of
This finding elucidates an important limitation of the listening requires a certain level of non-reflective absorption
present study. As the desire to move and dance seems in order to be fully immersed in the experience. Furthermore,
particularly prominent, it can be questioned whether she argues that “when the musical movement is interrupted,
measurements of physiological arousal are suitable for ones attention transfers to what is actually going on, and when
investigating affective responses to groove-based music. As the groove continues with more of the same, it is nevertheless
participants were required not to move, to prevent different” (p. 199). At the instance of ‘peak events’, then, the
measurement noise, it is possible that the inhibition of listener momentarily reflects over the experience that he or
movement affected the physiological responses. However, she has been taken out of. But rather than attending to the
until equipment that is not sensitive to movement is available, ‘peak event’ itself, the listener attends to and anticipates the
this problem cannot be avoided by researchers interested in return of the groove. And when the groove returns, it is
physiological responses to music. intensified. In this sense, the relationship between the groove
Several other limitations must be noted. Firstly, the mode of listening and ‘peak responses’ in groove-based music
challenges encountered with measurements of baseline in is not paradoxical but dialectical: ‘Peak responses’ require
physiological measurements required some alterations to the that the musical context is groove-based, and the groove mode
experimental design. Having to redefine the length of of listening is amplified by ‘peak events’. Therefore, although
baseline-periods for SC, but not for HR and RESP might have physiological responses to groove-based music seem similar
affected the results of these parameters. Future researchers are to those elicited by teleologically composed music, their
advised to avoid these methodological problems by function is different. Future researchers might consider
monitoring levels of arousal until stabilized before recording empirically investigating the extent to which listeners’
baseline-periods. Secondly, the present study is limited in attentional focus changes while listening to groove-based
number of participants. Only 10 individuals participated in the music and to what extent this affects physiological responses
study, which hindered any statistical investigation of gender- and the groove mode of listening.
and age-effects. Nonetheless, it is believed that the current The results from the two studies provide some indications
results and implications are an important contribution to the of the emotional quality of the experience of groove. In the
largely ignored study of affective experience of groove-based first study, getting into the groove was associated with
music and that the complexities encountered have highlighted feelings of anticipation and pleasantness elicited by both
important aspects to be considered when investigating the structural deviations and predictions within and across the
experience of groove-based music in the future. basic unit of the groove, supporting the theories of Meyer
(1956), Danielsen (2006) and Huron (2006). Although less
consistently, the interviewees also indicated that groove
elicited feelings of pleasantness from physical movement and

URN:NBN:fi:jyu-2009411334 581
Proceedings of the 7th Triennial Conference of European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM 2009) Jyväskylä, Finland
Jukka Louhivuori, Tuomas Eerola, Suvi Saarikallio, Tommi Himberg, Päivi-Sisko Eerola (Editors)

physiological chills. These indications were more forcefully Danielsen, A. (2006). Presence and pleasure. The funk grooves of
supported in the second study. Physiological arousal was James Brown and Parliament. Middletown, Connecticut:
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This research was conducted in connection with the Publications.
author’s MA project in the psychology of music in 2008 at the Waadeland, C. H. (2001). “It don’t mean a thing if it ain’t got that
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