41 s rEDITION 1964

the
r radio
amateur's
handbook
THE STANDARD MANUAL OF AMATEUR

RADIO COMMUNICATION

$3.50

,ittS UH UMPi)op tee

o er

PUBLISHED BY THE A ERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE

 James F. Moody
2609 Sweet Gum St;
Pasodzna, Texcs 77052

The

Radio Amateur's

Handbook

By the HEADQUARTERS STAFF

of the

AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE

NEWINGTON, CONN., U.S.A.

Byron Goodman, W1DX

Editor

,
r
E! VEO

MAY 26 1964

1964 DR & AS

Forty-first Edition
 COPYRIGHT 1964 BY

THE AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE, INC.

Copyright secured under the Pan-American Convention

International Copyright secured

This work is Publication No. 8 of The Radio Amateur's

Library, published by the League. All rights reserved.
No part of this work may be reproduced in any form
except by written permission of the publisher. All
rights of translation are reserved. Printed in U. S. A.

Quedan reservados todos los derechos

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 41-3345

Forty-first Edition

$3.50 in U. S. A. proper. $4.00 in U. S. Possessions and

Canada. $5.00 elsewhere.

Clothbound edition $6.00 U.S.A., Possessions and Canada,

$6.50 Elsewhere.

I
 James F. Moody
2609 Sweet Gum St:
Pw:adena, Texas 77052

FOREWORD
In over thirty-five years of continuous publication The Radio
Amateur's Handbook has become as much of an institution as
amateur radio itself. Produced by the amateur's own organi-
zation, the American Radio Relay League, and written with
the needs of the practical amateur constantly in mind, it has
earned universal acceptance not only by amateurs but by all
segments of the technical radio world. This wide dependence
on the Handbook is founded on its practical utility, its treat-
ment of radio communication problems in terms of how- to-
do-it rather than by abstract discussion.
Virtually continuous modification is afeature of the Hand-
book— always with the objective of presenting the soundest
and best aspects of current practice rather than the merely
new and novel. Its annual revision, amajor task of the head-
quarters group of the League, is participated in by skilled
and experienced amateurs well acquainted with the practical
problems in the art. Readers looking for aglossary of radio
terms will find that the index and the text ( where new terms
are presented in bold-face type) combine to provide one.
The use of modern printing techniques, together with ex-
tensive and useful catalog advertising by manufacturers
producing equipment for the radio amateur and industry,
makes it possible to distribute for avery modest charge a
work which in volume of subject matter and profusion of
illustration surpasses most available radio texts selling for
several times its price.
The Handbook has long been considered an indispensable
part of the amateur's equipment. We earnestly hope that the
present edition will succeed in bringing as much assistance
and inspiration to amateurs and would-be amateurs as have
its predecessors.
J
OHN HUNTOON
General Manager, ARRL

Newington, Conn.
 James F. Moody
2609 Sweet GUM St.
Pasadena, Texas 77052

CONTENTS

The Amateur's Code 6

Chapter 1 Amateur Radio 7

2 Electrical Laws and Circuits 15
3 Vacuum-Tube Principles 59
4 Semiconductor Devices 79
5 High-Frequency Receivers 86
6 High-Frequency Transmitters 142
7 Power Supplies 221
8 Keying and Break-In 245
9 Speech Amplifiers and Modulators 257
10 Amplitude Modulation 285
11 Suppressed-Carrier and Single-Sideband
Techniques 305
12 Specialized Communication Systems . . 331
13 Transmission Lines 343
14 Antennas 361
15 Wave Propagation 395
16 V.H.F. Receivers and Transceivers 403
17 V.H.F. Transmitters 425
18 V.H.F. Antennas 454
19 Mobile and Portable-Emergency Equipment. 466
20 Construction Practices 502
21 Measurements 513
22 Assembling aStation 546
23 Interference With Other Services 553
24 Operating aStation 574
25 Vacuum Tubes and Semiconductors VI

Index

Catalog Section
The Amateur's Code

ONE
The Amateur is Gentlemanly . . . He never knowingly uses
the air for his own amusement in such away as to lessen the
pleasure of others. He abides by the pledges given by the
ARRL in his behalf to the public and the Government.

TWO
The Amateur is Loyal. . . He owes his amateur radio to the
American Radio Relay League, and he offers it his unswerv-
ing loyalty.

THREE

The Amateur is Progressive . . . He keeps his station abreast

of science. It is built well and efficiently. His operating prac-
tice is clean and regular.

FOUR
The Amateur is Friendly . . . Slow and patient sending when
requested, friendly advice and counsel to the beginner,
kindly assistance and cooperation for the broadcast listener;
these are marks of the amateur spirit.

FIVE
The Amateur is Balanced . . . Radio is his hobby. He never
allows it to interfere with any of the duties he owes to his
home, his job, his school, or his community.

SIX
The Amateur is Patriotic . . . His knowledge and his station
are always ready for the service of his country and his com-
munity.

—PAUL M.SEGAL
 Chapter 1

Amateur Radio

Amateur radio is a scientific hobby, a means But as the years rolled on, amateurs found out
of gaining personal skill in the fascinating art of how, and DX ( distance) jumped from local to
electronics and an opportunity to communicate 500-mile and even occasional 1000-mile two-way
with fellow citizens by private short-wave radio. contacts. Because all long-distance messages had
Scattered over the globe are over 350,000 ama- to be relayed, relaying developed into afine art—
teur radio operators who perform a service de- an ability that was to prove invaluable when the
fined in international law as one of " self-training, Government suddenly called hundreds of skilled
intercommunication and technical investigations amateurs into war service in 1917. Meanwhile
carried on by . . . duly authorized persons inter- U.S. amateurs began to wonder if there were
ested in radio technique solely with a personal amateurs in other countries across the seas and
aim and without pecuniary interest." if, some day, we might not span the Atlantic on
From a humble beginning at the turn of the 200 meters.
century, amateur radio has grown to become an Most important of all, this period witnessed
established institution. Today the American fol- the birth of the American Radio Relay League,
lowers of amateur radio number over 250,000, the amateur radio organization whose naine was
trained communicators from whose ranks will to be virtually synonymous with subsequent am-
come the professional communications special- ateur progress and short-wave development.
ists and executives of tomorrow—just as many Conceived and formed by the famous inventor,
of today's radio leaders were first attracted to the late Hiram Percy Maxim, ARRL was for-
radio by their early interest in amateur radio mally launched in early 1914. It had just begun
communication. A powerful and prosperous or- to exert its full force in amateur activities when
ganization now provides a bond between ama- the United States declared war in 1917, and by
teurs and protects their interests; an interna- that act sounded the knell for amateur radio for
tionally respected magazine is published solely the next two and a half years. There were then
for their benefit. The military services seek the over 6000 amateurs. Over 4000 of them served
cooperation of the amateur in developing com- in the armed forces during that war.
munications reserves. Amateur radio supports a Today, few amateurs realize that World War
manufacturing industry which, by the very de- I not only marked the close of the first phase
mands of amateurs for the latest and best equip- of amateur development but came very near
ment, is always up-to-date in its designs and marking its end for all time. The fate of amateur
production techniques—in itself a national asset. radio was in the balance in the days immediately
Amateurs have won the gratitude of the nation following the signing of the Armistice. The
for their heroic performances in times of natural
disaster; traditional amateur skills in emergency
communication arc also the stand-by system for
the nation's civil defense. Amateur radio is, in-
deed, a magnificently useful institution.
Although as old as the art of radio itself, ama-
teur radio did not always enjoy such prestige.
Its first enthusiasts were private citizens of an
experimental turn of mind whose Imaginations
went wild when Marconi first proved that mes-
sages actually could be sent by wireless. They set
about learning enough about the new scientific
marvel to build homemade spark transmitters.
By 1912 there were numerous Government and
commercial stations, and hundreds of amateurs;
regulation was needed, so laws, licenses and
wavelength specifications appeared. There was
then no amateur organization nor spokesman.
The official viewpoint toward amateurs was
something like this:
"Amateurs? ... Oh, yes.... Well, stick ' em on
200 meters and below; they'll never get out of HIRAM PERCY MAXIM
President ARRL, 1914-1936
their backyards with that."

7
Public Service 9
opment and manufacturing. They also organized one! In particular, the amateur pressed on to the
and manned the War Emergency Radio Service, development of the very high frequencies and his
the communications section of OCD. experience with five meters is especially repre-
The "public-service" record of the amateur is sentative of his initiative and resourcefulness
a brilliant tribute to his work. These activities and his ability to make the most of what is at
can be roughly divided into two classes, expedi- hand. In 1924, first amateur experiments in the
tions and emergencies. Amateur cooperation vicinity of 56 Mc. indicated that band to be prac-
with expeditions began in 1923 when a League tically worthless for DX. Nonetheless, great
member, Don Mix, ITS, of Bristol, Conn. ( now "short-haul" activity eventually came about in
assistant technical editor of QST), accompanied the band and new gear was developed to meet its
MacMillan to the Arctic on the schooner special problems. Beginning in 1934 a series of
Bowdoin with an amateur station. Amateurs in investigations by the brilliant experimenter, Ross
Canada and the U.S. provided the home contacts. Hull ( later QST's editor), developed the theory
The success of this venture was so outstanding of v.h.f. wave-bending in the lower atmosphere
that other explorers followed suit. During sub- and led amateurs to the attainment of better dis-
sequent years a total of perhaps two hundred tances; while occasional manifestations of
voyages and expeditions were assisted by ama- ionospheric propagation, with still greater dis-
teur radio, the several explorations of the Ant- tances, gave the band uniquely erratic perform-
arctic being perhaps the best known. ance. By Pearl Harbor thousands of amateurs
Since 1913 amateur radio has been the prin- were spending much of their time on this and the
cipal, and in many cases the only, means of out- next higher band, many having worked hundreds
side communication in several hundred storm, of stations at distances up to several thousand
flood and earthquake emergencies in this coun- miles. Transcontinental 6- meter DX is not un-
try. The 1936 and 1937 eastern states floods, the common; during solar peaks, even the oceans
Southern California flood and Long Island- New have been bridged! It is a tribute to these in-
England hurricane disaster in 1938, the Florida- defatigable amateurs that today's concept of v.h.f.
Gulf Coast hurricanes of 1947, and the 1955 flood propagation was developed largely through ama-
disasters called for the amateur's greatest emer- teur research.
gency effort. In these disasters and many oth- The amateur is constantly in the forefront of
ers—tornadoes, sleet storms, forest fires, bliz- technical progress. His incessant curiosity, his
zards—amateurs played a major role in the eagerness to try anything new, are two reasons.
relief work and earned wide commendation for Another is that ever-growing amateur radio con-
their resourcefulness in effecting communication tinually overcrowds its frequency assignments,
where all other means had failed. During 1938 spurring amateurs to the development and adop-
ARRL inaugurated a new emergency- prepared- tion of new techniques to permit the accommoda-
ness program, registering personnel and equip- tion of more stations. For examples, amateurs
ment in its Emergency Corps and putting into turned from spark to c.w., designed more selec-
effect a comprehensive program of cooperation tive receivers, adopted crystal control and pure
with the Red Cross, and in 1947 a National d.c. power supplies. From the ARRL's own lab-
Emergency Coordinator was appointed to full- oratory in 1932 came James Lamb's " single-
time duty at League headquarters. signal" superheterodyne—the world's most ad-
The amateur's outstanding record of organized vanced high-frequency radiotelegraph receiver—
preparation for emergency communications and and, in 1936, the "noise- silencer" circuit. Ama-
performance under fire has been largely respon- teurs are now turning to speech "clippers"
sible for the decision of the Federal Government to reduce bandwidths of phone transmissions
to set up special regulations and set aside special and " single-sideband suppressed-carrier" systems
frequencies for use by amateurs in providing as well as even more selectivity in receiving
auxiliary communications for civil defense pur-
poses in the event of war. Under the banner,
"Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service," am-
ateurs are setting up and manning community
and area networks integrated with civil defense
functions of the municipal governments. Should
a war cause the shut-down of routine amateur
activities, the RACES will be immediately avail-
able in the national defense, manned by amateurs
highly skilled in emergency communication.

TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENTS
Throughout these many years the amateur was
careful not to slight experimental development
in the enthusiasm incident to international DX.
The experimenter was constantly at work on
ever-higher frequencies, devising improved ap-
paratus, and learning how to cram several sta-
tions where previously there was room for only A view of the ARRL laboratory.
10 AMATEUR RADIO
equipment for greater efficiency in spectrum currently working is that of long-range communi-
use. cation using the moon as apassive reflector. The
During World War II, thousands of skilled amateur bands from 144 to 1296 Mc. are being
amateurs contributed their knowledge to the used for this work. One-way communications
development of secret radio devices, both in between Connecticut and California have been
Government and private laboratories. Equally as carried out on 144 Mc., and Massachusetts to
important, the prewar technical progress by am- Hawaii contacts, two-way, have been achieved on
ateurs provided the keystone for the development 1296 Mc.
of modern military communications equipment. Emergency relief, expedition contact, experi-
Perhaps more important today than individual mental work and countless instances of other
contributions to the art is the mass cooperation forms of public service—rendered, as they always
of the amateur body in Government projects such have been and always will be, without hope or
as propagation studies; each participating station expectation of material reward—made amateur
is in reality a separate field laboratory from radio an integral part of our peacetime national
which reports are made for correlation and anal- life. The importance of amateur participation in
ysis. An outstanding example was varied ama- the armed forces and in other aspects of national
teur participation in several activities of the In- defense have emphasized more strongly than ever
ternational Geophysical Year program. ARRL, that amateur radio is vital to our national ex-
with Air Force sponsorship, conducted an in- istence.
tensive study of v.h.f. propagation phenomena—.
DX transmissions via little-understood methods THE AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE
such as meteor and auroral reflections, and
transequatorial scatter. ARRL-affiliated clubs The ARRL is today not only the spokesman
and groups have operated precision receiving an- for amateur radio in the U.S. and Canada but it is
tennas and apparatus to help track earth satel- the largest amateur organization in the world. It
lites via radio. For volunteer astronomers is strictly of , by and for amateurs, is noncommer-
searching visually for the satellites, other ama- cial and has no stockholders. The members of
teurs have manned networks to provide instant the League are the owners of the ARRL and
radio reports of sightings to acentral agency so QST.
that an orbit might be computed. The League is pledged to promote interest in
From this work, amateurs have moved on to two-way amateur communication and experi-
satellites of their own, launched piggyback on mentation. It is interested in the relaying of mes-
regular space shots at no cost to the taxpayer. sages by amateur radio. It is concerned with the
The Project Oscar Association, an ARRL affiliate advancement of the radio art. It stands for the
with headquarters in Sunnyvale, California, has maintenance of fraternalism and ahigh standard
designed and constructed the first two non-gov- of conduct. It represents the amateur in legis-
ernment satellites ever placed in orbit, Oscar I lative matters.
on December 12, 1961, and Oscar II on June 2, One of the League's principal purposes is to
1962. A beacon, transmitting the Morse code keep amateur activities so well conducted that
letters HI, was reported heard and tracked by the amateur will continue to justify his exist-
more than 500 operators in 28 countries. A more ence. Amateur radio offers its followers count-
sophisticated satellite which will receive and less pleasures and unending satisfaction. It also
retransmit signals from the ground is planned calls for the shouldering of responsibilities—the
for orbit early in 1964. The name Oscar is taken maintenance of high standards, a cooperative
from the initials of the phrase, " Orbital Satellite loyalty to the traditions of amateur radio, adedi-
Carrying Amateur Radio." cation to its ideals and principles, so that the in-
Another space-age field in which amateurs are stitution of amateur radio may continue to oper-
ate "in the public interest, convenience and
necessity."
The operating territory of ARRL is divided
into one Canadian and fifteen U. S. divisions. The
affairs of the League are managed by a Board
of Directors. One director is elected every two
years by the membership of each U.S. division,
and one by the Canadian membership. These
directors then choose the president and three vice-
presidents, who are also members of the Board.
The secretary and treasurer are also appointed
by the Board. The directors, as representatives
of the amateurs in their divisions, meet annually
to examine current amateur problems and for-
mulate ARRL policies thereon. The directors
appoint ageneral manager to supervise the oper-
ations of the League and its headquarters, and
to carry out the policies and instructions of the
The operating room at W1AW. Board.
10 AMATEUR RADIO
equipment for greater efficiency in spectrum currently working is that of long-range communi-
use. cation using the moon as apassive reflector. The
During World War II, thousands of skilled amateur bands from 144 to 1296 Mc. are being
amateurs contributed their knowledge to the used for this work. One-way communications
development of secret radio devices, both in between Connecticut and California have been
Government and private laboratories. Equally as carried out on 144 Mc., and Massachusetts to
important, the prewar technical progress by am- Hawaii contacts, two-way, have been achieved on
ateurs provided the keystone for the development 1296 Mc.
of modern military communications equipment. Emergency relief, expedition contact, experi-
Perhaps more important today than individual mental work and countless instances of other
contributions to the art is the mass cooperation forms of public service—rendered, as they always
of the amateur body in Government projects such have been and always will be, without hope or
as propagation studies; each participating station expectation of material reward—made amateur
is in reality a separate field laboratory from radio an integral part of our peacetime national
which reports are made for correlation and anal- life. The importance of amateur participation in
ysis. An outstanding example was varied ama- the armed forces and in other aspects of national
teur participation in several activities of the In- defense have emphasized more strongly than ever
ternational Geophysical Year program. ARRL, that amateur radio is vital to our national ex-
with Air Force sponsorship, conducted an in- istence.
tensive study of v.h.f. propagation phenomena—.
DX transmissions via little-understood methods THE AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE
such as meteor and auroral reflections, and
transequatorial scatter. ARRL-affiliated clubs The ARRL is today not only the spokesman
and groups have operated precision receiving an- for amateur radio in the U.S. and Canada but it is
tennas and apparatus to help track earth satel- the largest amateur organization in the world. It
lites via radio. For volunteer astronomers is strictly of , by and for amateurs, is noncommer-
searching visually for the satellites, other ama- cial and has no stockholders. The members of
teurs have manned networks to provide instant the League are the owners of the ARRL and
radio reports of sightings to acentral agency so QST.
that an orbit might be computed. The League is pledged to promote interest in
From this work, amateurs have moved on to two-way amateur communication and experi-
satellites of their own, launched piggyback on mentation. It is interested in the relaying of mes-
regular space shots at no cost to the taxpayer. sages by amateur radio. It is concerned with the
The Project Oscar Association, an ARRL affiliate advancement of the radio art. It stands for the
with headquarters in Sunnyvale, California, has maintenance of fraternalism and ahigh standard
designed and constructed the first two non-gov- of conduct. It represents the amateur in legis-
ernment satellites ever placed in orbit, Oscar I lative matters.
on December 12, 1961, and Oscar II on June 2, One of the League's principal purposes is to
1962. A beacon, transmitting the Morse code keep amateur activities so well conducted that
letters HI, was reported heard and tracked by the amateur will continue to justify his exist-
more than 500 operators in 28 countries. A more ence. Amateur radio offers its followers count-
sophisticated satellite which will receive and less pleasures and unending satisfaction. It also
retransmit signals from the ground is planned calls for the shouldering of responsibilities—the
for orbit early in 1964. The name Oscar is taken maintenance of high standards, a cooperative
from the initials of the phrase, " Orbital Satellite loyalty to the traditions of amateur radio, adedi-
Carrying Amateur Radio." cation to its ideals and principles, so that the in-
Another space-age field in which amateurs are stitution of amateur radio may continue to oper-
ate "in the public interest, convenience and
necessity."
The operating territory of ARRL is divided
into one Canadian and fifteen U. S. divisions. The
affairs of the League are managed by a Board
of Directors. One director is elected every two
years by the membership of each U.S. division,
and one by the Canadian membership. These
directors then choose the president and three vice-
presidents, who are also members of the Board.
The secretary and treasurer are also appointed
by the Board. The directors, as representatives
of the amateurs in their divisions, meet annually
to examine current amateur problems and for-
mulate ARRL policies thereon. The directors
appoint ageneral manager to supervise the oper-
ations of the League and its headquarters, and
to carry out the policies and instructions of the
The operating room at W1AW. Board.
The American Radio Relay League 11

ARRL owns and publishes the monthly maga- aims flowing from an interest in radio technique.
zine, QST. Acting as a bulletin of the League's An amateur station may not be used for material
organized activities, QST also serves as a me- compensation of any sort nor for broadcasting.
dium for the exchange of ideas and fosters ama- Narrow bands of frequencies are allocated exclu-
teur spirit. Its technical articles are renowned. sively for use by amateur stations. Transmissions
It has grown to be the "amateur's bible," as well may be on any frequency within the assigned
as one of the foremost radio magazines in the bands. All the frequencies may be used for c.w.
world. Membership dues include a subscription telegraphy; some are available for radiotele-
to QST. phone, others for special forms of transmission
ARRL maintains a model headquarters ama- such as teletype, facsimile, amateur television or
teur station, known as the Hiram Percy Maxim radio control. The input to the.final stage of am-
Memorial Station. in Newington, Conn. Its call ateur stations is limited to 1000 watts ( with lower
is W1AW, the call held by Mr. Maxim until his limits in some cases; see the table on page 13) and
death and later transferred to the League station on frequencies below 144 Mc. must be adequately
by a special government action. Separate trans- filtered direct current. Emissions must be free
mitters of maximum legal power on each ama- from spurious radiations. The licensee must pro-
teur band have permitted the station to be heard vide for measurement of the transmitter fre-
regularly all over the world. More important, quency and establish a procedure for checking
W1AW transmits on regular schedules bulletins it regularly. A complete log of station operation
of general interest to amateurs, conducts code must be maintained, with specified data. The sta-
practice as a training feature, and engages in tion license also authorizes the holder to operate
two-way work on all popular bands with as many portable and mobile stations subject to further
amateurs as time permits. regulations. All radio licensees are subject to
At the headquarters of the League in New- penalties for violation of regulations.
ington, Conn., is a well-equipped laboratory In the U.S., amateur licenses are issued only
to assist staff members in preparation of technical to citizens, without regard to age or physical
material for QST and the Radio Amateur's condition. A fee of $4.00 ( payable to the Fed-
Handbook. Among its other activities, the eral Communications Commission) must accom-
League maintains a Communications Depart- pany applications for new and renewed licenses
ment concerned with the operating activities of (except Novices: no fee). The fee for license
League members. A large field organization is modification is $2.00. When you are able to copy
headed, by a Section Communications Manager code at the required speed, have studied basic
in each of the League's seventy-three sections. transmitter theory and are familiar with the law
There are appointments for qualified members and amateur regulations, you are ready to give
in various fields, as outlined in Chapter 24. Spe- serious thought to securing the Government
cial activities and contests promote operating amateur licenses which are issued you, after ex-
skill. A special section is reserved each month in amination by an FCC engineer ( or by a volun-
QST for amateur news from every section of the teer, depending on the license class), through
c, nintry the FCC Licensing Unit, Gettysburg, Pa., 17325.
A complete up-to-the-minute discussion of li-
AMATEUR LICENSING IN THE cense requirements, the FCC regulations for the
UNITED STATES amateur service, and study guides for those pre-
Pursuant to the law, the Federal Communi- paring for the examinations, are to be found in
cations Commission ( FCC) has issued detailed an ARRL publication, The Radio Amateur's Li-
regulations for the amateur service. cense Manual, available from the American
A radio amateur is a duly authorized person Radio Relay League, Newington, Conn. 06111,
interested in radio technique solely with a per- for .50(,.postpaid.
sonal aim and without pecuniary interest. Ama-
teur operator licenses are given to U. S. citizens AMATEUR LICENSING IN CANADA
who pass an examination on operation and ap- The agency responsible for amateur radio in
paratus and on the provisions of law and regu- Canada is the Department of Transport, with its
lations affecting amateurs, and who demonstrate
principal offices in Ottawa. Prospective amateurs,
ability to send and receive code. There are four
who must be at least 15 years old, and pay an
available classes of amateur license— Novice,
examination fee of 500, may take the examination
Technician, General ( called " Conditional" if
for an Amateur Radio Operator Certificate at one
exam taken by mail), and Amateur Extra Class.
Each has different requirements, the first two of the regional offices of the DOT. The test is
in three parts: a Morse code test at ten words
being the simplest and consequently conveying
limited privileges as to frequencies available. Ex- per minute, awritten technical exam and an oral
ams for Novice, Technician and Conditional examination. Upon passing the examination, the
classes are taken by mail under the supervision amateur may apply for a station license, the fee
of a volunteer examiner. Station licenses are for which is $2.50 per year. At this point, the
granted only to licensed operators and permit amateur is permitted to use c.w. on all author-
communication between such stations for ama- ized amateur bands ( see table) and phone on
teur purposes, i.e., for personal noncommercial those bands above 50 Mc.
 12 AMATEUR RADIO
After six months, during which the station has "dah," so that A would be " didah" ( the " t" is
been operated on c.w. on frequencies below 29.7 dropped in such combinations). The sound "di"
Mc., the Canadian amateur may have his certif- should be staccato; a code character such as "5"
icate endorsed for phone operation on the 26.96- should sound like amachinegun burst: didididi-
27.0 Mc. and 28.0-29.7 Mc. bands. The amateur ditl Stress each "dah" equally; they are under-
may take a 15 w.p.m. code test and more- diffi- lined or italicized in this text because they should
cult oral and written examinations, for the be slightly accented and drawn out.
Advanced Amateur Radio Operator Certificate, Take a few characters at a time. Learn them
which permits phone operations on portions thoroughly in didah language before going on to
of all authorized amateur bands. Holders of new ones. If someone who is familiar with code
First or Second Class or Special Radio Opera- can be found to " send" to you, either by whistling
tor's Certificates may enjoy the privileges of or by means of abuzzer or code oscillator, enlist
Advanced class without further examination. The his cooperation. Learn the code by listening to it.
maximum input power to the final stage of an Don't think about speed to start; the first re-
amateur transmitter is limited to 750 watts. quirement is to learn the characters to the point
Prospective amateurs living in remote areas where you can recognize each of them without
may obtain a provisional station license after hesitation. Concentrate on any difficult letters.
signing astatement that they can meet the tech- Learning the code is not at all hard; a simple
nical and operating requirements. A provisional booklet treating the subject in detail is another
license is valid for a maximum of twelve con- of the beginner publications available from the
secutive months only; by that time, aprovisional League, and is entitled, Learning the Radiotele-
licensee should have had an opportunity to take graph Code, 50ge postpaid.
the regular examination. Code- practice transmissions are sent by
Licenses are available to citizens of Canada, W1AW every evening at 0230 GMT ( 0130 May
to citizens of other countries in the British Com- through October). See Chapter 24, "Code Pro-
monwealth, and to non-citizens who qualify as ficiency."
"landed immigrants" within the meaning of
INTRODUCTION TO RADIO THEORY
Canadian immigration law. The latter status
may be enjoyed for only six years, incidentally. As you start your studies for an amateur li-
A U.S. citizen who obtained a Canadian•license cense, you may wish to have the additional help
as a "landed immigrant" would have to become (Please turn to page 14)
a Canadian citizen at the end of six years or
lose his Canadian license.
Copies of the Radio Act and of the General A didah N dahit
Radio Regulations may be obtained for anominal dandididit O dandandah
fee from the Queen's Printer, Ottawa, and in
dandidandit P didandandit
other places where publications of the Queen's
Printer are available. An extract of the amateur D dandidit Q dandandidah
rules, Form AR- 5-80, is available at DOT offices. E dit R didandit —
A wealth of additional information on amateur dididandit S dididit
radio in Canada can be found in the Radio Am- G dandandit T dah
ateur Licensing Handbook, by Jim Kitchin,
H didididit U dididah
VE7KN, published by Radiotelephone Direc-
didit V didididah
tories of Canada, Ltd., 119 West Pender Street,
Vancouver 3, B.C., for $2.00. didandandah W didandah
dandidah X dandididah
RECIPROCAL OPERATING, U.S.—
CANADA didandidit Y dandidandah

Canadian amateurs visiting in the United Ast dandah

— —
Z dandandidit
States and U.S. amateurs ( except Novice and didandandandah 6 dandidididit
Technician Class) visiting in Canada may obtain
2 dididandandah 7 dandandididit
permission to operate in the neighboring country
on a temporary basis. Write to League head- 3 didididandah 8 dandandandidit
quarters for additional information on procedures. 4 dididididah 9 dandandandandit

LEARNING THE CODE 5 dididididit O dandandandandah

— — — — —
In starting to learn the code, you should con- Period: didandidandidah. Comma: dandandidi-
sider it simply another means of conveying in-
dandah. Question mark: dididandandidit. Error:
formation. The spoken word is one method, the
printed page another, and typewriting and short- didididididididit. Double dash 7dandidididah.
hand are additional examples. Learning the code Wait: didandididit. End of message: didandidah-
is as easy—or as difficult—as learning to type. dit. Invitation to transmit: dandidah. End of
The important thing in beginning to study code
work: didididahclidah.
_ Fraction bar: dandididah-
is to think of it as a language of sound, never
as combinations of dots and dashes. It is easy to dit.
"speak" code equivalents by using "dit" and Fig. 1- 1— The Continental ( International Morse) code.
U. S. Amateur Frequencies 13

U.
S. AND POSSESSIONS AMATEUR BANDS

80 3.500-4.000 Mc.—Al 220-225 Mc. —A0, Al, A2, A3, A4,

meters 3.500-3.800 Mc.—F1 FO, Fl, F2, F3, F4
3.800-4.000 Mc.—A3 420-450 1 Mc.1AO, Al, A2, A3, A4, A5
1,215-1,300 Mc.1" FO, Fl, F2, F3, F4, F5
7.000-7.300 Mc.—Al
2,300-2,450 Mc.
40 m. 7.000-7.200 Mc.—F1
3,300-3,500 Mc.
7.200-7.300 Mc.—A3 AO, Al, A2, A3, A4, AS,
5,650-5,925 Mc.
14.000-14.350 Mc.—Al FO, Fl, F2, F3, F4, F5,
10,000-10,500 2 Mc.
20 m. 14.000-14.200 Mc.—F1 pulse
21,000-22,000 Mc.
14.200-14.350 Mc.—A3 All above 40,000 Mc.
21.000-21.450 Mc.—Al
15 m. 21.000-21.250 Mo.—PI Input power must not exceed 50 watts in Fla., Ariz.,
21.250-21.450 Mc.—A3 and parts of Ga., Ala., Miss., N. Mex., Tex., Nev., and
Calif. See the License Manual or write ARRL for further
28.000-29.700 Mc.—Al
details.
10 121. 28.500-29.700 Mc.—A3
29.000-29.700 Mc.—F1, F3 2 No pulse permitted in this band.
50.0-50.1 Mc.—Al NOTE: Frequencies from 3.9 to 4.0 Mc. are not avail-
6 m. 50.1-54 Mc.—Al, A2, A3, A4 able to amateurs on Baker, Canton, Enderbury, Guam,
51-54 Mc.—A0 Howland, Jarvis, Palmyra, American Samoa, and Wake
52.5-54 Mc.—FO. Fl, F2, F3 islands.
144-147.9 Mc.— AO, Al, A2, A3, A4, The bands 220 through 10,500 Mc. are shared with the
2 m. FO, Fl, F2, F3 Government Radio Positioning Service, which has pri-
147.9-148 Mc. —Al ority.

In addition, Al and A3 ( except no n.f.m.) on portions of 1.800-2.000 Mc., as follows. Figures in the
right columns are maximum d.c. plate power input.
1800-1825 kc. 1875-1900 kc. 1900-1925 kc. 1975-2000 kc.
Area Day Night Day Night Day Night Day Night

Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee 200 50 No operation No operation 100 25

Alaska 200 50 200 50 No operation No operation

100 25 100 25 100 25 500 100
Arizona, Utah
200 50 No operation No operation 200 50
Arkansas
No operation No operation 200 50 500 200
California
Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming, Texas West of 103° W. 200 50 100 25 100 25 500 100

Connecticut, Delaware, D.C., Maryland, New Jersey, Penn-

sylvania, Rhode Island, Virginia, West Va., New York
south of 42° N. 200 50 100 25 No operation No operation
Florida, Georgia, South Carolina 100 25 No operation No operation No operation
Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Virgin Is. No operation No operation 100 25 100 25
Idaho, Montana west of 111° W. 100 25 200 50 200 50 500 100
Illinois, Missouri 200 50 100 25 100 25 200 50
Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio 200 50 100 25 100 25 100 25
Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Wisconsin, upper Michigan 500 100 100 25 100 25 200 50
Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont, New
York north of 42° N. 500 100 100 25 No operation No operation
Michigan, lower peninsula 500 100 100 25 100 25 100 25
Montana east of 111° W. 200 50 200 50 200 50 500 100

Nebraska, So. Dakota 500 100 100 25 100 25 500 100

Nevada 100 25 200 50 200 50 500 200

No. Carolina 200 50 No operation No operation No operation

No. Dakota 500 100 200 50 200 50 500 100

Oklahoma, Texas east of 103° W. 500 100 No operation No operation 200 50

Oregon, Washington No operation No operation 200 50 500 100
Navassa Is. No operation No operation No operation 100 25

Swan Is., Serrana Bank, Roncador Key 500 100 No operation No operation 100 25
Baker, Canton, Enderbury, Guam, Howland, Jarvis, John-
ston, Midway & Palmyra Is. No operation No operation 500 100 500 100
American Samoa 500 200 500 200 500 200 500 200
Wake Is. 500 100 500 100 No operation No operation

Novice licensees may use the following fre- Technician licensees are permitted all ama-
quencies, transmitters to be crystal-controlled teur privileges in 50 Mc., 145-147 Mc. and in the
and have a maximum power input of 75 watts. bands 220 Mc. and above.
3.700-3.750 Mc. Al 21.100-21.250 Mc. Al •
Except as otherwise specified, the maximum
7.150-7.200 Mc. Al 145-147 Mc. Al, A2, A3, f.m. amateur power input is 1000 watts.
14 AMATEUR RADIO
available in How to Become a Radio Amateur are subject to modification to fit the changing
(50e). It features an elementary description of picture of world communications needs. Modifi-
radio theory and constructional details on a sim- cations of rules to provide for domestic needs are
ple receiver and transmitter. also occasionally issued by FCC and DOT, and
Another aid is A Course in Radio Fundamen- in that respect each amateur should keep himself
tals ($1.00), a study guide using this Handbook informed by W1AW bulletins, QST reports, or
as its text. There are experiments, discussions, by communication with ARRL Hq. concerning a
and quizzes to help you learn radio fundamentals. specific point.
A new League publication, Understanding On this page and page 13 are summaries of the
Amateur Radio, explains radio theory and prac- U.S. and Canadian amateur bands on which
tice in greater detail than is found in How to operation is permitted as of our press date. Fig-
Become aRadio Amateur, but is at amore basic ures are megacycles. A0 means an unmodulated
level than this Handbook. Understanding Ama- carrier, Al means c.w. telegraphy, A2 is tone-
teur Radio contains 320 pages, and is priced at modulated c.w. telegraphy, A3 is amplitude-
$2.00. modulated phone ( n.f.m. may also be used in such
These booklets are available postpaid from bands, except on 1.8-2.0 Mc.), A4 is facsimile,
.ARRI., Newington, Connecticut 06111. AS is television, n.f.m. designates narrow-band
frequency- or phase-modulated radiotelephony,
THE AMATEUR BANDS
Fl is frequency- shift keying, F2 is frequency-
Amateurs are assigned bands of frequencies at modulated tone keying ( Morse or teletype), F3
approximate harmonic intervals throughout the is f.m. phone, F4 is f.m. facsimile and F5 is f.m.
spectrum. Like assignments to all services, they television.

CANADIAN AMATEUR BANDS

80 3.500— 3.725 Mc. AI, Fl,
meters 3.725— 4.000 Mc. Al, A3 1,F3 1,
Operation in the frequency bands 1.800-
1.825 Mc., 1.875-1.900 Mc., 1.900-1.925 Mc.,
7.000— 7.150 Mc. Al, FI,
and 1.975-2.000 Mc. shall be limited to the
40 m. 7.150— 7.300 Mc. Al, A3 1,F3 1,
areas as indicated in the following table and
20 m. 14.000— 14.100 Mc. Al, FI,
14.100— 14.350 Mc. Al, mi, F3 1,
shall be limited to the indicated maximum
d.c. power input to the anode circuit of the
15 m. 21.000— 21.100 Mc. Al, FI,
final radio frequency stage of the transmit-
21.100— 21.450 Mc. Al, A31, F3 1,
ter during day and night hours respec-
11 m. 26.960— 27.000 Mc. Al, A2, A3 2,
tively; for the purpose of the subsection,
F3 2,
"day" means the hours between sunrise and
10 m. 28.000— 28.100 Mc. AI, FI,
28.100— 29.709 Mc. AI, A3 2,F3 2,
sunset, and "night" means the hours be-
tween sunset and sunrise: Al, A3, and
6 m. 50.000— 51.000 Mc. AI. A2, A3,
FI, F2, F3
F3 emission are permitted.
51.000— 54.000 Mc. AO, AI, A2,
A3, Fl, Authorized D.c. power
F2, F3, bands input watts
Area kc. day night
2m. 144.000— 148.000 M c.}
The Provinces of 1800-1825 375 150
220.000— 225.000 Mc. A3, FI,
Newfoundland, Nova 1875-1900 375 150
420.000— 450.000 Mc. Scotia, Prince Ed-
1215.000— 1300.000 Mc. F2, F3, ward Island, New
2300.000— 2450.000 Mc. AO, Al, A2, Brunswick, Quebec,
3300.000— 3500.000 Mc. A3, A5 2, Ontario, and the Dis.
5650.000— 5925.000 Mc. Fl, F2, tricts of Keewatin,
10000.000-10500.000 Mc. F3, and Franklin.
21000.000-22000.000 Mc.
The Provinces of 1900-1925 375 150
1 Phone privileges are restricted to holders of Manitoba, Saskatch- 1975-2000 375 150
Advanced Amateur Radio Operator Certificates, ewan, Alberta, Brit-
and of Commercial Certificates. ish Columbia, Yu.
kon Territory, and
I Phone privileges are restricted as in footnote
the District of Mac-
1, and to holders of Amateur Radio Operators
Certificates whose certificates have been endorsed kenzie.
for operation on phone in these bands; see text.
1 Special endorsement required for amateur Except as otherwise specified, the maxi-
television transmission. mum amateur power input is 750 watts.
 Chapter 2

Electrical Laws
and Circuits
of lines in achosen cross section of the field is a
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS measure of the intensity of the force. The number
When something occurs at one point in space of lines per unit of area ( square inch or square
because something else happened at another centimeter) is called the flux density.
point, with no visible means by which the "cause"
can be related to the " effect," we say the two ELECTRICITY AND THE ELECTRIC
events are connected by afield. In radio work, the CURRENT
fields with which we are concerned are the elec- Everything physical is built up of atoms, par-
tric and magnetic, and the combination of the ticles so small that they cannot be seen even
two called the electromagnetic field. through the most powerful microscope. But the
A field has two important properties, intensityatom in turn consists of several different kinds of
(magnitude) and direction. The field exerts a still smaller particles. One is the electron, essen-
force on an object immersed in it; this force tially asmall particle of electricity. The quantity
represents potential ( ready-to-be-used) energy, or charge of electricity represented by the elec-
so the potential of the field is a measure of the tron is, in fact, the smallest quantity of elec-
field intensity. The direction of the field is thetricity that can exist. The kind of electricity
direction in which the object on which the force associated with the electron is called negative.
is exerted will tend to move. An ordinary atom consists of a central core
An electrically charged object in an electric called the nucleus, around which one or more
field will be acted on by aforce that will tend toelectrons circulate somewhat as the earth and
move it in a direction determined by the direc- other planets circulate around the sun. The
tion of the field. Similarly, a magnet in a mag- nucleus has an electric charge of the kind of
electricity called positive, the amount of its
netic field will be subject to aforce. Everyone has
seen demonstrations of magnetic fields with charge being just exactly equal to the sum of the
pocket magnets, so intensity and direction are not negative charges on all the electrons associated
hard to grasp. with that nucleus.
A " static" field is one that neither moves nor The important fact about these two " oppo-
changes in intensity. Such a field can be set up site" kinds of electricity is that they are strongly
by a stationary electric charge (electrostatic attracted to each other. Also, there is a strong
field) or by astationary magnet ( force of repulsion between two charges of the
magnetostatic
same kind. The positive nucleus and the negative
field). But if either an electric or magnetic field is
moving in space or changing in intensity, the electrons are attracted to each other, but two
motion or change sets up the other kind of field. electrons will be repelled from each other and so
That is, a changing electric field sets up a mag- will two nuclei.
netic field, and a changing magnetic field gen- In a normal atom the positive charge on the
erates an electric field. This interrelationship nucleus is exactly balanced by the negative
between magnetic and electric fields makes pos- charges on the electrons. However, it is possible
sible such things as the electromagnet and the for an atom to lose one of its electrons. When that
happens the atom has alittle less negative charge
electric motor. It also makes possible the electro-
magnetic waves by which radio communication than it should — that is, it has a, net positive
is carried on, for such waves are simply travelingcharge. Such an atom 'is said to be ionized, and
fields in which the energy is alternately handed in this case the atom is apositive ion. If an atom
back and forth between the electric and mag- picks up an extra electron, as it sometimes does,
netic fields. it has a net negative charge and is called a
negative ion. A positive ion will attract any stray
Lines of Force electron in the vicinity, including the extra one
Although no one knows what it is that com- that may be attached to a nearby negative ion.
poses the field itself, it is useful to invent a In this way it is possible for electrons to travel
picture of it that will help in visualizing the from atom to atom. The movement of ions or
forces and the way in which they act. electrons constitutes the electric current.
A field can be pictured as being made up of The amplitude of the current ( its intensity or
lines of force, or flux lines. These are purely magnitude) is determined by the rate at which
imaginary threads that show, by the direction electric charge — an accumulation of electrons
in which they lie, the direction the object on or ions of the same kind — moves past apoint in
which the force is exerted will move. The number acircuit. Since the charge on asingle electron or

15
'••••11"--

16 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS

ion is extremely small, the number that must creasing toward the right away from the vertical
move as a group to form even a tiny current is axis. The vertical axis represents the amplitude
almost inconceivably large. or strength of the current, increasing in either
the up or down direction away from the hori-
Conductors and Insulators
zontal axis. If the graph is above the horizontal
Atoms of some materials, notably metals and axis the current is flowing in one direction
acids, will give up an electron readily, but atoms through the circuit ( indicated by the -I- sign)
of other materials will not part with any of their and if it is below the horizontal axis the current
electrons even when the electric force is ex- is flowing in the reverse direction through the
tremely strong. Materials in which electrons or circuit ( indicated by the — sign). Fig. 2-1A
ions can be moved with relative ease are called shows that, if we close the circuit — that is, make
conductors, while those that refuse to permit the path for the current complete — at the time
such movement are called nonconductors or indicated by X, the current instantly takes the
insulators. The following list shows how some amplitude indicated by the height A. After that,
common materials are classified: the current continues at the same amplitude as
time goes on. This is an ordinary direct current.
Conductors Insulators In Fig. 2-1B, the current starts flowing with
Metals Dry Air Glass the amplitude A at time X, continues at that
Carbon Wood Rubber amplitude until time Y and then instantly ceases.
Acids Porcelain Resins After an interval YZ the current again begins to
Textiles flow and the same sort of start- and- stop per-
formance is repeated. This is an intermittent di-
Electromotive Force
rect current. We could get it by alternately
The electric force or potential ( called electro- closing and opening aswitch in the circuit. It is a
motive force, and abbreviated e.m.f.) that causes direct current because the direction of current
current flow may be developed in several ways. flow does not change; the graph is always on the
The action of certain chemical solutions on dis- side of the horizontal axis.
similar metals sets up an e.m.f.; such acombina- In Fig. 2-1C the current starts at zero, in-
tion is called acell, and agroup of cells forms an creases in amplitude as time goes on until it
electric battery. The amount of current that such reaches the amplitude A1 while flowing in the +
cells can carry is limited, and in the course of direction, then decreases until it drops to zero
current flow one of the metals is eaten away. The amplitude once more. At that time (X) the
amount of electrical energy that can be taken direction of the current flow reverses; this is indi-
from a battery consequently is rather small. cated by the fact that the next part of the graph
Where a large amount of energy is needed it is is below the axis. As time goes on the amplitude
usually furnished by an electric generator, which increases, with the current now flowing in the —
develops its e.m.f. by a combination of magnetic direction, until it reaches amplitude A 2. Then
and mechanical means.

Direct and Alternating Currents

In picturing current flow it is natural to think A
of asingle, constant force causing the electrons to
move. When this is so, the electrons always move Time
in the same direction through a path or circuit
made up of conductors connected together in a
continuous chain. Such a current is called a
direct current, abbreviated d.c. It is the type of
current furnished by batteries and by certain
types of generators.
It is also possible to have an e.m.f. that peri- A
odically reverses. With this kind of e.m.f. the
current flows first in one direction through the " --.1 Time
circuit and then in the other. Such an e.m.f. is
called an alternating e.m.f., and the current is
called an alternating current (abbreviated a.c.).
The reversals ( alternations) may occur at any
rate from a few per second up to several billion
per second. Two reversals make a cycle; in one
cycle the force acts first in one direction, then in
the other, and then returns to the first direction
to begin the next cycle. The number of cycles in
one second is called the frequency of the alter-
nating current.
The difference between direct current and al-
ternating currént is shown in Fig. 2-1. In these Fig. 2- 1— Three types of current flow. A— direct current;
graphs the horizontal axis measures time, in- B—intermittent direct current ; C— alternating current.
Frequency and Wavelength 17
the amplitude decreases until finally it drops to FUNDAMENTAL
zero ( Y) and the direction reverses once more.
This is an alternating current.

Waveforms o TIME

The type of alternating current shown in Fig.

2-1C is known as asine wave. The variations in
many a.c. waves are not so smooth, nor is one
half-cycle necessarily just like the preceding one 2ND HARMONIC
in shape. However, these complex waves can be
shown to be the sum of two or more sine waves of
o
frequencies that are exact integral ( whole-num- TIME
ber) multiples of some lower frequency. The
lowest frequency is called the fundamental fre-
quency, and the higher frequencies ( 2 times, 3 RESULTAN
times the fundamental frequency, and so on) are
called harmonics.
Fig. 2-2 shows how a fundamental and a o
TIME.
second harmonic ( twice the fundamental) might
add to form acomplex wave. Simply by changing
the relative amplitudes of the two waves, as well
as the times at which they pass through zero Fig. 2-2—A complex waveform A fundamental ( top) and
amplitude, an infinite number of waveshapes can second harmonic ( center) added together, point by point
be constructed from just a fundamental and at each instant, result in the waveform shown at the
second harmonic. Waveforms that are still more bottom. When the two components have the same polar-
complex can be constructed if more harmonics ity at a selected instant, the resultant is the simple sum
are used. of the two. When they have opposite polarities, the
Electrical Units
resultant is the difference; if the negative- polarity com-
The unit of electromotive force is called the ponent is larger, the resultant is negative at that instant.
volt. An ordinary flashlight cell generates an
e.m.f. of about 1.5 volts. The e.m.f. commonly FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
supplied for domestic lighting and power is 115
Frequency Spectrum
volts, usually a.c. having afrequency of 60 cycles
per second. The voltages used in radio receiving Frequencies ranging from about 15 to 15,000
and transmitting circuits range from a few volts cycles per second are called audio frequencies,
(usually a.c.) for filament heating to as high as because the *vibrations of air particles that our
several thousand d.c. volts for the operation of ears recognize as sounds occur at a similar rate.
power tubes. Audio frequencies ( abbreviated a.f.) are used to
The flow of electric current is measured in actuate loudspeakers and thus create sound
amperes. One ampere is equivalent to the move- waves.
ment of many billions of electrons past a point Frequencies above about 15,000 cycles are
in the circuit in one second. Currents in the called radio frequencies (r.f.) because they are
neighborhood of an ampere are required for heat- useful in radio transmission. Frequencies all the
ing the filaments of small power tubes. The direct way up to and beyond 10,000,000,000 cycles have
currents used in amateur radio equipment usually been used for radio purposes. At radio frequencies
are not so large, and it is customary to measure the numbers become so large that it becomes con-
such currents in milliamperes. One milliampere venient to use a larger unit than the cycle. Two
is equal to one one-thousandth of an ampere, or such units are the kilocycle, which is equal to
1000 milliamperes equal one ampere. 1000 cycles and is abbreviated kc., and the mega-
A "d.c. ampere" is ameasure of asteady cur- cycle, which is equal to 1,000,000 cycles or 1000
rent, but the "a.c. ampere" must measure a kilocycles and is abbreviated Mc.
current that is continually varying in amplitude The various radio frequencies are divided off
and periodically reversing direction. To put the into classifications for ready identification. These
two on the same basis, an a.c. ampere is defined classifications, listed below, constitute the fre-
as the current that will cause the same heating quency spectrum so far as it extends for radio
effect as one ampere of steady direct current. For purposes at the present time.
sine-wave a.c., this effective (or r.m.s., for root Frequency Classification Abbreviation
10 to 30 kc. Very-low frequencies v.l.f.
mean square, the mathematical derivation) value
30 to 300 kc. Low frequencies 1.f.
is equal to the maximum (or peak) amplitude 300 to 3000 kc. Medium frequencies m.f.
(A 1 or A 2 in Fig. 2-1C) multiplied by 0.707. 3 to 30 Mc. High frequencies h. f.
The instantaneous value is the value that the 30 to 300 Mc. Very-high frequencies vhf.
300 to 3000 Mc. Ultrahigh frequencies uhf.
current ( or voltage) has at any selected instant
3000 to 30,000 Mc. Superhigh frequencies s.h.f.
in the cycle. If all the instantaneous values in a
sine wave are averaged over a half-cycle, the Wavelength
resulting figure is the average value. It is equal Radio waves travel at the same speed as light
to 0.636 times the maximum amplitude. —300,000,000 meters or about 186,000 miles a
18 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
second in space. They can be set up by a radio- The longer the time of one cycle—that is, the
frequency current flowing in a circuit, because lower the frequency—the greater the distance
the rapidly changing current sets up a magnetic occupied by each wave and hence the longer the
field that changes in the same way, and the vary- wavelength. The relationship between wave-
ing magnetic field in turn sets up avarying elec- length and frequency is shown by the formula
tric field. And whenever this happens, the two
fields move outward at the speed of light. 300,000
Suppose an r.f. current has a frequency of
3,000,000 cycles per second. The fields will where X = Wavelength in meters
go through complete reversals ( one cycle) in f = Frequency in kilocycles
1/3,000,000 second. In thàt same period of time 300
the fields — that is, the wave — will move or x =—
300,000,000/3,000,000 meters, or 100 meters. f
By the time the wave has moved that distance where X = M'avelength in meters
the next cycle has begun and a new wave has f= Frequency in megacycles
started out. The first wave, in other words, covers
Example: The wavelength corresponding to
a distance of 100 meters before the beginning of afrequency of 3650 kilocycles is
the next, and so on. This distance is the wave- 300,000
length. X = 3650 82.2 meters

RESISTANCE
Given two conductors of the same size and currents ( up to afew thousand cycles per second)
shape, but of different materials, the amount of the resistance is inversely proportional to the
current that will flow when a given e.m.f. is cross-sectional area of the path the current must
applied will be found to vary with what is called travel; that is, given two conductors of the same
the resistance of the material. The lower the material and having the same length, but differ-
resistance, the greater the current for a given ing in cross-sectional area, the one with the
value of e.m.f. larger area will have the lower resistance.
Resistance is measured in ohms. A circuit has
a resistance of one ohm when an applied e.m.f. Resistance of Wires
of one volt causes a current of one ampere to The problem of determining the resistance of
flow. The resistivity of amaterial is the resist- a round wire of given diameter and length—or
ance, in ohms, of acube of the material measuring its opposite, finding a suitable size and length of
one centimeter on each edge. One of the best con- wire to supply a desired amount of resistance—
ductors is copper, and it is frequently convenient, can be easily solved with the help of the copper-
in making resistance calculations, to compare wire table given in a later chapter. This table
the resistance of the material under consideration gives the resistance, in ohms per thousand feet,
with that of acopper conductor of the same size of each standard wire size.
and shape. Table 2-I gives the ratio of the re-
Example: Suppose a resistance of 3.5 ohms
sistivity of various conductors to that of copper.
is needed and some No. 28 wire is on hand.
The longer the path through which the current The wire table in Chapter 20 shows that No.
flows the higher the resistance of that conductor. 28 has a resistance of 66.17 ohms per thousand
For direct current and low-frequency alternating feet. Since the desired resistance is 3.5 ohms,
the length of wire required will be

3.5
TABLE 2-1 - X 1000 = 52.89 feet.
66.17
Relative Resistivity of Metals
Or, suppose that the resistance of the wire in
Resistivity the circuit must not exceed 0.05 ohm and that
Material Compared to Copper the length of wire required for making the con-
Aluminum ( pure) 1.6 nections totals 14 feet. Then
Brass 3.7-4.9
14
Cadmium 4.4 X R = 0.05 ohm
1000
Chromium 1.8
Copper ( hard- drawn) 1.03 where R is the maximum allowable resistance
in ohms per thousand feet. Rearranging the
Copper ( annealed) 1.00 formula gives
Gold 1.4
0.05 X 1000
Iron ( pure ) 5.68 R
14
3.57 ohms/1000 ft.
Lead 12.8
Nickel 5.1 Reference to the wire table shows that No. 15
is the smallest size having a resistance less
Phosphor Bronze 2.8-5.4 than this value.
Silver 0.94
Steel 76-12.7 When the wire is not copper, the resistance
Tin 6.7 values given in the wire table should be multi-
Zinc 3.4 plied by the ratios given in Table 2-I to obtain
the resistance.
Resistance 19

Types of resistors used in radio equip-

ment. Those in the foreground with
wire leads are carbon types, ranging
in size from 1 /
2 watt at the left to 2

watts at the right. The larger resistors

use resistance wire wound on ceramic
tubes; sizes shown range from 5watts
to 100 watts. Three are of the adjust-
able type, having asliding contact on
an exposed section of the resistance
winding.

Example: If the wire in the first example current flow is confined within afew thousandths
were iron instead of copper the length re- of an inch of the conductor surface. The r.f.
quired for 3.5 ohms would be
resistance is consequently many times the d.c.
3.5 resistance, and increases with increasing fre-
X 1000 = 9.35 feet.
66.17 X 5.65 quency. In the r.f. range a conductor of thin
tubing will have just as low resistance as asolid
Temperature Effects
conductor of the same diameter, because material
The resistance of a conductor changes with not close to the surface carries practically no
its temperature. Although it is seldom necessary
current. Conductance
to consider temperature in making resistance
calculations for amateur work, it is well to know The reciprocal of resistance ( that is, 1/R) is
that the resistance of practically all metallic called conductance. It is usually represented by
conductors increases with increasing tempera- the symbol G. A circuit having large conductance
ture. Carbon, however, acts in the opposite way; has low resistance, and vice versa. In radio work
its resistance decreases when its temperature the term is used chiefly in connection with
rises. The temperature effect is important when vacuum- tube characteristics. The unit of con-
it is necessary to maintain aconstant resistance ductance is the mho. A resistance of one ohm has
under all conditions. Special materials that have a conductance of one mho, a resistance of 1000
little or no change in resistance over a wide ohms has aconductance of 0.001 mho, and so on.
temperature range are used in that case. A unit frequently used in connection with vacuum
tubes is the micromho, or one- millionth of a
Resistors mho. It is the conductance of a resistance of
A "package" of resistance made up into a one megohm.
single unit is called aresistor. Resistors having
the same resistance value may be considerably OHM'S LAW
different in size and construction. The flow of The simplest form of electric circuit is a bat-
current through resistance causes the conductor tery with aresistance connected to its terminals,
to become heated; the higher the resistance and as shown by the symbols in Fig. 2-3. A complete
the larger the current, the greater the amount of circuit must have an unbroken path so current
heat developed. Resistors intended for carrying
large currents must be physically large so the
heat can be radiated quickly to the surrounding
Fig. 2-3—A simple circuit
air. If the resistor does not get rid of the heat
consisting of a battery Bet
quickly it may reach a temperature that will and resistor.
cause it to melt or burn.

Skin Effect
The resistance of a conductor is not the same can flow out of the battery, through the apparatus
for alternating current as it is for direct current. connected to it, and back into the battery. The
When the current is alternating there are in- circuit is broken, or open, if aconnection is re-
ternal effects that tend to force the current to moved at any point. A switch is a device for
flow mostly in the outer parts of the conductor. making and breaking connections and thereby
This decreases the effective cross-sectional area closing or opening the circuit, either allowing
of the conductor, with the result that the resist- current to flow or preventing it from flowing.
ance increases. The values of current, voltage and resistance
For low audio frequencies the increase in re- in acircuit are by no means independent of each
sistance is unimportant, but at radio frequencies other. The relationship between them is known
this skin effect is so great that practically all the as Ohm's Law. It can be stated as follows: The
20 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
When a voltage of 150 is applied to a circuit
TABLE 241
the current is measured at 2.5 amperes. What
Conversion Factors for Fractional and is the resistance of the circuit? In this case R
Multiple Units is the unknown, so
To change from To Divide by Multiply by E 150
Units Micro- units 1,000,000
R 7 = 60 ohms
Milli- units 1000
Kilo- units 1000 No conversion was necessary because the volt-
Mega-units 1,000,000 age and current were given in volts and am-
Micro- units peres.
Milli- units 1000
Units How much current will flow if 250 volts is
1,000,000
applied to a 5000-ohm resistor? Since / is un-
Milli-units Micro-units 1000 known
Units 1000
Kilo-units Units 1000 E 250
/ -- 576Ô = 0.05 ampere
Mega- units 1000
Mega-units Units 1,000,000 Milliampere units would be more convenient
Kilo-units 1000 for the current, and 0.05 amp. X 1000 50
milliamperes.

current flowing in a circuit is directly propor- SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTANCES

tional to the applied e.m.f. and inversely propor-
Very few actual electric circuits are as simple
tional to the resistance. Expressed as an equa-
tion, it is as the illustration in the preceding section. Com-
monly, resistances are found connected in a
E (vol ts)
I( amperes) =-
R( ohms)
The equation above gives the value of current
when the voltage and resistance are known. It
may be transposed so that each of the three
quantities may be found when the other two are Source
of E.
MF.
known:
E = IR
(that is, the voltage acting is equal to the cur- Fig. 2- 4— Resistors

rent in amperes multiplied by the resistance in connected in series

ohms) and and in parallel.

E
R= PARALLEL

(or, the resistance of the circuit is equal to the

applied voltage divided by the current).
All three forms of the equation are used almost
constantly in radio work. It must be remembered
that the quantities are in volts, ohms and am-
peres; other units cannot be used in the equations variety of ways. The two fundamental methods
without first being converted. For example, if the of connecting resistances are shown in Fig. 2-4.
current is in milliamperes it must be changed to In the upper drawing, the current flows from the
the equivalent fraction of an ampere before the source of e.m.f. ( in the direction shown by the
value can he substituted in the equations. arrow, let us say) down through the first re-
Table 2- II shows how to convert between the sistance, R1,then through the second, 14, and
various units in common use. The prefixes at- then back to the source. These resistors are con-
tached to the basic- unit name indicate the nature nected in series. The current everywhere in the
of the unit. These prefixes are: circuit has the same value.
micro — one-millionth ( abbreviated ei) In the lower drawing the current flows to the
milli — one-thousandth ( abbreviated nt) common connection point at the top of the two
kilo— one thousand ( abbreviated k) resistors and then divides, one part of it flowing
mega— one million ( abbreviated M) through R1 and the other through 14. At the
lower connection point these two currents again
For example, one microvolt is one-millionth of combine; the total is the same as the current
avolt, and one megohm is 1,000,000 ohms. There that flowed into the upper common connection.
are therefore 1,000,000 microvolts in one volt, In this case the two resistors are connected in
and 0.000001 megohm in one ohm. parallel.
The following examples illustrate the use of
Ohm's Law: Resistors in Series
The current flowing in a resistance of 20,000
ohms is 150 milliamperes. What is the voltage? When a circuit has a number of resistances
Since the voltage is to be found, the equation connected in series, the total resistance of the
to use is E = IR. The current must first be circuit is the sum of the individual resistances.
converted from milliamperes to amperes, and
reference to the table shows that to do so it is
If these are numbered R1,R2,R3,etc., then
necessary to divide by 1000. Therefore, R (total) = RI + R2 + R3 + R4 - 4-
150 where the dots indicate that as many resistors
E %Tx,X 20,000 3000 volts
as necessary may be added.
Series and Parallel Resistance 21
Example: Suppose that three resistors are of resistors can be combined by the same method.
connected to a source of e.m.f. as shown in
For only two resistances in parallel ( avery com-
Fig. 2-5. The e.m.f. is 250 volts, Rs is 5000
ohms, R2 is 20,000 ohms, and Rs is 8000 ohms. mon case) the formula becomes
The total resistance is then
RR,
R = Ri + Rs + Ra = 5000 20,000 + 8000 R=
= 33,000 ohms RI + Rt
The current flowing in the circuit is then Example: If a 500-ohm resistor is paralleled
with one of 1200 ohms, the total resistance is
E 250 R RiR2 500X1200 600.000
= — = 0.00757 amp. .• 7.57 ma.
+ Rs 500+1200 1700
(We need not carry calculations beyond three = 353 ohms
significant figures, and often two will suffice
It is probably easier to solve practical prob-
because the accuracy of measurements is sel-
dom better than a few per cent.) lems by a different method than the " reciprocal
of reciprocals" formula. Suppose the three re-
Voltage Drop
Ohm's Law applies to any part of a circuit as
well as to the whole circuit. Although the cur-
rent is the same in all three of the resistances
in the example, the total voltage divides among
them. The voltage appearing across each resistor
(the voltage drop) can be found from Ohm's
Law.
Fig. 2- 6— An example of resistors in parallel. The solu-
Example: If the voltage across RI (Fig. tion is worked out in the text.
2-5) is called El, that across R2 is called Es,
and that across Rs is called Es, then
sistors of the previous example are connected in
Es = / Rt = 0.00757 X 5000 = 37.9 volts
E9 = IR, = 0.00757 X 20,000 = 151.4 volts parallel as shown in Fig. 2-6. The same e.m.f.,
Es = IRa = 0.00757 X 8000 = 60.6 volts 250 volts, is applied to all three of the resistors.
The applied voltage must equal the sum of the The current in each can be found from Ohm's
individual voltage drops: Law as shown below, /1 being the current
E = Fi + E9 Es = 37.9 + 151.4 + 60.6 through RI,L,the current through R2 and /3 the
= 249.9 volts current through
The answer would have been more nearly
For convenience, the resistance will be ex-
exact if the current had been calculated to pressed in kilohms so the current will be in
more decimal places, but as explained above a
milliamperes.
very high order of accuracy is not necessary.
E 250
Ii = = —5
s-- = SO ma.
In problems such as this considerable time and
trouble can be saved, when the current is small E 250
enough to be expressed in milliamperes, if the Is Kt = — 12.5 ma.
20

E 250
= = —F = 31.25 ma.
5000
Fig. 2- 5— An example The total current is
of resistors in series.
R2 I = Is + Is ± Is = 50 -I- 12.5 31.25
E.250 V. 20,000 The solution of the cir- = 93.75 ma.
cuit is worked out in
The total resistance of the circuit is therefore
the text.
8000
E 250
R T, — 2.66 kilohms ( 2660 ohms)
14,

resistance is expressed in kilohms rather than Resistors in Series-Parallel

ohms. When resistance in kilohms is substituted An actual circuit may have resistances both in
directly in Ohm's law the current will be in parallel and in series. To illustrate, we use the
milliamperes if the e.m.f. is in volts. same three resistances again, but now connected
as in Fig. 2-7. The method of solving a circuit
Resistors in Parallel
such as Fig. 2-7 is as follows: Consider R2
In a circuit with resistances in parallel, the and R3 in parallel as though they formed a
total resistance is less than that of the lowest single resistor. Find their equivalent resistance.
value of resistance present. This is because the Then this resistance in series with R1 forms a
total current is always greater than the current simple series circuit, as shown at the right in
in any individual resistor. The formula for finding Fig. 2-7. An example of the arithmetic is given
the total resistance of resistances in parallel is under the illustration.
Using the same principles, and staying within
1
the practical limits, a value for R2 can be com-
1 1 1 1
puted that will provide a given voltage drop
IT1 + Tis + +-
1i, 4. across R 3 or agiven current through RI.Simple
where the dots again indicate that any number algebra is required.
22 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
R, These formulas are useful in power calculations
when the resistance and either the current or
Req. voltage ( but not both) are known.
_ v2SOK (Equivalent R
Example: How much power will be used up
of R, and R3
in a 4000-ohm resistor if the voltage applied
in parallel)
to it is 200 volts? From the equation
E2 (200)' 40.000
P 4000 viv 4000— 10 watts
Fig 2- 7— An example of resistors in series- parallel. The
equivalent circuit is at the right. The solution is worked
Or, suppose acurrent of 20 milliamperes flows
out in the text.
through a 300-ohm resistor. Then
Example: The first step is to find the equiva- P = I2R = (0.02) 2 X 300 = 0.0004 X 300
lent resistance of R2and Rs. From the formula = 0.12 watt
for two resistances in parallel,
Note that the current was changed from mil-
Rtits 20 X 8 160 liamperes to amperes before substitution in the
R29.
R2 + Ra 20+8 28 formula.
= 5.71 kilohms
The total resistance in the circuit is then
Electrical power in a resistance is turned into
heat. The greater the power the more rapidly
R = 121+ R.,. = 5 + 5.71 kilohms
the heat is generated. Resistors for radio work
= 10.71 kilohms
are made in many sizes, the smallest being rated
The current is to "dissipate" ( or carry safely) about 1/
4 watt.
7 E 250 The largest resistors used in amateur equipment
= 23.3 ma.
10.71 will dissipate about 100 watts.
The voltage drops across Rsand Req. are Generalized Definition of Resistance
Ej = IR,= 23.3 X 5 = 117 volts
E9 = IR .,. = 23.3 X 5.71 = 133 volts Electrical power is not always turned into heat.
The power used in running amotor, for example,
with sufficient accuracy. These total 250 volts,
thus checking the calculations so far, because is converted to mechanical motion. The power
the sum of the voltage drops must equal the supplied to a radio transmitter is largely con-
applied voltage. Since E2 appears across both verted into radio waves. Power applied to aloud-
R11 and Rs,
speaker is changed into sound waves. But in every
E2 133 case of this kind the power is completely "used
= 6.65 ma.
Is R2 20
up"—it cannot be recovered. Also, for proper
ES 133
/s = —
Ra = 8
= 16.6 ma. operation of the device the power must be sup-
plied at a definite ratio of voltage to current.
where Is = Current through Ri
Is = Current through Rs Both these features are characteristics of resist-
ance, so it can be said that any device that dissi-
The total is 23.25 ma., which checks closely
enough with 23.3 ma., the current through the pates power has a definite value of " resistance."
whole circuit. This concept of resistance as something that ab-
sorbs power at adefinite voltage/current ratio is
POWER AND ENERGY very useful, since it permits substituting asimple
Power— the rate uf doing work—is equal to resistance for the load or power-consuming part
voltage multiplied by current. The unit of elec- of the device receiving power, often with con-
trical power, called the watt, is equal to one volt siderable simplification of calculations. Of course,
multiplied by one ampere. The equation for every electrical device has some resistance of its
power therefore is own in the more narrow sense, so a part of the
P = EI power supplied to it is dissipated in that re-
where P .= Power in watts sistance and hence appears as heat even though
E = E.m.f. in volts the major part of the power may be converted to
I= Current in amperes another form.

Common fractional and multiple units for Efficiency

power are the milliwatt, one one-thousandth of In devices such as motors and vacuum tubes,
awatt, and the kilowatt, or one thousand watts. the object is to obtain power in some other form
Example: The plate voltage on a transmit- than heat. Therefore power used in heating is
ting vacuum tube is 2000 volts and the plate considered to be a loss, because it is not the
current is 350 milliamperes. ( The current
must be changed to amperes before substitu- useful power. The efficiency of a device is the
tion in the formula, and so is 0.35 amp.) Then useful power output ( in its converted form) di-
P = El = 2000 X 0.35 = 700 watts vided by the power input to the device. In a
vacuum-tube transmitter, for example, the object
By substituting the Ohm's Law equivalents for
is to convert power from a d.c. source into a.c.
E and I, the following formulas are obtained power at some radio frequency. The ratio of the
for power: r.f. power output to the d.c. input is the efficiency
p iz
E-1 of the tube. That is,

—o
Eff. P
P PR Pi
Capacitance 23
where Eff.= Efficiency ( as a decimal) is equal to power multiplied by time; the common
P.. Power output ( watts) unit is the watt-hour, which means that apower
P, = Power input ( watts) of one watt has been used for one hour. That is,
Example: If the d.c. input to the tube is 100
W = PT
watts and the r.f. power output is 60 watts, the
efficiency is where W = Energy in watt-hours
Po 60 P = Power in watts
T = Time in hours
Efficiency is usually expressed as apercentage;
Other energy units are the kilowatt-hour and
that is, it tells what per cent of the input power
will be available as useful output. The effi- the watt-second. These units should be self-
ciency in the above example is 60 per cent. explanatory.
Energy units are seldom used in amateur prac-
Energy tice, but it is obvious that a small amount of
In residences, the power company's bill is for power used for along time can eventually result
electric energy, not for power. What you pay for in a "power" bill that is just as large as though
is the work that electricity does for you, not the a large amount of power had been used for a
rate at which that work is done. Electrical work very short time.

CAPACITANCE
Suppose two flat metal plates are placed close The charge or quantity of electricity that can
to each other ( but not touching) and are con- be placed on a capacitor is proportional to the
nected to abattery through aswitch, as shown in applied voltage and to the capacitance of the
Fig. 2-8. At the instant the switch is closed, elec- capacitor. The larger the plate area and the
trons will be attracted from the upper plate to the smaller the spacing between the plate the greater
positive terminal of the battery, and the same the capacitance. The capacitance also depends
number will be repelled into the lower plate from upon the kind of insulating material between the
plates; it is smallest with air insulation, but sub-
stitution of other insulating materials for air may
increase the capacitance many times. The ratio
Fig. 2-8—A of the capacitance with some material other than
simple ca- air between the plates, to the capacitance of the
pacitor. same capacitor with air insulation, is called the
dielectric constant of that particular insulating
Metal Plates material. The material itself is called adielectric.
The dielectric constants of anumber of materials
the negative battery terminal. Enough electrons commonly used as dielectrics in capacitors are
move into one plate and out of the other to make
the e.m.f. between them the same as the e.m.f. of
the battery. Table 2-III
If the switch is opened after the plates have Dielectric Constants and Breakdown Voltages
been charged in this way, the top plate is left Dielectric Puncture
with a deficiency of electrons and the bottom Material Constant • Voltage ••
plate with an excess. The plates remain charged Air 1.0
despite the fact that the battery no longer is con- Alsimag 196 5.7 240
nected. However, if awire is touched between the Bakelite 4.4-5.4 300
two plates (short-circuiting them) the excess Bakelite, mica- filled 4.7 325-375
electrons on the bottom plate will flow through Cellulose acetate 3.3-3.9 250-600
the wire to the upper plate, thus restoring elec- Fiber 5-7.5 150-180
trical neutrality. The plates have then been dis- Formica 4.6-4.9 450
charged. Glass, window 7.6-8 200-250
The two plates constitute an electrical capaci- Glass, Pyrex 4.8 335
tor; acapacitor possesses the property of storing Mica, ruby 5.4 3800-5600
electricity. ( The energy actually is stored in the Mycalex 7.4 250
electric field between the plates.) During the time Paper, Royalgrey 3.0 200
the electrons are moving—that is, while the capac- Plexiglass 2.8 990
itor is being charged or discharged—acurrent is Polyethylene 2.3 1200
flowing in the circuit even though the circuit is
Polystyrene 2.6 500-700
"broken" by the gap between the capacitor plates.
Porcelain 5.1-5.9 40-100
However, the current flows only during the time
Quartz, fused 3.8 1000
of charge and discharge, and this time is usually
Steatite, low-loss 5.8 150-315
very short. There can be no continuous flow of
Teflon 2.1 1000-2000
direct current "through" acapacitor, but an alter-
•At 1Mc. •• In volts per mil ( 0.001 inch)
nating current can pass through easily if the
frequency is high enough.
24 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
given in Table 2- III. If a sheet of polystyrene Capacitors in Radio
is substituted for air between the plates of a The types of capacitors used in radio work
capacitor, for example, the capacitance will be differ considerably in physical size, construction,
increased 2.6 times. and capacitance. Some representative types are
Units shown in the photograph. In variable capacitors
(almost always constructed with air for the
The fundamental unit of capacitance is the dielectric) one set of plates is made movable with
farad, but this unit is much too large for prac- respect to the other set so that the capacitance
tical work. Capacitance is usually measured in can be varied. Fixed capacitors—that is, assem-
microfarads (abbreviated µf.) or picofarads
blies having a single, non-adjustable value of
(pf.). The microfarad is one-millionth of afarad,
capacitance—also can be made with metal plates
and with air as the dielectric, but usually are
constructed from plates of metal foil with athin
solid or liquid dielectric sandwiched in between,
so that a relatively large capacitance can be se-
cured in a small unit. The solid dielectrics com-
monly used are mica, paper and special ceramics.
An example of a liquid dielectric is mineral oil.
Fig. 2-9—A multiple- plate capacitor. Alternate plates are The electrolytic capacitor uses aluminum-foil
connected together. plates with a semiliquid conducting chemical
compound between them; the actual dielectric is a
and the picofarad ( formerly micromicrofarad) is
very thin film of insulating material that forms on
one-millionth of a microfarad. Capacitors nearly
one set of plates through electrochemical action
always have more than two plates, the alternate
when a d.c. voltage is applied to the capacitor.
plates being connected together to form two sets
The capacitance obtained with agiven plate area
as shown in Fig. 2-9. This makes it possible to
in an electrolytic capacitor is very large, com-
attain afairly large capacitance in asmall space,
pared with capacitors having other dielectrics, be-
since several plates of smaller individual area can
cause the film is so thin—much less than any
be stacked to form the equivalent of asingle large
thickness that is practicable with asolid dielectric.
plate of the same total area. Also, all plates, ex-
The use of.electrolytic and oil- filled capacitors
cept the two on the ends, are exposed to plates
is confined to power- supply .filtering and audio
of the other group on both sides, and so are twice
bypass applications. Mica and ceramic capacitors
as effective in increasing the capacitance.
are used throughout the frequency range from
The formula for calculating capacitance is:
audio to several hundred megacycles.
KA Voltage Breakdown
C •• 0.224 —d (
n — I)
When ahigh voltage is applied to the plates of
where C r.-- Capacitance in pf. a capacitor, a considerable force is exerted on
K = Dielectric constant of material be- the electrons and nuclei of the dielectric. Because
tween plates the dielectric is an insulator the electrons do not
A = Area of one side of one plate in become detached from atoms the way they do in
square inches conductors. However, if the force is great enough
d = Separation of plate surfaces in inches the dielectric will "break down"; usually it will
n Number of plates puncture and may char ( if it is solid) and permit
current to flow. The breakdown voltage de-
If the plates in one group do not have the same pends upon the kind and thickness of the dielec-
area as the plates, in the other, use the area of tric, as shown in Table 2- III. It is not directly
the smaller plates. proportional to the thickness; that is, doubling

Fixed and variable capacitors. The

large unit at the left is atransmitting.
type variable capacitor for r.f. tank
circuits. To its right are other air.
dielectric variables of different sizes
ranging from the midget "air pad.
dey" to the medium-power tank ca-
pacitor at the top center. The cased
capacitors in the top row ore for
power-supply filters, the cylindrical.
can unit being an electrolytic and the
rectangular one a paper-dielectric
capacitor. Various types of mica, oe.
ramic, and paper-dielectric capacitors
are in the foreground.
Capacitors 25
the thickness does not quite double the breakdown o
voltage. If the dielectric is air or any other gas,
Source
breakdown is evidenced by a spark or arc be- cl '

o
of E.M.F.
tween the plates, but if the voltage is removed
the arc ceases and the capacitor is ready for use
again. Breakdown will occur at a lower voltage PARALLEL
between pointed or sharp-edged surfaces than Fig. 2-10—Capao-
between rounded and polished surfaces; conse- itors in parallel

quently, the breakdown voltage between metal and in sedes.

plates of given spacing in air can be increased
by buffing the edges of the plates. Source
Since the dielectric must be thick to with- of E./vie CT

stand high voltages, and since the thicker the

dielectric the smaller the capacitance for agiven
SERIES
'T
c
plate area, a high- voltage capacitor must have
more plate area than a low- voltage one of the inverse proportion to its capacitance, as com-
same capacitance. High- voltage high-capacitance pared with the capacitance of the whole group.
capacitors are physically large.
Example: Three capacitors having capaci-
tances of I, 2, and 4µf., respectively, are con-
CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL nected in series as shown in Fig. 2-11. The
total capacitance is
The terms " parallel" and " series" when used
with reference to capacitors have the same circuit 1 1 1 4
C
1 1 1 1 I 7 1
meaning as with resistances. When anumber of
E A—C; + '"s
capacitors are connected in parallel, as in Fig. = 0.571 /if.
2-10, the total capacitance of the group is equal
The voltage across each capacitor is propor-
to the sum of the individual capacitances, so tional to the total capacitance divided by the
capacitance of the capacitor in question, so the
C (total) Ci C2 + C3 ± Cé voltage across Ci is

Hoy, ever, if two or more capacitors are con- 0.571

Ei --i— X 2000 1142 volts
nected in series, as in the second drawing, the
Similarly, the voltages across Cs and Cs are
total capacitance is less than that of the smallest
capacitor in the group. The rule for finding the 0.571
Es .• X 2000 571 volts
capacitance of a number of series-connected ca- 0.571
pacitors is the same as that for finding the re- Es —v X 2000 — 286 volts
sistance of a number of parallel- connected totaling approximately 2000 volts, the applied
resistors. That is, voltage.

1 Capacitors are frequently connected in series

C ( total) =
1 1 1 1
to enable the group to withstand alarger voltage
(at the expense of decreased total capacitance)
Cl C2 CE C4
than any individual capacitor is rated to stand.
and, for only two capacitors in series, However, as shown by the previous example, the
CI
C2 applied voltage does not divide equally among
C(
total) =
+ C2 the capacitors ( except when all the capacitances
are the same) so care must be taken to see that
The same units must be used throughout; that the voltage rating of no capacitor in the group
is, all capacitances must be expressed in either is exceeded.
µf. or /hid.; both kinds of units cannot be used

rf
in the same equation.
Capacitors are connected in parallel to obtain
alarger total capacitance than is available in one
unit. The largest voltage that can be applied
safely to a group of capacitors in parallel is the E•2000‘C
voltage that can be applied safely to the one
having the lowest voltage rating.
When capacitors are connected in series, the E3 C3 4pf
applied voltage is divided up among them; the
situation is much the same as when resistors are
in series and there is avoltage drop across each. Fig. 2- 11—An example of capacitors connected in series.
However, the voltage that appears across each The solution to this arrangement is worked out in the
capacitor of a group connected in series is in text.

INDUCTANCE
It is possible to show that the flow of current effects; a compass needle brought near the con-
through aconductor is accompanied by magnetic ductor, for example, will be deflected from its
26 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
normal north-south position. The current, in Power Supplies) and to obtain such values of
other words, sets up amagnetic field. inductance it is necessary to use coils of many
The transfer of energy to the magnetic field turns wound on iron cores. In radio- frequency
represents work done by the source of e.m.f. circuits, the inductance values used will be meas-
Power is required for doing work, and since ured in millihenrys ( a millihenry is one one-
power is equal to current multiplied by voltage, thousandth of ahenry) at low frequencies, and in
there must be avoltage drop in the circuit during microhenrys ( one one-millionth of ahenry) at
the time in which energy is being stored in the medium frequencies and higher. Although coils
field. This voltage "drop" ( which has nothing to for radio frequencies may be wound on special
do with the voltage drop in any resistance in the iron cores ( ordinary iron is not suitable) most
circuit) is the result of an opposing voltage "in- r.f. coils made and used by amateurs are of the
duced" in the circuit while the field is building up "air-core" type; that is, wound on an insulating
to its final value. When the field becomes con- support consisting of nonmagnetic material.
stant the induced e.m.f. or back e.m.f. disap- Every conductor has inductance, even though
pears, since no further energy is being stored. the conductor is not formed into a coil. The in-
Since the induced e.m.f. opposes the e.m.f. of ductance of a short length of straight wire is
the source, it tends to prevent the current from small, but it may not be negligible because if the
rising rapidly when the circuit is closed. The current through it changes its intensity rapidly
amplitude of the induced e.m.f. is proportional enough the induced voltage may be appreciable.
to the rate at which the current is changing and This will be the case in even afew inches of wire
to a constant associated with the circuit itself, when an alternating current having a frequency
called the inductance of the circuit. of the order of 100 Mc. or higher is flowing.
Inductance depends on the physical character- However, at much lower frequencies the induc-
istics of the conductor. If the conductor is formed tance of the same wire could be left out of any
into a coil, for example, its inductance is in- calculations because the induced voltage would
creased. A coil of many turns will have more be negligibly small.
inductance than one of few turns, if both coils
Calculating Inductance
are otherwise physically similar. Also, if acoil is
placed on an iron core its inductance will be The approximate inductance of single-layer
greater than it was without the magnetic core. air- core coils may be calculated from the sim-
The polarity of an induced e.m.f. is always plified formula
such as to oppose any change in the current in the ens
L(ph.)
circuit. This means that when the current in the 9e 10b
circuit is increasing, work is being done against where L= Inductance in microhenrys
the induced e.m.f. by storing energy in the mag- a = Coil radius in inches
netic field. If the current in the circuit tends to b = Coil length in inches
decrease, the stored energy of the field returns to = Number of turns
the circuit, and thus adds to the energy being
supplied by the source of e.m.f. This tends to keep The notation is explained in Fig. 2-12 This
the current flowing even though the applied Fig. 2- 12-- Coil dimensions
e.m.f. may be decreasing or be removed entirely. used in the inductance for-
The unit of inductance is the henry. Values of mula. The wire diameter
inductance used in radio equipment vary over a does not enter into the for-
wide range. Inductance of several henrys is re- mula.
quired in power-supply circuits ( see chapter on

reee'
Inductors for power and radio fre-
quencies. The two iron-core coils at
the left are "chokes" for power-sup-
ply filters. The mounted air-core coils
at the top center are adjustable in-
ductors for transmitting tank circuits.
The " pie-wound" coils at the left and
in the foreground are radio-fre-
quency choke coils. The remaining
coils are typical of inductors used in
r.f. tuned circuits, the larger sizes
being used principally for transmit-
ters.
es,
Inductance 27
formula is a closeapproximation for coils having Example: A coil having an inductance of 12
alength equal to or greater than 0.8a. µh. is required. It is to be wound on a form
having a diameter of 1 inch, the length avail-

b
Example: Assume a coil having 48 turns able for the winding being not more than 1g
wound 32 turns per inch and adiameter of « inches. From Fig. 2-15, the multiplying factor
Inch. Thus a = 0.75 2 = 0.375, = 48 ÷ 32 for a 1-inch diameter coil ( curve B) having
= 1.5, and n = 48. Substituting, the maximum possible length of 134 inches is
0.35. Hence the number of turns per inch
.375 X . 375 X 48 X 48
L 17.6 µh. must be chosen for a reference inductance of
(9 X .375) + ( 10 X 1.5) at least 12/0.35, or 34 µh. From the Table
To calculate the number of turns of a single- under Fig. 2-15 it is seen that 16 turns per

VL
Inch ( reference inductance 16.8 µh.) is too
layer coil for a required value of inductance, small. Using 32 turns per inch, the multiply-
ing factor is 12/68, or 0.177, and from curve
n
(
9a + 10b) B this corresponds to a coil length of g inch.
There will be 24 turns in this length, since the
winding "pitch" is 32 turns per inch.
Example: Suppose an inductance of lOnh. Is

134
required. The form on which the coil is to be Machine-wound coils with the diameters and

b
wound has a diameter of one inch and is long turns per inch given in the tables are available
enough to accommodate a coil of inches.
Then a = 0.5, = 1.25, and L = 10. Substi- in many radio stores, under the trade names of
tuting, "B&W Miniductor" and "Illurnitronic Air Dux."

,,V 10 (
4.5 -1- 12.5)
.5 X .5
680 26.1 turns IRON-CORE COILS

Permeability
A 26-turn coil would be close enough in prac-
tical work. Since the coil will be 1.25 inches Suppose that the coil in Fig. 2-16 is wound on
long, the number of turns per inch will be
an iron core having a cross-sectional area of 2
26.1 1.25 = 20.8. Consulting the wire table,
we find that No. 17 enameled wire (or any- square inches. When a certain current is sent
thing smaller) can be used. The proper in- through the coil it is found that there are 80,000
ductance is obtained by winding the required lines of force in the core. Since the area is 2
number of turns on the form and then adjust-
ing the spacing between the turns to make a square inches,- the flux density is 40,000 lines per
uniformly-spaced coil 1.25 inches long. square inch. Now suppose that the iron core is
removed and the same current is maintained in
Inductance Charts the coil, and that the flux density without the
Most inductance formulas lose accuracy when iron core is found to be 50 lines per square inch.
applied to small coils ( such as are used in v.h.f. The ratio of the flux density with the given core
work and in low-pass filters built for reducing material to the flux density ( with the same coil
harmonic interference to television) because the and same current) with an air core is called
conductor thickness is no longer negligible in the permeability of the material. In this case the
comparison with the size of the coil. Fig. 2-13 permeability of the iron is 40,000/50 = 800. The
shows the measured inductance of v.h.f. coils, and inductance of the coil is increased 800 times by
may be used as a basis for circuit design. Two inserting the iron core since, other things being
curves are given: curve A is for coils wound to equal, the inductance will be proportional to the
an inside diameter of 7 4 inch; curve B is for magnetic flux through the coil.
coils of 74-inch inside diameter. In both curves The permeability of amagnetic material varies
the wire size is No. 12, winding pitch 8 turns to with the flux density. At low flux densities ( or
the inch ( IA inch center-to-center turn spacing). with an air core) increasing the current through
The inductance values given include leads 54
za
inch long.
The charts of Figs. 2-14 and 2-15 are useful
for rapid determination of the inductance of coils
LS
of the type commonly used in radio-frequency
circuits in the range 3-30 Mc. They are of suffi-
cient accuracy for most practical work. Given
the coil length in inches, the curves show the OS
multiplying factor to be applied to the inductance
03 A
value given in the table below the curve for a
coil of the same diameter and number of turns az
per inch. NO. 12 RARE WIRE
TURNS POR INC/I
Example: A coil 1 inch in diameter is 134 A - INSiDE DIA.-
Inches long and has 20 turns. Therefore it has le- 1551K DIA.=
16 turns per inch, and from the table under QI

Fig. 2-15 it is found that the reference in-

ductance for a coil of this diameter and num- 0.07

ber of turns per inch is 16.8 ¡oh. From curve on

B in the figure the multiplying factor is 0.35, os
so the inductance is
IS
16.8 X 0.35 = 5.9 ¡th. NO OF TURNS

The charts also can be used for finding suit- Fig. 2-13—Measured inductance of coils wound with
able dimensions for acoil having arequired value No. 12 bare wire, 8turns to the inch. The values include
of inductance. half-inch leads.
28 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
the coil will cause aproportionate increase in flux, ance with current is usually undesirable. It may
but at very high flux densities, increasing the be overcome by keeping the flux density below
current may cause no appreciable change in the the saturation point of the iron. This is done by
flux. When this is so, the iron is said to be satu- opening the core so that there is a small "air
rated. Saturation causes arapid decrease in per- gap," as indicated by the dashed lines. The mag-
meability, because it decreases the ratio of flux netic " resistance" introduced by such agap is so
lines to those obtainable with the same current large-even though the gap is only asmall frac-
and an air core. Obviously, the inductance of an tion of an inch-compared with that of the iron
iron- core inductor is highly dependent upon the that the gap, rather than the iron, controls the
current flowing in the coil. In an air-core coil,
the inductance is independent of current because
air does not saturate.
Iron core coils such as the one sketched in
Fig. 2-16 are used chiefly in power- supply equip-
ment. They usually have direct current flowing
A
through the winding, and the variation in induct- 6

• 1.0

44 . 9
to
• . 8

.7

.6
2 3
• 5
.
LENGTH OF COIL IN INCHES

ifS. .4
Fig. 2- I5- Factor to be applied to the inductance of coils
.3 listed in the table below, as a function of coil length.
Use curve A for coils marked A, curve Bfor coils marked
• .
2
B.
• .
1

Coil diameter, No. of turns Inductance

k 0
0 2 3 4 5 Inches per inch in ah.
LENGTH OF COIL IN INCHES
4 0.18
Fig. 2-I4 - Factor to be applied to the inductance of coils (A) 6 0.40
8 0.72
listed in the table below, for coil lengths up to 5inches. 10 1.12
16 2.9
32 12
Coil diameter, No. of turns Inductance
Inches per inch in µh. 4 0.28
(A) 6 0.62
4 2.75 8 1.1
6 6.3 10 1.7
8 11.2 16 4.4
10 17.5 32 18
16 42.5
4 0.6
1;5 4 3.9 (B) 6 1.35
6 8.8 8 2.4
8 15.6 10 3.8
10 24.5 16 9.9
16 63 32 40

194 4 5.2 1 4 1.0

6 11.8 (B) 6 2.3
8 21 8 4.2
10 33 10 6.6
16 85 16 16.8
32 68
2 4 6.6
6 15
8 26.5
flux density. This reduces the .nductance, but
10 42
16 108 makes it practically constant regardless of the
value of the current.
25 4 10.2
6 23 Eddy Currents and Hysteresis
8 41
10 64 When alternating current flows through acoil
wound on an iron core an e.m.f. will be induced,
3 4 14
6 31.5 as previously explained, and since iron is a con-
a 56 ductor acurrent will flow in the core. Such cur-
10 89 rents ( called eddy currents) represent a waste
Inductance 29
.4, 99
Fig. 2- 16—Typical construction
of an iron-core inductor. The
small air gap prevents mag-
netic saturation of the iron
Fig. 2- 17—Induc-
and thus maintains the induc-
tances in series
tance at high currents.
and parallel.

of power because they flow through the resistance

of the iron and thus cause heating. Eddy-current
losses can be reduced by laminating the core;
that is, by cutting it into thin strips. These strips
or laminations must be insulated from each other the total inductance is given by
1
by painting them with some insulating material
such as varnish or shellac. Ltotai—
There is also another type of energy loss: the
iron tends to resist any change in its magnetic
and for two inductances in parallel,
state, so a rapidly-changing current such as a.c.
is forced continually to supply energy to the iron LIL2
L
to overcome this "inertia." Losses of this sort are ± L2
called hysteresis losses. Thus the rules for combining inductances in
Eddy-current and hysteresis losses in iron in- series and parallel are the same as for resist-
crease rapidly as the frequency of the alternating ances, if the coils are far enough apart so that
current is increased. For this reason, ordinary each is unaffected by another's magnetic field.
iron cores can be used only at power and audio When this is not so the formulas given above
frequencies—up to, say, 15,000 cycles. Even so, cannot be used.
a very good grade of iron or steel is necessary
if the core is to perform well at the higher audio MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
frequencies. Iron cores of this type are completely If two coils are arranged with their axes on
useless at radio frequencies. the same line, as shown in Fig. 2-18, a current
For radio-frequency work, the losses in iron sent through Coil 1will cause a magnetic field
cores can be reduced to a satisfactory figure by which "cuts" Coil 2. Consequently, an e.m.f. will
grinding the iron into apowder and then mixing be induced in Coil 2 whenever the field strength
it with a "binder" of insulating material in such is changing. This induced e.m.f. is similar to the
a way that the individual iron particles are in- e.m.f. of self-induction, but since it appears in
sulated from each other. By this means cores the second coil because of current flowing in the
can be made that will function satisfactorily even first, it is a " mutual" effect and results from
through the v.h.f. range—that is, at frequencies the mutual inductance between the two coils.
up to perhaps 100 Mc. Because a large part of If all the flux set up by one coil cuts all the
the magnetic path is through anonmagnetic ma- turns of the other coil the mutual inductance
terial, the permeability of the iron is low com- has its maximum possible value. If only a small
pared with the values obtained at power- supply part of the flux set up by one coil cuts the turns
frequencies. The core is usually in the form of a of the other the mutual inductance is relatively
"slug" or cylinder which fits inside the insulating small. Two coils having mutual inductance are
form on which the coil is wound. Despite the said to be coupled.
fact that, with this construction, the major por- The ratio of actual mutual inductance to the
tion of the magnetic path for the flux is in air, maximum possible value that could theoretically
the slug is quite effective in increasing the coil be obtained with two given coils is called the
inductance. By pushing the slug in and out of the coefficient of coupling between the coils. It is
coil the inductance can be varied over aconsider- frequently expressed as a percentage. Coils that
able range.
Fig. 2- 18—Mu-
INDUCTANCES IN SERIES AND
tual induct-
PARALLEL ance. When
\\ 11,11 t\\,) or more inductors are connected the switch, S, is
in series ( Fig. 2-17, left) the total inductance is closed current
equal to the sum of the individual inductances, \ flows through
provided the coils are sufficiently separated so coil No. 1, set-
that no coil is in the magnetic field of another. ( ting up amag-
That is, II Induced netic field that
'\ ern. f. , induces an
Ltot.1 = Li + L2 + 1.3 + Li ±
/ e.m.f. in the
If inductors are connected in parallel ( Fig. 2-17, turns of coil
right)—and the coils are separated sufficiently, No. 2.
30 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
have nearly the maximum possible ( coefficient = sible ( one wound over the other). The coupling
1 or 100%) mutual inductance are said to be is least when the coils are far apart or are placed
closely, or tightly, coupled, but if the mutual in- so their axes are at right angles.
ductance is relatively small the coils are said The maximum possible coefficient of coupling
to be loosely coupled. The degree of coupling is closely approached only when the two coils
depends upon the physical spacing between the are wouqd on aclosed iron core. The coefficient
coils and how they are placed with respect to each with air-core coils may run as high as 0.6 or 0.7
other. Maximum coupling exists when they have if one coil is wound over the other, but will be
acommon axis and are as close together as pos- much less if the two coils are separated.

TIME CONSTANT
Capacitance and Resistance resistor, as indicated in Fig. 2-19B, the same
Connecting a source of ean.f. to a capacitor time constant applies. If there were no resistance,
causes the capacitor to become charged to the full the capacitor would discharge instantly when S
e.m.f. practically instantaneously, if there is no was closed. However, since R limits the current
resistance in the circuit. However, if the circuit flow the capacitor voltage cannot instantly go
contains resistance, as in Fig. 2-19A, the resist- to zero, but it will decrease just as rapidly as
ance limits the current flow and an appreciable the capacitor can rid itself of its charge through
length of time is required for the e.m.f. between R. When the capacitor is discharging through a
the capacitor plates to build up to the same value resistance, the time constant ( calculated in the
as the e.m.f. of the source. During this "building- same way as above) is the time, in seconds, that
up" period the current gradually decreases from it takes for the capacitor to lose 63 per cent of its
its initial value, because the increasing e.m.f. voltage; that is, for the voltage to drop to 37
stored on the capacitor offers increasing opposi- per cent of its initial value.
tion to the steady e.m.f. of the source. Example: If the capacitor of the example
above is charged to 1000 volts, it will discharge
to 370 volts in /2 second through the 250,000-
ohm resistor.

Inductance and Resistance

A comparable situation exists when resistance

and inductance are in series. In Fig. 2-21, first
consider L to have no resistance and also assume
that R is zero. Then closing S would tend to
(A) (B)
Fig. 2- 19—Illustrating the time constant of an RC circuit.

Theoretically, the charging process is never

really finished, but eventually the charging cur-
rent drops to a value that is smaller than any- CHARGE
thing that can be measured. The time constant
of such acircuit is the length of time, in seconds,
required for the voltage across the capacitor to
reach 63 per cent of the applied e.m.f. ( this figure
is chosen for mathematical reasons). The voltage RC 2RC 3RC TIME
across the capacitor rises with time as shown by
Fig. 2-20.
The formula for time constant is %100
e<
T = RC
i^ 80
k
where T = Time constant in seconds DISCHARGE
C = Capacitance in farads à 60
R = Resistance in ohms
If C is in microfarads and R in megohms, the 4°

time constant also is in seconds. These units

20
usually are more convenient.
Example: The time constant of a 2-gf. ca- F
.S.
pacitor and a 250,00C-ohm ( 0.25 megohm) -.4 A RC 2RC 3RC TIME
o
resistor is
T = RC = 0.25 X 2 = 0.5 second Fig. 2-20— How the voltage across a capacitor rises, with
If the applied e.m.f. is 1000 volts, the voltage time, when charged through a resistor. The lower curve
between the capacitor plates will be 630 volts
shows the way in which the voltage decreases across the
at the end of 54 second.
capacitor terminals on discharging through the same
If acharged capacitor is discharged through a resistor.
Time Constant 31
send acurrent through the circuit. However, the L Inductance in henrys
instantaneous transition from no current to a R = Resistance in ohms
finite value, however small, represents a very
rapid change in current, and a back e.m.f. is The resistance of the wire in a coil acts as if
developed by the self-inductance of L that is it were in series with the inductance.
practically equal and opposite to the applied
Example: A coil having an inductance of 20
e.m.f. The result is that the initial current is henrys and aresistance of 100 ohms has atime
very small. constant of

L 20
T -R- w o — 0.2 second

if there is no other resistance in the circuit. If

ad.c. e.m.f. of 10 volts is applied to such a
coil, the final current, by Ohm's Law, is

/ = 0 = 0.1 amp. or 100 ma.

R 100
,
u
t TIME
The current would rise from zero to 63 mil-
liamperes in 0.2 second after closing the
Fig. 2-21—Time constant of an LR circuit. switch.

The back e.m.f. depends upon the change in

An inductor cannot be "discharged" in the
current and would cease to offer opposition if
same way as a capacitor, because the magnetic
the current did not continue to increase. With
field disappears as soon as current flow ceases.
no resistance in the circuit ( which would lead
Opening S does not leave the inductor " charged."
to an infinitely large current, by Ohm's Law)
The energy stored in the magnetic field instantly
the current would increase forever, always grow-
returns to the circuit when S is opened. The rapid
ing just fast enough to keep the e.m.f. of self-
disappearance of the field causes a very large
induction equal to the applied e.m.f.
voltage to be induced in the coil—ordinarily
When resistance is in series, Ohm's Law sets
many times larger than the voltage applied, be-
a limit to the value that the current can reach.
cause the induced voltage is proportional to the
The back e.m.f. generated in L has only to equal
speed with which the field changes. The common
the difference between E and the drop across R,
result of opening the switch in a circuit such as
because that difference is the voltage actually
the one shown is that a spark or arc forms at
applied to L. This difference becomes smaller as
the switch contacts at the instant of opening. If
the current approaches the final Ohm's Law
the inductance is large and the current in the
value. Theoretically, the back e.m.f. never quite
circuit is high, agreat deal of energy is released
disappears and so the current never quite reaches
in avery short period of time. It is not at all un-
the Ohm's Law value, but practically the differ-
usual for the switch contacts to burn or melt
ence becomes unmeasurable after a time. The
under such circumstances. The spark or arc at

N
time constant of an inductive circuit is the time
the opened switch can be reduced or suppressed
in seconds required for the current to reach 63
by connecting a suitable capacitor and resistor
per cent of its final value. The formula is
in series across the contacts.
T= Time constants play an important part in num-
erous devices, such as electronic keys, timing and
where T= Time constant in seconds control circuits, and shaping of keying charac-
teristics by vacuum tubes. The time constants of
100
circuits are also important in such applications
70 as automatic gain control and noise limiters. In
nearly all such applications a resistance- capaci-
k50
tance (RC) time constant is involved, and it is
40
usually necessary to know the voltage across the
30 capacitor at some time interval larger or smaller
than the actual time constant of the circuit as
k20 given by the formula above. Fig. 2-22 can be used
L
I- for the solution of such problems, since the curve
gives the voltage across the capacitor, in terms
I
0
of percentage of the initial charge, for percent-
ages between 5 and 100, at any time after dis-
charge begins.
5
0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3 Example: A 0.01-gf. capacitor is charged
to 150 volts and then allowed to discharge
through a 0.1-megohra resistor. How long will
RC
it take the voltage to fall to 10 volts? lñ per-
Fig. 2.22— Voltage across capacitor terminals in a dis- centage, 10/150 = 6.7%. From the chart, the
factor corresponding to 6.7% is 2.7. The time
charging RC circuit, in terms of the initial charged volt- constant of the circuit is equal to RC = 0.1 X
age. To obtain time in seconds, multiply the factor t/RC 0.01 = 0.001. The time is therefore 2.7 X
by the time constant of the circuit. 0.001 = 0.0027 second, or 2.7 milliseconds.
32 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

PHASE
The term phase essentially means "time," or
the time interval between the instant when one
thing occurs and the instant when a second re-
lated thing takes place. The later event is said to
lag the earlier, while the one that occurs first is Fig. 2- 24—When two waves of the same frequency start
said to lead. In a.c. circuits the current amplitude their cycles at slightly different times, the time difference
changes continuously, so the concept of phase or or phase difference is measured in degrees. In this draw-
time becomes important. Phase can be measured ing wave B starts 45 degrees ( one- eighth cycle) later
in' the ordinary time units, such as the second, but than wave A, and so lags 45 degrees behind A.
there is a more convenient method: Since each
a.c. cycle occupies exactly the same amount of Fig. 2-25. In the upper drawing B lags 90 de-
time as every other cycle of the same frequency, grees behind A; that is, its cycle begins just one-
we can use the cycle itself as the time unit. Using quarter cycle later than that of A. When one wave
the cycle as the time unit makes the specification is passing through zero, the other is just at its
or measurement of phase independent of the fre- maximum point.
quency of the current, so long as only one fre- In the lower drawing A and B are 180 degrees
quency is under consideration at a time. When out of phase. In this case it does not matter
two or more frequencies are to be considered, as which one is considered to lead or lag. B is al-
in the case where harmonics are present, the ways positive while A is negative, and vice versa.
phase measurements are made with respect to The two waves are thus completely out of phase.
the lowest, or fundamental, frequency. The waves shown in Figs. 2-24 and 2-25 could
The time interval or " phase difference" under represent current, voltage, or both. A and B
consideration usually will be less than one cycle. might be two currents in separate circuits, or A
Phase difference could be measured in decimal might represent voltage and B current in the
parts of a cycle, but it is more convenient to same circuit. If A and B represent two currents
divide the cycle into 360 parts or degrees. A in the same circuit ( or two voltages in the same
phase degree is therefore 1/360 of a cycle. The circuit) the total or resultant current ( or volt-
reason for this choice is that with sine- wave alter- age) also is a sine wave, because adding any
nating current the value of the current at any in- number of sine waves of the same frequency al-
stant is proportional to the sine of the angle that ways gives a sine wave also of the same fre-
corresponds to the number of degrees—that is, quency.
length of time—from the instant the cycle began.
Phase in Resistive Circuits
There is no actual "angle" associated with an
alternating current. Fig. 2-23 should help make When an alternating voltage is applied to a
this method of measurement clear. resistance, the current flows exactly in step with
the voltage. In other words, the voltage and cur-
rent are in phase. This is true at any frequency
if the resistance is "pure"—that is, is free from
the reactive effects discussed in the next section.
Practically, it is often difficult to obtain a purely

}Cycle

Fig. 2- 23— An a.c, cycle is divided off into 360 degrees

that are used as a measure of time or phase.

Measuring Phase
The phase difference between two currents of
the same frequency is the time or angle difference
between corresponding parts of cycles of the two
currents. This is shown in Fig. 2-24. The current
labeled A leads the one marked B by 45 degrees,
since A's cycles begin 45 degrees earlier in time. Fig. 2-25—Two important special cases of phase differ-
It is equally correct to say that B lags A by 45 ence. In the upper drawing, the phase difference be-
degrees. tween A and 8 à 90 degrees; in the lower drawing the
Two important special cases are shown in phase difference is 180 degrees.
Alternating Currents 33
resistive circuit at radio frequencies, because the the negative direction during this quarter cycle.
reactive effects become more pronounced as the The third and fourth quarter cycles repeat
frequency is increased. the events of the first and second, respectively,
In a purely resistive circuit, or for purely re- with this difference—the polarity of the applied
sistive parts of circuits, Ohm's Law is just as voltage has reversed, and the current changes
valid for a.c. of any frequency as it is for d.c. to correspond. In other words, an alternating
current flows in the circuit because of the alter-
REACTANCE nate charging and discharging of the capacitance.
As shown by Fig. 2-26, the current starts its cycle
Alternating Current in Capacitance 90 degrees before the voltage, so the current in a
In Fig. 2-26 a sine- wave a.c. voltage having a capacitor leads the applied voltage by 90 degrees.
maximum value of 100 volts is applied to a ca-
Capacitive Reactance
pacitor. In the period OA, the applied voltage in-
creases from zero to 38 volts; at the end of this The quantity of electric charge that can be
period the capacitor is charged to that voltage. In placed on a capacitor is proportional to the ap-
interval AB the voltage increases to 71 volts; plied e.m.f. and the capacitance. This amount of
that is, 33 volts additional. In this interval a charge moves back and forth in the circuit once
smaller quantity of charge has been added than in each cycle, and so the rate of movement of charge
OA, because the voltage rise during interval AB —that is, the current—is proportional to volt-
is smaller. Consequently the average current dur- age, capacitance and frequency. If the effects of
ing AB is smaller than during OA. In the third capacitance and frequency are lumped together,
interval, BC, the voltage rises from 71 to 92 volts, they form aquantity that plays apart similar to
an increase of 21 volts. This is less than the volt- that of resistance in Ohm's Law. This quantity
age increase during AB, so the quantity of elec- is called reactance, and the unit for it is the ohm,
tricity added is less; in other words, the average just as in the case of resistance. The formula for
current during interval BC is still smaller. In the it is
1
fourth interval, CD, the voltage increases only 8 Xc —
27rf C
volts; the charge added is smaller than in any
preceding interval and therefore the current also where Xe = Capacitive reactance in ohms
is smaller. f = Frequency in cycles per second
By dividing the first quarter cycle into avery C = Capacitance in farads
large number of intervals it could be shown that w = 3.14
the current charging the capacitor has the shape
of a sine wave, just as the applied voltage does. Although the unit of reactance is the ohm,
The current is largest at the beginning of the there is no power dissipation in reactance. The
cycle and becomes zero at the maximum value energy stored in the capacitor in one quarter of
of the voltage, so there is aphase difference of 90 the cycle is simply returned to the circuit in the
degrees between the voltage and current. During next.
the first quarter cycle the current is flowing in the. The fundamental units ( cycles per second,
normal direction through the circuit, since the ca- farads) are too large for practical ude in radio
pacitor is being charged. Hence the current is circuits. However, if the capacitance is in micro-
positive, as indicated by the dashed line in Fig. farads and the frequency is in megacycles, the
2-26. reactance will come out in ohms in the formula.
In the second quarter cycle—that is, in the
Example: The reactance of a capacitor of
time from D to H, the voltage applied to the 470 ggf. (0.00047 gf.) at a frequency of 7150
capacitor decreases. During this time the capaci- kc. ( 7.15 Mc.) is
tor loses its charge. Applying the same reasoning, 1
X w. w. 47.4 ohms
it is plain that the current is small in interval DE 24C 6.28 X 7.15 X 0.00047
and continues to increase during each succeeding
Inductive Reactance
interval. However, the current is flowing against
the applied voltage because the capacitor is dis- When an alternating voltage is applied to a
charging into the circuit. The current flows in pure inductance ( one with no resistance—all
practical inductors have resistance) the current
is again 90 degrees out of phase with the applied
voltage. However, in this case the current lags
90 degrees behind the voltage—the opposite of
the capacitor current-voltage relationship.
The primary cause for this is the back e.m.f.
generated in the inductance, and since the ampli-
tude of the back e.m.f. is proportional to the rate
at which the current changes, and this in turn is
proportional to the frequency, the amplitude of
the current is inversely proportional to the ap-
plied frequency. Also, since the back e.m.f. is
Fig. 2- 26--Voltage and current phase relationships when proportional to inductance for agiven rate of cur-
an alternating voltage is applied to a capacitor. rent change, the current flow is inversely propor-
34 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
tional to inductance for a given applied voltage either inductive or capacitive.
and frequency. ( Another way of saying this is Example: If a current of 2amperes is flow-
that just enough current flows to generate an in- ing through the capacitor of the earlier ex-
duced e.m.f. that equals and opposes the applied ample ( reactance = 47.4 ohms) at 7150 kc.,
the voltage drop across the capacitor is
voltage.)
E = IX = 2 X 47.4 = 94.8 volts
The combined effect of inductance and fre-
If 400 volts at 120 cycles is applied to the 8-
quency is called inductive reactance, also ex- henry inductor of the earlier example, the
pressed in ohms, and the formula for it is current through the coil will be

XL = 274L E 400
w 0•0663 am
X 6029 e.(66.3 ma.)
where XL= Inductive reactance in ohms
f = Frequency in cycles per second Reactance Chart
L= Inductance in henrys The accompanying chart, Fig. 2-28, shows the
ir = 3.14 reactance of capacitances from 1puf. to 100 , if.,
Example: The reactance of acoil having an and the reactance of inductances from 0.1 ph. to
Inductance of 8 henrys, at a frequency of 120 10 henrys, for frequencies between 100 cycles
cycles, is and 100 megacycles per second. The approximate
XL= 2r,fL = 6.28 X 120 X 8 = 6029 ohms value of reactance can be read from the chart or,
where more exact values are needed, the chart
Applied
voltage will serve as acheck on the order of magnitude of
v
reactances calculated from the formulas given
/0 5 I / above, and thus avoid "decimal- point errors".
/rents
I / Reactances in Series and Parallel
I /
When reactances of the same kind are con-
0A2C
nected in series or parallel the resultant reactance
is that of the resultant inductance or capacitance.
This leads to the same rules that are used when
I determining the resultant resistance when resis-
•./ tors are combined. That is,. for series reactances
In'ciuced
voitcuie
of the same kind the resultant reactance is
X = X1 -I- X. + X. +
Fig. 2-27— Phase relationships between voltage and
current when an alternating voltage is applied to an and for reactances of the same kind in parallel
inductance. the resultant is

In radio-frequency circuits the inductance

values usually are small and the frequencies are
large. If the inductance is expressed in milli-
henrys and the frequency in kilocycles, the con- or for two in parallel,
version factors for the two units cancel, and the
formula for reactance may be used without first X1X2

converting to fundamental units. Similarly, no Xi + X2

conversion is necessary if the inductance is in The situation is different when reactances of

microhenrys and the frequency is in megacycles. opposite kinds are combined. Since the current in
Example: The reactance of a 15-microhenry a capacitance leads the applied voltage by 90
coil at a frequency of 14 Mc. is degrees and the current in an inductance lags the
XL= 21.1L = 6.28 X 14 X 15 = 1319 ohms applied voltage by 90 degrees, the voltages at the
The resistance of the wire of which the coil is terminals of opposite types of reactance are 180
wound has no effect on the reactance, but simply degrees out of phase in aseries circuit ( in which
acts as though it were a separate resistor con- the current has to be the same through all ele-
nected in series with the coil. ments), and the currents in reactances of opposite
types are 180 degrees out of phase in a parallel
Ohm's Law for Reactance circuit ( in which the same voltage is applied to
Ohn's Law for an a.c. circuit containing only all elements). The 180-degree phase relationship
reactance is means that the currents or voltages are of oppo-
E
I=7‘. site polarity, so in the series circuit of Fig. 2-29A
the voltage ELacross the inductive reactance XL
E = IX is of opposite polarity to the voltage Ee across
E the capacitive reactance Xc. Thus if we call XL
X — "positive" and Xo "negative" ( a common con-
I
vention) the applied voltage Esc is EL— Ee. In
where E = E.m.f. in volts the parallel circuit at B the total current, /, is
/ = Current in amperes equal to h — /c, since the currents are 180 de-
X = Reactance in ohms grees out of phase.
The reactance in the circuit may, of course, be In the series case, therefore, the resultant re-
 Reactance 35
104000

.
naZiiiiiv BZ691911:ZeMelliiir
ne eMragniiiiitmmw
er.""nel
...alliiiiMMim e rdilli

e
70,000
54000 mimmontemmimemmeenrilIAMeMMIMIIIPAM11/~MillieltdialMIOIK » MtWillIIIIIIMIIMI11:11
MIIIIMMOIWAIMORIFAIIWIMMOMIVAIWIMIUMMIMIIMMIM. ardlarIll....ral
M % 011 Mail..02110MIMEMMIIIMIBMiredliMMIMILIMIIIIMIMMIP51111
30,000 1

20,000 AIMIL11111EMIBIRC101\13%001fflIZEiliMMZEdll!il
».1111110Millii,2111111»111103111h1,111111111

........................,............
14000
wi liccies

..E..„..9e.-4eicimmearrolariammzuzdp111
7,000 iNutimemee..oemwimeurK 19:C:= 7
:412:0:11:=741:::::r.
5.000 •1111/7AIMMIllie AIMMIIIIIIIWIWAM111111111e1117dIAMI.
wimowin twown.ur,:giwAmmounmiiirmow. miiimame'dirwm.nnordío
3,000 rfflMagIrdill:rffliia
2,000

1,000 _IMMilifili edliinllal:MIII.4311M0111:illiiMSIrlilid

g
.....rzgam...nrrier.. 2m..:,
..%,-.::.......=me%:::::rmeage,...cràr..............
700
500 me.zzazumwmc:.,.¡—....
WIIMOMPAIIIIIMMIONECIIWINM\
gge:=e-zzem;=izzere----emi
F.IIMUIMOMFAIIMIIIM101113rAIIIIII 'Il&E411
rfflmmonnkmummeashemummotememmonnomumilor ..uno
IN OHMS

BE ler
300

200 IMZEM1101111ein 11 '7.'"\IMEd'er .

41051
100 __=,.......:._ 4,_4.......,4&..,d....... NnIFiNINIIIL
MaivaNIK 411110
A..Ad.::::L.A. ,,.........&A.,, .
:.
:
REACTANCE

e
70
mwAmmumerimmum. nirémumilemili amwAimumanitimunnwunizeramumiminzeuni
50 -
WiRmWMPUliMIL ..51.w..1•0»pmfflimim....uwAmmoustnifflumomuu
imumeinurimmiondierammilomionimm mingralimmenteummeamo.
m#e
30

20 manimm ,nigamaor imumm

l Amoimacipligilacinaq
10 MM1111111L
,:::::„1151111Nn.1111111Pà1111111,3111111,11111111
= .„ ::::: ..e.
7 %----r=nzumemrr-ae:::::=14z2:::-...eraNi.3:::::
5.. .....it.IIIMINVOIMIIWMM\IMIUMIIIII/IMmaa 4 IIIMIFIMMMIIWAIMIIIIMM.IMMemi
eirmak miliwAmwmpaiwimeammilmamozstdslwwwwakelimieunemu
3 rmimonanirfflumounommiumnefflumodiummannummouto
11•111Raliiiii\IMEdlinIMMEderd\1111111Mil \rilDIIMIII111:111
1.0 .11111111M11111113121111111MMIIIIMMIIIIIIMMIIIIIIII
0 0000 0 H, N 0 0 o o o o 000 In'- 0 o
gig.2 r- o
9 c
il g r2 8 N r- o o o 000 o
c tc, r- o
It— CYCLES KILOCYCLES MEGACYCLES
FREQUENCY
e 7 543 2
INTERPOLATION
II I SCALE
FOR LSC

Fig. 2-28— Inductive and capacitive reactance vs. frequency. Heavy lines represent multiples of 10, intermediate light
lines multiples of 5; e.g., the light line between 10 µh. and 100 µh. represents 50 µh., the light line between 0.1 Ø.
and 1µf. represents 0.5 pl., etc. Intermediate values can be estimated with the help of the interpolation scale
shown.
Reactances outside the range of the chart may be found by applying appropriate factors to values within the
chart range. For example, the reactance of 10 henrys at 60 cycles can be found by taking the reactance to 10 hen-
rys at 600 cycles and dividing by 10 for the 10-times decrease in frequency.

actance of XL and Xo is
Reactive Power
X = XL — Xo
In Fig. 2-29A the voltage drop across the in-
and in the parallel case
ductor is larger than the voltage applied to the
X —XLX0 circuit. This might seem to be an impossible
XL—XO
condition, but it is not; the explanation is that
Note that in the series circuit the total react- while energy is being stored in the inductor's
ance is negative if Xo is larger than X; this
indicates that the total reactance is capacitive
in such acase. The resultant reactance in aseries
circuit is always smaller than the larger of the Er.
two individual reactances.
In the parallel circuit, the resultant reactance rc
E c— _t
_c_
X r— t-
is negative ( i.e., capacitive) if XL is larger than (A) rE.)
Xo, and positive ( inductive) if XL is smaller
than Xo, but in every case is always larger than Mg. 2-29—Series and parallel circuits containing op-
the smaller of the two individual reactances. posite kinds of reactance.
In the special case where XL = Xc the total
reactance is zero in the series circuit and infinitely magnetic field, energy is being returned to the
large in the parallel circuit. circuit from the capacitor's electric field, and
36 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
vice versa. This stored energy is responsible for by the rules previously given, before substitution
the fact that the voltages across reactances in into the formula above; similarly for resistances.
series can be larger than the voltage applied to The " square root of the sum of the squares"
them. rule for finding impedance in aseries circuit arises
In aresistance the flow of current causes heat- from the fact that the voltage drops across the
ing and apower loss equal to / 2R. The power in a resistance and reactance are 90 degrees out of
reactance is equal to / 2X, but is not a " loss"; phase, and so combine by the same rule that
it is simply power that is transferred back and applies in finding the hypothenuse of a right-
forth between the field and the circuit but not angled triangle when the base and altitude are
used up in heating anything. To distinguish this known.
"nondissipated" power from the power which is
Parallel Circuits
actually consumed, the unit of reactive power is
called the volt-ampere-reactive, or var, instead With resistance and reactance in parallel, as in
of the watt. Reactive power is sometimes called Fig. 2-30B, the impedance is
"wattless" power. RX
Z =
IMPEDANCE v + X'
When a circuit contains both resistance and where the symbols have the same meaning as for
reactance the combined effect of the two is called series circuits.
impedance, symbolized by the letter Z. (Imped- Just as in the case of series circuits, anumber
ance is thus a more general term than either of reactances in parallel should be combined to
resistance or reactance, and is frequently used find the resultant reactance before substitution
even for circuits that have only resistance or into the formula above; similarly for a number
reactance, although usually with a qualification of resistances in parallel.
—such as " resistive impedance" to indicate that
the circuit has only resistance, for example.) Equivalent Series and Parallel Circuits
The reactance and resistance comprising an The two circuits shown in Fig. 2-30 are equiva-
impedance may be connected either in series or lent if the same current flows when agiven volt-
in parallel, as shown in Fig. 2-30. In these circuits age of the same frequency is applied, and if the
the reactance is shown as a box to indicate that phase angle between voltage and current is the
it may be either inductive or capacitive. In the same in both cases. It is in fact possible to "trans-
series circuit the current is the same in both ele- form" any given series circuit into an equivalent
ments, with ( generally) different voltages ap- parallel circuit, and vice versa.
pearing across the resistance and reactance. In Transformations of this type often lead to
the parallel circuit the same voltage is applied to simplification in the solution of complicated cir-
both elements, but different currents flow in the cuits. However, from the standpoint of practical
two branches. work the usefulness of such transformations lies
in the fact that the impedance of a circuit may
be modified by the addition of either series or
parallel elements, depending on which happens to
be most convenient in the particular case. Typi-
cal applications are considered later in connection
with tuned circuits and transmission lines.
(A) (E)

Fig. 2-30—Series and parallel circuits containing resist- Ohm's Law for Impedance
ance and reactance. Ohm's Law can be applied to circuits contain-
Since in a resistance the current is in phase ing impedance just as readily as to circuits having
with the applied voltage while in areactance it is resistance or reactance only. The formulas are
90 degrees out of phase with the voltage, the E
phase relationship between current and voltage =2
in the circuit as awhole may be anything between
E = IZ
zero and 90 degrees, depending on the relative
amounts of resistance and reactance. E
Z = —
I
Series Circuits where E = E.m.f. in volts
/ = Current in amperes
When resistance and reactance are in series,
the impedance of the circuit is Z = Impedance in ohms
Fig. 2-31 shows a simple circuit consisting
Z = •/ ± X' of a resistance of 75 ohms and a reactance of
where Z = impedance in ohms 100 ohms in series. From the formula pre-
viously given, the impedance is
R = resistance in ohms
X = reactance in ohms. Z R, + X L' = V(75) , -I- ( 100) , = 125
ohms.
The reactance may be either capacitive or in- If the applied voltage is 250 volts, then
ductive. If there are two or more reactances in E 250
I = 2 amperes.
the circuit they may be combined into aresultant
Impedance 37
This current flows though both the resistance illustration, the reactive power is VAR = I2X =
and reactance, so the voltage drops are (2) 2 X 100 = 400 volt-amperes.
ER = IR = 2 X 75 = 150 volts
Ext.= /XL= 2 X 100 = 200 volts Reactance and Complex Waves
The simple arithmetical sum of these two It was pointed out earlier in this chapter that a
drops, 350 volts, is greater than the applied
complex wave ( a "nonsinusoidal" wave) can be
voltage because the two voltages are 90 de-
grees out of phase. Their actual resultant,
resolved into a fundamental frequency and a
when phase is taken into account, is series of harmonic frequencies. When such acom-
1/(150) 2 + ( 200) 2 = 250 volts.
plex voltage wave is applied to acircuit contain-
ing reactance, the current through the circuit will
Power Factor not have the same wave shape as the applied
In the circuit of Fig. 2-31 an applied e.m.f. voltage. This is because the reactance of an in-
Pf 250 volts results in a current of 2 amperes, ductor and capacitor depend upon the applied
giving an apparent power of 250 X 2 = 500 watts. frequency. For the second-harmonic component
However, only the resistance actually consumes of acomplex wave, the reactance of the inductor
power. The power in the resistance is is twice and the reactance of the capacitor one-
half their respective values at the fundamental
P = PR = (2)* X 75 = 300 watts
frequency; for the third harmonic the inductor
The ratio of the power consumed to the apparent reactance is three times and the capacitor react-
power is called the power factor of the circuit, ance one-third, and so on. Thus the circuit im-
and in this example the power factor would be pedance is different for each harmonic com-
300/500 = 0.6. Power factor is frequently ex- ponent.
pressed as apercentage; in this case, it would be Just what happens to the current wave shape
60 per cent. depends upon the values of resistance and react-
"Real" or dissipated power is measured in ance involved and how the circuit is arranged.
watts; apparent power, to distinguish it from In a simple circuit with resistance and inductive
real power, is measured in volt-amperes. It is reactance in series, the amplitudes of the har-
simply the product of volts and amperes and has monic currents will be reduced because the in-
no direct relationship to the power actually used ductive reactance increases in proportion to fre-
up or dissipated unless the power factor of the quency. When capacitance and resistance are in
circuit is known. The power factor of a purely series, the harmonic current is likely to be ac-
resistive circuit is 100 per cent or 1, while the centuated because the capacitive reactance be-
power factor of a pure reactance is zero. In this comes lower as the frequency is raised. When
both inductive and capacitive reactance are pres-
ent the shape of the current wave can be altered
in a variety of ways, depending upon the circuit
and the "constants," or the relative values of L,
C, and R, selected.
This property of nonuniform behavior with
respect to fundamental and harmonics is an ex-
tremely useful one. It is the basis of " filtering,"
or the suppression of undesired frequencies in
Fig. 2- 31— Circuit used as an example for impedance favor of a single desired frequency or group of
calculations. such frequencies.

TRANSFORMERS FOR AUDIO FREQUENCIES

Two coils having mutual inductance constitute ing the primary circuit, since it is only at these
a transformer. The coil connected to the source times that the field is changing.
of energy is called the primary coil, and the other
is called the secondary coil. THE IRON-CORE TRANSFORMER
The usefulness of the transformer lies in the As shown in Fig. 2-32, the primary and second-
fact that electrical energy can be transferred ary coils of a transformer may be wound on a
from one circuit to another without direct con- core of magnetic material. This increases the in-
nection, and in the process can be readily changed ductance of the coils so that a relatively small
from one voltage level to another. Thus, if ade- number of turns may be used to induce a given
vice to be operated requires, for example, 115 value of voltage with a small current. A closed
volts a.c. and only a440-volt source is available, core (one having a continuous magnetic path)
a transformer can be used to change the source such as that shown in Fig. 2-32 also tends to
voltage to that required. A transformer can be insure that practically all of the field set up by the
used only with a.c., since no voltage will be in- current in the primary coil will cut the turns of
duced in the secondary if the magnetic field is not the secondary coil. However, the core introduces
changing. If d.c. is applied to the primary of a apower loss because of hysteresis and eddy cur-
transformer, a voltage will be induced in the rents so this type of construction is normally
secondary only at the instant of closing or open- practicable only at power and audio frequencies.
38 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
field that opposes the field set up by the primary
current. But if the induced voltage in the primary
is to equal the applied voltage, the original field
PRIMAR SECONDARY
must be maintained. Consequently, the primary
must draw enough additional current to set up a
field exactly equal and opposite to the field set up
by the secondary current.
In practical calculations on transformers it may
Fig. 2- 32— The transformer. Power is transferred from be assumed that the entire primary current- is
the primary coil to the secondary by means of the mag- caused by the secondary "load." This is justifiable
netic field. The upper symbol at right indicates an iron- because the magnetizing current should be very
core transformer, the lower one an air- core transformer. small in comparison with the primary "load"
current at rated power output.
The discussion in this section is confined to trans- If the magnetic fields set up by the primary
formers operating at such frequencies. and secondary currents are to be equal, the
primary current multiplied by the primary turns
Voltage and Turns Ratio must equal the secondary current multiplied by
For agiven varying magnetic field, the voltage the secondary turns. From this it follows that
induced in acoil in the field will be proportional
Mg
to the number of turns in the coil. If the two .ip —
np
coils of atransformer are in the same field ( which
is the case when both are wound on the same where /p = Primary current
closed core) it follows that the induced voltages I.= Secondary current
will be proportional to the number of turns in ni,= Number of turns on primary
each coil. In the primary the induced voltage is n. = Number of turns on secondary
practically equal to, and opposes, the applied
Example: Suppose that the secondary of the
voltage, as described earlier. Hence, transformer in the previous example is deliver-
ing a current of 0.2 ampere to a load. Then
na the primary current will be
Ea
np
tt. 2800
— i• — X 0.2 7X 0.2 1.4 amp.
n. 400
where E. = Secondary voltage
E, = Primary applied voltage Although the secondary voltage is higher than
n. = Number of turns on secondary the primary voltage, the secondary current is
lower than the primary current, and by the
n, = Number of turns on primary same ratio.
The ratio n./n, is called the secondary-to-pri-
mary turns ratio of the transformer. Power Relationships; Efficiency

Example: A transformer has a primary of A transformer cannot create power; it can only
400 turns and a secondary of 2800 turns, and transfer it and change the e.m.f. Hence, the power
an e.m.f. of 115 volts is applied to the primary. taken from the secondary cannot exceed that
The secondary voltage will be
taken by the primary from the source of applied
2800 e.m.f. There is always some power loss in the
— — X 115 7X 115
400
805 volts
resistance of the coils and in the iron core, so in all
practical cases the power taken from the source
Also, if an e.m.f. of 805 volts is applied to the
2800- turn winding ( which then becomes the will exceed that taken from the secondary. Thus,
primary) the output voltage from the 400-turn
winding will be 115 volts. p.= nPi
Either winding of atransformer can be used
as the primary, providing the winding has
where P. = Power output from secondary
enough turns ( enough inductance) to induce a P, = Power input to primary
voltage equal to the applied voltage without n = Efficiency factor
requiring an excessive current flow.
The efficiency, n, always is less than 1. It is usu-
Effect of Secondary Current
ally expressed as a percentage; if n is 0.65, for
The current that flows in the primary when no instance, the efficiency is 65 per cent.
current is taken from the secondary is called the
Example: A transformer has an efficiency of
magnetizing current of the transformer. In any 85% at its full-load output of 150 watts. The
properly-designed transformer the primary in- power input to the primary at full secondary
load will be
ductance will be so large that the magnetizing
current will be quite small. The power consumed Po 150
—F8-
3 — 176.5 watts
by the transformer when the secondary is "open"
—that is, not delivering power—is only the A transformer is usually designed to have its
amount necessary to supply the losses in the iron highest efficiency at the power output for which
core and in the resistance of the wire with which it is rated. The efficiency decreases with either
the primary is wound. lower or higher outputs. On the other hand, the
When power is taken from the secondary wind- losses in the transformer are relatively small at
ing, the secondary current sets up a magnetic low output but increase as more power is taken.
Radio- Frequency Circuits 45
The " effective" Q of a circuit loaded by a 100 1•11181•1131MMI0111•••MMIN•MMIMIMMMMMIlinalr
IMMMMIM.MM•011111»fflIIMMIMMIMMairÀIMINW, Ià

parallel resistance becomes higher when the re- MIMMIIIIMfflMMMIII0111111•11MIMMZMIMIZVI

MMMMUMMIMIIIMEMMIMIMIIMMIPAIMWAIII
Ld
I

actances are decreased. A circuit loaded with a SO

mimseammanismusumammr.ausrdtim
111111M1111111»11111MIMMIMUMME 40 11E
relatively low resistance ( afew thousand ohms) 40

must have low-reactance elements ( large capaci- ao mommiummummuramedirAm

tance and small inductance) to have reasonably to
high Q.

Impedance Transformation 10
<if AIMIIIRIVeA4mwimilm.marAw..em
immummiummieue.z .,.. ,
z4mwAmmiv.warderrAim

An important application of the parallel- fflIMIMMMMUFAI0

MEMMMIMWaiie 411 1rAdMZinir0Mr.41
5
resonant circuit is as an impedance-matching de- et
1111111RIMMedill,
4
vice in the output circuit of a vacuum-tube r.f.
3
IMMIE/11151î .à .à%./211111Z1111
power amplifier. As described in the chapter on .
diree.ímndínir
MIRIMIII41111ral
vacuum tubes, there is an optimum value of load mminzsalnimeurammi
resistance for each type of tube and set of operat-
ing conditions. However, the resistance of the
151RUMMIIIIM221PAIII 0212
'IMIIIIMAMMUMWà 0 W/MIMIAMMIM0 / MUM
W,mi•M'Ain•IMM,00WAM 1»,Mm».0 , "
a

load to which the tube is to deliver power usually mareimmwmamearAmorAmmmk /MOM

061.11Fallird,0211M11111BranIUMMI
r .
is considerably lower than the value required for 5
FAIMMIMVAMIPAP.MFIIIIIMMIIMO AIM111111

proper tube operation. To transform the actual 04

WàMKOZ051111WIIIIIIIMEd11111111M
load resistance to the desired value the load may 0.3
orAseurímrânsumummiwaluessimm
be tapped across part of the coil, as shown in
Fig. 2-43B. This is equivalent to connecting a
02
winumoidI511111•21//111MIIIIIIMIll
higher value of load resistance across the whole ri251C11111122111111111111111
circuit, and is similar in principle to impedance 11110 20 33 AO 50 100 200 300400500 WOO 2000

transformation with an iron-core transformer. In INDUCTIVE REACTANCE IN OHMS

high-frequency resonant circuits the impedance Fig. 2-44— Reactance chart for inductance values

ratio does not vary exactly as the square of the commonly used in amateur bands from 1.75 to 220 Mc.

turns ratio, because all the magnetic flux lines do

not cut every turn of the coil. A desired reflected stant. Within this limitation, it is evident that L
impedance usually must be obtained by experi- can be large and C small, L small and C large, etc.
mental adjustment. The relation between the two for a fixed fre-
When the load resistance has avery low value quency is called the L/C ratio. A high- C circuit
(say below 100 ohms) it may be connected in is one that has more capacitance than "normal"
series in the resonant circuit ( as in Fig. 2-41A, for the frequency; alow-C circuit one that has
for example), in which case it is transformed to less than normal capacitance. These terms depend
an equivalent parallel impedance as previously to a considerable extent upon the particular ap-
described. If the Q is at least 10, the equivalent
parallel impedance is 1000 n'IMmila:MaIMOILMIMM•e M.MMIMM.MIMMU 1 •• MIN
MIOMIIIMCIMM616. IMBIIMffl•fflM Mana
, 0 lM.

:0•10.MMILMM000:0•000i.101mIlimiinlimiiilmammIM
Zr 001BIWIMIIMMIMIIJIMIIMOMMIIIMMM» 1101MIIM

500
mlennammiantkambeurammiammusm
400
1010\111RINNUItelMIIMIIIMMIIIIIIIIIMIn
where Z, = Resistive parallel impedance at reso- UMM.pailielliiMIZUMUIlliii.
nance
300
KiimmonsminiNsffleunmillusimm
11E111101MMIENIIIIIMMIMI 111111121
X = Reactance ( in ohms) of either the 200
IMEIllinnall1101illeMellain
coil or capacitor
R = Load resistance inserted in series 100
ellnliNeli ltersiliSleill
g
li.........:-....k...6... mi,,mmum
i'maimmlumene,Imum % •c ‘IIM00.M.
If the Q is lower than 10 the reactance will have o UMZWIIIMMIIML,IMIMMIMIMIL 0, ,IMBIEMLIM
ILMMIKIMMIMIMMIIIÈIILMWIIM1111. NNUIEMZUM
to be adjusted somewhat, for the reasons given in 50 IIIMIMMBIIMMIlblIMICIOMIIN:71M. 111113:IIIMIM
the discussion of low- Q circuits, to obtain a re- MIIMIIIIIIIVIISKRIliSME
sistive impedance of the desired value.
40
30
mainammunimmieunkew
IMMIIIMMiNZIIIIfflek nartmosieem
Reactance Values 20 MIIIIIIMMNIIIIIMIKIMMIllalle

MEMIIIMNIMMIKIIIRM 11011
The charts of Figs. 2-44 and 2-45 show react-
ance values of inductances and capacitances in 10 11111111111MINIMMICII0
MMMMIMIMMMML .
mumummikNommuliim , imma
immanammum. mmonammmmmimemblma
the range commonly used in r.f. tuned circuits MIIMIMIMMIBMIIIMMIIMIMMIMMILIMOMIIIM
MIIMMIIMMMIIIMIIIWIM110\MIIIMMMCIZik: 11 ILW
for the amateur bands. With the exception of the MIIMMMIMMIIIIMMIIIIMIZIRMIMMIIICB 16 9 .11:1M

3.5-4 Mc. band, limiting values for which are s MIIIIMMIIIIIIRRIIIIMORIMIMBIERZI10

4
shown on the charts, the change in reactance over 3 Mli.il111:1911111HIMMEMINFig\Jli
aband, for either inductors or capacitors, is small 2 IMMIZIRMIIIIIIIIIIMINIMMIIIIM5111
enough so that asingle curve gives the reactance MIIIIIIMMIMIZIMININIZIIIIMIIIK
with sufficient accuracy for most practical pur-
poses. L/C Ratio
1111111111111111MIIIIIMOM
20 30 40 50 00 200 300400500 1000 2000
CAPAC T/VE REACTANCE /
N OHMS
The formula for resonant frequency of acircuit
shows that the same frequency always will be Fig. 2- 45— Reactance chart for capacitance values com-
obtained so long as the product of L and C is con- monly used in amateur bands from 1.75 to 220 Mc.
40 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
where N = Required turns ratio, primary to times done when it is necessary to minimize
secondary capacitive effects between the primary and sec-
Z, = Primary impedance required ondary, or when one of the windings must op-
Z.= Impedance of load connected to erate at very high voltage.
secondary Core material for small transformers is usually
silicon steel, called "transformer iron." The core
Example: A vacuum-tube al. amplifier re- is built up of laminations, insulated from each
quires a load of 5000 ohms for optimum per-
other ( by athin coating of shellac, for example)
formance, and is to be connected to a loud-
speaker having an impedance of 10 ohms. The to prevent the flow of eddy currents. The lami-
turns ratio, primary to secondary, required in nations are interleaved at the ends to make the
the coupling transformer is magnetic path as continuous as possible and thus
reduce flux leakage.
Ni4 V500 — 22.4 The number of turns required in the primary
for a given apphed e.m.f. is determined by the
The primary therefore must have 22.4 times as size, shape and type of core material used, and
many turns as the secondary.
the frequency. The number of turns required is
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area
Impedance matching means, in general, ad- of the core. As a rough indication, windings of
justing the load impedance—by means of a small power transformers frequently have about
transformer or otherwise—to a desired value. six to eight turns per volt on acore of 1-square-
However, there is also another meaning. It is inch cross section and have a magnetic path 10
possible to show that any source of power will or 12 inches in length. A longer path or smaller
deliver its maximum possible output when the cross section requires more turns per volt, and
impedance of the load is equal to the internal vice versa.
impedance of the source. The impedance of the In most transformers the coils are wound in
source is said to be "matched" under this con- layers, with athin sheet of treated-paper insula-
dition. The efficiency is only 50 per cent in such tion between each layer. Thicker insulation is
a case; just as much power is used up in the used between coils and between coils and core.
source as is delivered to the load. Because of the
poor efficiency, this type of impedance matching Autotransformers
is limited to cases where only a small amount of The transformer principle can be utilized with
power is available and heating from power loss only one winding instead of two, as shown in
in the source is not important. Fig. 2-35; the principles just discussed apply
Transformer Construction
Transformers usually are designed so that
the magnetic path around the core is as short as
possible. A short magnetic path means that the
transformer will operate with fewer turns, for a
given applied voltage, than if the path were long.

Load
Fig. 2- 35— The autotransformer is based on the trans-
former principle, but uses only one winding. The line
LAMINATION SHAPE and load currents in the common winding ( A) flow in
SHELL TYRE opposite directions, so that the resultant current is the
difference between them. The voltage across A is pro-
portional to the turns ratio.

equally well. A one-winding transformer is called

an autotransformer. The current in the common
section (A) of the winding is the difference be-
CORE TYPE
tween the line ( primary) and the load ( second-
ary) currents, since these currents are out of
Fig. 2- 34—Two common types of transformer construc- phase. Hence if the line and load currents are
tion. Core pieces are interleaved to provide a continu- nearly equal the common section of the winding
ous magnetic path. may be wound with comparatively small wire.
This will be the case only when the primary
A short path also helps to reduce flux leakage (line) and secondary ( load) voltages are not
and therefore minimizes leakage reactance. very different. The autotransformer is used
Two core shapes are in common use, as shown chiefly for boosting or reducing the power- line
in Fig. 2-34. In the shell type both windings are voltage by relatively small amounts. Continu-
placed on the inner leg, while in the core type ously-variable autotransformers are commercially
the primary and secondary windings may be available under a variety of trade names;
placed on separate legs, if desired. This is some- "Variac" and " Powerstat" are typical examples.
The Decibel 41

THE DECIBEL
In most radio communication the received sig-
Decibel Chart
nal is converted into sound. This being the case,
it is useful to appraise signal strengths in terms The two formulas are shown graphically in
of relative loudness as registered by the ear. A Fig. 2-36 for ratios from 1 to 10. Gains ( in-
peculiarity of the ear is that an increase or de- creases) expressed in decibels may be added
crease in loudness is responsive to the ratio of arithmetically; losses ( decreases) may be sub-
the amounts of power involved, and is practically tracted. A power decrease is indicated by pre-
independent of absolute value of the power. For fixing the decibel figure with aminus sign. Thus
example, if aperson estimates that the signal is +6 db. means that the power has been multiplied
"twice as loud" when the transmitter power is by 4, while —6db. means that the power has been
increased from 10 watts to 40 watts, he will also divided by 4.
estimate that a 400-watt signal is twice as loud
as a 100-watt signal. In other words, the human
ear has a logarithmic response.
This fact is the basis for the use of the
relative-power unit called the decibel ( abbrevi-
ated db.) A change of one decibel in the power
level is just detectable as a change in loudness
under ideal conditions. The number of decibels
corresponding to agiven power ratio is given by
the following formula:
P
Db. «. 10 log —
!

Common logarithms (base 10) are used.

1.5 3 25 3 • 5 6 7 6 9 eo
Ratio
Voltage and Current Ratios
Fig. 2-36—Decibel chart for power, voltage and current
Note that the decibel is based on power ratios. ratios for power ratios of 1:1 to 10:1. In determining
Voltage or current ratios can be used, but only decibels for current or voltage ratios the currents (or
when the impedance is the same for both values voltages) being compared must be referred to the some
of voltage, or current. The gain of an amplifier value of impedance.
cannot be expressed correctly in db. if it is based
on the ratio of the output voltage to the input The chart may be used for other ratios by
voltage unless both voltages are measured across adding (or subtracting, if aloss) 10 db. each time
the same value of impedance. When the im- the ratio scale is multiplied by 10, for power
pedance at both points of measurement is the ratios; or by adding ( or subtracting) 20 db. each
same, the following formula may be used for time the scale is multiplied by 10 for voltage or
voltage or current ratios: current ratios. For example, apower ratio of 2.5
is 4 db. ( from the chart). A power ratio of 10
Db. = 20 log times 2.5, or 25, is 14 db. ( 10 + 4), and apower
ratio of 100 times 2.5, or 250, is 24 db. ( 20 + 4).
A voltage or current ratio of 4is 12 db., avoltage
/9
or 20 log — or current ratio of 40 is 32 db. (20 + 12), and one
/i of 400 is 52 db. (40 + 12).

RADIO- FREQUENCY CIRCUITS

At some intermediate frequency, the reactances
RESONANCE IN SERIES CIRCUITS of C and L will be equal and the voltage drops
Fig. 2-37 shows a resistor, capacitor and in- across the coil and capacitor will be equal and
ductor connected in series with asource of alter-
nating current, the frequency of which can be
varied over awide range. At some low frequency
the capacitive reactance will be much larger than
the resistance of R, and the inductive reactance
will be small compared with either the reactance
of C or the resistance of R. ( R is assumed to be
the same at all frequencies.) On the other hand,
at some very high frequency the reactance of C
will be very small and the reactance of L will be Fig. 2-37.—A series circuit containing L, C and R is
very large. In either case the current will be "resonant" at the applied frequency when the react-
small, because the net reactance is large. ance of C is equal to the reactance of L.
42 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
180 degrees out of phase. Therefore they cancel 1.0

each other completely and the current flow is

determined wholly by the resistance, R. At that
frequency the current has its largest possible It + 10

value, assuming the source voltage to be constant

regardless of frequency. A series circuit in which
the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal Az 20

is said to be resonant.
The principle of resonance finds its most ex-
tensive application in radio- frequency circuits.
The reactive effects associated with even small Rsii)

inductances and capacitances would place drastic

limitations on r.f. circuit operation if it were not R.100

possible to "cancel them out" by supplying the -20 - 10 0 + 10 + 20

PER cuir CHANGE FROM RESONANT FREQUENCY
right amount of reactance of the opposite kind—
in other words, "tuning the circuit to resonance." Fig. 2- 38— Current in a series- resonant circuit with
various values of series resistance. The values are
Resonant Frequency
arbitrary and would not apply to all circuits, but rep-
The frequency at which a series circuit is resent a typical case. It is assumed that the reactances
resonant is that for which Xi = Xe. Substitut- (at the resonant frequency) are 1000 ohms. Note that
ing the formulas for inductive and capacitive re- at frequencies more than plus or minus ten per cent
actance gives away from the resonant frequency the current is sub-
1 stantially unaffected by the resistance in the circuit.
f 2TVIC
rapidly as the frequency moves away from reso-
nance and the circuit is said to be sharp. A
where f = Frequency in cycles per second
sharp circuit will respond agreat deal more read-
L = Inductance in henrys
ily to the resonant frequency than to frequencies
C= Capacitance in farads
quite close to resonance; a broad circuit will
ir = 3.14
respond almost equally well to agroup or band
These units are inconveniently large for radio- of frequencies centering around the resonant
frequency circuits. A formula using more appro- frequency.
priate units is Both types of resonance curves are useful. A
10 6 sharp circuit gives good selectivity—the ability
f= to respond strongly ( in terms of current ampli-
2TV LC tude) at one desired frequency and discriminate
where f = Frequency in kilocycles ( kc.) against others. A broad circuit is used when the
L = Inductance in microhenrys ( µ11.) apparatus must give about the same response
C = Capacitance in micromicrofarads over aband of frequencies rather than to asingle
(med.) frequency alone.
ir = 3.14
Example: The resonant frequency of aseries Most diagrams of resonant circuits show only
circuit containing a 5-µh. inductor and a 35-
if. capacitor is
inductance and capacitance; no resistance is indi-
cated. Nevertheless, resistance is always present.
104 10e
f — 211 v LC At frequencies up to perhaps 30 Mc. this resist-
- 6.28 X V5 X 35
10 8 10$
= 12,050 kc.
6.28 X 13.2 83
The formula for resonant frequency is not
affected by the resistance in the circuit.

Resonance Curves
If aplot is drawn of the current flowing in the
circuit of Fig. 2-37 as the frequency is varied
(the applied voltage being constant) it would
look like one of the curves in Fig. 2-38. The shape
of the resonance curve at frequencies near reso-
nance is determined by the ratio of reactance to
resistance.
-20 - 10 O 4.10 +20
If the reactance of either the coil or capacitor is PER CENT CHANGE FRO. RESONANT
,,?FaUE,CY
of the same order of magnitude as the resistance,
the current decreases rather slowly as the fre- Fig. 2- 39— Current in series- resonant circuits having
quency is moved in either direction away from different Qs. In this graph the current at resonance is
resonance. Such acurve is said to be broad. On assumed to be the same in all cases. The lower the Q,
the other hand, if the reactance is considerably the more slowly the current decreases as the applied
larger than the resistance the current decreases frequency is moved away from resonance.
Radio- Frequency Circuits 43
ance is mostly in the wire of the coil. Above this similar to that in aseries circuit. However, in this
frequency energy loss in the capacitor ( princi- case the "line" current ( measured at the point
pally in the solid dielectric which must be used indicated) is smallest at the frequency for which
to form an insulating support for the capacitor the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal.
plates) also becomes afactor. This energy loss is At that frequency the current through L is ex-
equivalent to resistance. When maximum sharp- actly canceled by the out-of-phase current
ness or selectivity is needed the object of design through C, so that only the current taken by R
is to reduce the inherent resistance to the lowest flows in the line. At frequencies below resonance
possible value. the current through L is larger than that through
The value of the reactance of either the induc- C, because the reactance of L is smaller and
tor or capacitor at the resonant frequency of a that of C higher at low frequencies; there is
series-resonant circuit, divided by the resistance only partial cancellation of the two reactive
in the circuit, is called the Q ( quality factor) currents and the line current therefore is larger
of the circuit, or than the current taken by R alone. At frequencies
X above resonance the situation is reversed and
Q •-•
more current flows through C than through L,
so the line current again increases. The current
where Q = Quality factor
at resonance, being determined wholly by R,
X = Reactance of either coil or capacitor
will be small if R is large and large if R is small.
in ohms
R = Series resistance in ohms
Example: The inductor and capacitor in a
series circuit each have a reactance of 350
ohms at the resonant frequency. The re-
sistance is 5 ohms. Then the Q is
X = 350 70
Q = RS =

The effect of Q on the sharpness of resonance Fig. 2-

40 —Circuit illustrating parallel resonance.
of a circuit is shown by the curves of Fig. 2-39.
In these curves the frequency change is shown The resistance R shown in Fig. 2-40 is not
in percentage above and below the resonant necessarily an actual resistor. In most cases it
frequency. Qs of 10, 20, 50 and 100 are shown; will be an "equivalent" resistance that represents
these values cover much of the range commonly the energy loss in the circuit. This loss can be in-
used in radio work. herent in the coil or capacitor, or may represent
energy transferred to a load by means of the
Voltage Rise at Resonance resonant circuit. ( For example, the resonant cir-
When a voltage of the resonant frequency is cuit may be used for transferring power from a
inserted in series in a resonant circuit, the volt- vacuum-tube amplifier to an antenna system.)
age that appears across either the inductor or Parallel and series resonant circuits are quite
capacitor is considerably higher than the applied alike in some respects. For instance, the circuits
voltage. The current in the circuit is limited only given at A and B in Fig. 2-41 will behave identi-
by the resistance and may have arelatively high cally, when an external voltage is applied, if ( 1)
value; however, the same current flows through L and C are the same in both cases; and ( 2) R,
the high reactances of the inductor and capacitor multiplied by R. equals the square of the reac-
and causes large voltage drops. The ratio of the tance ( at resonance) of either L or C. When
reactive voltage to the applied voltage is equal to these conditions are met the two circuits will
the ratio of reactance to resistance. This ratio is have the same Qs. (These statements are ap-
also the Q of the circuit. Therefore, the voltage proximate, but are quite accurate if the Q is 10
across either the inductor or capacitor is equal or more.) The circuit at A is aseries circuit if it
to QE, where E is the voltage inserted in series is viewed from the "inside"—that is, going around
with the circuit. the loop formed by L, C and R—so its Q can be
found from the ratio of X to R..
Example: The inductive reactance of a cir-
cuit is 200 ohms, the capacitive reactance is
200 ohms, the resistance 5 ohms, and the ap-
plied voltage is 50. The two reactances cancel
and there will be but 5ohms of pure resistance
to limit the current flow. Thus the current will
be 50/5, or 10 amperes. The voltage developed
across either the inductor or the capacitor will
be equal to its reactance times the current, or
200 X 10 = 2000 volts. An alternate method:
The Q of the circuit is X/R = 200/5 = 40.
The reactive voltage is equal to Q times the
applied voltage, or 40 X 50 = 2000 volts.
(A) ( E)
RESONANCE IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS Fig. 2- 41— Series and parallel equivalents when the
When a variable-frequency source of constant two circuits are resonant. The series resistor, R„ in A
voltage is applied to aparallel circuit of the type can be replaced by an equivalent parallel resistor, 12„,
shown in Fig. 2-40. there is a resonance effect in B and vice versa.
44 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
Thus a circuit like that of Fig. 2-41A has an does not have its maximum possible value. An-
equivalent parallel impedance (at resonance) other set of values for L and C will make the
parallel impedance a maximum, but this maxi-
of R,=— ; X is the reactance of either the
R. mum value is not a pure resistance. Either
inductor or the capacitor. Although R, is not condition could be called " resonance," so with
low- Q circuits it is necessary to distinguish be-
an actual resistor, to the source of voltage the
parallel- resonant circuit "looks like" a pure tween maximum impedance and resistive im-
resistance of that value. It is "pure" resistance pedance parallel resonance. The difference be-
because the inductive and capacitive currents are tween these L and C values and the equal reac-
180 degrees out of phase and are equal; thus there tances of a series-resonant circuit is appreciable
is no reactive current in the line. In a practical when the Q is in the vicinity of 5, and becomes
circuit with a high- Q capacitor, at the resonant more marked with still lower Q values.
frequency the parallel impedance is
Q of Loaded Circuits
Z,=QX
In many applications of resonant circuits the
where Z,= Resistive impedance at resonance only power lost is that dissipated in the resistance
Q = Quality factor of inductor of the circuit itself. At frequencies below 30 Mc.
X = Reactance ( in ohms) of either the most of this resistance is in the coil. Within
inductor or capacitor limits, increasing the number of turns in the
Example: The parallel impedance of a cir- coil increases the reactance faster than it raises
cuit with a coil Q of 50 and having inductive the resistance, so coils for circuits in which the
and capacitive reactances of 300 ohms will be Q must be high may have reactances of 1000
Zr = QX = 50 X 300 = 15,000 ohms. ohms or more at the frequency under considera-
At frequencies off resonance the impedance tion.
is no longer purely resistive because the inductive
and capacitive currents are not equal. The off-
resonant impedance therefore is complex, and
is lower than the resonant impedance for the
reasons previously outlined.
The higher the Q of the circuit, the higher the
parallel impedance. Curves showing the varia- (A) (B)
tion of impedance ( with frequency) of aparallel
Fig. 2- 43— The equivalent circuit of a resonant circuit
circuit have just the same shape as the curves
delivering power to a load. The resistor R represents
showing the variation of current with frequency
the load resistance. At B the load is tapped across part
in aseries circuit. Fig. 2-42 is aset of such curves.
of L, which by transformer action is equivalent to using
Parallel Resonance in Low-Q Circuits a higher load resistance across the whole circuit.

The preceding discussion is accurate only for However, when the circuit delivers energy to
Qs of 10 or more. When the Q is below 10, reso- a load ( as in the case of the resonant circuits
nance in a parallel circuit having resistance in used in transmitters) the energy consumed in
series with the coil, as in Fig. 2-41A, is not so the circuit itself is usiially negligible compared
easily defined. There is a set of values for L and with that consumed by the load. The equivalent
C that will make the parallel impedance a pure of such a circuit is shown in Fig. 2-43A, where
resistance, but with these values the impedance the parallel resistor represents the load to which
power is delivered. If the power dissipated in the
load is at least ten times as great as the power
lost in the inductor and capacitor, the parallel im-
es pedance of the resonant circuit itself will be so
high compared with the resistance of the load
that for all practical purposes the impedance of
06
the combined circuit is equal to the load resist-
0.50 ance. Under these conditions the Q of aparallel-
04 resonant circuit loaded by aresistive impedance is

oz 0.20
where Q = Quality factor
(W O R= Parallel load resistance ( ohms)
0
-20 - 10 0 + 10 / 20 X = Reactance ( ohms) of either the in-
PER CENT [RANGE FROM RESONANT FREQUENCY
ductor or capacitor
Fig. 2- 42.— Relative impedance of parallel- resonant Example: A resistive load of 3000 ohms is
circuits with different Qs. These curves are similar to connected across a resonant circuit in which
the inductive and capacitive reactances are
those in Fig. 2-42 for current in a series- resonant circuit.
each 250 ohms. The circuit Q is then
The effect of Q on impedance is most marked near the R 3000
resonant frequency.
.. 12
Radio- Frequency Circuits 45
The " effective" Q of a circuit loaded by a 100 1•11181•1131MMI0111•••MMIN•MMIMIMMMMMIlinalr
IMMMMIM.MM•011111»fflIIMMIMMIMMairÀIMINW, Ià

parallel resistance becomes higher when the re- MIMMIIIIMfflMMMIII0111111•11MIMMZMIMIZVI

MMMMUMMIMIIIMEMMIMIMIIMMIPAIMWAIII
Ld
I

actances are decreased. A circuit loaded with a SO

mimseammanismusumammr.ausrdtim
111111M1111111»11111MIMMIMUMME 40 11E
relatively low resistance ( afew thousand ohms) 40

must have low-reactance elements ( large capaci- ao mommiummummuramedirAm

tance and small inductance) to have reasonably to
high Q.

Impedance Transformation 10
<if AIMIIIRIVeA4mwimilm.marAw..em
immummiummieue.z .,.. ,
z4mwAmmiv.warderrAim

An important application of the parallel- fflIMIMMMMUFAI0

MEMMMIMWaiie 411 1rAdMZinir0Mr.41
5
resonant circuit is as an impedance-matching de- et
1111111RIMMedill,
4
vice in the output circuit of a vacuum-tube r.f.
3
IMMIE/11151î .à .à%./211111Z1111
power amplifier. As described in the chapter on .
diree.ímndínir
MIRIMIII41111ral
vacuum tubes, there is an optimum value of load mminzsalnimeurammi
resistance for each type of tube and set of operat-
ing conditions. However, the resistance of the
151RUMMIIIIM221PAIII 0212
'IMIIIIMAMMUMWà 0 W/MIMIAMMIM0 / MUM
W,mi•M'Ain•IMM,00WAM 1»,Mm».0 , "
a

load to which the tube is to deliver power usually mareimmwmamearAmorAmmmk /MOM

061.11Fallird,0211M11111BranIUMMI
r .
is considerably lower than the value required for 5
FAIMMIMVAMIPAP.MFIIIIIMMIIMO AIM111111

proper tube operation. To transform the actual 04

WàMKOZ051111WIIIIIIIMEd11111111M
load resistance to the desired value the load may 0.3
orAseurímrânsumummiwaluessimm
be tapped across part of the coil, as shown in
Fig. 2-43B. This is equivalent to connecting a
02
winumoidI511111•21//111MIIIIIIMIll
higher value of load resistance across the whole ri251C11111122111111111111111
circuit, and is similar in principle to impedance 11110 20 33 AO 50 100 200 300400500 WOO 2000

transformation with an iron-core transformer. In INDUCTIVE REACTANCE IN OHMS

high-frequency resonant circuits the impedance Fig. 2-44— Reactance chart for inductance values

ratio does not vary exactly as the square of the commonly used in amateur bands from 1.75 to 220 Mc.

turns ratio, because all the magnetic flux lines do

not cut every turn of the coil. A desired reflected stant. Within this limitation, it is evident that L
impedance usually must be obtained by experi- can be large and C small, L small and C large, etc.
mental adjustment. The relation between the two for a fixed fre-
When the load resistance has avery low value quency is called the L/C ratio. A high- C circuit
(say below 100 ohms) it may be connected in is one that has more capacitance than "normal"
series in the resonant circuit ( as in Fig. 2-41A, for the frequency; alow-C circuit one that has
for example), in which case it is transformed to less than normal capacitance. These terms depend
an equivalent parallel impedance as previously to a considerable extent upon the particular ap-
described. If the Q is at least 10, the equivalent
parallel impedance is 1000 n'IMmila:MaIMOILMIMM•e M.MMIMM.MIMMU 1 •• MIN
MIOMIIIMCIMM616. IMBIIMffl•fflM Mana
, 0 lM.

:0•10.MMILMM000:0•000i.101mIlimiinlimiiilmammIM
Zr 001BIWIMIIMMIMIIJIMIIMOMMIIIMMM» 1101MIIM

500
mlennammiantkambeurammiammusm
400
1010\111RINNUItelMIIMIIIMMIIIIIIIIIMIn
where Z, = Resistive parallel impedance at reso- UMM.pailielliiMIZUMUIlliii.
nance
300
KiimmonsminiNsffleunmillusimm
11E111101MMIENIIIIIMMIMI 111111121
X = Reactance ( in ohms) of either the 200
IMEIllinnall1101illeMellain
coil or capacitor
R = Load resistance inserted in series 100
ellnliNeli ltersiliSleill
g
li.........:-....k...6... mi,,mmum
i'maimmlumene,Imum % •c ‘IIM00.M.
If the Q is lower than 10 the reactance will have o UMZWIIIMMIIML,IMIMMIMIMIL 0, ,IMBIEMLIM
ILMMIKIMMIMIMMIIIÈIILMWIIM1111. NNUIEMZUM
to be adjusted somewhat, for the reasons given in 50 IIIMIMMBIIMMIlblIMICIOMIIN:71M. 111113:IIIMIM
the discussion of low- Q circuits, to obtain a re- MIIMIIIIIIIVIISKRIliSME
sistive impedance of the desired value.
40
30
mainammunimmieunkew
IMMIIIMMiNZIIIIfflek nartmosieem
Reactance Values 20 MIIIIIIMMNIIIIIMIKIMMIllalle

MEMIIIMNIMMIKIIIRM 11011
The charts of Figs. 2-44 and 2-45 show react-
ance values of inductances and capacitances in 10 11111111111MINIMMICII0
MMMMIMIMMMML .
mumummikNommuliim , imma
immanammum. mmonammmmmimemblma
the range commonly used in r.f. tuned circuits MIIMIMIMMIBMIIIMMIIMIMMIMMILIMOMIIIM
MIIMMIIMMMIIIMIIIWIM110\MIIIMMMCIZik: 11 ILW
for the amateur bands. With the exception of the MIIMMMIMMIIIIMMIIIIMIZIRMIMMIIICB 16 9 .11:1M

3.5-4 Mc. band, limiting values for which are s MIIIIMMIIIIIIRRIIIIMORIMIMBIERZI10

4
shown on the charts, the change in reactance over 3 Mli.il111:1911111HIMMEMINFig\Jli
aband, for either inductors or capacitors, is small 2 IMMIZIRMIIIIIIIIIIMINIMMIIIIM5111
enough so that asingle curve gives the reactance MIIIIIIMMIMIZIMININIZIIIIMIIIK
with sufficient accuracy for most practical pur-
poses. L/C Ratio
1111111111111111MIIIIIMOM
20 30 40 50 00 200 300400500 1000 2000
CAPAC T/VE REACTANCE /
N OHMS
The formula for resonant frequency of acircuit
shows that the same frequency always will be Fig. 2- 45— Reactance chart for capacitance values com-
obtained so long as the product of L and C is con- monly used in amateur bands from 1.75 to 220 Mc.
46 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
plication considered, and have no exact numeri-
cal meaning.

LC Constants
It is frequently convenient to use the numerical
value of the LC constant when anumber of cal-
culations have to be made involving different
(A)
L/C ratios for the same frequency. The constant
for any frequency is given by the following
equation: LC — 25,330

where L = Inductance in microhenrys ( µh.)

C = Capacitance in micromicrofarads
(Aid)
f = Frequency in megacycles
Example: Find the inductance required to
resonate at 3650 kc. ( 3.65 Mc.) with capaci-
tances of 25, 50, 100, and 500 µµf. The LC
constant is
25.330 25.330
LC 1.35 1900

With 25 µµf. L = 1900/C = 1900/25

= 76e.
SO µpf. L = 1900/C = 1900/50
= 38 ph. (C)
100 µµf. L = 1900/C = 1900/100
Fig. 2-46—Three methods of circuit coupling.
= 19 µh.
500 µµf. L = 1900/C = 1900/500
= 3.8 euh. (A) Lm Li/Q i ; ( B) Cm ; ( C)
CM C1/Q 1.
COUPLED CIRCUITS The coupling can be increased by increasing
the above coupling elements in A and C and
Energy Transfer and Loading decreasing the value in B. When the coupling is
Two circuits are coupled when energy can be increased, the resultant bandwidth of the com-
transferred from one to the other. The circuit bination is increased, and this principle is some-
delivering power is called the primary circuit; times applied to "broad- band" the circuits in a
the one receiving power is called the secondary transmitter or receiver. When the coupling ele-
circuit. The power may be practically all dissi- ments in A and C are decreased, or when the
pated in the secondary circuit itself ( this is usu- coupling element in B is increased, the coupling
ally the case in receiver circuits) or the second- between the circuits is decreased below the
ary may simply act as a medium through which critical coupling value on which the above ap-
the power is transferred to a load. In the latter proximations are based. Less than critical cou-
case, the coupled circuits may act as a radio- pling will decrease the bandwidth and the energy
frequency impedance-matching device. The transfer; the principle is often used in receivers
matching can be accomplished by adjusting the to improve the selectivity.
loading on the secondary and by varying the
amount of coupling between the primary and Inductive Coupling
secondary. Figs. 2-47 and 2-48 show inductive coupling, or
coupling by means of the mutual inductance be-
Coupling by a Common Circuit Element
tween two coils. Circuits of this type resemble the
One method of coupling between two resonant iron-core transformer, but because only apart of
circuits is through acircuit element common to
both. The three common variations of this type
of coupling are shown in Fig. 2-46; the circuit
element common to both circuits carries the sub-
script M. At A and B current circulating in
LiCi flows through the common element, and the
voltage developed across this element causes
current to flow in L2C,. At C,C m and C 2 form a
O
capacitive voltage divider across LiCi,and some 2 Output (B)
of the voltage developed across LiCi is applied
across L2C2.
If both circuits are resonant to the same Fig. 2-47—Single-tuned inductively coupled circuits.
frequency, as is usually the case, the value of
coupling reactance required for maximum energy the magnetic flux lines set up by one coil cut the
transfer can be approximated by the following, turns of the other coil, the simple relationships
based on LI = L 2, C 1 =C 2 and Qi = Q2: between turns ratio, voltage ratio and impedance
Coupled Circuits 47
ratio in the iron-core transformer do not hold. secondary circuit. In flowing through the re-
Two types of inductively-coupled circuits are sistance of the secondary circuit and any load
shown in Fig. 2-47. Only one circuit is resonant. that may be connected to it, the current causes a
The circuit at A is frequently used in receivers for power loss. This power must come from the
coupling between amplifier tubes when the tuning energy source through the primary circuit, and
of the circuit must be varied to respond to signals manifests itself in the primary as an increase in
of different frequencies. Circuit B is used prin- the equivalent resistance in series with the pri-
cipally in transmitters, for coupling a radio- mary coil. Hence the Q and parallel impedance
f requency amplifier to a resistive load. of the primary circuit are decreased by the
In these circuits the coupling between the coupled secondary. As the coupling is made
primary and secondary coils usually is "tight"— greater ( without changing the tuning of either
that is, the coefficient of coupling between the circuit) the coupled resistance becomes larger
coils is large. With every tight coupling either cir- and the parallel impedance of the primary con-
cuit operates nearly as though the device to tinues to decrease. Also, as the coupling is made
which the untuned coil is connected were simply tighter the amount of power transferred from the
tapped across a corresponding number of turns primary to the secondary will increase to a
on the tuned-circuit coil, thus either circuit is ap- maximum at one value of coupling, called critical
proximately equivalent to Fig. 2-43B. coupling, but then decreases if the coupling is
By proper choice of the number of turns on tightened still more ( still without changing the
the untuned coil, and by adjustment of the tuning).
coupling, the parallel impedance of the tuned cir- Critical coupling is afunction of the Qs of the
cuit may be adjusted to the value required for two circuits. A higher coefficient of coupling is
the proper operation of the device to which it is required to reach critical coupling when the Qs
connected. In any case, the maximum energy are low; if the Qs are high, as in receiving appli-
transfer possible for a given coefficient of cou- cations, a coupling coefficient of a few per cent
pling is obtained when the reactance of the un- may give critical coupling.
tuned coil is equal to the resistance of its load. With loaded circuits such as are used in trans-
The Q and parallel impedance of the tuned mitters the Q may be too low to give the desired
circuit are reduced by coupling through an un- power transfer even when the coils are coupled
tuned coil in much the same way as by the as tightly as the physical construction permits.
tapping arrangement shown in Fig. 2-43B. In such case, increasing the Q of either circuit
will be helpful, although it is generally better to
Coupled Resonant Circuits increase the Q of the lower- Q circuit rather than
When the primary and secondary circuits are the reverse. The Q of the parallel-tuned primary
both tuned, as in Fig. 2-48, the resonance effects (input) circuit can be increased by decreasing the
LIC ratio because, as shown in connection with
Fig. 2-43, this circuit is in effect loaded by a
parallel resistance ( effect of coupled-in resist-
ance). In the parallel-tuned secondary circuit,
Fig. 2-48A, the Q can be increased, for a fixed
value of load resistance, either by decreasing the
LIC ratio or by tapping the load down ( see Fig.
2-43). In the series-tuned secondary circuit, Fig.
2-48B, the Q may be increased by increasing the
L/C ratio. There will generally be no difficulty in
securing sufficient coupling, with practicable
coils, if the product of the Qs of the two tuned
circuits is 10 or more. A smaller product will
suffice if the coil construction permits tight cou-
(B) pling.
Fig. 2-48—Inductively-coupled resonant circuits. Circuit
Selectivity
A is used for high-resistance loads (load resistance
much higher than the reactance of either L2 or C2 at the In Fig. 2-47 only one circuit is tuned and the
resonant frequency). Circuit Bis suitable for low resist- selectivity curve will be essentially that of a
ance loads (load resistance much lower than the re- single resonant circuit. As stated, the effective Q
actance of either Ls or Cs at the resonant frequency). depends upon the resistance connected to the un-
tuned coil.
in both circuits make the operation somewhat In Fig. 2-48, the selectivity is the same as that
more complicated than in the simpler circuits just of a single tuned circuit having a Q equal to the
considered. Imagine first that the two circuits are product of the Qs of the individual circuits—if
not coupled and that each is independently tuned the coupling is well below critical ( this is not the
to the resonant frequency. The impedance of each condition for optimum power transfer discussed
will be purely resistive. If the primary circuit is immediately above) and both circuits are tuned
connected to asource of r.f. ehergy of the resonant to resonance. The Qs of the individual circuits
frequency and the secondary is then loosely are affected by the degree of coupling, because
coupled to the primary, acurrent will flow in the each couples resistance into the other; the
 48 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS

RELATIVE OUTPUT VOLTAGE

o

•
FREQUENCY

Fig. 2-49—Showing the effect on the output voltage

from the secondary circuit of changing the coefficient of
coupling between two resonant circuits independently
tuned to the same frequency. The voltage applied to
the primary is held constant in amplitude while the
frequency is varied, and the output voltage is measured
across the secondary. 0.1 02 03 04 06 081 .
0 2 3 4 6 8 10
CYCLES OFF fe x

tighter the coupling, the lower the individual Qs fe

and therefore the lower the over-all selectivity.

Fig. 2-50—Relative response for a single tuned circuit
If both circuits are independently tuned to
and for coupled circuits. For inductively-coupled circuits
resonance, the over-all selectivity will vary about
as shown in Fig. 2-49 as the coupling is varied.
With loose coupling, A, the output voltage (Figs. 2-46A and 2-48A), k = where M is the
1/L 11. 2
(across the secondary circuit) is small and the
mutual inductance. For capacitance-coupled circuits
selectivity is high. As the coupling is increased
the secondary voltage also increases until critical (Figs. 2-464 and 2-46C), k and k Cm
coupling, B, is reached. At this point the output NICIC2
voltage at the resonant frequency is maximum respectively.
but the selectivity is lower than with looser
coupling. At still tighter couple, C, the output justment of tuning. The width of the flat top of
voltage at the resonant frequency decreases, but the resonance curve depends on the Qs of the two
as the frequency is varied either side of resonance circuits as well as the tightness of coupiing; the
it is found that there are two "humps" to the frequency separation between the humps will in-
curve, one on either side of resonance. With very crease, and the curve become more flat-topped,
tight coupling, D, there is a further decrease in as the Qs are lowered.
the output voltage at resonance and the "humps" Band-pass operation also is secured by tuning
are farther away from the resonant frequency. the two circuits to slightly different frequencies,
Curves such as those at C and D are called flat- which gives a double- humped resonance curve
topped because the output voltage does not even with loose coupling. This is called stagger
change much over an appreciable band of fre- tuning. To secure adequate power transfer over
quencies. the frequency band it is usually necessary to use
Note that the off- resonance humps have the tight coupling and experimentally adjust the cir-
same maximum value as the resonant output volt- cuits for the desired performance.
age at critical coupling. These humps are caused
by the fact that at frequencies off resonance the Link Coupling
secondary circuit is reactive and couples reac- A modification of inductive coupling, called
tance as well as resistance into the primary. The link coupling, is shown in Fig. 2-51. This gives
coupled resistance decreases off resonance, and the effect of inductive coupling between two coils
each hump represents anew condition of critical that have no mutual inductance; the link is
coupling at a frequency to which the primary is simply ameans for providing the mutual induct-
tuned by the additional coupled- in reactance from ance. The total mutual inductance between two
the secondary. coils coupled by a link cannot be made as great
Fig. 2-50 shows the response curves for various as if the coils themselves were coupled. This is
degrees of coupling between two circuits tuned because the coefficient of coupling between air-
to afrequency f o.Equals Qs are assumed in both
circuits, although the curves are representative
if the Qs differ by ratios up to 1.5 or even 2to 1.
In these cases, a value of Q = VQ 1(2 2 should
be used.

Band- Pass Coupling

Fig. 2- 51— Link coupling. The mutual inductances at
Over-coupled resonant circuits are useful where both ends of the link are equivalent to mutual induct-
substantially uniform output is desired over a ance between the tuned circuits, and serve the same
continuous band of frequencies, without read- purpose.
Impedance Matching 49
core coils is considerably less than 1, and since There is, in fact, a wide variety of such circuits
there are two coupling points the over-all cou- available, all of them being classified generally as
pling coefficient is less than for any pair of coils. impedance-matching networks. Several net-
In practice this need not be disadvantageous be- works frequently used in amateur equipment are
cause the power transfer can be made great shown in Fig. 2-52.
enough by making the tuned circuits sufficiently
The LNetwork
high- Q. Link coupling is convenient when ordi-
nary inductive coupling would be impracticable The L network is the simplest possible im-
for constructional reasons. pedance-matching circuit. It closely resembles
The link coils usually have a small number of an ordinary resonant circuit with the load resist-
turns compared with the resonant-circuit coils. ance, R, Fig. 2-52, either in series or parallel.
The number of turns is not greatly important, The arrangement shown in Fig. 2-52A is used
because the coefficient of coupling is relatively when the desired impedance, RIN, is larger than
independent of the number of turns on either coil; the actual load resistance, R, while Fig. 2-52B
it is more important that both link coils should is used in the opposite case. The design equations
have about the sanie inductance. The length of the for each case are given in the figure, in terms of
link between the coils is not critical if it is very the circuit reactances. The reactances may be
small compared with the wavelength, but if the converted to inductance and capacitance by
length is more than about one- twentieth of a means of the formulas previously given or taken
wavelength the link operates more as atransmis- directly from the charts of Figs. 2-44 and 2-45.
sion line than as a means for providing mutual When the impedance transformation ratio is
inductance. In such case it should be treated by large—that is, one of the two impedances is of
the methods described in the chapter on Trans- the order of 100 times ( or more) larger than the
mission Lines. other—the operation of the circuit is exactly
the same as previously discussed in connection
IMPEDANCE-
MATCHING CIRCUITS with impedance transformation with a simple
The coupling circuits discussed in the preced- LC resonant circuit.
ing section have been based either on inductive The Q of an L network is found in the same
coupling or on coupling through a common cir- way as for simple resonant circuits. That is, it is
cuit element between two resonant circuits. These equal to XL/R or RIN/Xe in Fig. 2-52A, and to
are not the only circuits that may be used for XL/RIN or RIXc in Fig. 2-52B. The value of
transferring power from one device to another. Q is determined by the ratio of the impedances
to be matched, and cannot be selected inde-
pendently. In the equations of Fig. 2-52 it is as-
Pin> R sumed that both R and RIN are pure resistances.

XL.= •
NI R The Pi Network
xc. R Rif, • The pi network, shown in Fig. 2-52C, offers
more flexibility than the L since the operating Q
may be chosen practically at will. The only limi-
Ri n <Ft
tation on the circuit values that may be used is
Xc=R/ Fh ; that the reactance of the series arm, the inductor
(B)
L in the figure, must not be greater than the
RxItin
square root of the product of the two values of
resistive impedance to be matched. As the circuit
Ft,›R a is applied in amateur equipment, this limiting
value of reactance would represent a network
Xci -=
(c) with an undesirably low operating Q, and the cir-
X = R 2\r-
--g fi&—
— cuit values ordinarily used are well on the safe
cz Q14-1--(12,/RD side of the limiting values.
XL= QR1+(R,Ft./Xc.) In its principal application as a "tank" circuit
Q2+I matching atransmission line to apower amplifier
tube, the load R2 will generally have a fairly
low value of resistance ( up to a few hundred
QXL ohms) while R1,the required load for the tube,
ICa + 9 will be of the order of a few thousand ohms.
In such a case the Q of the circuit is defined as
Ri/X ci ,so the choice of a value for the operat-
Fig. 2-52— Impedance-matching networks adaptable to ing Q immediately sets the value of Xel and hence
amateur work. (A) L network for transforming to a of C1.The values of Xc2 and XL are then found
higher value of resistance. ( B) Lnetwork for transform- from the equations given in the figure.
ing to olower resistance value. ( C) Pi network. R1 is the Graphical solutions for practical cases are given
larger of the two resistors; Q is defined as Pi/Xei. in the chapter on transmitter design in the dis-
(D) Tapped tuned circuit used in some receiver applica- cussion of plate tank circuits. The L and C values
tions. The impedance of the tuned circuit is transformed may be calculated from the reactances or read
to a lower value, R;,,, by the capacitive divider. from the charts of Figs. 2-44 and 2-45.
50 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
LOW - PASS FILTERS L1

,
c LK
o -0

oT
2C, 2C,

TT 2T T
11
2

T T
Constant- k7r section M -derived 77 section in - derived end sections for use
with intermediate 7r section
-1
LK LK
21_ 2 Li L,
R r
- 2L 2

TCk o
C2 2 2
C2
0 11- T o
Constant- k Tsection m - derived Tsection in - derived end sections for use
with intermediate Tsection
Lk = etc Ck = ntcR LI= mL K C1= I-
4mmz Lt=mL K C, = - M2 Cx
4M

L2= t - m2 LK =m g - m2
4M Lz = am Lk C2 =M Ck
HIGH- PASS FILTERS
L,

Constant- A 7T section m- derived 77 section in end Sections for use

with. intermediate 77 section
2C, 2C,
U— Ce
2C, 2C,
L2 2L 2 2L 2
C2 C2
-
I -C2
o 0 0 T T o
Constant- A Toectian in - derived Tsection in - derived end section for use
with intermediate rsection
R 4m
`k= 471fc =47rfc R -m1 LK C - m L.= , 4,r%, LK c.=

L, = L
rnK C = C Le,
4M L2 = -
7 -
77
C2 m 2 s- K
BANDPASS FILTERS

2 2L 2

Constant- e nsection Three- dement nsection Three - element nsectioe

:1 2
-L

2C112C i

oTe2
Constant- k Tsection Three demerit Tsection Three- dement Tsection
fz-f. R
L'
K= rr(frf,) -, 5= 4n t,f 2R
Lt=L iK L't= co-
rt(fR 2)

-f ) R
L = 2
Ct- f2- f" L2=(F2-,
e)Ft
1K 4n f
if2 CZK n(f2 -fDR an,,,
2R - an„z

1
C2=C2k C2- n(f.tt)R C
2- arrf,f, 2- nf,(f2-f)a
Filters 51
sents the cut-off frequency, the highest ( for the
Tapped Tuned Circuit low-pass) or the lowest ( for the high-pass) fre-
The tapped tuned circuit of Fig. 2-52D is use- quency transmitted without attenuation. In the
ful in some receiver applications, where it is de- band-pass filter designs, f i is the low-frequency

sirable to use a high- impedance tuned circuit as cut-off and 1 2 the high- frequency cut-off. The

a lower- impedance load. When the Q of the in- units for L, C, R and fare henrys, farads, ohms
ductor has been determined, the capacitors can and cycles per second, respectively.
be selected to give the desired impedance trans- All of the types shown are "unbalanced" ( one
formation and the necessary resultant capac- side grounded). For use in balanced circuits ( e.g.,
itance to tune the circuit to resonance. 300- ohm transmission line, or push-pull audio
circuits), the series reactances should be equally
FILTERS divided between the two legs. Thus the balanced
A filter is an electrical circuit configuration constant- k r- section low-pass filter would use
(network) designed to have specific characteris- two inductors of avalue equal to Lk/2, while the
tics with respect to the transmission or attenua- balanced constant- k 7r- section high-pass filter
tion of various frequencies that may be applied to would use two capacitors each equal to 2Ck.
it. There are three general types of filters: low- If several low- ( or high-) pass sections are to
pass, high-pass, and band-pass. be used, it is advisable to use m-derived end
A low-pass filter is one that will permit all sections on either side of aconstant- kcenter sec-
frequencies below a specified one called the cut- tion, although an m-derived center section can be
off frequency to be transmitted with little or no used. The factor nt determines the ratio of the
loss, but that will attenuate all frequencies above cut-off frequency, f., to a frequency of high at-
the cut-off frequency. tenuation, f.,. Where only one m-derived sec-
A high-pass filter similarly has a cut-off fre- tion is used, avalue of 0.6 is generally used for m,
quency, above which there is little or no loss in although a deviation of 10 or 15 per cent from
transmission, but below which there is consider- this value is not too serious in amateur work.
able attenuation. Its behavior is the opposite of For a value of m = 0.6, f., will be 1.25f, for the
that of the low-pass filter. low-pass filter and 0.8f, for the high-pass filter.
A band-pass filter is one that will transmit a Other values can be found from
selected band of frequencies with substantially
no loss, but that will attenuate all frequencies
m = — (f
÷. .-) 2for the low-pass filter and
j
either higher or lower than the desired band.
The pass band of afilter is the frequency spec-
trum that is transmitted with little or no loss.
m = — (f
t:)for the high-pass filter.
The transmission characteristic is not necessarily
perfectly uniform in the pass band, but the varia-
tions usually are small. The output sides of the filters shown should be
The stop band is the frequency region in which terminated in a resistance equal to R, and there
attenuation is desired. The attenuation may vary should be little or no reactive component in the
in the stop band, and in a simple filter usually is termination.
leàst near the cut-off frequency, rising to high
values at frequencies considerably removed from PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTALS
the cut-off frequency. A number of crystalline substances found in
Filters are designed for a specific value of nature have the ability to transform mechanical
purely resistive impedance ( the terminating im- strain into an electrical charge, and vice versa.
pedance of the filter). When such an impedance This property is known as the piezoelectric ef-
is connected to the output terminals of the filter, fect. A small plate or bar cut in the proper way
the impedance looking into the input terminals from a quartz crystal and placed between two
has essentially the same value, throughout most conducting electrodes will be mechanically
of the pass band. Simple filters do not give per- strained when the electrodes are connected to a
fectly uniform performance in this respect, but source of voltage. Conversely, if the crystal is
the input impedance of a properly-terminated squeezed between two electrodes avoltage will be
filter can be made fairly constant, as well as developed between the electrodes.
closer to the design value, over the pass band Piezoelectric crystals can be used to transform
by using m-derived filter sections. mechanical energy into electrical energy, and vice
A discussion of filter design principles is be- versa. They are used in microphones and phono-
yond the scope of this Handbook, but it is not graph pick-ups, where mechanical vibrations are
difficult to build satisfactory filters from the cir- transformed into alternating voltages of corres-
cuits and formulas given in Fig. 2-53. Filter ponding frequency. They are also used in head-
circuits are built up from elementary sections as sets and loudspeakers, transforming electrical
shown in the figure. These sections can be used energy into mechanical vibration. Crystals of
alone or, if greater attenuation and sharper cut- Rochelle salts are used for these purposes.
off ( that is, amore rapid rate of rise of attenua-
Crystal Resonators
tion with frequency beyond the cut-off frequency)
are required, several sections can be connected in Crystalline plates also are mechanical resona-
series. In the low- and high-pass filters, f. repre- tors that have natural frequencies of vibration
 52 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
ranging from a few thousand cycles to tens of has a parallel- resonant frequency determined by
megacycles per second. The vibration frequency L and the equivalent capacitance of C and Ch
depends on the kind of crystal, the way the plate in series. Since this equivalent capacitance is
is cut from the natural crystal, and on the dimen- smaller than C alone, the parallel- resonant fre-
sions of the plate. The thing that makes the crys- quency is higher than the series- resonant fre-
tal resonator valuable is that it has extremely quency. The separation between the two resonant
high Q, ranging from 5to 10 times the Qs obtain- frequencies depends on the ratio of Ch to C, and
able with good LC resonant circuits. when this ratio is large ( as in the case of acrystal
Analogies can be drawn between various me- resonator, where Ch will be a few µAL in the
chanical properties of the crystal and the elec- average case) the two frequencies will be quite
trical characteristics of a tuned circuit. This close together. A separation of a kilocycle or
leads to an "equivalent circuit" for the crystal. less at 455 kc. is typical of aquartz crystal.
The electrical coupling to the crystal is through
the holder plates between which it is sandwiched;
these plates form, with the crystal as the dielec-
tric, a small capacitator like any other capacitor
REACTANCE RESISTANCE
constructed of two plates with a dielectric be-
tween. The crystal itself is equivalent to aseries-
resonant circuit, and together with the capaci-
tance of the holder forms the equivalent circuit FREQUENCY

shown in Fig. 2-54. At frequencies of the order of

Fig. 2-54— Equivalent cir-
cuit of a crystal reso-
nator. L, C and R are the
electrical equivalents of
mechanical properties of
the crystal; Ch is the ca-
Fig. 2- 55— Reactance and resistance vs. frequency of a
pacitance of the holder
plates with the crystal circuit of the type shown in Fig. 2-54. Actual values of
reactance, resistance and the separation between the
plate between them.
series- and parallel- resonant frequencies, f, , and f
u,

respectively, depend on the circuit constants.

450 kc., where crystals are widely used as resona-
tors, the equivalent L may be several henrys and Fig. 2-55 shows how the resistance and react-
the equivalent C only a few hundredths of a ance of such a circuit vary as the applied fre-
micromicrofarad. Although the equivalent R is quency is varied. The reactance passes through
of the order of a few thousand ohms, the react- zero at both resonant frequencies, but the resist-
ance at resonance is so high that the Q of the ance rises to a large value at parallel resonance,
crystal likewise is high. just as in any tuned circuit.
A circuit of the type shown in Fig. 2-54 has a Quartz crystals may be used either as simple
series-resonant frequency, when viewed from the resonators for their selective properties or as the
circuit terminals indicated by the arrowheads, frequency-controlling elements in oscillators as
determined by L and C only. At this frequency described in later chapters. The series- resonant
the circuit impedance is simply equal to R, pro- frequency is the one principally used in the former
viding the reactance of Ch is large compared with case, while the more common forms of oscillator
R ( this is generally the case). The circuit also circuit use the parallel-resonant frequency.

PRACTICAL CIRCUIT DETAILS

COMBINED A.C. AND D.C. Fig. 2- 56— Pulsat-

ing d.c., composed
Most radio circuits are built around vacuum
of an alternating
tubes, and it is the nature of these tubes to require
current or voltage
direct current ( usually at afairly high voltage)
superimposed on a
for their operation. They convert the direct cur-
steady direct cur-
rent into an alternating current ( and sometimes
rent or voltage.
the reverse) at frequencies varying from well TIME --••
down in the audio range to well up in the super-
high range. The conversion process almost in- nating current is superimposed on the direct cur-
variably requires that the direct and alternating rent, so we may look upon the actual current as
currents meet somewhere in the circuit. having two components, one d.c. and the other a.c.
In this meeting, the a.c. and d.c. are actually In an alternating current the positive and nega-
combined into a single current that "pulsates" tive alternations have the same average ampli-
(at the a.c. frequency) about an average value tude, so when the wave is superimposed on a
equal to the direct current. This is shown in Fig. direct current the latter is alternately increased
2-56. It is convenient to consider that the alter- and decreased by the same amount. There is thus
Practical Circuit Details 53
no average change in the direct current. If ad.c. d.c. supply because the inductance of RFC is in-
instrument is being used to read the current, the tentionally made so large that it has avery high
reading will be exactly the same whether or not reactance at the radio frequency. The resistance
the a.c. is superimposed. of RFC, however, is too low to have an appre-
However, there is actually more power in such ciable effect on the flow of direct current. The two
acombination current than there is in the direct currents are thus in parallel, hence the name
current alone. This is because power varies as the parallel feed.
square of the instantaneous value of the current, Either type of feed may be used for both a.f.
and when all the instantaneous squared values and r.f. circuits. In parallel feed there is no d.c.
are averaged over a cycle the total power is voltage on the a.c. circuit, a desirable feature
greater than the d.c. power alone. If the a.c. is a from the viewpoint of safety to the operator, be-
sine wave having a peak value just equal to the cause the voltages applied to tubes—particu-
d.c., the power in the circuit is 1.5 times the d.c. larly transmitting tubes—are dangerous. On the
power. An instrument whose readings are pro- other hand, it is somewhat difficult to make an
portional to power will show such an increase. r.f. choke work well over a wide range of fre-
quencies. Series feed is often preferred, therefore,
Series and Parallel Feed because it is relatively easy to keep the impedance
Fig. 2-57 shows in simplified form how d.c. and between the a.c. circuit and the tube low.
a.c. may be combined in a vacuum-tube circuit.
Bypassing
In this case, it is assumed that the a.c. is at
radio frequency, as suggested by the coil- and- In the series-feed circuit just discussed, it was
capacitor tuned circuit. It is also assumed that assumed that the d.c. supply had very low im-
r.f. current can easily flow through the d.c. pedance at radio frequencies. This is not likely
supply; that is, the impedance of the supply at to be true in a practical power supply, partly
radio frequencies is so small as to be negligible. because the normal physical separation between
In the circuit at the left, the tube, tuned circuit, the supply and the r.f. circuit would make it
and d.c. supply all are connected in series. The necessary to use rather long connecting wires or
direct current flows through the r.f. coil to get to leads. At radio frequencies, even a few feet of
the tube; the r.f. current generated by the tube wire can have fairly large reactance—too large
to be considered a really "low-impedance" con-
nection.
An actual circuit would be provided with a
bypass capacitor, as shown in Fig. 2-58. Capaci-
tor C is chosen to have low reactance it the
operating frequency, and is installed right in the
circuit where it can be wired to the other parts
with quite short connecting wires. Hence the r.f.
current will tend to flow through it rather than
through the d.c. supply.
To be effective, the reactance of the bypass

Parallel Feed

Fig. 2-57— Illustrating series and parallel feed.

flows through the d.c. supply to get to the tuned Fig. 2- 58—Typical use
circuit. This is series feed. It works because the of a bypass capacitor
impedance of the d.c. supply at radio frequencies and r.f. choke in a
is so low that it does not affect the flow of r.f. series- feed circuit.
current, and because the d.c. resistance of the coil
is so low that it does not affect the flow of direct
current.
In the circuit at the right the direct current
does not flow through the r.f. tuned circuit, but
instead goes to the tube through a second coil, capacitor should not be more than one-tenth of
RFC ( radio-frequency choke). Direct current the impedance of the bypassed part of the cir-
cannot flow through L because a blocking ca- cuit. Very often the latter impedance is not
pacitance, C, is placed in the circuit to prevent known, in which case it is desirable to use the
it. ( Without C, the d.c. supply would be short- largest capacitance in the bypass that circum-
circuited by the low resistance of L.) On the stances permit. To make doubly sure that r.f.
other hand, the r.f. current generated by the tube current will not flow through a non-r.f. circuit
can easily flow through C to the tuned circuit be- such as a power supply, an r.f. choke may be
cause the capacitance of C is intentionally chosen connected in the lead to the latter, as shown in
to have low reactance ( compared with the im- Fig. 2-58.
pedance of the tuned circuit) at the radio fre- The same type of bypassing is used when audio
quency. The r.f. current cannot flow through the frequencies are present in addition to r.f. Because
54 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
the reactance of a capacitor changes with fre- What it means is that an actual earth connection
quency, it is readily possible to choose a capaci- to that point in the circuit should not disturb the
tance that will represent avery low reactance at operation of the circuit in any way. The term
radio frequencies but that will have such high also is used to indicate a "common" point in the
reactance at audio frequencies that it is practi- circuit where power supplies and metallic sup-
cally an open circuit. A capacitance of 0.001 pf. ports ( such as a metal chassis) are electrically
is practically a short circuit for r.f., for example, tied together. It is general practice, for example,
but is almost an open circuit at audio frequencies. to "ground" the negative terminal of ad.c. power
(The actual value of capacitance that is usable supply, and to "ground" the filament or heater
will be modified by the impedances concerned.) power supplies for vacuum tubes. Since the
Bypass capacitors also are used in audio circuits cathode of a vacuum tube is a junction point
to carry the audio frequencies around a d.c. for grid and plate voltage supplies, and since the
supply. various circuits connected to the tube elements
have at least one point connected to cathode,
Distributed Capacitance and Inductance
these points also are " returned to ground."
In the discussions earlier in this chapter it Ground is therefore a common reference point
was assumed that a capacitor has only capaci- in the radio circuit. " Ground potential" means
tance and that an inductor has only inductance. that there is no " difference of potential"—no
Unfortunately, this is not strictly true. There is voltage—between the circuit point and the earth.
always acertain amount of inductance in a con-
ductor of any length, and a capacitor is bound Single- Ended and Balanced Circuits
to have a little inductance in addition to its With reference to ground, a circuit may be
intended capacitance. Also, there is always ca- either single-ended (unbalanced) or balanced.
pacitance between two conductors or between In a single-ended circuit, one side of the circuit
parts of the same conductor, and thus there is (the cold side) is connected to ground. In abal-
appreciable capacitance between the turns of an anced circuit, the electrical midpoint is connected
inductance coil. to ground, so that the circuit has two "hot" ends
This distributed inductance in acapacitor and each at the same voltage "above" ground.
the distributed capacitance in an inductor have Typical single-ended and balanced circuits are
important practical effects. Actually, every ca- shown in Fig. 2-59. R.f. circuits are shown in
pacitor is a tuned circuit, resonant at the fre- the upper row, while iron-core transformers
quency where its capacitance and distributed
inductance have the same reactance. The same
thing is true of acoil and its distributed capaci-
tance. At frequencies well below these natural
resonances, the capacitor will act like a normal
capacitance and the coil will act like a normal
inductance. Near the natural resonant points,
the coil and capacitor act like self- tuned circuits. SINGLE- ENDED BALANCED
Above resonance, the capacitor acts like an in-
ductor and the inductor acts like a capacitor.
Thus there is alimit to the amount of capacitance
that can be used at agiven frequency. There is a
similar limit to the inductance that can be used.
At audio frequencies, capacitances measured in
microfarads and inductances measured in henrys SINOLE-ENDE Q BALANCED OUTPUT
are practicable. At low and medium radio fre-
quencies, inductances of a few millihenrys and Fig. 2-59—Single-ended and balanced circuits.
capacitances of afew thousand micromicrofarads
(such as are used in power- supply and audio
are the largest practicable. At high radio fre-
circuits) are shown in the lower row. The r.f.
quencies, usable inductance values drop to afew
circuits may be balanced either by connecting
microhenrys and capacitances to a few hundred
the center of the coil to ground or by using a
micromicrofarads.
"balanced" or " split- stator" capacitor and con-
Distributed capacitance and inductance are
necting its rotor to r.f. ground. In the iron- core
important not only in r.f. tuned circuits, but in
transformer, one or both windings may be tapped
bypassing and choking as well. It will be appre-
at the center of the winding to provide the ground
ciated that a bypass capacitor that actually acts
connection.
like an inductance, or an r.f. choke that acts
Shielding
like a low- reactance capacitor, cannot work as
it is intended they should. Two circuits that are physically near each
other usually will be coupled to each other in
Grounds some degree even though no coupling is intended.
Throughout this book there are frequent refer- The metallic parts of the two circuits form a
ences to ground and ground potential. When a small capacitance through which energy can be
connection is said to be "grounded" it does not transferred by means of the electric field. Also,
necessarily mean that it actually goes to earth. the magnetic field about the coil or wiring of
Vacuum-Tube Amplifier 63
6
I
000 the plate circuit as is applied to the grid circuit.
—
As shown by the drawings in Fig. 3-8, the
alternating component of the plate voltage
so,000
-.Ohms 500 swings in the negative direction ( with reference
to the no-signal value of plate-cathode voltage)
when the grid voltage swings in the positive di-
4 _ 400
rection, and vice versa. This means that the alter-
nating component of plate voltage ( that is, the
amplified signal) is 180 degrees out of phase with
e the signal voltage on the grid.
I
o. Bias
Operating
Poin É'', The fixed negative grid voltage ( called grid
bias) in Fig. 3-8 serves a very useful purpose.
E, .....'.. . 1
One object of the type of amplification shown in
this drawing is to obtain, from the plate circuit,
100
an alternating voltage that has the same wave-
1 1 ! shape as the signal voltage applied to the grid. To
I 1 I
do so, an operating point on the straight part of
-5 - to -5 o the curve must be selected. The curve must be
Grid Voltage straight in both directions from the operating
point at least far enough to accommodate the
Sral
, Voltage
maximum value of the signal applied to the grid.
If the grid signal swings the plate current back
o and forth over a part of the curve that is not
Fig. 3- 8-- Amplifier operation. When the plate current straight, as in Fig. 3-9, the shape of the a.c. wave
various in response to the signal applied to the grid, a in the plate circuit will not be the same as the
varying voltage drop appears across the load, as shape of the grid- signal wave. In such acase the
shown by the dashed curve, E9.1p is the plate current. output wave shape will be distorted.
A second reason for using negative grid bias is
signal reaches its positive peak, and to — 7volts that any signal whose peak positive voltage does
at the instant the signal reaches its negative peak. not exceed the fixed negative voltage on the grid
The maximum plate current will occur at the in- cannot cause grid current to flow. With no cur-
stant the grid voltage is — 3volts. As shown by rent flow there is no power consumption, so the
the graph, it will have a value of 2.65 milliam- tube will amplify without taking any power from
peres. The minimum plate current occurs at the the signal source. ( However, if the positive peak
instant the grid voltage is — 7 volts, and has a of the signal does exceed the negative bias, cur-
value of 1.35 ma. At intermediate values of grid rent will flow in the grid circuit during the time
voltage, intermediate plate-current values will the grid is positive.)
occur. Distortion of the output wave shape that results
The instantaneous voltage between the plate •
and cathode of the tube also is shown on the
graph. When the plate current is maximum, the 1
instantaneous voltage drop in Rp is 50,000 X ,
0.00265 = 132.5 volts; when the plate current is 3

minimum the instantaneous voltage drop in Rp is

50,000 X 0.00135 = 67.5 volts. The actual voltage 2
between plate and cathode is the difference be-
2
tween the plate- supply potential, 300 volts, and F.
the voltage drop in the load resistance. The plate-
to-cathode voltage is therefore 167.5 volts at
maximum plate current and 232.5 volts at mini- 2
mum plate current. Point
This varying plate voltage is an a.c. voltage t I
t

superimposed on the steady plate-cathode poten-

tial of 200 volts ( as previously determined for no-
signal conditions). The peak value of this a.c. I Grld Voltage
output voltage is the difference between either
the maximum or minimum plate- cathode voltage
and the no-signal value of 200 volts. In the il-
SIgnal Voltage
lustration this difference is 232.5 — 200 or 200
— 167.5; that is, 32.5 volts in either case. Since
the grid signal voltage has a peak value of 2 Fig. 3- 9— Harmonic distortion resulting from choice of
volts, the voltage-amplification ratio of the an operating point on the curved part of the tube char-
amplifier is 32.5/2 or 16.25. That is, approxi- acteristic. The lower half- cycle of plate current does not
mately 16 times as much voltage is obtained from have the same shape as the upper half-cycle.
56 ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS
of electric and magnetic fields in a rectangular
guide are shown in Fig. 2-63. It will be observed
that the intensity of the electric field is greatest
(as indicated by closer spacing of the lines of
force) at the center along the x dimension, Fig.
2-63(B), diminishing to zero at the end walls.
The latter is a necessary condition, since the
existence of any electric field parallel to the walls
at the surface would cause an infinite current to
Fig. 2-61—Methods of tuning coaxial resonant lines. flow in a perfect conductor. This represents an
impossible situation.
parallel- plate capacitors are illustrated. The ar-
rangement with the loading capacitor at the open Modes of Propagation
end of the line has the greatest tuning effect per Fig. 2-63 represents a relatively simple dis-
unit of capacitance; the alternative method, which tribution of the electric and magnetic fields.
is equivalent to tapping the capacitor down on
the line, has less effect on the Q of the circuit.
Lines with capacitive " loading" of the sort il- e.
F. POTENTIAL

lustrated will be shorter, physically, than un- ALONG GUIDE

(A)
loaded lines resonant at the same frequency.
Two methods of tuning parallel-conductor
lines are shown in Fig. 2-62. The sliding short-

o ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

(B)
-t_

Fig. 2-62—Methods of tuning parallel-type resonant

lines.
MAGNETIC INTENSITY
ALONG OLOGE
circuiting strap can be tightened by means of
screws and nuts to make good electrical con- (c)
tact. The parallel- plate capacitor in the second
tHt c:
C-;";>1

drawing may be placed anywhere along the line, ...• 11‘

the tuning effect becoming less as the capacitor

1 IS. 4,
is located nearer the shorted end of the line. Al-
though a low-capacitance variable capacitor of
ordinary construction can be used, the circular- Fig. 2-63—Field distribution in a rectangular wave-
plate type shown is symmetrical and thus does guide. The TE1,0 mode of propagation is depicted.
not unbalance the line. It also has the further ad-
vantage that no insulating material is required. There is in general an infinite number of ways
in which the fields can arrange themselves in a
WAVEGUIDES guide so long as there is no upper limit to the
A waveguide is a conducting tube through frequency to be transmitted. Each field config-
which energy is transmitted in the form of elec- uration is called a mode. All modes may be
tromagnetic waves. The tube is not considered separated into two general groups. One group,
as carrying acurrent in the same sense that the designated TM ( transverse magnetic), has the
wires of atwo-conductor line do, but rather as a magnetic field entirely transverse to the direc-
boundary which confines the waves to the en- tion of propagation, but has a coMponent of
closed space. Skin effect prevents any electro- electric field in that direction. The other type,
magnetic effects from being evident outside the designated TE (transverse electric) has the
guide. The energy is injected at one end, either electric field entirely transverse, but has a com-
through capacitive or inductive coupling or by ponent of magnetic field in the direction of
radiation, and is received at the other end. The propagation. TM waves are sometimes called
waveguide then merely confines the energy of E waves, and TE waves are sometimes called
the fields, which are propagated through it to H waves, but the TM and TE designations are
the receiving end by means of reflections against preferred.
its inner walls. The particular mode of transmission is iden-
Analysis of waveguide operation is based on tified by the group letters followed by two sub-
the assumption that the guide material is aper- script numerals; for example, TE 1.0 ,TM", etc.
fect conductor of electricity. Typical distributions The number of possible modes increases with
66 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES
half of the output-transformer primary works
alternately to induce a half-cycle of voltage in
the secondary. In the secondary of T 2 , the
original waveform is restored. This type of oper-
ation is called Class B amplification.
The Class B amplifier has considerably higher
plate efficiency than the Class A amplifier. Fur-
PARALLEL thermore, the d.c. plate current of aClass B am-
plifier is proportional to the signal voltage on the
grids, so the power input is small with small
signals. The d.c. plate power input to a Class A
amplifier is the same whether the signal is large,
small, or absent altogether; therefore the maxi-
mum d.c. plate input that can be applied to a
Class A amplifier is equal to the rated plate dissi-
pation of the tube or tubes. Two tubes in aClass
B amplifier can deliver approximately twelve
time as much audio power as the same two tubes
in a Class A amplifier.
PUSH—PULL A Class B amplifier usually is operated in such
Fig. 3- 12—Parallel and push-pull a.f. amplifier circuits. a way as to secure the maximum possible power
output. This requires rather large values of plate
ends of the secondary winding of the input trans- current, and to obtain them the signal voltage
former, T1,will be at opposite polarity with must completely overcome the grid bias during
respect to the cathode connection, so the grid of at least part of the cycle, so grid current flows
one tube is swung positive at the same instant and the grid circuit consumes power. While the
that the grid of the other is swung negative. power requirements are fairly low ( as compared
Hence, in any push-pull-connected amplifier the with the power output), the fact that the grids
voltages and currents of one tube are out of phase are positive during only part of the cycle means
with those of the other tube. that the load on the preceding amplifier or
In push-pull operation the even-harmonic driver stage varies in magnitude during the cy-
(second, fourth, etc.) distortion is balanced out cle; the effective load resistance is high when the
in the plate circuit. This means that for the same grids are not drawing current and relatively low
power output the distortion will be less than with when they do take current. This must be allowed
parallel operation. for when designing the driver.
The exciting voltage measured between the Certain types of tubes have been designed
two grids must be twice that required for one specifically for Class B service and can be oper-
tube. If the grids consume power, the driving ated without fixed or other form of grid bias
power for the push-pull amplifier is twice that (zero- bias tubes). The amplification factor is so
taken by either tube alone. high that the plate current is small without
signal. Because there is no fixed bias, the grids
Cascade Amplifiers start drawing current immediately whenever a
It is readily possible to take the output of one
amplifier and apply it as a signal on the grid of
a second amplifier, then take the second ampli-
fier's output and apply it to a third, and so on.
Each amplifier is called astage, and stages used
successively are said to be in cascade. AUDIO AUDIO
INPUT OUTPUT

Class B Amplifiers
Fig 3-13 shows two tubes connected in apush-
pull circuit. If the grid bias is set at the point
where ( when no signal is applied) the plate cur-
rent is just cut off, then a signal can cause
plate current to flow in either tube only when the SIGNAL
ON
signal voltage applied to that particular tube is GRIDS
positive with respect to the cathode. Since in the
balanced grid circuit the signal voltages on the PLATE
grids of the two tubes always have opposite po- CURRENT
TUBE A
larities, plate current flows only in one tube at a PLATE
time. CURRENT
TUBE B
The graphs show the operation of such an
amplifier. The plate current of tube B is drawn
COMBINED
inverted to show that it flows in the opposite di- OUTPUT
rection, through the primary of the output trans-
former, to the plate current of tube A. Thus each Fig. 3- 13— Class B amplifier operation.
sa ELECTRICAL LAWS AND CIRCUITS

MODULATION, HETERODYNING AND BEATS

Since one of the most widespread uses of radio haves as though the other were not there. The
frequencies is the transmission of speech and total or resultant voltage ( or current) in the
music, it would be very convenient if the audio circuit will be the sum of the instantaneous values
spectrum to be transmitted could simply be shifted of the two at every instant. This is because there
up_to some radio frequency, transmitted as radio can be only one value of current or voltage at
waves, and shifted back down to audio at the any single point in a circuit at any instant. Figs.
receiving point. Suppose the audio signal to be 2-67A and B show two such frequencies, and C
transmitted by radio is a pure 1000-cycle tone, shows the resultant. The amplitude of the 1- Mc.
and we wish to transmit it at 1 Mc. ( 1,000,000 current is not affected by the presence of the 1-kc.
cycles per second). One possible way might be current, but the axis is shifted back and forth at
to add 1.000 Mc. and 1 kc. together, thereby the 1-kc. rate. An attempt to transmit such a
obtaining a radio frequency of 1.001 Mc. No combination as a radio wave would result in
simple method for doing this directly has been only the radiation of the 1- Mc. frequency, since
devised, although the effect is obtained and used the 1-kc. frequency retains its identity as an
in " single-sideband transmission." audio frequency and will not radiate.
When two different frequencies are present There are devices, however, which make it pos-
simultaneously in an ordinary circuit ( specifi- sible for one frequency to control the amplitude
cally, one in which Ohm's Law holds) each be- of the other. If, for example, a 1-kc. tone is used
to control a 1- Mc, signal, the maximum r.f. out-
put will be obtained when the 1-kc. signal is at
the peak of one alternation and the minimum will
occur at the peak of the next alternation. The
process is called amplitude modulation, and the
effect is shown in Fig. 2-67D. The resultant
(E) signal is now entirely at radio frequency, but with
its amplitude varying at the modulation rate
(1 kc.). Receiving equipment adjusted to receive
the 1- Mc. r.f. signal can reproduce these changes
in amplitude, and reveal what the audio signal is,
through aprocess called detection.
It might be assumed that the only radio fre-
(r) quency present in such a signal is the original
1.000 Mc., but such is not the case. Two new
frequencies have appeared. These are the sum
(1.000 .001) and the difference ( 1.000 — . 001)
of the two, and thus the radio frequencies appear-
TIme § Frequency ing after modulation are 1.001, 1.000 and .999 Mc.
When an audio frequency is used to control the
(C) (G) amplitude of a radio frequency, the process is
‘.—
generally called "amplitude modulation," as men-
tioned, but when a radio frequency modulates
another radio frequency it is called heterodyn-
ing. The processes are identical. A general term
for the sum and difference frequencies generated
E
during heterodyning or amplitude modulation is
E Time "beat frequencies," and a more specific one is
upper side frequency, for the sum, and lower
e side frequency for the difference.
(D) (H) In the simple example, the modulating signal
Fig. 2-67—Amplitude-vs.-time and amplitude-vs.-fre- was assumed to be a pure tone, but the modu-
quency plots of various signals. (A) Ph cycles of an lating signal can just as well be a band of fre-
audio signal, assumed to be 1000 c.p.s. in this example. quencies making up speech or music. In this case,
(B) A rodio- frequency signal, assumed to bio 1 Mc.; the side frequencies are grouped into the upper
1500 cycles are completed during the same time as the sideband and the lower sideband. Fig. 2-67H
11/2 cycles in A, so they cannot be shown accurately. shows the side frequencies appearing as a result
(C) The signals of A and B in the some circuit; each of the modulation process.
maintains its own identity. ( D) The signals of A and B Amplitude modulation ( a.m.) is not the only
in a circuit where the amplitude of A can control the possible type nor is it the only one in use. Such
amplitude of B. The 1-Mc, signal is modulated by the signal properties as phase and frequency can
1000-cycle signal. also be modulated. In every case the modulation
E, F, G and H show the spectrums for the signals in process leads to the generation of anew set ( or
A, B, C and D, respectively. Note the new frequencies sets) of radio frequencies symmetrically disposed
In H, resulting from the modulation process. about the original radio (carrier) frequency.
 Chapter 3

Vacuum- Tube Principles

ode. The reason for this is that the electrons in

CURRENT IN A VACUUM the space, being negative electricity, form aneg-
The outstanding difference between the ative charge (space charge) in the region of the
vacuum tube and most other electrical devices cathode. The space charge repels those electrons
is that the electric current does not flow through nearest the cathode, tending to make them fall
a conductor but through empty space—a back on it.
vacuum. This is only possible when " free"
electrons—that is, electrons that are not at-
tached to atoms—are somehow introduced
into the vacuum. Free electrons in an evacuated
space will be attracted to a positively charged
object within the same space, or will be repelled
by a negatively charged object. The movement
of the electrons under the attraction or replusion
of such charged objects constitutes the current
in the vacuum.
The most practical way to introduce a suffi-
ciently large number of electrons into the evac-
uated space is by thermionic emission.

Thermionic Emission Fig. 3- 1— Conduction by thermionic emission in a

If a thin wire or filament is heated to in- vacuum tube. The A battery is used to heat the fila-
candescence in avacuum, electrons near the sur- ment to a temperature that will cause it to emit elec-
face are given enough energy of motion to fly trons. The B battery makes the plate positive with
off into the surrounding space. The higher the respect to the filament, thereby causing the emitted
temperature, the greater the number of electrons electrons to be attracted to the plate. Electrons cap-
emitted. A more general name for the filament tured by the plate flow back through the B battery to
is cathode. the filament.
If the cathode is the only thing in the vacuum,
most of the emitted electrons stay in its imme- Now suppose a second conductor is introduced
diate vicinity, forming a "cloud" about the cath- into the vacuum, but not connected to anything
else inside the tube. If this second conductor is
given a positive charge by connecting a source
of e.m.f. between it and the cathode, as indicated
in Fig. 3-1, electrons emitted by the cathode are
attracted to the positively charged conductor.
An electric current then flows through the
circuit formed by the cathode, the charged con-
ductor, and the source of e.m.f. In Fig. 3-1 this
e.m.f. is supplied by a battery ("B" battery);
a second battery (" A" battery) is also indicated
for heating the cathode or filament to the proper
operating temperature.
The positively charged conductor is usually
a metal plate or cylinder ( surrounding the
cathode) and is called an anode or plate. Like
the other working parts of asube, it is a tube
element or electrode. The tube shown in Fig.
3-1 is a two-element or. two-electrode tube,
Representative tube types. Transmitting tubes having one element being the cathode or filament and
up to 500- watt capability are shown in the back row. the other the anode or plate.
The tube with the top cap in the middle row is a low- Since electrons are negative electricity, they
power transmitting type. Others are receiving tubes, will be attracted to the plate only when the
with the exception of the one in the center foreground plate is positive with respect to the cathode.
which is a v.h.f, transmitting type. If the plate is given a negative charge, the

59
60 VACUUM- TUBE PRINCIPLES
Fig. 3-3 shows a typical plot of plate
current vs. plate voltage for a two- ele-
ment tube or diode. A curve of this type
can be obtained with the circuit shown,
if the plate voltage is increased in small
steps and a current reading taken ( by
means of the current-indicating instru-
ment—a milliammeter) at each volt-
age. The plate current is zero with no
plate voltage and the curve rises until a
saturation point is reached. This is
(A) (Q (D) (E) where the positive charge on the plate
Fig. 3-2—Types of cathode construction. Directly heated cath- has substantially overcome the space
odes or filaments are shown at A, B, and C. The inverted V charge and almost all the electrons are
filament is used in small receiving tubes, the M in both receiv- going to the plate. At higher voltages the
ing and transmitting tubes. The spiral filament is atransmitting. plate current stays at practically the same
tube type. The indirectly-heated cathodes at Dand Eshow two value.
types of heater construction, one atwisted loop and the other The plate voltage multiplied by the
bunched heater wires. Both types tend to cancel the magnetic plate current is the power input to the
fields set up by the current through the heater. tube. In acircuit like that of Fig. 3-3 this
power is all used in heating the plate. If
electrons will be repelled back to the cathode the power input is large, the plate temperature
and no current will flow. The vacuum tube there- may rise to avery high value ( the plate may be-
fore can conduct only in one direction. come red or even white hot). The heat developed
in the plate is radiated to the bulb of the tube, and
Cathodes in turn radiated by the bulb to the surrounding
Before electron emission can occur, the cath- air.
ode must be heated to ahigh temperature. How-
ever, it is not essential that the heating current RECTIFICATION
flow through the actual material that does the Since current can flow through atube in only
emitting; the filament or heater can be electri- one direction, a diode can be used to change al-
cally separate from the emitting cathode. Such a ternating current into direct current. It does this
cathode is called indirectly heated, while an by permitting current to flow when the plate is
emitting filament is called directly heated. Fig. positive with respect to the cathode, but by shut-
3-2 shows both types in the forms in which they ting off current flow when the plate is negative.
are commonly used. Fig. 3-4 shows a representative circuit. Al-
Much greater electron emission can be ob- ternating voltage from the secondary of the
tained, at relatively; low temperatures, by using transformer, T, is applied to the diode tube in
special cathode materials rather than pure metals. series with a load resistor, R. The voltage
One of these is thoriated tungsten, or tung- varies as is usual with a.c., but current flows
sten in which thorium is dissolved. Still greater through the tube and R only when the plate is
efficiency is achieved in the oxide-coated cath- positive with respect to the cathode—that
ode, a cathode in which rare-earth oxides form is, during the half-cycle when the upper end of
a coating over ametal base. the transformer winding is positive. During the
Although the oxide-coated cathode has much negative half-cycle there is simply a gap in the
the highest efficiency, it can be used successfully current flow. This rectified alternating current
only in tubes that operate at rather low plate therefore is an intermittent direct current.
voltages. Its use is therefore confined to receiv- The load resistor, R, represents the actual cir-
ing-type tubes and to the smaller varieties of cuit in which the rectified alternating current
transmitting tubes. The thoriated filament, on does work. All tubes work with aload of one type
the other hand, will operate well in high-voltage or another; in this respect atube is much like a
tubes. generator or transformer. A circuit that did not
Plate Current
If there is only asmall positive voltage Saturation
Point
on the plate, the number of electrons
reaching it will be small because the
space charge ( which is negative) pre-
vents those electrons nearest the cathode
from being attracted to the plate. As the
plate voltage is increased, the effect of Increase
the space charge is increasingly overcome Fate Vol rage
and the number of electrons attracted to
the plate becomes larger. That is, the Fig. 3- 3— The diode, or two- element tube, and a typical curve
plate current increases with increasing showing how the plate current depends upon the voltage applied
plate voltage. to the plate.
Vacuum-Tube Amplifiers 61
provide a load for the tube
would be like a short-circuit
Applled
across atransformer; no useful

iniununiu
Voltage

purpose would be accomplished AC

and the only result would be

the generation of heat in the
transformer. So it is with vac- Fig. 3- 4— Rectification in a diode.
uum tubes; they must cause Current flows only when the plate

nn
power to be developed in aload is positive with respect to the cath-
Current
in order to serve auseful pur- ode, so that only half- cycles of
pose. Also, to be efficient most current flow through the load re-
of the power must do useful sistor, R.
work in the load and not be
used in heating the plate of the tube. Thus the the polarity of the current through the load is as
voltage drop across the load should be much indicated. If the diode were reversed, the polarity
higher than the drop across the diode. of the voltage developed across the load R would
With the diode connected as shown in Fig. 3-4, be reversed.

VACUUM-TUBE AMPLIFIERS
TRIODES of the grid voltage on the plate current can be
shown by a set of characteristic curves. A typi-
Grid Control cal set of curves is shown in Fig. 3-6, together
If athird element—called the control grid, or with the circuit that is used for getting them. For
simply grid—is inserted between the cathode each value of plate voltage, there is a value of
and plate as in Fig. 3-5, it can be used to control negative grid voltage that will reduce the plate
the effect of the space charge. If the grid is given current to zero; that is, there is avalue of nega-
apositive voltage with respect to the cathode, the tive grid voltage that will cut off the plate cur-
positive charge will tend to neutralize the nega- rent.
tive space charge. The result is that, at any The curves could be extended by making the
grid voltage positive as well as negative. When
the grid is negative, it repels electrons and there-
fore none of them reaches it; in other words, no
Fig. 3-5—Construction of current flows in the grid circuit. However, when
an elementary triode vac- the grid is positive, it attracts electrons and a
uum tube, showing the di- current (grid current) flows, just as current
rectly- heated cathode ( fil- flows to the positive plate. Whenever there is
ament), grid ( with an end grid current there is an accompanying power loss
view of the grid wires) in the grid circuit, but so long as the grid is neg-
and plate. The relative ative no power is used.
density of the space It is obvious that the grid can act as avalue to
charge is indicated control the flow of plate current. Actually, the
roughly by the dot density, grid has a much greater effect on plate current
flow than does the plate voltage. A small change
in grid voltage is just as effective in bringing
about agiven change in plate current as is alarge
selected plate voltage, more electrons will flow to change in plate voltage.
the plate than if the grid were not present. On The fact that asmall voltage acting on the grid
the other hand, if the grid is made
negative with respect to the cathode
the negative charge on the grid will
add to the space charge. This will
reduce the number of electrons that
can reach the plate at any selected
plate voltage.
The grid is inserted in the tube
to control the space charge and not
to attract electrons to itself, so it is
2
made in the form of awire mesh or
spiral. Electrons then can go through --20
25 - 5 - 10 o
Grid Voltage
the open spaces in the grid to reach
the plate. Fig. 3-6—Grid-voltage-vs.-plate-current curves at various fixed values
of plate voltage (Li) for atypical small triode. Characteristic curves of
Characteristic Curves this type can be taken by varying the battery voltages in the circuit
For any particular tube, the effect at the right.
62 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES
is equivalent to a large voltage acting on the is the commonly- used unit. Difielent types of
plate indicates the possibility of. amplification tubes have transconductances ranging from afew
with the triode tube. The many uses of the elec- hundred to several thousand. The higher the
tronic tube nearly all are based upon this ampli- transconductance the greater the possible ampli-
fying feature. The amplified output is not ob- fication.
tained from the tube itself, but from the source
of e.m.f. connected between its plate and cathode. AMPLIFICATION
The tube simply controls the power from this The way in which a tube amplifies is best
source, changing it to the desired form. shown by a type of graph called the dynamic
To utilize the controlled power, aload must be characteristic. Such a graph, together with the
connected in the plate or "output" circuit, just as circuit used for obtaining it, is shown in Fig. 3-7.
in the diode case. The load may be either a re-
sistance or an impedance. The term "impedance" 20

is frequently used even when the load is purely

I I
resistive.
16

Tube Characteristics
14

The physical construction of a triode, deter-

mines the relative effectiveness of the grid and 124

plate in controlling the plate current. If a very

small change in the grid voltage has just as much E b .300V.

effect on the plate current as avery large change e

in plate voltage, the tube is said to have a high 6
amplification factor. Amplification factor is
commonly designated by the Greek letter /.s. An 4

amplification factor of 20, for example, means 2

that if the grid voltage is changed by 1volt, the
effect on the plate current will be the same -25 -20 - IS .0
as when the plate voltage is changed by 20 volts. Grid Voltage

The amplification factors of triode tubes range Fig. 3-7— Dynamic characteristics of asmall triode with
from 3to 100 or so. A high-et tube is one with an various load resistances from 5000 to 100,000 ohms.
amplification factor of perhaps 30 or more;
medium-es tubes have amplification factors in the The curves are taken with the plate- supply volt-
approximate range 8 to 30, and low-s tubes in age fixed at the desired operating value. The dif-
the range below 7or 8. ference between this circuit and the one shown in
It would be natural to think that a tube that Fig. 3-6 is that in Fig. 3-7 a load resistance is
has a large es would be the best amplifier, but to connected in series with the plate of the tube. Fig.
obtain a high /.4it is necessary to construct the 3-7 thus shows how the plate current will vary,
grid with many turns of wire per inch, or in the with different grid voltages, when the plate cur-
form of a fine mesh. This leaves a relatively rent is made to flow through a load and thus do
small open area for electrons to go through to useful work.
reach the plate, so it is difficult for the plate to The several curves in Fig. 3-7 are for various
attract large numbers of electrons. Quite alarge values of load resistance. When the resistance is
change in the plate voltage must be made to effect small ( as in the case of the 5000-ohm load) the
agiven change in plate current. This means that plate current changes rather rapidly with agiven
the resistance of the plate- cathode path—that is, change in grid voltage. If the load resistance is
the plate resistance—of the tube is high. Since high ( as in the 100,000- ohm curve), the change
this resistance acts in series with the load, the in plate current for the same grid-voltage change
amount of current that can be made to flow is relatively small; also, the curve tends to be
through the load is relatively small. On the other straighter.
hand, the plate resistance of a low-it tube is rel- Fig. 3-8 is the same type of curve, but with the
atively low. circuit arranged so that a source of alternating
The best all-around indication of the effective- voltage ( signal) is inserted between the grid and
ness of the tube as an amplifier is its grid-plate the grid battery (" C" battery). The voltage of
transconductance—also called mutual conduct- the grid battery is fixed at — 5volts, and from
ance. This characteristic takes account of both the curve it is seen that the plate current at this
amplification factor and plate resistance, and grid voltage is 2milliamperes. This current flows
therefore is afigure of merit for the tube. Trans- when the load resistance is 50,000 ohms, as indi-
conductance is the change in plate current divided cated in the circuit diagram. If there is no a.c.
by the change in grid voltage that causes the signal in the grid circuit, the voltage drop in the
plate-current change ( the plate voltage being load resistor is 50,000 X 0.002 = 100 volts, leav-
fixed at a desired value). Since current divided ing 200 volts between the plate and cathode.
by voltage is conductance, transconductance is When a sine- wave signal having apeak value
measured in the unit of conductance, the mho. of 2volts is applied in series with the bias voltage
Practical values of transconductance are very in the grid circuit, the instantaneous voltage at
small, so the micromho ( one-millionth of amho) the grid will swing to —3volts at the instant the
Vacuum-Tube Amplifier 63
6
I
000 the plate circuit as is applied to the grid circuit.
—
As shown by the drawings in Fig. 3-8, the
alternating component of the plate voltage
so,000
-.Ohms 500 swings in the negative direction ( with reference
to the no-signal value of plate-cathode voltage)
when the grid voltage swings in the positive di-
4 _ 400
rection, and vice versa. This means that the alter-
nating component of plate voltage ( that is, the
amplified signal) is 180 degrees out of phase with
e the signal voltage on the grid.
I
o. Bias
Operating
Poin É'', The fixed negative grid voltage ( called grid
bias) in Fig. 3-8 serves a very useful purpose.
E, .....'.. . 1
One object of the type of amplification shown in
this drawing is to obtain, from the plate circuit,
100
an alternating voltage that has the same wave-
1 1 ! shape as the signal voltage applied to the grid. To
I 1 I
do so, an operating point on the straight part of
-5 - to -5 o the curve must be selected. The curve must be
Grid Voltage straight in both directions from the operating
point at least far enough to accommodate the
Sral
, Voltage
maximum value of the signal applied to the grid.
If the grid signal swings the plate current back
o and forth over a part of the curve that is not
Fig. 3- 8-- Amplifier operation. When the plate current straight, as in Fig. 3-9, the shape of the a.c. wave
various in response to the signal applied to the grid, a in the plate circuit will not be the same as the
varying voltage drop appears across the load, as shape of the grid- signal wave. In such acase the
shown by the dashed curve, E9.1p is the plate current. output wave shape will be distorted.
A second reason for using negative grid bias is
signal reaches its positive peak, and to — 7volts that any signal whose peak positive voltage does
at the instant the signal reaches its negative peak. not exceed the fixed negative voltage on the grid
The maximum plate current will occur at the in- cannot cause grid current to flow. With no cur-
stant the grid voltage is — 3volts. As shown by rent flow there is no power consumption, so the
the graph, it will have a value of 2.65 milliam- tube will amplify without taking any power from
peres. The minimum plate current occurs at the the signal source. ( However, if the positive peak
instant the grid voltage is — 7 volts, and has a of the signal does exceed the negative bias, cur-
value of 1.35 ma. At intermediate values of grid rent will flow in the grid circuit during the time
voltage, intermediate plate-current values will the grid is positive.)
occur. Distortion of the output wave shape that results
The instantaneous voltage between the plate •
and cathode of the tube also is shown on the
graph. When the plate current is maximum, the 1
instantaneous voltage drop in Rp is 50,000 X ,
0.00265 = 132.5 volts; when the plate current is 3

minimum the instantaneous voltage drop in Rp is

50,000 X 0.00135 = 67.5 volts. The actual voltage 2
between plate and cathode is the difference be-
2
tween the plate- supply potential, 300 volts, and F.
the voltage drop in the load resistance. The plate-
to-cathode voltage is therefore 167.5 volts at
maximum plate current and 232.5 volts at mini- 2
mum plate current. Point
This varying plate voltage is an a.c. voltage t I
t

superimposed on the steady plate-cathode poten-

tial of 200 volts ( as previously determined for no-
signal conditions). The peak value of this a.c. I Grld Voltage
output voltage is the difference between either
the maximum or minimum plate- cathode voltage
and the no-signal value of 200 volts. In the il-
SIgnal Voltage
lustration this difference is 232.5 — 200 or 200
— 167.5; that is, 32.5 volts in either case. Since
the grid signal voltage has a peak value of 2 Fig. 3- 9— Harmonic distortion resulting from choice of
volts, the voltage-amplification ratio of the an operating point on the curved part of the tube char-
amplifier is 32.5/2 or 16.25. That is, approxi- acteristic. The lower half- cycle of plate current does not
mately 16 times as much voltage is obtained from have the same shape as the upper half-cycle.
64 VACUUM—TUBE PRINCIPLES
from working over apart of the curve that is not A

straight ( that is, a nonlinear part of the curve) ce

has the effect of transforming a sine-wave grid
signal into a more complex waveform. As
explained in an earlier chapter, a complex wave Signal

can be resolved into a fundamental and a series

of harmonics. In other words, distortion from
nonlinearity causes the generation of harmonic
frequencies—frequencies that are not present in
the signal applied to the grid. Harmonic distor-
tion is undesirable in most amplifiers, although RESISTANCE COUPLING

there are occasions when harmonics are deliber-

ately generated and used.
A

Audio Amplifier Output Circuits

The useful output of a vacuum-tube amplifier
is the alternating component of plate current or L,
SIgnal +
plate voltage. The d.c. voltage on the plate of the
tube is essential for the tube's operation, but it
almost invariably would cause difficulties if it
were applied, along with the a.c. output voltage,
to the load. The output circuits of vacumm tubes
are therefore arranged so that the a.c. is trans-
IMPEDANCE COUPLING
ferred to the load but the d.c. is not.
Three types of Coupling are in common use at
audio frequencies. These are resistance coupling,
A
impedance coupling, and transformer coupling.
They are shown in Fig. 3-10. In all three cases
the output is shown coupled to the grid circuit of
asubsequent amplifier tube, but the same types of Signal
+ +
circuits can be used to couple to other devices
than tubes.
In the resistance-coupled circuit, the a.c. volt-
age developed across the plate resistor R, (that
is, the a.c. voltage between the plate and cathode
of the tube) is applied to a second resistor, R., TRANSFORMER COUPLING

through acoupling capacitor, C,. The capacitor

Fig. 3- 10—Three basic forms of coupling between
"blocks off" the d.c. voltage on the plate of the
vacuum-tube amplifiers.
first tube and prevents it from being applied to
the grid of tube B. The latter tube has negative
grid bias supplied by the battery shown. No cur- hundred henrys) for the plate resistor. The ad-
rent flows on the grid circuit of tube B and there vantage of using an inductor rather than a re-
is therefore no d.c. voltage drop in R.; in other sistor at this point is that the impedance of the
words, the full voltage of the bias battery is inductor is high for audio frequencies, but its
applied to the grid of tube B. resistance is relatively low. Thus it provides a
The grid resistor, R., usually has arather high high value of load impedance for a.c. without an
value ( 0.5 to 2megohms). The reactance of the excessive d.c. voltage drop, and consequently the
coupling capacitor, C„ must be low enough com- power-supply voltage does not have to be high
pared with the resistance of R. so that the a.c. for effective operation.
voltage drop in C, is negligible at the lowest fre- The transformer-coupled amplifier uses a
quency to be amplified. If R. is at least 0.5 transformer with its primary connected in the
megohm, a0.1-µf. capacitor will be amply large plate circuit of the tube and its secondary con-
for the usual range of audio frequencies. nected to the load ( in the circuit shown, afollow-
So far as the alternating component of plate ing amplifier). There is no direct connection be-
voltage is concerned, it will be realized that if the tween the two windings, so the plate voltage on
voltage drop in C,is negligible then R, and R. tube A is isolated from the grid of tube B. The
are effectively in parallel ( although they are transformer- coupled amplifier has the same ad-
quite separate so far as d.c. is concerned). The vantage as the impedance-coupled circuit with re-
resultant parallel resistance of the two is there- spect to loss of d.c. voltage from the plate supply.
fore the actual load resistance for the tube. That Also, if the secondary has more turns than the pri-
is why R. is made as high in resistance as possi- mary, the output voltage will be " stepped up" in
ble; then it will have the least effect on the load proportion to the turns ratio.
represented by R„. Resistance coupling is simple, inexpensive, and
The impedance-coupled circuit differs from will give the same amount of amplification—or
that using resistance coupling only in the sub- voltage gain—over awide range of frequencies;
stitution of ahigh inductance ( as high as several it will give substantially the same amplification
U.H.F. and Microwave Tubes 77
axially. The disk- seal terminals practically elim- This field accelerates the electrons at one mo-
inate lead inductance. ment and retards them at another, in accordance
with the variations of the r.f. voltage applied.
Velocity Modulation
The resulting velocity-modulated beam travels
In conventional tube operation the potential on through a field-free "drift space," where the
the grid tends to reduce the electron velocity slower-moving electrons are gradually overtaken
during the more negative half of the cycle, while by the faster ones. The electrons emerging from
on the other half cycle the positive potential on the pair of grids therefore are separated into
the grid serves to accelerate the electrons. Thus groups or "bunched" along the direction of mo-
the electrons tend to separate into groups, those tion. The velocity- modulated electron stream
leaving the cathode during the negative half- then goes to a catcher cavity where it again
cycle being collectively slowed down, while those passes through two parallel grids, and the r.f.
leaving on the positive half are accelerated. current created by the bunching of the electron
After passing into the grid-plate space only a beam induces an r.f, voltage between the grids.
part of the electron stream follows the original The catcher cavity is made resonant at the fre-
form of the oscillation cycle, the remainder trav- quency of the velocity-modulated electron beam,
eling to the plate at differing velocities. Since so that an oscillating field is set up within it by
these contribute nothing to the power output at the passage of the electron bunches through the
the operating frequency, the efficiency is reduced grid aperture.
in direct proportion to the variation in velocity, If afeedback loop is provided between the two
the output reaching a value of zero when the cavities, as shown in Fig. 3-27, oscillations will
transit time approaches ahalf-cycle. occur. The resonant frequncy depends on the
This effect is turned to advantage in velocity- electrode voltages and on the shape of the cavi-
modulated tubes in that the input signal voltage ties, and may be adjusted by varying the supply
on the grid is used to change the velocity of the voltage and altering the dimensions of the
electrons in a constant- current electron beam, cavities. Although the bunched beam current is
rather than to vary the intensity of a constant- rich in harmonics the output wave form is re-
velocity current flow as is the method in ordinary markable pure because the high Q of the catcher
tubes. cavity suppresses the unwanted harmonics.'
The velocity modulation principle may be used
in a number of ways, leading to several tube de- Magnetrons
signs. The major tube of this type is the "kly- A magnetron is fundamentally a diode with
stron." cylindrical electrodes placed in a uniform mag-
netic field, with the lines of magnetic force par-
The Klystron allel to the axes of the elements. The simple cy-
In the klystron tube the electrons emitted by
Direction oi magnetic field—.
the cathode pass through an electric field estab-
lished by two grids in a cavity resonator called
the buncher. the high-frequency electric field be-
tween the grids is parallel to the electron stream.
(A)

Direction of magnetic &hi

filament Anode
(B)

Fig. 3-28—Conventional magnetrons, with equivalent

schematic symbols at the right. A, simple cylindrical
magnetron. B, split-anode negative- resistance magne-
tron.

lindrical magnetron consists of a cathode sur-

rounded by a concentric cylindrical anode. In
the more efficient split-anode magnetron the cyl-
inder is divided lengthwise.
Magnetron oscillators are operated in two

1 A discussion of the operation of a three-cavity trans-

mitting klystron operating above 1000 Mc. will be found
IS v,A,C in QST for August, 1961 ( Badger, "An Introduction to
the Klystron."). Practical Information on klystron opera-
Fig. 3-27—Circuit diagram of the klystron oscillator, tion will be found in QST for August, 1960 ( Prechtel,
"An Experimental Transceiver for 5660 Mc.") and May,
showing the feedback loop coupling the frequency-con-
1959 ( Sharbaugh and Watters, "The World Above
trolling cavities. 20,000 Me.").
66 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES
half of the output-transformer primary works
alternately to induce a half-cycle of voltage in
the secondary. In the secondary of T 2 , the
original waveform is restored. This type of oper-
ation is called Class B amplification.
The Class B amplifier has considerably higher
plate efficiency than the Class A amplifier. Fur-
PARALLEL thermore, the d.c. plate current of aClass B am-
plifier is proportional to the signal voltage on the
grids, so the power input is small with small
signals. The d.c. plate power input to a Class A
amplifier is the same whether the signal is large,
small, or absent altogether; therefore the maxi-
mum d.c. plate input that can be applied to a
Class A amplifier is equal to the rated plate dissi-
pation of the tube or tubes. Two tubes in aClass
B amplifier can deliver approximately twelve
time as much audio power as the same two tubes
in a Class A amplifier.
PUSH—PULL A Class B amplifier usually is operated in such
Fig. 3- 12—Parallel and push-pull a.f. amplifier circuits. a way as to secure the maximum possible power
output. This requires rather large values of plate
ends of the secondary winding of the input trans- current, and to obtain them the signal voltage
former, T1,will be at opposite polarity with must completely overcome the grid bias during
respect to the cathode connection, so the grid of at least part of the cycle, so grid current flows
one tube is swung positive at the same instant and the grid circuit consumes power. While the
that the grid of the other is swung negative. power requirements are fairly low ( as compared
Hence, in any push-pull-connected amplifier the with the power output), the fact that the grids
voltages and currents of one tube are out of phase are positive during only part of the cycle means
with those of the other tube. that the load on the preceding amplifier or
In push-pull operation the even-harmonic driver stage varies in magnitude during the cy-
(second, fourth, etc.) distortion is balanced out cle; the effective load resistance is high when the
in the plate circuit. This means that for the same grids are not drawing current and relatively low
power output the distortion will be less than with when they do take current. This must be allowed
parallel operation. for when designing the driver.
The exciting voltage measured between the Certain types of tubes have been designed
two grids must be twice that required for one specifically for Class B service and can be oper-
tube. If the grids consume power, the driving ated without fixed or other form of grid bias
power for the push-pull amplifier is twice that (zero- bias tubes). The amplification factor is so
taken by either tube alone. high that the plate current is small without
signal. Because there is no fixed bias, the grids
Cascade Amplifiers start drawing current immediately whenever a
It is readily possible to take the output of one
amplifier and apply it as a signal on the grid of
a second amplifier, then take the second ampli-
fier's output and apply it to a third, and so on.
Each amplifier is called astage, and stages used
successively are said to be in cascade. AUDIO AUDIO
INPUT OUTPUT

Class B Amplifiers
Fig 3-13 shows two tubes connected in apush-
pull circuit. If the grid bias is set at the point
where ( when no signal is applied) the plate cur-
rent is just cut off, then a signal can cause
plate current to flow in either tube only when the SIGNAL
ON
signal voltage applied to that particular tube is GRIDS
positive with respect to the cathode. Since in the
balanced grid circuit the signal voltages on the PLATE
grids of the two tubes always have opposite po- CURRENT
TUBE A
larities, plate current flows only in one tube at a PLATE
time. CURRENT
TUBE B
The graphs show the operation of such an
amplifier. The plate current of tube B is drawn
COMBINED
inverted to show that it flows in the opposite di- OUTPUT
rection, through the primary of the output trans-
former, to the plate current of tube A. Thus each Fig. 3- 13— Class B amplifier operation.
Class BAmplifiers 67
signal is applied, so the grid-current flow is An operating angle of less than 180 degrees
countinuous throughout the cycle. This makes the leads to a considerable amount of distortion, be-
load on the driver much more constant than is cause there is no way for the tube to reproduce
the case with tubes of lower µbiased to plate-cur- even a half- cycle of the signal on its grid. Using
rent cut-off. two tubes in push-pull, as in Fig 3-13, would
Class B amplifiers used at radio frequencies merely put together two distorted half-cycles.
are known as linear amplifiers because they are An operating angle of less than 180 degrees
adjusted to operate in such away that the power therefore cannot be used if distortionless output
output is proportional to the square of the r.f. is wanted.
exciting voltage. This permits amplification of a
modulated r.f. signal without distortion. Push- Class C Amplifiers
pull is not required in this type of operation; a In power amplifiers operating at radio fre-
single tube can be used equally well. quencies distortion of the r.f. wave form is rela-
tively unimportant. For reasons described later
Class AB Amplifiers in this chapter, an r.f. amplifier must be operated
A Class AB amplifier is apush-pull amplifier with tuned circuits, and the selectivity of such
with higher bias than would be normal for pure circuits " filters out" the r.f. harmonics resulting
Class A operation, but less than the cut-off bias from distortion.
required for Class B. At low signal levels the A radio-frequency power amplifier therefore
tubes operate practically as Class A amplifiers, can be used with an operating angle of less than
and the plate current is the same with or without 180 degrees. This is call Class C operation. The
signal. At higher signal levels, the plate current advantage is the that plate efficiency is increased,
of one tube is cut off during part of the negative because the loss in the plate is proportional,
cycle of the signal applied to its grid, and the among other things, to the amount of time during
plate current of the other tube rises with the which the plate current flows, and this time is
signal. The plate current for the whole amplifier reduced by decreasing the operating angle.
also rises above the no- signal level when a large Depending on the type of tube, the optimum
signal is applied. load resistance for a Class C amplifier ranges
In a properly designed Class AB amplifier the from about 1500 to 5000 ohms. It is usually
distortion is as low as with aClass A stage, but secured by using tuned- circuit arrangements, of
the efficiency and power output are considerably the type described in the chapter on circuit funda-
higher than with pure Class A operation. A Class mentals, to transform the resistance of the actual
AB amplifier can be operated either with or with- load to the value required by the tube. The grid
out driving the grids into the positive region. A is driven • well into the positive region, so that
Class AB, amplifier is one in which the grids are grid current flows and power is consumed in the
never positive with respect to the cathode; there- grid circuit. The smaller the operating angle, the
fore, no driving power is required—only voltage. greater the driving voltage and the larger the
A Class AB 2 amplifier is one that has grid- grid driving power required to develop full out-
current flow during part of the cycle if the put in the load resistance. The best compromise
applied signal is large; it takes asmall amount of between driving power, plate efficiency, and power
driving power. The Class AB 2 amplifier will de- output usually results when the minimum plate
liver somewhat more power ( using the same voltage ( at the peak of the driving cycle, when
tubes) but the Class AB i amplifier avoids the the plate current reaches its highest value) is
problem of designing a driver that will deliver just equal to the peak positive grid voltage. Under
power, without distortion, into a load of highly these conditions the operating angle is usually be-
variable resistance. tween 150 and 180 degrees and the plate efficiency
lies in the range of 70 to 80 percent. While higher
Operating Angle
plate efficiencies are possible, attaining them re-
Inspection of Fig. 3-13 shows that either of quires excessive driving power and grid bias, to-
the two tubes actually is working for only half gether with higher plate voltage than is "normal"
the a.c. cycle and idling during the other half. for the particular tube type.
It is convenient to describe the amount of time With proper design and adjustment, aClass C
during which plate current flows in terms of amplifier can be made to operate in such a way
electrical degrees. In Fig. 3-13 each tube has that the power input and output are proportional
"180- degree" excitation, a half-cycle being equal to the square of the applied plate voltage. This is
to 180 degrees. The number of degrees during an important consideration when the amplifier is
which plate current flows is called the operating to be plate- modulated for radiotelephony, as
angle of the amplifier. From the descriptions described in the chapter on amplitude modulation.
given above, it should be clear that a Class A
amplifier has 360-degree excitation, because plate FEEDBACK
current flows during the whole cycle. In a Class It is possible to take a part of the amplified
AB amplifier the operating angle is between 180 energy in the plate circuit of an amplifier and
and 360 degrees ( in each tube) depending on insert it into the grid circuit. When this is done
the particular operating conditions chosen. The the amplifier is said to have feedback.
greater the amount of negative grid bias, the If the voltage that is inserted in the grid cir-
smaller the operating angle becomes. cuit is 180 degrees out of phase with the signal
68 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES
voltage acting on the grid, the feedback is called feedback voltage. Reversing the terminals of
negative, or degenerative. On the other hand, if either transformer winding ( but not both simul-
the voltage is fed back in phase with the grid taneously) will reverse the phase.
signal, the feedback is called positive, or re-
Positive Feedback
generative.
Positive feedback increases the amplification
Negative Feedback because the feedback voltage adds to the original
With negative feedback the voltage that is fed signal voltage and the resulting larger voltage on
back opposes the signal voltage. This decreases the grid causes a larger output voltage. The
the amplitude of the voltage acting between the amplification tends to be greatest at one fre-
grid and cathode and thus has the effect of reduc- quency ( which depends upon the particular cir-
ing the voltage amplification. That is, a larger cuit arrangement) and harmonic distortion is
exciting voltage is required for obtaining the increased. If enough energy is fed back, a self-
same output voltage from the plate circuit. sustaining oscillation—in which energy at essen-
The greater the amount of negative feedback tially one frequency is generated by the tube
(when properly applied) the more independent itself—will be set up. In such case all the signal
the amplification becomes of tube characteristics voltage on the grid can be supplied from the
and circuit conditions. This tends to make the plate circuit; no external signal is needed because
frequency- response characteristic of the amplifier any small irregularity in the plate current—and
flat—that is, the amplification tends to be the there are always some such irregularities—will
same at all frequencies within the range for be amplified and thus give the oscillation an
which the amplifier is designed. Also, any distor- opportunity to build up. Positive feedback finds
tion generated in the plate circuit of the tube a major application in such "oscillators," and in
tends to "buck itself out." Amplifiers with nega- addition is used for selective amplification at both
tive feedback are therefore comparatively free audio and radio frequencies, the feedback being
from harmonic distortion. These advantages are kept below the value that causs self-oscillation.
worth while if the amplifier otherwise has enough
voltage gain for its intended use. INTERELECTRODE CAPACITANCES
Each pair of elements in atube forms a small
capacitor, with each element acting as a capac-
itor "plate." There are three such capacitances
(A) in a triode—that between the grid and cathode,
that between the grid and plate, and that be-
tween the plate and cathode. The capacitances
Signal
are very small—only a few micromicrofarads at
most—but they frequently have a very pro-
nounced effect on the operation of an amplifier
circuit.

Input Capacitance
It was explained perviously that the a.c. grid
voltage and a.c. plate voltage of an amplifier
having a resistive load are 180 degrees out of
(13)
phase, using the cathode of the tube as areference
point. However, these two voltages are in phase
Signal going around the circuit from plate to grid as
shown in Fig. 3-15. This means that their sum is
acting between the grid and plate; that is, across
the grid-plate capacitance of the tube.
Fig. 3- 14— Simple circuits for producing feedback.
As a result, a capacitive current flows around
the circuit, its amplitude being directly propor-
In the circuit shown at A in Fig. 3-14 resistor tional to the sum of the a.c. grid and plate
R, is in series \\ ith the regular plate resistor,
and thus is apart of the load for the tube. There-
fore, part of the output voltage will appear across
R,. However, R, also is connected in series with
the grid circuit, and so the output voltage that
appears across R, is in series with the signal
voltage. The output voltage across R, opposes
the signal voltage, so the actual a.c. voltage be-
tween the grid and cathode is equal to the
difference between the two voltages.
The circuit shown at B in Fig. 3-14 can be used Fig. 3- 15— The a.c. voltage appearing between the
to give either negative or positive feedback. The grid and plate of the amplifier is the sum of the signal
secondary of a transformer is connected back voltage and the output voltage, as shown by this sim-
into the grid circuit to insert adesired amount of plified circuit. Instantaneous polarities are indicated.
Transistors 81
breakdown point, the voltage drop across the
diode is essentially constant over a wide range
of currents. The substantially constant voltage
drop over a wide range of currents allows this INPUT I OUTPUT
semiconductor device to be used as a constant
voltage reference or control element, in a man-
ner somewhat similar to the gaseous voltage-
regulator tube. Voltages for zener diode action Fig. 4- 5— Full-wave clipping action with two zener
range from a few volts to several hundred and diodes in opposition. The output level would be at a
power ratings run from afraction of awatt to 50 peak- to- peak voltage of twice the zener rating of a
watts. single diode. R, should have a resistance value sufficient
Zener diodes can be connected in series to ad- to limit the current to the zener diode rating.
vantage; the temperature coefficient is improved
over that of a single diode of equivalent rating
and the power-handling capability is increased. receiver local oscillators, and simple frequency
Two zener diodes connected in opposition, Fig. modulators for communications and for sweep-
4-5, form a simple and highly effective clipper. tuning applications.

Voltage-Variable Capacitors Tunnel Diode

Voltage-variable capacitors are p-n junction Much hope is held for the future use of the
diodes that behave as capacitors of reasonable Q "tunnel diode," a junction semiconductor of spe-
(35 or more) up to 50 Mc. and higher. They are cial construction that has a "negative resistance"
useful in many applications because the actual characteristic at low voltages. This characteris-
capacitance value is dependent upon the d.c. bias tic (decrease of current with increase of volt-
voltage that is applied. In atypical capacitor the age) permits the diode to be used as an oscillator
capacitance can be varied over a 10-to- 1 range and as an amplifier. Since electrical charges
with a bias change from 0 to — 100 volts. The move through the diode with the speed of light•
current demand on the bias supply is on the order in contrast to the relatively slow motion of elec-
of afew microamperes. trical charge carriers in other semiconductors,
Typical applications include remote control of it has been possible to obtain oscillations at 2000
tuned circuits, automatic frequency control of Mc. and higher.

TRANSISTORS
Fig. 4-6 shows a "sandwich" made from two can flow even though this section of the sandwich
layers of p-type semiconductor material with a considered alone is biased to prevent conduction.
thin layer of n-type between. There are in effect Most of the current is between A and B and does
two p-n junction diodes back to back. If a not flow out through the common connection to
positive bias is applied to the p- type material at the n-type material in the sandwich.
the left, current will flow through the left- A semiconductor combination of this type is
hand junction, the holes moving to the right called a transistor, and the three sections are
and the electrons from the n-type material known as the emitter, base and collector, re-
moving to the left. Some of the holes moving spectively. The amplitude of the collector current
into the n-type material will combine with the depends principally upon the amplitude of the
electrons there and be neutralized, but some of emitter current; that is, the collector current is
them also will travel to the region of the right- controlled by the emitter current.
hand junction.
If the p-n combination at the right is biased Power Amplification
negatively, as shown, there would normally be Because the collector is biased in the back di-
no current flow in this circuit ( see Fig. 4-1C). rection the collector-to-base resistance is high.
However, there are now additional holes avail- On the other hand, the emitter and collector
able at the junction to travel to point B and cùrrents are substantially equal, so the power in
electrons can travel toward point A, so acurrent the collector circuit is larger than the power in
the emitter circuit (P = 12 R, so the powers
are proportional to the respective resistances, if
the currents are the same). In practical transis-
EMITTER COLLECTOR tors emitter resistance is of the order of a few
hundred ohms while the collector resistance is
hundreds or thousands of times higher, so power
gains of 20 to 40 db. or even more are possible.

Types
The transistor may be one of the several types
shown in Fig. 4-7. The assembly of p- and n-type
Fig. 4- 6— The basic arrangement of a transistor. This materials may be reversed, so that p-n-p and
represents a junction- type p- n- p unit. n-p-ntransistors are both possible.
70 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES
Although the screen grid in either the tetrode the grid bias. This method of gain control is uni-
or pentode greatly reduces the influence of the versally used in radio-frequency amplifiers de-
plate upon plate-current flow, the control grid signed for receivers.
still can control the plate current in essentially The ordinary type of tube has what Is known
the same way that it does in a triode. Conse- as a sharp-cutoff characteristic. The mutual
quently, the grid-plate transconductance ( or conductance decreases at auniform rate as the
-

mutual conductance) of atetrode or pentode will negative bias is increased. The amount of signal
be of the same order of value as in a triode of voltage that such a tube can handle without
corresponding structure. On the other hand, causing distortion is not sufficient to take care of
since a change in plate voltage has very little very strong signals. To overcome this, some tubes
effect on the plate-current flow, both the ampli- are made with a variable- /hcharacteristic—that
fication factor and plate resistance of a pentode is, the amplification factor decreases with in-
or tetrode are very high. In small receiving creasing grid bias. The variable-/ htube can han-
pentodes the amplification factor is of the order dle a much larger signal than the sharp- cutoff
of 1000 or higher, while the plate resistance may type before the signal swings either beyond the
be from 0.5 to 1or more megohms. Because of zero grid-bias point or the plate-current cutoff
the high plate resistance, the actual voltage point.
amplification possible with a pentode is very
much less than the large amplification factor INPUT AND OUTPUT IMPEDANCES
might indicate. A voltage gain in the vicinity of The input impedance of avacuum-tube ampli-
50 to 200 is typical of apentode stage. fier is the impedance " seen" by the signal source
In practical screen-grid tubes the grid-plate when connected to the input terminals of the
capacitance is only a small fraction of a micro- amplifier. In the types of amplifiers previously
microfarad. This capacitance is too small to discussed, the input impedance is the impedance
cause an appreciable increase in input capaci- measured between the grid and cathode of the
tance as described in the preceding section, so the tube with operating voltages applied. At audio
input capacitance of ascreen-grid tube is simply frequencies the input impedance of a Class A1
the sum of its grid-cathode capacitance and con- amplifier is for all practical purposes the input
trol- grid- to- screen capacitance. The output ca- capacitance of the stage. If the tube is driven into
pacitance of a screen-grid tube is equal to the the grid- current region there is in addition are-
capacitance between the plate and screen. sistance component in the input impedance, the
In addition to their applications as radio- resistance having an average value equal to E2/P,
frequency amplifiers, pentodes or tetrodes also where E is the r.m.s. driving voltage and P is the
are used for audio-frequency power amplifica- power in watts consumed in the grid. The re-
tion. In tubes designed for this purpose the chief sistance usually will vary during the a.c. cycle
function of the screen is to serve as an accelera- because grid current may flow only during part
tor of the electrons, so that large values of plate of the cycle; also, the grid-voltage/grid-current
current can be drawn at relatively low plate volt- characteristic is seldom linear.
ages. Such tubes have quite high power The output impedance of amplifiers of this
sensitivity compared with triodes of the same type consists of the plate resistance of the tube
power output, although harmonic distortion is shunted by the output capacitance.
somewhat greater. At radio frequencies, when tuned circuits are
employed, the input and output impedances are
Beam Tubes usually pure resistances; any reactive compo-
A beam tetrode is a four-element screen-grid nents are "tuned out" in the process of adjust-
tube constructed in such away that the electrons ing the circuits to resonance at the operating
are formed into concentrated beams on their frequency.
way to the plate. Additional design features
overcome the effects of secondary emission so OTHER TYPES OF AMPLIFIERS
that asuppressor grid is not needed. The "beam" In the amplifier circuits so far discussed, the
construction makes it possible to draw large signal has been applied between the grid and
plate currents at relatively low plate voltages, cathode and the amplified output has been taken
and increases the power sensitivity. from the plate-to-cathode circuit. That is, the
For power amplification at both audio and cathode has been the meeting point for the input
radio frequencies beam tetrodes have largely and output circuits. However, it is possible to
supplanted the non-beam types because large use any one of the three principal elements as the
power outputs can be secured with very small common point. This leads to two additional kinds
amounts of grid driving power. of amplifiers, commonly called the grounded-
grid amplifier (or grid-separation circuit) and
Variable-ATubes the cathode follower.
The mutual conductance of avacuum tube de- These two circuits are shown in simplified
creases when its grid bias is made more negative, form in Fig. 3-17. In both circuits the resistor R
assuming that the other electrode voltages are represents the load into which the amplifier
held constant. Since the mutual conductance con- works; the actual load may be resistance- capaci-
trols the amount of amplification, it is possible tance- coupled, transformer-coupled, may be a
to adjust the gain of the amplifier by adjusting tuned circuit if the amplifier operates at radio
Transistor Characteristics 83
voltage, but for a number of different values of at which the amplification decreases by 3 db.
base current. In this case the emitter element is from its value at some frequency well below that
used as the common point in the circuit. The at which frequency effects begin to assume im-
collector current is not independent of collector portance. The input and output impedances are,
voltage with this type of connection, indicating respectively, the impedance which asignal source
that the output resistance of the device is fairly working into the transistor would see, and the
internal output impedance of the transistor
de' (corresponding to the plate resistance of a vac-
30-2. uum tube, for example).
t"" tsc
oo
Grounded- Base Circuit
•
00 The input circuit of agrounded-base amplifier
so must be designed for low impedance, since the
emitter-to-base resistance is of the order of 25//.
10 20 30 ohms, where I. is the emitter current in milli-
COLLECTOR you's amperes. The optimum output load impedance,
Fig. 4-9—Collector current vs. collector voltage for vari- RI., may range from a few thousand ohms to
ous values of base current, for ajunction-type transistor. 100,000, depending upon the requirements.
The values are determined by means of the circuit The current transfer ratio is aand the cut-off
shown. frequency is as defined previously.
In this circuit the phase of the output ( collec-
low. The base current also is quite low, which tor) current is the same as that of the input
means that the resistance of the base- emitter (emitter) current. The parts of these currents
circuit is moderately high with this method of that flow through the base resistance are like-
connection. This may be contrasted with the wise in phase, so the circuit tends to be regenera-
high values of emitter current shown in Fig. 4-8. tive and will oscillate if the current amplification
factor is greater than 1. A junction transistor is
Ratings stable in this circuit since a is less than 1, but
The principal ratings applied to transistors are apoint-contact transistor will oscillate.
maximum collector dissipation, maximum col-
Grounded- Emitter Circuit
lector voltage, maximum collector current, and
maximum emitter current. The voltage and cur- The grounded- emitter circuit shown in Fig.
rent ratings are self-explanatory. 4-10 corresponds to the ordinary grounded-
The collector dissipation is the power, usually cathode vacuum-tube amplifier. As indicated by
expressed in milliwatts, that can safely be dissi- the curves of Fig. 4-9, the base current is small
pated by the transistor as heat. With some types and the input impedance is therefore fairly high —
of transistors provision is made for transferring several thousand ohms in the average case. The
heat rapidly through the container, and such collector resistance is some tens of thousands of
units usually require installation on a heat ohms, depending on the signal source impedance.
"sink," or mounting that can absorb heat. The current transfer ratio in the common-
The amount of undistorted output power that emitter circuit is equal to
can be obtained depends on the collector voltage, a
the collector current being practically independ-
1—
ent of the voltage in a given transistor. Increas-
ing the collector voltage extends the range of Since ais close to 1 (0.98 or higher being repre-
linear operation, but must not be carried beyond sentative), the short-circuit current gain in the
the point where either the voltage or dissipation grounded- emitter circuit may be 50 or more.
ratings are exceeded. The cut-off frequency is equal to the a cut-off
frequency multiplied by ( 1 — a), and therefore
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS is relatively low. ( For example atransistor with
Amplifier circuits used with transistors fall an a cut-off of 1000 kc. and a = 0.98 would
into one of three types, known as the grounded- have a cut-off frequency of 1000 X 0.02 = 20
base, grounded-emitter, and grounded-collec- kc. in the grounded-emitter circuit.)
tor circuits. These are shown in Fig. 4-10 in Within its frequency limitations, the grounded-
elementary form. The three circuits correspond emitter circuit gives the highest power gain of
approximately to the grounded-grid, grounded- the three.
cathode and cathode-follower circuits, respec- In this circuit the phase of the output ( col-
tively, used with vacuum tubes. lector) current is opposite to that of the input
The important transistor parameters in these (base) current so such feedback as occurs
circuits are the short-circuit current transfer through the small emitter resistance is negative
ratio, the cut-off frequency, and the input and and the amplifier is stable with either junction or
output impedances. The short-circuit current point-contact transistors.
transfer ratio is the ratio of a small change in
Grounded- Collector Circuit
output current to the change in input current
that causes it, the output circuit being short- Like the vacuum-tube cathode follower, the
circuited. The cut-off frequency is the frequency grounded-collector transistor amplifier has high
84 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
input impedance and low output impedance. The
latter is approximately equal to the impedance of
the signal input source multiplied by ( 1 — a).
The input resistance depends on the load resist-
SIGNAL
ance, being approximately equal to the load INPUT OUTPUT

resistance divided by ( 1 — a). The fact that

input resistance is directly related to the load
resistance is a disadvantage of this type of am-
plifier if the load is one whose resistance or
impedance varies with frequency.
The current transfer ratio with this circuit is
1 TRANSFORMER COUPLING

1 —a R,

and the cut-off frequency is the same as in the

grounded- emitter circuit. The output and input
currents are in phase.
SIGNAL R
Practical Circuit Details INPUT OUTPUT

The transistor is essentially a low-voltage

device, so the use of a battery power supply
rather than a rectified-a.c. supply is quite com-
mon. Usually, it is more convenient to employ
a single battery as a power source in preference
to the two- battery arrangements shown in Fig. RESISTANCE COUPLING

4-10, so most circuits are designed for single-

Fig. 4- 11— Practical grounded-emitter circuits using
battery operation. Provision must be included,
transformer and resistance coupling. A combination of
therefore, for obtaining proper biasing voltage
either also can be used—e.g., resistance-coupled input
for the emitter- base circuit from the battery that and transformer-coupled output. Tuned transformers
supplies the power in the collector circuit.
may be used for r.f. and i.f. circuits.
With small transistors used for low-level amplification
the input impedance will be of the order of 1000 ohms
and the input circuit should be designed for an imped-
RL
Fig. 4- 10— Basic tran-
SIGNAL
ance step-down, if necessary. This can be done by ap-
INPUT sistor amplifier circuits.
propriate choice of turns ratio for T1 or, in the case of
RI., the load resist-
ance, may be an ac- tuned circuits, by tapping the base down on the tuned
secondary circuit. In the resistance-coupled circuit Ry
tual resistor or the pri-
should be large compared with the input impedance,
mary of atransformer.
values of the order of 10,000 ohms being used.
The input signal may
In low-level circuits RIwill be of the order of 1000
be supplied from a
transformer secondary ohms. R, should be chosen to bias the transistor to the
SIGNAL or by resistance-ca- desired no-signal collector current; its value depends on
INPUT RIand RY( see text).
pacitance coupling. In
any case it is to be
careful attention with transistors because of the
understood that a d.c.
CO MM ON EMITT ER much lower voltage available from the ordinary
path must exist be-
battery power source. Battery economy becomes
tween the base and
an important factor in circuit design, both with
emitter.
respect to voltage required and to overall current
P-n-p transistors are
drain. A bias voltage divider, for example, easily
shown in these circuits.
may use more power than the transistor with
SIGNAL If n-p-ntypes are used
INPUT which it is associated.
the battery polarities
Typical single- battery grounded- emitter cir-
must be reversed.
+-r
cuits are shown in Fig. 4-11. R1,in series with
COM M ON CO LLECTOR
the emitter, is for the purpose of "swamping
out" the resistance of the emitter-base diode; this
Coupling arrangements for introducing the swamping helps to stabilize the emitter current.
input signal into the circuit and for taking out The resistance of R1 should be large compared
the amplified signal are similar to those used with that of the emitter-base diode, which, as
with vacuum tubes. However, the actual com- stated earlier, is approximately equal to 25
ponent values will in general be quite different divided by the emitter current in ma.
from those used with tubes. This is because the Since the current in R1 flows in such adirection
impedances associated with the input and output as to bias the emitter negatively with respect to
circuits of transistors may differ widely from the the base ( ap-n-ptransistor is assumed), abase-
comparable impedances in tube circuits. Also, d.c. emitter bias slightly greater than the drop in R1
voltage drops in resistances may require more must be supplied. The proper operating point is
Oscillators 73
circuit between the grid and cathode. If the cur-
rent is made to flow through a high resistance
—a megohm or so — the resulting voltage drop in
the resistor will give the grid a negative bias of
the order of one volt. The bias so obtained is Signal
called contact- potential bias.
Contact-potential bias can be used to advan-
tage in circuits operating at low signal levels
(less than one volt peak) since it eliminates the Plate Voltage
cathode-bias resistor and bypass capacitor. It
is principally used in low-level resistance-cou- Fig. 3- 20— Screen- voltage supply for a pentode tube
pled audio amplifiers. The bias resistor is con- through a dropping resistor, R. The screen bypass
nected directly between grid and cathode, and capacitor, C, must have low enough reactance to bring
must be isolated from the signal source by a the screen to ground potential for the frequency or
blocking capacitor. frequencies being amplified.

Screen Supply voltage and the screen voltage; that is,

In practical circuits using tetrodes and pen- 250 — 100 = 150 volts. Then
todes the voltage for the screen frequently is E 150
taken from the plate supply through a resistor. R 7 — ô7Fo2- 75.000 ohms.

A typical circuit for an r.f. amplifier is shown in The power to be dissipated in the resistor Is
Fig. 3-20. Resistor R is the screen dropping re-
sistor, and C is the screen bypass capacitor. In P = El = 150 X 0.002 = 0.3 watt.
flowing through R, the screen current causes a A 54- or 1-watt resistor would be satisfactory.
voltage drop in R that reduces the plate-supply
voltage to the proper value for the screen. When The reactance of the screen bypass capacitor,
the plate- supply voltage and the screen current C, should be low compared with the screen-to-
are known, the value of R can be calculated from cathode impedance. For radio- frequency applica-
Ohm's Law. tions a capacitance in the vicinity of 0.01 AL is
amply large.
Example: An r.f. receiving pentode has a
rated screen current of 2 milliamperes ( 0.002 In some vacuum-tube circuits the screen volt-
amp.) at normal operating conditions. The age is obtained from avoltage divider connected
rated screen voltage is 100 volts, and the plate across the plate supply. The design of voltage
supply gives 250 volts. To put 100 volts on
the screen, the drop across R must be equal dividers is discussed at length in Chapter 7 on
to the difference between the plate-supply Power Supplies.

OSCILLATORS
It was mentioned earlier that if there is pedance between the cathode and plate is too
enough positive feedback in an amplifier circuit, small to permit good amplification. Maximum
self-sustaining oscillations will be set up. When
an amplifier is arranged so that this condition
exists it is called an oscillator.
Oscillations normally take place at only one 4. ( A)
frequency, and adesired frequency of oscillation
Plate Voltage
can be obtained by using aresonant circuit tuned
to that frequency. For example, in Fig. 3-21A
the circuit LC is tuned to the desired frequency
of oscillation. The cathode of the tube is con-
nected to a tap on coil L and the grid and plate HARTLEY CIRCUIT
are connected to opposite ends of the tuned cir-
cuit. When an r.f. current flows in the tuned
circuit there is a voltage drop across L that in-
creases progressively along the turns. Thus the
point at which the tap is connected will be at an
intermediate potential with respect to the two
ends of the coil. The amplified current in the
plate circuit, which flows through the bottom
section of L, is in phase with the current already
flowing in the circuit and thus in the proper
COLPITTS CIRCUIT
relationship for positive feedback.
The amount of feedback depends on the posi- Fig. 3-21— Basic oscillator circuits. Feedback voltage is
tion of the tap. If the tap is too near the grid end obtained by tapping the grid and cathode across a
the voltage drop between grid and cathode is too portion of the tuned circuit. In the Hartley circuit the
small to give enough feedback to sustain oscilla- tap is on the coil, but in the Colpitts circuit the voltage
tion, and if it is too near the plate end the im- is obtained from the drop across a capacitor.
74 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES
feedback usually is obtained when the tap is of others will be found in later chapters) but the
somewhere near the center of the coil. basic feature of all of them is that there is posi-
The circuit of Fig. 3-21A is parallel-fed, CI, tive feedback in the proper amplitude and phase
being the blocking capacitor. The value of Ce to sustain oscillation.
is not critical so long as its reactance is low
Oscillator Operating Characteristics
(not more than a few hundred ohms) at the
operating frequency. When an oscillator is delivering power to a
Capacitor C, is the grid capacitor. It and R. load, the adjustment for proper feedback will
(the grid leak) are used for the purpose of ob- depend on how heavily the oscillator is loaded
taining grid bias for the tube. In most oscillator — that is, how much power is being taken from
circuits the tube generates its own bias. During the circuit. If the feedback is not large enough—
the part of the cycle when the grid is positive grid excitation too small — a small increase in
with respect to the cathode, it attracts electrons. load may tend to throw the circuit out of oscilla-
These electrons cannot flow through L back to tion. On the other hand, too much feedback will
the cathode because C, "blocks" direct current. make the grid current excessively high, with the
They therefore have to flow or "leak" through result that the power loss in the grid circuit be-
R.to cathode, and in doing so cause a voltage comes larger than necessary. Since the oscillator
drop in R.that places anegative bias on the grid. itself supplies this grid power, excessive feed-
The amount of bias so developed is equal to the back lowers the over-all efficiency because what-
grid current multiplied by the reistance of R. ever power is used in the grid circuit is not
(Ohm's Law). The value of grid-leak resistance available as useful output.
required depends upon the kind of tube used and One of the most important considerations in
the purpose for which the oscillator is intended. oscillator design is frequency stability. The prin-
Values range all the way from afew thousand to cipal factors that cause achange in frequency are
several hundred thousand ohms. The capacitance (1) temperature, ( 2) plate voltage, ( 3) loading,
of C. should be large enough to have low reac- (4) mechanical variations of circuit elements.
tance ( a few hundred ohms) at the operating Temperature changes will cause vacuum-tube
frequency. elements to expand or contract slightly, thus
The circuit shown at B in Fig. 3-21 uses the causing variations in the interelectrode capaci-
voltage drops across two capacitors in series in tances. Since these are unavoidably part of the
the tuned circuit to supply the feedback. Other tuned circuit, the frequency will change corres-
than this, the operation is the same as just de- pondingly. Temperature changes in the coil or
scribed. The feedback can be varied by varying the tuning capacitor will alter the inductance or
the ratio of the reactance of C1 and C2 (that capacitance slightly, again causing a shift in the
is, by varying the ratio of their capacitances). resonant frequency. These effects are relatively
Another type of oscillator, called the tuned- show in operation, and the frequency change
plate tuned- grid circuit, is shown in Fig. 3-22. caused by them is called drift.
A change in plate voltage usually will cause
the frequency to change asmall amount, an effect
called dynamic instability. Dynamic instability
can be reduced by using a tuned circuit of high
effective Q. The energy taken from the circuit
to supply grid losses, as well as energy supplied
to a load, represent an increase in the effective
resistance of the tuned circuit and thus lower
its Q. For highest stability, therefore, the cou-
Fig. 3-
22 —The tuned -
plate tuned -
grid oscillator.
pling between the tuned circuit and the tube and
load must be kept as loose as possible. Pref-
Resonant circuits tuned approximately to the erably, the oscillator should not be required to
same frequency are connected between grid and deliver power to an external circuit, and a high
cathode and between plate and cathode. The two value of grid leak resistance should be used since
coils, L1 and L2,are not magnetically coupled. this helps to raise the tube grid and plate resist-
The feedback is through the grid-plate capaci- ances as seen by the tuned circuit. Loose coupling
tance of the tube, and will be in the right phase can be effected in a variety of ways — one, for
to be positive when the plate circuit, C2L2,is example, is by " tapping down" on the tank for
tuned to a slightly higher frequency than the the connections to the grid and plate. This is
grid circuit, LiCi.The amount of feedback can done in the " series-tuned" Colpitts circuit widely
be adjusted by varying the tuning of either cir- used in variable-frequency oscillators for ama-
cuit. The frequency of oscillation is determined teur transmitters and described in a later chap-
by the tuned circuit that has the higher Q. The ter. Alternatively, the L/C ratio may be made
grid leak and grid capacitor have the same func- as small as possible while sustaining stable os-
tions as in the other circuits. In this case it is cillation (high C) with the grid and plate con-
convenient to use series feed for the plate circuit, nected to the ends of the circuit as shown in
so Ce is a bypass capacitor to guide the r.f. Figs. 3-21 and 3-22. Using relatively high plate
current around the plate supply. voltage and low plate current also is desirable.
There are many oscillator circuits ( examples In general, dynamic stability will be at maxi-
Clipping Circuits 75
mum when the feedback is adjusted to the least
value that permits reliable oscillation. The use
of a tube having a high value of transconduct-
ance is desirable, since the higher the transcon-
ductance the looser the permissible coupling to
the tuned circuit and the smaller the feedback re-
quired.
Load variations act in much the same way as
plate-voltage variations. A temperature change
in the load may also result in drift.
Mechanical variations, usually caused by vi-
Fig. 3- 23— Showing how the plate may be grounded for
bration, cause changes in inductance and/or ca-
r.f. in a typical oscillator circuit ( Hartley).
pacitance that in turn cause the frequency to
"wobble" in step with the vibration.
Methods of minimizing frequency variations in needed in the plate circuit because the plate al-
oscillators are taken up in detail in later chap- ready is at ground potential and there is no r.f.
ters. to choke off. All that is necessary is a bypass
capacitor, Ce, across the plate supply. Direct
Ground Point current flows to the cathode through the lower
In the oscillator circuits shown in Figs. 3-21 part of the tuned-circuit coil, L. An advantage of
and 3-22 the cathode is connected to ground. It such a circuit is that the frame of the tuning
is not actually essential that the radio-frequency capacitor can be grounded.
circuit should be grounded at the cathode; in Tubes having indirectly heated cathodes are
fact, there are many times when an r.f. ground more easily adaptable to circuits grounded at
on some other point in the circuit is desirable. other points than the cathode than are tubes
The r.f. ground can be placed at any point so having directly heated filaments. With the latter
long as proper provisions are made for feeding tubes special precautions have to be taken to pre-
the supply voltages to the tube elements. vent the filament from being bypassed to ground
Fig. 3-23 shows the Hartley circuit with the by the capacitance of the filament-heating trans-
plate end of the circuit grounded. No r.f. choke is former.

CLIPPING CIRCUITS a

Vacuum tubes are readily adaptable to other the negative half of the signal during which the
types of operation than ordinary ( without sub- instantaneous voltage does not exceed the bias.
stantial distortion) amplification and the genera- When the negative signal voltage exceeds the
positive bias the resultant voltage at the diode
plate is negative and there is no conduction.
Thus part of the negative half cycle is clipped
SIGNAL
as shown in the drawing at the right. The
OuTPUT
BIAS SIGNAL OUTPUT
level at which clipping occurs depends on the
bias voltage, and the proportion of signal clip-
SERIES
ping depends on the signal strength in relation
±V317 BIAS LEVEL
LEVEL
to the bias voltage. If the peak signal voltage
is below the bias level there is no clipping and
BIAS LEVEL the output wave shape is the same as the input
wave shape, as shown in the lower sketch. The
OUTPUT
Fig. 3- 24— Series and shunt output voltage results from the current flow
diode clippers. Typical oper- through the load resistor R.
ation is shown at the right. In the shunt-type diode clipper negative bias
SHUNT
is applied to the plate so the diode is normally
nonconducting. In this case the signal voltage
tion of single- frequency oscillations. Of partic- is fed through the series resistor R to the output
ular interest is the clipper or limiter circuit, circuit ( which must have high impedance com-
because of its several applications in receiving pared with the resistance of R). When the nega-
and other equipment. tive half of the signal voltage exceeds the bias
voltage the diode conducts, and because of the
Diode Clipper Circuits voltage drop in R when current flows the output
Basic diode clipper circuits are shown in Fig. voltage is reduced. By proper choice of R in rela-
3-24. In the series type a positive d.c. bias volt- tionship to the load on the output circuit the
age is applied to the plate of the diode so it is clipping can be made equivalent to that given by
normally conducting. When a signal is applied the series circuit. There is no clipping when the
the current through the diode will change pro- peak signal voltage is below the bias level.
portionately during the time the signal voltage is Two diode circuits can be combined so that
positive at the diode plate and for that part of both negative and positive peaks are clipped.
76 VACUUM-TUBE PRINCIPLES

(A) (B)

Fig. 3-25—Triode clippers. A—Single triode, using shunt-type

diode clipping in the grid circuit for the positive peak and
plate-current cut-off clipping for the negative peak. B—
Cathode-coupled clipper, using plate-current cut-off clipping CATHODE- COUPLED
for both positive and negative peaks.

V 2 , which is a grounded- grid amplifier. The

Triode Clippers tubes are biased by the voltage drop across RI,
The circuit shown at A in Fig. 3-25 is capable which carries the d.c. plate currents of both
of clipping both negative and positive signal tubes. When the negative peak of the signal volt-
peaks. On positive peaks its operation is similar age exceeds the d.c. voltage across RI clipping
to the shunt diode clipper, the clipping taking occurs in VI,and when the positive peak exceeds
place when the positive peak of the signal volt- the same value of voltage I ' 2's plate current is
age is large enough to drive the grid positive. cut off. ( The bias developed in R1 tends to be con-
The positive- clipped signal is amplified by the stant because the plate current of one tube in-
tube as a resistance- coupled amplifier. Negative creases when the plate current of the other de-
peak clipping occurs when the negative peak of creases.) Thus the circuit clips both positive and
the signal voltage exceeds the fixed grid bias and negative peaks. The clipping is symmetrical, pro-
thus cuts off the plate current in the output cir- viding the d.c. voltage drop in I?, is small enough
cuit. so that the operating conditions of the two tubes
In the cathode-coupled clipper shown at B in are substantially the same. For signal voltages
Fig. 3-25 V1 is a cathode follower with its out- below the clipping level the circuit operates as a
put circuit directly connected to the cathode of normal amplifier with low distortion.

U.H.F. AND MICROWAVE TUBES

At ultrahigh frequencies, interelectrode capaci- up to five separate leads which may be connected
tances and the inductance of internal leads deter- in parallel externally. In double- lead types the
mine the highest possible frequency to which a plate and grid elements are supported by heavy
vacuum tube can be tuned. The tube usually single wires which run entirely through the en-
will not oscillate up to this limit, however, be- velope, providing terminals at either end of the
cause of dielectric losses, transit time and other
effects. In low- frequency operation, the actual
time of flight of electrons between the cathode Piale
and the anode is negligible in relation to the
duration of the cycle. At 1000 kc., for example, Grid
Glass
transit time of 0.001 microsecond, which is typi-
Cathode
cal of conventional tubes, is only 1/1000 cycle.
But at 100 Mc., this same transit time represents R.Fcathode
%o of acycle, and afull cycle at 1000 Mc. These connection
Nita
limiting factors establish about 3000 Mc. as the neater
upper frequency limit for negative- grid tubes.
D.C.Cathode
With most tubes of conventional design, the connecter)"
upper limit of useful operation is around 150 Mc.
Fig. 3-26— Sectional view of the " lighthouse" tube's
For higher frequencies tubes of special con-
construction. Close electrode spacing reduces transit
struction are required. About the only means
time while the disk electrode connections reduce lead
available for reducing interelectrode capaci-
inductance.
tances is to reduce the physical size of the ele-
ments, which is practical only in tubes which do
not have to handle appreciable power. However, bulb. With linear tank circuits the leads become
it is possible to reduce the internal lead induct- apart of the line and have distributed rather than
ance very materially by minimizing the lead lumped constants.
length and by using two or more leads in parallel In " lighthouse" tubes or disk- seal tubes, the
from an electrode. plate, grid and cathode are assembled in parallel
In some types the electrodes are provided with planes, as shown in Fig. 3-26, instead of co-
U.H.F. and Microwave Tubes 77
axially. The disk- seal terminals practically elim- This field accelerates the electrons at one mo-
inate lead inductance. ment and retards them at another, in accordance
with the variations of the r.f. voltage applied.
Velocity Modulation
The resulting velocity-modulated beam travels
In conventional tube operation the potential on through a field-free "drift space," where the
the grid tends to reduce the electron velocity slower-moving electrons are gradually overtaken
during the more negative half of the cycle, while by the faster ones. The electrons emerging from
on the other half cycle the positive potential on the pair of grids therefore are separated into
the grid serves to accelerate the electrons. Thus groups or "bunched" along the direction of mo-
the electrons tend to separate into groups, those tion. The velocity- modulated electron stream
leaving the cathode during the negative half- then goes to a catcher cavity where it again
cycle being collectively slowed down, while those passes through two parallel grids, and the r.f.
leaving on the positive half are accelerated. current created by the bunching of the electron
After passing into the grid-plate space only a beam induces an r.f, voltage between the grids.
part of the electron stream follows the original The catcher cavity is made resonant at the fre-
form of the oscillation cycle, the remainder trav- quency of the velocity-modulated electron beam,
eling to the plate at differing velocities. Since so that an oscillating field is set up within it by
these contribute nothing to the power output at the passage of the electron bunches through the
the operating frequency, the efficiency is reduced grid aperture.
in direct proportion to the variation in velocity, If afeedback loop is provided between the two
the output reaching a value of zero when the cavities, as shown in Fig. 3-27, oscillations will
transit time approaches ahalf-cycle. occur. The resonant frequncy depends on the
This effect is turned to advantage in velocity- electrode voltages and on the shape of the cavi-
modulated tubes in that the input signal voltage ties, and may be adjusted by varying the supply
on the grid is used to change the velocity of the voltage and altering the dimensions of the
electrons in a constant- current electron beam, cavities. Although the bunched beam current is
rather than to vary the intensity of a constant- rich in harmonics the output wave form is re-
velocity current flow as is the method in ordinary markable pure because the high Q of the catcher
tubes. cavity suppresses the unwanted harmonics.'
The velocity modulation principle may be used
in a number of ways, leading to several tube de- Magnetrons
signs. The major tube of this type is the "kly- A magnetron is fundamentally a diode with
stron." cylindrical electrodes placed in a uniform mag-
netic field, with the lines of magnetic force par-
The Klystron allel to the axes of the elements. The simple cy-
In the klystron tube the electrons emitted by
Direction oi magnetic field—.
the cathode pass through an electric field estab-
lished by two grids in a cavity resonator called
the buncher. the high-frequency electric field be-
tween the grids is parallel to the electron stream.
(A)

Direction of magnetic &hi

filament Anode
(B)

Fig. 3-28—Conventional magnetrons, with equivalent

schematic symbols at the right. A, simple cylindrical
magnetron. B, split-anode negative- resistance magne-
tron.

lindrical magnetron consists of a cathode sur-

rounded by a concentric cylindrical anode. In
the more efficient split-anode magnetron the cyl-
inder is divided lengthwise.
Magnetron oscillators are operated in two

1 A discussion of the operation of a three-cavity trans-

mitting klystron operating above 1000 Mc. will be found
IS v,A,C in QST for August, 1961 ( Badger, "An Introduction to
the Klystron."). Practical Information on klystron opera-
Fig. 3-27—Circuit diagram of the klystron oscillator, tion will be found in QST for August, 1960 ( Prechtel,
"An Experimental Transceiver for 5660 Mc.") and May,
showing the feedback loop coupling the frequency-con-
1959 ( Sharbaugh and Watters, "The World Above
trolling cavities. 20,000 Me.").
78 VACUUM- TUBE PRINCIPLES
different ways. Electrically the circuits are simi- it. Meanwhile other electrons gain energy from
lar, the difference being in the relation between the field and are returned to the cathode. Since
electron transit time and the frequency of oscil- those electrons that lose energy remain in the
lation. interelectrode space longer than those that gain
In the negative-resistance or dynatron type of energy, the net effect is a transfer of energy
magnetron oscillator, the element dimensions and from the electrons to the electric field. This en-
anode voltage are such that the transit time ergy can be used to sustain oscillations in a res-
is short compared with the period of the oscil- onant transmission line connected between the
lation frequency. Electrons emitted from the two halves of the anode.
cathode are driven toward both halves of the Split- anode magnetrons for u.h.f. are con-
anode. If the potentials of the two halves are un- structed with a cavity resonator built into the
equal, the effect of the magnetic field is such tube structure, as illustrated in Fig. 3-29. The
that the majority of the electrons travel to the assembly is a solid block of copper which assists
half of the anode that is at the lower potential. in heat dissipation. At extremely high frequen-
That is, adecrease in the potential of either half cies operation is improved by subdividing the
of the anode results in an increase in the electron anode structure into 4 to 16 or more segments,
current flowing to that half. The magnetron con- the resonant cavities for each anode being
sequently exhibits negative- resistance character- coupled to the common cathode region by slots of
istics. Negative- resistance magnetron oscillators critical dimensions.
are useful between 100 and 1000 Mc. Under the The efficiency of multisegment magnetrons
reaches 65 or 70 per cent. Slotted- anode mag-
Caguxis Fig. 3- 29— netrons with four segments function up to 30,000
Split- anode Mc. ( 1cm.), delivering up to 100 watts at effi-
magnetron ciencies greater than 50 per cent. Using larger
with integral multiples of anodes and higher- order modes, per-
resonant anode formance can be attained at 0.2 cm.
cavity for use
at u.h.f.
Traveling-Wave Tubes
Gains as high as 50 db. over a bandwidth of
best operating conditions efficiencies of 20 to 25 5000 Mc. at acenter frequency of 7500 Mc. have
per cent may be obtained. been obtained through the use of a traveling-
In the transit-time magnetron the frequency wave amplifier tube shown schematically in Fig.
is determined primarily by the tube dimensions 3-30. An electromagnetic wave travels down the
and by the electric and magnetic field intensities helix, and an electron beam is shot through the
rather than by the tuning of the tank circuits. helix parallel to its axis, and in the direction
The intensity of the magnetic field is adjusted so of propagation of the wave. When the electron
that, under static conditions, electrons leaving velocity is about the same as the wave veloc-
the cathode move in curved paths which just fail ity in the absence of the electrons, turning on the
to reach the anode. All electrons are therefore electron beam causes a power gain for wave
deflected back to the cathode, and the anode cur- propagation in the direction of the electron
rent is zero. An alternating voltage applied be- motion.
tween the two halves of the anode will cause the The portions of Fig. 3-30 marked " input" and
potentials of these halves to vary about their "output"are coaxial lines to which the ends of

-
COLLECTOR
Fig. 3-30 Schematic draw-
GUN ANODE / HELIX
ing of a traveling- wave
amplifier tube.

HEATER CATHODE</
r
INPUT OUTPUT

average positive values. If the period ( time re- the helix are coupled. The beam is focused elec-
quire(l for one cycle) of the alternating voltage trically at the gun end, and magnetically along
is made equal to the time required for an electron the helix by aseries of opposing- polarity magnets
to make one complete rotation in the magnetic stacked between ferrous pole pieces.
field, the a.c. component of the anode voltage The outstanding features of the traveling-
reverses direction twice with each electron rota- wave amplifier tube are its great bandwidth and
tion. Some electrons will lose energy to the elec- large pox% er gain. However, the efficiency is
tric field, with the result that they are unable to rather low. Typical power output is of the order
reach the cathode and continue to rotate about of 3 watts.
 Chapter 4

Semiconductor
Devices
Certain materials whose resistivity is not high ative potential of the battery. Thus current flows
enough to classify them as good insulators, but through the circuit by means of electrons moving
is still high compared with the resistivity of one way and holes the other.
common metals, are known as semiconductors. If the battery polarity is reversed, as at C,
These materials, of which germanium and silicon the excess electrons in the n material are at-
are examples, have an atomic structure that tracted away from the junction and the holes in
normally is associated with insulators. How- the p material are attracted by the negative po-
ever, when small amounts of impurities are tential of the battery away from the junction.
introduced during the manufacture of germa- This leaves the junction region without any cur-
nium or silicon crystals, it is possible for free rent carriers, consequently there is no conduction.
electrons to exist and to move through the cry- In other words, a junction of p- and n-type
stals under the influence of an electric field. It materials constitutes a rectifier. It differs from
is also possible for some of the atoms to be de- the tube diode rectifier in that there is ameasur-
ficient in an electron, and these electron de- able, although comparatively very small, reverse
ficiencies or holes can move from atom to current. The reverse current results from the
atom when urged to do so by an applied electric presence of some carriers of the type opposite to
force. ( The movement of a hole is actually the those which principally characterize the mate-
movement of an electron, the electron becoming rial. The principal ones are called majority car-
detached from one atom, making a hole in that riers, while the lesser ones are minority carriers.
atom, in order to move into an existing hole in The process by which the carriers cross the
another atom.) The holes can be considered to junction is essentially diffusion, and takes place
be equivalent to particles carrying a positive comparatively slowly. This, together with the
electric charge, while the electrons of course fact that the junction forms acapacitor with the
have negative charges. Holes and electrons are two plates separated by practically zero spacing
called charge carriers in semiconductors. and hence has relatively high capacitance, places
alimit on the upper frequency at which "semicon-
Electron and Hole Conduction ductor devices of this construction will operate,
Material which conducts by virtue of a de- as compared with vacuum tubes. Also, the num-
ficiency in electrons — that is, by hole conduc- ber of excess electrons and holes in the material
tion — is called p-type material. In n-type ma- depends upon temperature, and since the con-
terial, which has an excess of electrons, the con- ductivity in turn depends on the number of ex-
duction is termed "electronic." If a piece of p- cess holes and electrons, the device is more tem-
type material is joined to a piece of n-type ma- perature sensitive than is a vacuum tube.
terial as at A in Fig. 4-1 and avoltage is applied Capacitance may be reduced by making the
to the pair as at B, current will flow across the contact area very small. This is done by means
boundary or junction between the two ( and also of a point contact, a tiny p-type region being
in the external circuit) when the battery has formed under the contact point during manu-
the polarity indicated. Electrons, indicated by facture when n-type material is used for the
the minus symbol, are attracted across the junc- main body of the device.
tion from the n material through the p material
to the positive terminal of the battery, and holes, SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
indicated by the plus symbol, are attracted in the Diodes of the point- contact type are used for
opposite direction across the junction by the neg- many of the same purposes for which tube diodes

CURRENT NO CURRENT

tt + ++++
-I 3 Fig. 4-1—A p- n junction ( A) and its
-
behavior when conducting ( B) and non-
N conducting ( C).

(A)

79
80 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
GERMANIUM WAFER
number of rectifiers must be connected in series
METAL BAS E CATWHISK ER
to operate safely on agiven a.c. input voltage.
CASE
Ratings
Crystal diodes are rated primarily in terms of
SYMBOL
maximum safe inverse voltage and maximum
METAL SUPPORT S
average rectified current. Inverse voltage is a
voltage applied in the direction opposite to that
WIRE LEADS
which causes maximum current flow. The aver-
Fig. 4-2—Construction of a germanium-point-contact age current is that which would be read by ad.c.
diode. In the circuit symbol for a contact rectifier the meter connected in the current path.
arrow points in the direction of minimum resistance It is also customary to specify standards of
measured by the conventional method—that is, going performance with respect to forward and back
from the positive terminal of the voltage source current. A minimum value of forward current is
through the rectifier to the negative terminal of the usually specified for one volt applied. The volt-
source. The arrow thus corresponds to the plate and age at which the maximum tolerable back cur-
the bar to the cathode of atube diode. rent is specified varies with the type of diode.

Fig. 4-3—Typical point 50

are used. The construction of such a diode is contact germanium diode
shown in Fig. 4-2. Germanium and silicon are characteristic curve. Be-
the most widely used materials, the latter prin- cause the back current is
cipally in the u.h.f. region. much smaller than the for- 30
As compared with the tube diode for r.f. ap- ward current, a different
plications, the crystal diode has the advantages scale is used for back 01 20
of very small size, very low interelectrode ca- voltage and current.
pacitance ( of the order of 1 111.d. or less) and io

requires no heater or filament power. BACK VOLTS

-60 -50 - 40 -30 -20 -10
Characteristic Curves 3 4
FORWARD VOLTS
The germanium crystal diode is characterized
by relatively large current flow with small ap-
plied voltages in the "forward" direction, and
small, although finite, current flow in the reverse
or "back" direction for much larger applied
voltages. A typical characteristic curve is shown
in Fig. 4-3. The dynamic resistance in either the Zener Diodes
forward or back direction is determined by the The " zener diode" is a special type of silicon
change in current that occurs, at any given point junction diode that has a characteristic similar
on the curve, when the applied voltage is changed to that shown in Fig. 4-4. The sharp break from
by a small amount. The forward resistance non- conductance to conductance is called the
shows some variation in the region of very small Zener Knee; at applied voltages greater than this
applied voltages, but the curve is for the most
part quite straight, indicating fairly constant 450

dynamic resistance. For small applied voltages,

the forward resistance is of the order of 200
ohms in most such diodes. The back resistance IF ( ma.) 300

shows considerable variation, depending on the

particular voltage chosen for the measurement.
It may run from a few hundred thousand ohms 150

to over amegohm. In applications such as meter

REVERSE VOLTAGE
rectifiers for r.f. indicating instruments ( r.f. 30 20
voltmeters, wavemeter indicators, and so on) 05 10 IS
where the load resistance may be small and the FOR WA RD VOLTAGE
applied voltage of the order of several volts, the
resistance vary with the value of the applied 13

voltage and are considerably lower. Iz ( ma.)

Junction Diodes 30

Junction-type diodes made of germanium or

silicon are employed principally as power recti-
45
fiers, in applications similar to those where sele-
nium rectifiers are used. Depending on the Fig. 4-4—Typical characteristic of a zoner diode. In
design of the particular diode, they are capable this example, the voltage drop is substantially constant
of rectifying currents up to several hundred at 30 volts in the ( normally) reverse direction. Com-
milliamperes. The safe inverse peak voltage of a pare with Fig. 4-3. A diode with this characteristic
junction is relatively low, so an appropriate would be called a "30-volt zoner diode."
Transistors 81
breakdown point, the voltage drop across the
diode is essentially constant over a wide range
of currents. The substantially constant voltage
drop over a wide range of currents allows this INPUT I OUTPUT
semiconductor device to be used as a constant
voltage reference or control element, in a man-
ner somewhat similar to the gaseous voltage-
regulator tube. Voltages for zener diode action Fig. 4- 5— Full-wave clipping action with two zener
range from a few volts to several hundred and diodes in opposition. The output level would be at a
power ratings run from afraction of awatt to 50 peak- to- peak voltage of twice the zener rating of a
watts. single diode. R, should have a resistance value sufficient
Zener diodes can be connected in series to ad- to limit the current to the zener diode rating.
vantage; the temperature coefficient is improved
over that of a single diode of equivalent rating
and the power-handling capability is increased. receiver local oscillators, and simple frequency
Two zener diodes connected in opposition, Fig. modulators for communications and for sweep-
4-5, form a simple and highly effective clipper. tuning applications.

Voltage-Variable Capacitors Tunnel Diode

Voltage-variable capacitors are p-n junction Much hope is held for the future use of the
diodes that behave as capacitors of reasonable Q "tunnel diode," a junction semiconductor of spe-
(35 or more) up to 50 Mc. and higher. They are cial construction that has a "negative resistance"
useful in many applications because the actual characteristic at low voltages. This characteris-
capacitance value is dependent upon the d.c. bias tic (decrease of current with increase of volt-
voltage that is applied. In atypical capacitor the age) permits the diode to be used as an oscillator
capacitance can be varied over a 10-to- 1 range and as an amplifier. Since electrical charges
with a bias change from 0 to — 100 volts. The move through the diode with the speed of light•
current demand on the bias supply is on the order in contrast to the relatively slow motion of elec-
of afew microamperes. trical charge carriers in other semiconductors,
Typical applications include remote control of it has been possible to obtain oscillations at 2000
tuned circuits, automatic frequency control of Mc. and higher.

TRANSISTORS
Fig. 4-6 shows a "sandwich" made from two can flow even though this section of the sandwich
layers of p-type semiconductor material with a considered alone is biased to prevent conduction.
thin layer of n-type between. There are in effect Most of the current is between A and B and does
two p-n junction diodes back to back. If a not flow out through the common connection to
positive bias is applied to the p- type material at the n-type material in the sandwich.
the left, current will flow through the left- A semiconductor combination of this type is
hand junction, the holes moving to the right called a transistor, and the three sections are
and the electrons from the n-type material known as the emitter, base and collector, re-
moving to the left. Some of the holes moving spectively. The amplitude of the collector current
into the n-type material will combine with the depends principally upon the amplitude of the
electrons there and be neutralized, but some of emitter current; that is, the collector current is
them also will travel to the region of the right- controlled by the emitter current.
hand junction.
If the p-n combination at the right is biased Power Amplification
negatively, as shown, there would normally be Because the collector is biased in the back di-
no current flow in this circuit ( see Fig. 4-1C). rection the collector-to-base resistance is high.
However, there are now additional holes avail- On the other hand, the emitter and collector
able at the junction to travel to point B and cùrrents are substantially equal, so the power in
electrons can travel toward point A, so acurrent the collector circuit is larger than the power in
the emitter circuit (P = 12 R, so the powers
are proportional to the respective resistances, if
the currents are the same). In practical transis-
EMITTER COLLECTOR tors emitter resistance is of the order of a few
hundred ohms while the collector resistance is
hundreds or thousands of times higher, so power
gains of 20 to 40 db. or even more are possible.

Types
The transistor may be one of the several types
shown in Fig. 4-7. The assembly of p- and n-type
Fig. 4- 6— The basic arrangement of a transistor. This materials may be reversed, so that p-n-p and
represents a junction- type p- n- p unit. n-p-ntransistors are both possible.
 82 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Emitter

Meal
am/Base
Gmmection
Da:whisker
P-tqpe
Collector 6erinamwn

Germanium
Wafer
emitter 1ffJ
A/ - lope
Germanium Wafer

Collector

Base
Connection
Reedm u,
Dot

Emitter N
r if
Al- type
/ Germanium
Mated Oidumit

Dot
Collector

eiiection
se
Wale, Fig. 4- 7— Point- contact,
junction- type and sur-
face- barrier types of
transistors with their
circuit symbols. The
plus and minus signs
POINT- CONTACT TYPE JUNCTION TYPE (P- N- P) SURFACE BARRIER TYPE
associated with the
symbols indicate po-
P- N- P N- P- N larities of voltages,
with respect to the
base, to be applied to
the elements.
SYMBOLS

which the current amplification drops 3db. below

Point- Contact Transistors
its low- frequency value. Cut-off frequencies
The point-contact transistor, shown at the range from 500 kc. to frequencies in the v.h.f.
left in Fig. 4-7, has two "cat whiskers" placed region. The cut-off frequency indicates in agen-
very close together on the surface of agermanium eral way the frequency spread over which the
wafer. It is principally of historical interest and transistor is useful.
is now superseded by the junction type. It is Each of the three elements in the transistor
difficult to manufacture, since the two contact has a resistance associated with it. The emitter
points must be extremely close together if good and collector resistances were discussed earlier.
high-frequency characteristics are to be secured. There is also a certain amount of resistance as-
sociated with the base, avalue of afew hundred
Junction Transistors
to 1000 ohms being typical of the base resistance.
The junction transistor, shown at the center The values of all three resistances vary with
in Fig. 4-7, has higher capacitances and higher the type of transistor and the operating voltages.
power-handling capacity than the point-contact The collector resistance, in particular, is sensi-
type. The " electrode" areas and thickness of the tive to operating conditions.
intermediate layer have an important effect on
the upper frequency limit. Ordinary junction Characteristic Curves
transistors may have cut-off frequencies ( see The operating characteristics of transistors
next section) up to 50 Mc. or so. The types used can be shown by a series of characteristic curves.
for audio and low- radio frequencies usually have One such set of curves is shown in Fig. 4-8. It
cut-off frequencies ranging from 500 to 1000 kc.
The upper frequency limit is extended con-
siderably in the drift transistor. This type has a
particular form of distribution of impurities in
the base material resulting in the creation of an
internal electric field that accelerates the car-
riers across the junction. Typical drift transis-
tors have cut-off frequencies of the order of 100
Mc. -I0 - 20 —
Another type of transistor useful in high-fre- coLLEcroa VOLTS
quency work is the surface barrier transistor, Fig. 4-8—A typical collector-current vs. collector-voltage
using plated emitter and collector electrodes on characteristic of a junction-type transistor, for various
awafer of n-type material, as shown at the right emitter-current values. The circuit shows the setup for
in Fig. 4-7. Surface-barrier transistors will op- taking such measurements. Since the emitter resistance is
erate as amplifiers and oscillators at frequencies low, acurrent- limiting resistor, R, is connected in series
of 250 Mc. or higher. with the source of current. The emitter current can be set
at a desired value by adjustment of this resistance.
TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS
An important characteristic of a transistor is shows the collector current vs. collector voltage
its current amplification factor, usually desig- for a number of fixed values of emitter current.
nated by the symbol a. This is the ratio of the Practically, the collector current depends almost
change in collector current to a small change in entirely on the emitter current and is independ-
emitter current, measured in the common-base ent of the collector voltage. The separation be-
circuit described later, and is comparable with tween curves representing equal steps of emitter
the voltage amplification factor ( a) of avacuum current is quite uniform, indicating that almost
tube. The current amplification factor is almost, distortionless output can be obtained over the
but not quite, 1 in a junction transistor. It is useful operating range of the transistor'.
larger than 1in the point-contact type, values in Another type of curve is shown in Fig. 4-9,
the neighborhood of 2being typical. together with the circuit used for obtaining it.
The a cut-off frequency is the frequency at This also shows collector current vs. collector
Transistor Characteristics 83
voltage, but for a number of different values of at which the amplification decreases by 3 db.
base current. In this case the emitter element is from its value at some frequency well below that
used as the common point in the circuit. The at which frequency effects begin to assume im-
collector current is not independent of collector portance. The input and output impedances are,
voltage with this type of connection, indicating respectively, the impedance which asignal source
that the output resistance of the device is fairly working into the transistor would see, and the
internal output impedance of the transistor
de' (corresponding to the plate resistance of a vac-
30-2. uum tube, for example).
t"" tsc
oo
Grounded- Base Circuit
•
00 The input circuit of agrounded-base amplifier
so must be designed for low impedance, since the
emitter-to-base resistance is of the order of 25//.
10 20 30 ohms, where I. is the emitter current in milli-
COLLECTOR you's amperes. The optimum output load impedance,
Fig. 4-9—Collector current vs. collector voltage for vari- RI., may range from a few thousand ohms to
ous values of base current, for ajunction-type transistor. 100,000, depending upon the requirements.
The values are determined by means of the circuit The current transfer ratio is aand the cut-off
shown. frequency is as defined previously.
In this circuit the phase of the output ( collec-
low. The base current also is quite low, which tor) current is the same as that of the input
means that the resistance of the base- emitter (emitter) current. The parts of these currents
circuit is moderately high with this method of that flow through the base resistance are like-
connection. This may be contrasted with the wise in phase, so the circuit tends to be regenera-
high values of emitter current shown in Fig. 4-8. tive and will oscillate if the current amplification
factor is greater than 1. A junction transistor is
Ratings stable in this circuit since a is less than 1, but
The principal ratings applied to transistors are apoint-contact transistor will oscillate.
maximum collector dissipation, maximum col-
Grounded- Emitter Circuit
lector voltage, maximum collector current, and
maximum emitter current. The voltage and cur- The grounded- emitter circuit shown in Fig.
rent ratings are self-explanatory. 4-10 corresponds to the ordinary grounded-
The collector dissipation is the power, usually cathode vacuum-tube amplifier. As indicated by
expressed in milliwatts, that can safely be dissi- the curves of Fig. 4-9, the base current is small
pated by the transistor as heat. With some types and the input impedance is therefore fairly high —
of transistors provision is made for transferring several thousand ohms in the average case. The
heat rapidly through the container, and such collector resistance is some tens of thousands of
units usually require installation on a heat ohms, depending on the signal source impedance.
"sink," or mounting that can absorb heat. The current transfer ratio in the common-
The amount of undistorted output power that emitter circuit is equal to
can be obtained depends on the collector voltage, a
the collector current being practically independ-
1—
ent of the voltage in a given transistor. Increas-
ing the collector voltage extends the range of Since ais close to 1 (0.98 or higher being repre-
linear operation, but must not be carried beyond sentative), the short-circuit current gain in the
the point where either the voltage or dissipation grounded- emitter circuit may be 50 or more.
ratings are exceeded. The cut-off frequency is equal to the a cut-off
frequency multiplied by ( 1 — a), and therefore
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS is relatively low. ( For example atransistor with
Amplifier circuits used with transistors fall an a cut-off of 1000 kc. and a = 0.98 would
into one of three types, known as the grounded- have a cut-off frequency of 1000 X 0.02 = 20
base, grounded-emitter, and grounded-collec- kc. in the grounded-emitter circuit.)
tor circuits. These are shown in Fig. 4-10 in Within its frequency limitations, the grounded-
elementary form. The three circuits correspond emitter circuit gives the highest power gain of
approximately to the grounded-grid, grounded- the three.
cathode and cathode-follower circuits, respec- In this circuit the phase of the output ( col-
tively, used with vacuum tubes. lector) current is opposite to that of the input
The important transistor parameters in these (base) current so such feedback as occurs
circuits are the short-circuit current transfer through the small emitter resistance is negative
ratio, the cut-off frequency, and the input and and the amplifier is stable with either junction or
output impedances. The short-circuit current point-contact transistors.
transfer ratio is the ratio of a small change in
Grounded- Collector Circuit
output current to the change in input current
that causes it, the output circuit being short- Like the vacuum-tube cathode follower, the
circuited. The cut-off frequency is the frequency grounded-collector transistor amplifier has high
84 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
input impedance and low output impedance. The
latter is approximately equal to the impedance of
the signal input source multiplied by ( 1 — a).
The input resistance depends on the load resist-
SIGNAL
ance, being approximately equal to the load INPUT OUTPUT

resistance divided by ( 1 — a). The fact that

input resistance is directly related to the load
resistance is a disadvantage of this type of am-
plifier if the load is one whose resistance or
impedance varies with frequency.
The current transfer ratio with this circuit is
1 TRANSFORMER COUPLING

1 —a R,

and the cut-off frequency is the same as in the

grounded- emitter circuit. The output and input
currents are in phase.
SIGNAL R
Practical Circuit Details INPUT OUTPUT

The transistor is essentially a low-voltage

device, so the use of a battery power supply
rather than a rectified-a.c. supply is quite com-
mon. Usually, it is more convenient to employ
a single battery as a power source in preference
to the two- battery arrangements shown in Fig. RESISTANCE COUPLING

4-10, so most circuits are designed for single-

Fig. 4- 11— Practical grounded-emitter circuits using
battery operation. Provision must be included,
transformer and resistance coupling. A combination of
therefore, for obtaining proper biasing voltage
either also can be used—e.g., resistance-coupled input
for the emitter- base circuit from the battery that and transformer-coupled output. Tuned transformers
supplies the power in the collector circuit.
may be used for r.f. and i.f. circuits.
With small transistors used for low-level amplification
the input impedance will be of the order of 1000 ohms
and the input circuit should be designed for an imped-
RL
Fig. 4- 10— Basic tran-
SIGNAL
ance step-down, if necessary. This can be done by ap-
INPUT sistor amplifier circuits.
propriate choice of turns ratio for T1 or, in the case of
RI., the load resist-
ance, may be an ac- tuned circuits, by tapping the base down on the tuned
secondary circuit. In the resistance-coupled circuit Ry
tual resistor or the pri-
should be large compared with the input impedance,
mary of atransformer.
values of the order of 10,000 ohms being used.
The input signal may
In low-level circuits RIwill be of the order of 1000
be supplied from a
transformer secondary ohms. R, should be chosen to bias the transistor to the
SIGNAL or by resistance-ca- desired no-signal collector current; its value depends on
INPUT RIand RY( see text).
pacitance coupling. In
any case it is to be
careful attention with transistors because of the
understood that a d.c.
CO MM ON EMITT ER much lower voltage available from the ordinary
path must exist be-
battery power source. Battery economy becomes
tween the base and
an important factor in circuit design, both with
emitter.
respect to voltage required and to overall current
P-n-p transistors are
drain. A bias voltage divider, for example, easily
shown in these circuits.
may use more power than the transistor with
SIGNAL If n-p-ntypes are used
INPUT which it is associated.
the battery polarities
Typical single- battery grounded- emitter cir-
must be reversed.
+-r
cuits are shown in Fig. 4-11. R1,in series with
COM M ON CO LLECTOR
the emitter, is for the purpose of "swamping
out" the resistance of the emitter-base diode; this
Coupling arrangements for introducing the swamping helps to stabilize the emitter current.
input signal into the circuit and for taking out The resistance of R1 should be large compared
the amplified signal are similar to those used with that of the emitter-base diode, which, as
with vacuum tubes. However, the actual com- stated earlier, is approximately equal to 25
ponent values will in general be quite different divided by the emitter current in ma.
from those used with tubes. This is because the Since the current in R1 flows in such adirection
impedances associated with the input and output as to bias the emitter negatively with respect to
circuits of transistors may differ widely from the the base ( ap-n-ptransistor is assumed), abase-
comparable impedances in tube circuits. Also, d.c. emitter bias slightly greater than the drop in R1
voltage drops in resistances may require more must be supplied. The proper operating point is
Transistor Circuits 85
achieved through adjustment of voltage divider
R2R3,which is proportioned to give the desired
value of no- signal collector current.
In the transformer-coupled circuit, input sig- '3_

nal currents flow through R1 and R2,and there

would be aloss of signal power at the base- emitter
diode if these resistors were not bypassed by C1
and C2.The capacitors should have low react-
ance compared with the resistances across which
they are connected. In the resistance-coupled 83

circuit R2 serves as part of the bias voltage di-

vider and also as part of the load for the signal- HARTLEY
input source. As seen by the signal source, R3 is
in parallel with R2 and thus becomes part of the
input load resistance. C3 must have low reactance
compared with the parallel combination of R2,R3
and the base- to-emitter resistance of the transis-
tor. The load impedance will determine the re-
actance of C4.
The output load resistance in the transformer-
coupled case will be the actual load as reflected
at the primary of the transformer, and its proper
value will be determined by the transistor char-
acteristics and the type of operation ( Class A, B,
etc.). The value of R. in the resistance- coupled TiCK'_ER
case is usually such as to permit the maximum
a.c. voltage swing in the collector circuit without
undue distortion, since Class A operation is
usual with this type of amplifier.
Bias Stabilization
Transistor currents are sensitive to temperature
variations, and so the operating point tends to
shift as the transistor heats. The shift in operating
point is in such adirection as to increase the heat-
ing, leading to "thermal runaway" and possible
destruction of the transistor. The heat developed
depends on the amount of power dissipated in the
transistor, so it is obviously advantageous in this
respect to operate with as little internal dissipa- COLPITTS
tion as possible: i.e., the d.c. input should be kept Fig. 4- 12—Typical transistor oscillator circuits. Corn-
to the lowest value that will permit the type of ponent values are discussed in the text.
operation desired and should never exceed the
rated value for the particular transistor used.
A contributing factor to the shift in operating sustain self-oscillation. Representative oscillator
point is the collector- to- base leakage current circuits are shown in Fig. 4-12.
(usually designated lc.) — that is, the current The upper frequency limit for oscillation is
that flows from collector to base with the emitter principally a function of the cut-off frequency
connection open. This current, which is highly of the transistor used, and oscillation will cease
temperature sensitive, has the effect of increas- at the frequency at which there is insufficient
ing the emitter current by an amount much amplification to supply the energy required to
larger than I°,, itself, thus shifting the operating overcome circuit losses. Transistor oscillators
point in such a way as to increase the collector usually will operate up to, and sometimes well
current. This effect is reduced to the extent that beyond, the a cut-off frequency of the particular
lo. can be made to flow out of the base terminal transistor used.
rather than through the base-emitter diode. In The approximate oscillation frequency is that
the circuits of Fig. 4-11, bias stabilization is im- of the tuned circuit, LiCi.12 1,R2 and R3 have the
proved by making the resistance of R1 as large same functions as in the amplifier circuits given
as possible and both R2 and R3 as small as possi- in Fig. 4-11. By pass capacitors C2 and C3 should
ble, consistent with gain and battery economy. have low reactances compared with the resist-
ances with which they are associated.
TRANSISTOR OSCILLATORS Feedback in these circuits is adjusted in the
Since more power is available from the output same way as with tube oscillators: position of
circuit than is necessary for its generation in the the tap on L1 in the Hartley, turns and coupling
input circuit, it is possible to use some of the of L2 in the tickler circuit, and ratio of the sec-
output power to supply the input circuit and thus tions of C1 in the Colpitts.
 Chapter 5

High- Frequency
Receivers
A good receiver in the amateur station makes essary, signals adjacent to the desired one can be
the difference between mediocre contacts and heard, and the selectivity of the receiver is less
solid QS0s, and its importance cannot be over- than maximum. The detection process delivers
emphasized. In the less crowded v.h.f. bands, directly the audio frequencies present as modula-
sensitivity (the ability to bring in weak signals) tion on an a.m. phone signal. There is no modula-
is the most important factor in a receiver. In the tion on acode signal, and it is necessary to intro-
more crowded amateur bands, good sensitivity duce asecond radio frequency, differing from the
must be combined with selectivity (the ability to signal frequency by a suitable audio frequency,
distinguish between signals separated by only a into the detector circuit to produce an audible
small frequency difference). To receive weak beat. The frequency difference, and hence the
signals, the receiver must furnish enough ampli- beat note, is generally made on the order of 500
fication to amplify the minute signal power de- to 1000 cycles, since these tones are within the
livered by the antenna up to a useful amount of range of optimum response of both the ear and
power that will operate a loudspeaker or set the headset. There is no carrier frequency present
of headphones. Before the amplified signal can in an s.s.b. signal, and this frequency must be
operate the speaker or phones, it must be con- furnished at the receiver before the audio can be
verted to audio- frequency power by the process recovered. The same source that is used in code
of detection. The sequence of amplification is not reception can be utilized for the purpose. If the
too important—some of the amplification can source of the locally generated radio frequency is
take place ( and usually does) before detection, a separate oscillator, the system is known as
and some can be used after detection. • heterodyne reception; if the detector is made to
There are major differences between receivers oscillate and produce the frequency, it is known
for phone reception and for code reception. An as an autodyne detector. Modern superhetero-
a.m. phone signal has sidebands that make the dyne receivers generally use a separate oscillator
signal take up about 6or 8kc. in the band, and (beat oscillator) to supply the locally generated
the audio quality of the received signal is im- frequency. Summing up the differences, phone
paired if the bandwidth is less than half of this. receivers can't use as much selectivity as code
A code signal occupies only afew hundred cycles receivers, and code and s.s.b. receivers require
at the most, and consequently the bandwidth of some kind of locally generated frequency to give
a code receiver can be small. A single-sideband areadable signal. Broadcast receivers can receive
phone signal takes up 3 to 4 kc., and the audio only a.m, phone signals because no beat oscillator
quality can be impaired if the bandwidth is much is included. Communications receivers include
less than 3 kc. although the intelligibility will beat oscillators and often some means for varying
hold up down to around 2kc. In any case, if the the selectivity. With high selectivity they often
bandwidth of the receiver is more than nec- have aslow tuning rate.

RECEIVER CHARACTERISTICS
useful sensitivity measure for the amateur, since
Sensitivity
it indicates how well aweak signal will be heard
In commercial circles " sensitivity" is defined and is not merely ameasure of the over-all am-
as the strength of the signal ( in microvolts) at plification of the receiver. However, it is not an
the input of the receiver that is required to pro- absolute method, because the bandwidth of the
duce aspecified audio power output at the speaker receiver plays a large part in the result.
or headphones. This is a satisfactory definition The random motion of the molecules in the
for broadcast and communications receivers antenna and receiver circuits generates small
operating below about 20 Mc., where atmospheric voltages called thermal-agitation noise voltages.
and man-made electrical noises normally mask Thermal-agitation noise is independent of fre-
any noise generated by the receiver itself. quency and is proportional to the ( absolute)
Another commercial measure of sensitivity temperature, the resistance component of the
defines it as the signal at the input of the re- impedance across which the thermal agitation is
ceiver required to give a signal- plus-noise out- produced, and the bandwidth. Noise is generated
put some stated ratio ( generally 10 db.) above in vacuum tubes by random irregularities in the
the noise output of the receiver. This is a more current flow within them; it is convenient to ex-

86
Detection 87
press this shot-effect noise as an equivalent re- 80
sistance in the grid circuit of a noise-free tube.
This equivalent noise resistance is the resistance
(at room temperature) that placed in the grid
circuit of a noise-free tube will produce plate-
circuit noise equal to that of the actual tube. The
equivalent noise resistance of a vacuum tube in-
40'-
60
creases with frequency.
An ideal receiver would generate no noise in its

INPUT OFF RESONANCE

100

INPLIT,4T RESONANCE
tubes and circuits, and the minimum detectable
signal would be limited only by the thermal noise
in the antenna. In a practical receiver, the limit
is determined by how well the amplified antenna 20 t4j
10
noise overrides the other noise in the plate cir-
cuit of the input stage. ( It is assumed that the
first stage in any good receiver will be the deter- 6
2
mining factor; the noise contributions of subse-
quent stages should be insignificant by com- 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
parison.) At frequencies below 20 or 30 Mc. the KC. OFF RESONANCE
site noise ( atmospheric and man-made noise) is
generally the limiting factor.
Fig. 5- 1—Typical selectivity curve of a modern super-
The degree to which a practical receiver ap- heterodyne receiver. Relative response is plotted
proaches the quiet ideal receiver of the same
against deviations above and below the resonance
bandwidth is given by the noise figure of the
frequency. The scale at the left is in terms of voltage
receiver. Noise figure is defined as the ratio of ratios, the corresponding decibel steps are shown at
the signal-to-noise power ratio of the ideal re- the right.
ceiver to the signal-to-noise power ratio of the
actual receiver output. Since the noise figure is a
ratio, it is usually given in decibels; it runs db." and "-60 db.") are 2.4 and 12.2 kc. respec-
around 5 to 10 db. for a good communications tively.
receiver below 30 Mc. Although noise figures of The bandwidth at 6db. down must be sufficient
2to 4db. can be obtained, they are of little or no to pass the signal and its sidebands if faithful
use below 30 Mc. except in extremely quiet loca- reproduction of the signal is desired. However,
tions or when avery small antenna is used. The in the crowded amateur bands, it is generally
noise figure of a receiver is not modified by advisable to sacrifice fidelity for intelligibility.
changes in bandwidth. Measurement technique is The ability to reject adjacent-channel signals
described in Chapter 21. depends upon the skirt selectivity of the receiver,
which is determined by the bandwidth at high
Selectivity attenuation. In a receiver with excellent skirt
Selectivity is the ability of a receiver to dis- selectivity, the ratio of the 6-dt. bandwidth to the
criminate against signals of frequencies differing 60-db, bandwidth will be about 0.25 for code and
from that of the desired signal. The over-all 0.5 for phone. The minimum usable bandwidth at
selectivity will depend upon the selectivity and 6db. down is about 150 cycles for code reception
the number of the individual tuned circuits. and about 2000 cycles for phone.
The selectivity of a receiver is shown graph-
Stability
ically by drawing acurve that gives the ratio of
signal strength required at various frequencies The stability of areceiver is its ability to " stay
off resonance to the signal strength at resonance, put" on asignal under varying conditions of gain-
to give constant output. A resonance curve of control setting, temperature, supply-voltage
this type is shown in Fig. 5-1. The bandwidth is changes and mechanical shock and distortion.
the width of the resonance curve ( in cycles or The term "unstable" is also applied to areceiver
kilocycles) of a receiver at a specified ratio; in that breaks into oscillation or aregenerative con-
the typical curve of Fig. 5-1 the bandwidths for dition with some settings of its controls that are not
response ratios of 2 and 1000 ( described as "-6 specifically intended to control such a condition.

DETECTION AND DETECTORS

Detection is the process of recovering the Detector sensitivity is the ratio of desired de-
modulation from a signal ( see " Modulation, tector output to the input. Detector linearity is a
Heterodyning and Beats", page 58). Any device measure of the ability of the detector to reproduce
that is "nonlinear" ( i.e., whose output is not the exact form of the modulation on the incoming
exactly proportional to its input) will act as a signal. The resistance or impedance of the de-
detector. It can be used as a detector if an im- tector is the resistance or impedance it presents
pedance for the desired modulation frequency is to the circuits it is connected to. The input re-
connected in the output circuit. sistance is important in receiver design, since if
 88 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS
it is relatively low it means that the detector with its load resistance, RI,and bypass capac-
will consume power, and this power must be itor, C2.The flow of rectified r.f. current causes
furnished by the preceding stage. The signal- a d.c. voltage to develop across the terminals of
handling capability means the ability to accept RI.The — and -I- signs show the polarity of the
signals of aspecified amplitude without overload- voltage. The variation in amplitude of the r.f.
ing or distortion. signal with modulation causes corresponding
variations in the value of the d.c. voltage across
Diode Detectors
12 1.In audio work the load resistor, RI,is usu-
The simplest detector for a.m, is the diode. A ally 0.1 megohm or higher, so that afairly large
galena, silicon or germanium crystal is an imper- voltage will develop from a small rectified-
fect form of diode ( a small current can pass in curret flow.
the reverse direction), and the principle of detec- The progress of the signal through the de-
tion in acrystal is similar to that in a vacuum- tctor or rectifier is shown in Fig. 5-3. A typi-
tube diode. cal modulated signal as it exists in the tuned
Circuits for both half- wave and full-wave di-
odes are given in Fig. 5-2. The simplified half-
wave circuit at 5-2A includes the r.f. tuned
MODULATED
circuit, L2Ci,a coupling coil, L1,from which SIGNAL APPLIED (A)
TO DETECTOR
the r.f. energy is fed to L2Ci,and the diode, D,

6R, .
4111
16...
SIGNAL
AFTER
RECTIFICATION
t
(
B)

VARYING D.C.
AFTER R.F. IS
FILTERED OUT (C)
aF OUTPUT

AFTER PASSING
THROUGH
0
COUPLING i (0)
CAPACITOR

Fig. 5-3— Diagrams showing the detection process.

circuit is shown at A. When this signal is ap-

plied to the rectifier tube, current will flow only
during the part of the r.f. cycle when the plate
is positive with respect to the cathode, so that
the output of the rectifier consists of half- cycles
of r.f. These current pulses flow in the load cir-
cuit comprised of R1 and C2,the resistance of
R1 and the capacity of C being so proportioned
2

that C2 charges to the peak value of the rectified

voltage on each pulse and retains enough charge
between pulses so that the voltage across R1 is
smoothed out, as shown in C. C., thus acts as a
filter for the radio- frequency component of the
output of the rectifier, leaving a d.c. compo-
ent that varies in the same way as the modulation
on the original signal. When this varying d.c.
voltage is applied to afollowing amplifier through
A F OUTPUT a coupling capacitor ( C4 in Fig. 5-2), only the
variations ill voltage are transferred, so that the
Fig. 5-2— Simplified and practical diode detector cir- final output signal is a.c., as shown in D.
cuits. A, the elementary half-wave diode detector; B, a In the circuit at 5-2B, R1 and C., have been
practical circuit, with r.f. filtering and audio output divided for the purpose of providing a more
coupling; C, full-wave diode detector, with output effective filter for r.f. It is important to prevent
coupling indicated. The circuit, LC2, is tuned to the the appearance of any r.f. voltage in the output
signal frequency; typical values for C2and R1 in A and of the detector, because it may cause overload-
C are 250 µ0. ond 250,000 ohms, respectively; in B, ing of a succeeding amplifier tube. The audio-
C2and C2are 100 1.q.d. each; 1/
1,50,000 ohms; and R2, frequency variations can be transferred to
250,000 ohms. C4 is 0.1 Ø. and 123 may be 0.5 to 1 another circuit through a coupling capacitor,
megohm. C4,to a load resistor, Re which usually is a
Detectors 89
bringing about a reduction in selectivity. The
loading effect of the diode is close to one-half the
A F
OUTPUT
load resistance. The detector linearity is good,
and the signal- handling capability is high.

Plate Detectors
F D The plate detector is arranged so that recti-
INPUT )

fication of the r.f. signal takes place in the plate

+8 circuit of the tube. Sufficient negative bias is ap-
(41
/
)
4 plied to the grid to bring the plate current nearly
to the cut-off point, so that application of a sig-
nal to the grid circuit causes an increase in av-
erage plate current. The average plate current
follows the changes in signal in afashion similar
to the rectified current in a diode detector.
Circuits for triodes and pentodes are given
in Fig. 5-4. C3 is the plate bypass capacitor, and,
with RFC, prevents r.f. from appearing in the
output. The cathode resistor, /21,provides the
operating grid bias, and C2 is a bypass for both
radio and audio frequencies. R2 is the plate load
resistance and C4 is the output coupling capacitor.
Hg. 5-4— Circuits for plate detection. A, triode; B, pen- In the pentode circuit at B, R3 and R4 form a
tode. The input circuit, L.C:, is tuned to the signal voltage divider to supply the proper screen po-
frequency. Typical values for the other components are: tential ( about 30 volts), and C5 is a bypass ca-
Com- pacitor. C2 and C5 must have low reactance for
ponent Circuit A Circuit B both radio and audio frequencies.
In general, transformer coupling from the
C. 0.5 or larger.
Ø. 0.5 µf. or larger.
plate circuit of a plate detector is not satisfac-
C3 0.001 to 0.002 µf. 250 to 500 µµf. tory, because the plate impedance of any tube
C. 0.1 µf. 0.1 µf.
is very high when the bias is near the plate-
0.5 µf. or larger.
curret cut-off point. Impedance coupling may
CU

R: 25,000 to 150,000 ohms. 10,000 to 20,000 ohms.

be used in place of the resistance coupling shown
R.: 50,000 to 100,000 ohms. 100,000 to 250,000 ohms.
in Fig. 5-4. Usually 100 henrys or more induc-
50,000 ohms.
tance is required.
R, 20,000 ohms.
The plate detector is more sensitive than the
RFC 2.5 mh. 2.5 mh.
diode because there is some amplifying action in
Plate voltages from 100 to 250 volts may be used. Ef- the tube. It will handle large signals, but is not
fective screen voltage in B should be. about 30 volts. so tolerant in this respect as the diode. Linearity,
with the self- biased circuits, shown, is good. Up
"potentiometer" so that the audio volume can to the overload point the detector takes no power
be adjusted to adesired level. from the tuned circuit, and so does not affect
Coupling to the potentiometer ( volume con- its Q and selectivity.
trol) through a capacitor also avoids any flow
of d.c. through the control. The flow of d.c. Infinite-Impedance Detector
through a high- resistance volume control often The circuit of Fig. 5-5 combines the high
tends to make the control noisy ( scratchy) after signal- handling capabilities of the diode detector
ashort while.
The full- wave diode circuit at 5-2C differs
in operation from the half- wave circuit only in
that both halves of the r.f. cycle are utilized.
The full- wave circuit has the advantage that
r.f. filtering is easier than in the half- wave cir- L1

cuit. As a result, less attenuation of the higher

R.
audio frequencies will be obtained for any given
degree of r.f. filtering.
The reactance of C2 must be small compared
to the resistance of R1 at the radio frequency
being rectified, but at audio frequencies must Fig. 5-5—The infinite-impedance detector. The input
be relatively large compared to R1.If the capac- circuit, L2C., is tuned to the signal frequency. Typical
ity of C2 is too large, response at the higher values for the other components are:
audio frequencies will be lowered. C2-250 µµf. R1-0.15 megohm.
Compared with most other detectors, the gain C3-0.5 µf. R.-25,000 ohms.
of the diode is low, normally running around C4-0.1 0. R.-0.25-megohm volume control.
0.8 in audio work. Since the diode consumes A tube having a medium amplification factor ( about
power, the Q of the tuned circuit is reduced, 20) should be used. Plate voltage should be 250 volts.
Tuning Indicators 105
set for a full meter reading with the i.f. tube
removed from its socket.
470 Neither of these S-meter circuits can be
"pinned," and only severe misadjustment of the
161 zero- set control can injure the meter.
2w.
TO A.G.0 LINE
HEADPHONES AND LOUDSPEAKERS
There are two basic types of headphones in
common use, the magnetic and the crystal. A
magnetic headphone uses a small electromagnet
that attracts and releases a steel diaphragm in
accordance with the electrical output of the radio
receiver; this is similar to the " receiver" por-
tion of the household telephone. A crystal head-
phone uses the piezoelectric properties of a pair
of Rochelle- salt or other crystals to vibrate a
diaphragm in accordance with the electrical out-
put - of the radio receiver. Magnetic headphones
can be used in circuits where d.c. is flowing, such
as the plate circuit of a vacuum tube, provided
Fig. 5- 23—Tuning indicator or S-meter circuits for super- the current is not too heavy to be carried by the
heterodyne receivers. wire in the coils; the limit is usually a few
milliamperes. Crystal headphones can be used
MA - 0-1 or 0-2 milliammeter. RI—R4—See text.
only on a.c. ( a steady d.c. voltage will damage
used to set the no- signal reading to full scale on the crystal unit), and consequently must be
the meter. If a "forward- reading" meter is de- coupled to a tube through a device, such as a
sired, the meter can be mounted upside down. capacitor or transformer, that isolates the d.c.
Two other S-meter circuits are shown in Fig. but passes the a.c. Most modern receivers have
5-23. The system at A uses a milliammeter in a a.c. coupling to the headphones and hence either
bridge circuit, arranged so that the meter read- type of headphone can be used, but it is wise to
ings increase with the a.g.c. voltage and signal look first at the circuit diagram in the instruc-
strength. The meter reads approximately in a tion book and make sure that the headphone jack
linear decibel scale and will not be "crowded." is connected to the secondary of the output
To adjust the system in Fig. 5-23A, pull the transformer, as is usually the case.
tube out of its socket or otherwise break the In general, crystal headphones will have con-
cathode circuit so that no plate current flows, siderably wider and " flatter" audio response than
and adjust the value of resistor R1 across the will magnetic headphones ( except those of the
meter until the scale reading is maximum. The "hi-fi" type that sell at premium prices). The
value of resistance required will depend on the lack of wide response in the magnetic head-
internal resistance of the meter, and must be phones is sometimes an advantage in code recep-
determined by trial and error ( the current is tion, since the desired signal can be set on the
approximately 2.5 ma.). Then replace the tube, peak and be given a boost in volume over the
allow it to warm up, turn the a.g.c. switch to undesired signals at slightly different frequen-
"off" so the grid is shorted to ground, and adjust cies.
the 3000-ohm variable resistor for zero meter Crystal headphones are available only in high-
current. When the a.g.c. is "on," the meter will impedance values around 50,000 ohms or so,
follow the signal variations up to the point where while magnetic headphones run around 10,000
the voltage is high enough to cut off the meter to 20,000 ohms, although they can be obtained in
tube's plate current. With a6J5 or 6SN7GT this values as low as 15 ohms. Usually the impedance
will occur in the neighborhood of 15 volts, a of a headphone set is unimportant because there
high-amplitude signal. is more than enough power available from the
The circuit of Fig. 5-23B requires no addi- radio receiver, but in marginal cases it is possible
tional tubes. The resistor R 2 is the normal cath- to improve the acoustic output through a better
ode resistor of an a.g.c.-controlled i.f. stage; its match of headphone to output impedance. When
cathode resistor should be returned to chassis headphone sets are connected in series or in
and not to the manual gain control. The sum of parallel they must be of similar impedance levels
R 3 plus R 4 should equal the normal cathode re- or one set will "hog" most of the power.
sistor for the audio amplifier, and they should be Loud speakers are practically always of the
proportioned so that the arm of R 3 can pick off a low-impedance permanent- field dynamic variet?,
voltage equal to the normal cathode voltage for and the loudspeaker output connections of a
the i.f. stage. In some cases it may be necessary receiver can connect directly to the voice coil of
to interchange the positions of R 3 and R 4 in the the loudspeaker. Some receivers also provide a
circuit. "500-ohm output" for connection to along line to
The zero- set control R 3 should be set for no a remote loudspeaker. A loudspeaker requires
reading of the meter with no incoming signal, mounting in a suitable enclosure if full low-
and the 1500-ohm sensitivity control should be frequency response is to be obtained.
 Regenerative Detectors 91
RFC Fig. 5-7—(A) Triode grid- leak detector combines diode
TO
AUDIO detection with triode amplification. Although shown
AMP
here with resistive plate load, R., an audio choke coil
or transformer could be used.
(8) Feeding some signal from the plate circuit back
to the grid makes the circuit regenerative. When feed-
R.F
INPUT back is sufficient, the circuit will oscillate. Feedback is
controlled here by varying reactance at C; with fixed
capacitor at that point regeneration could be con-
(A) trolled by varying plate voltage or coupling between
and L.,
RFC

tuning control. As the receiver is tuned

TO through a signal the tone first will be heard
AUDIO
AMP as a very high pitch, then will go down
through " zero beat" and rise again on the
other side, finally disappearing at a very
RF
high pitch. This behavior is shown in Fig.
INPU 5-8. A low-pitched beat-note cannot be ob-
tained from a strong signal because the de-
(8) tector "pulls in" or "blocks"; that is, the
signal forces the detector to oscillate at the
The circuit in Fig. 5-7B is regenerative, the signal frequency, even though the circuit may not
feedback being obtained by feeding some signal be tuned exactly to the signal. It usually can be
from the plate circuit back to the grid by induc- corrected by advancing the regeneration control
tive coupling. The amount of regeneration must until the beat- note is heard again, or by reducing
be controllable, because maximum regenerative the input signal.
amplification is secured at the critical point The point just after the detector starts oscil-
where the circuit is just about to oscillate. The lating is the most sensitive condition for code
critical point in turn depends upon circuit condi- reception. Further advancing the regeneration
tions, which may vary with the frequency to control makes the receiver less prone to blocking,
which the detector is tuned. An oscillating de- but also less sensitive to weak signals.
tector can be detuned slightly from an incoming If the detector is in the oscillating condition
c.w. signal to give autodyne reception. and an a.m. phone signal is tuned in, asteady audi-
The circuit of Fig. 5-7B uses avariable bypass ble beat-note will result. While it is possible to lis-
capacitor, C5,in the plate circuit to control re- ten to phone if the receiver can be tuned to exact
generation. When the capacitance is small the zero beat, it is more satisfactory to reduce the
tube does not regenerate, but as it increases regeneration to the point just before the receiver
toward maximum its reactance becomes smaller goes into oscillation. This is also the most sensi-
until there is sufficient feedback to cause oscil- tive operating point.
lation. If L 2 and L3 are wound end- to- end in the
same direction, the plate connection is to the
outside of the plate or "tickler" coil, L3,when the z000 aide, 0 Zero beat 0 Zoo° tydel

grid connection is to the outside end of L 2.

Although the regenerative grid- leak detector
,'r7b.
A
is more sensitive than any other type, its many
disadvantages commend it for use only in the 12.0

simplest receivers. The linearity is rather poor,

and the signal-handling capability is limited. The
10000

signal-handling capability can be improved by 8000 -

reducing 12 1 to 0.1 megohm, but the sensitivity % 6000

will be decreased. The degree of antenna cou-

k 6000
pling is often critical.
2000

Tuning e
o I I' I

For c.w. reception, the regeneration control 4.5 so

CVAL SETTING
is advanced until the detector breaks into a
"hiss," which indicates that the detector is oscil- Fig. 5-8—As the tuning dial of a receiver is turned past
lating. Further advancing the regeneration con- a code signal, the beat- note varies from a high tone
trol will result in aslight decrease in the hiss. down through " zero beat" ( no audible frequency dif-
The proper adjustment of the regeneration ference) and back up to a high tone, as shown at A,
control for best reception of code signals is B and C. The curve is a graphical representation of the
where the detector just starts to oscillate. Then action. The beat exists past 8000 or 10,000 cycles but
code signals can be tuned in and will give atone usually is not heard because of the limitations of the
with each signal depending on the setting of the audio system.
92 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS

TUNING AND BAND-CHANGING METHODS

to 25 - pf. maximum), is used in parallel with
Tuning capacitor C 2 ,which is usually large enough ( 100
The resonant frequency of a circuit can be to 140 pf.) to cover a2-to- 1frequency range. The
shifted by changing either the inductance or the setting of C 2 will determine the minimum capaci-
capacitance in the circuit. Panel control of in- tance of the circuit, and the maximum capacitance
ductance is used to tune a few commercial re- for bandspread tuning will be the maximum
ceivers, but most receivers depend upon panel- capacitance of C1 plus the setting of C.,. The in-
controlled variable capacitors for tuning. ductance of the coil can be adjusted se; that the
maximum-minimum ratio will give adequate
Tuning Rate bandspread. It is almost impossible, because of the
For ease in tuning asignal, it is desirable that non-harmonic relation of the various band limits,
the receiver have a tuning rate in keeping with to get full bandspread on all bands with the same
the type of signal being received and also with pair of capacitors. C 2 is variously called the band-
the selectivity of the receiver. A tuning rate of setting or main tuning capacitor. It must be re-
500 kc. per knob revolution is normally satis- set each time the band is changed.
factory for a broadcast receiver, but 100 kc. per If the capacitance change of atuning capacitor
revolution is almost too fast for easy s.s.b. recep- is known, the total fixed shunt capacitance ( Fig.
tion—around 25 to 50 kc. being more desirable. 5-9A) for covering aband of frequencies can be
found from Fig. 5-10.
Band Changing
The same coil and tuning capacitor cannot be Example: What fixed shunt capacitance
will allow a capacitor with a range of 5 to
used for, say, 3.5 to 14 Mc. because of the imprac- 30 pf. to tune 3.45 to 4.05 Mc.?
ticable maximum- to-minimum capacitance ratio (4.05 — 3.45) ± 4.05 = 0.148.
required. It is necessary, therefore, to provide a From Fig. 5-10, the capacitance ratio is
0.38, and hence the minimum capacitance is
means for changing the circuit constants for var- (30 — 5) ± 0.38 = 66 pf. The 5- pf. minimum
ious frequency bands. As amatter of convenience of the tuning capacitor, the tube capacitance
the same tuning capacitor usually is retained, but and any stray capacitance must be included in
the 66 pf.
new coils are inserted in the circuit for each band.
One method of changing inductances is to use
a switch having an appropriate number of con- The method shown at Fig. 5-9B makes use of
tacts, which connects the desired coil and dis- capacitors in series. The tuning capacitor, C1,
connects the others. The unused coils are some- may have a maximum capacitance of 100 if. or

(A) (B)

Fig. 5-9—Essentials of the three basic bandspread tuning systems.

times short-circuited b'y the switch, to avoid 3.00

undesirable self- resonances. 2.00
Another method is to use coils wound on forms
that can be plugged into suitable sockets. These
plug-in coils are advantageous when space is at a
premium, and they are also very useful when
considerable experimental work is involved.

Bandspreading
The tuning range of a given coil and variable
capacitor will depend upon the inductance of the
coil and the change in tuning capacitance. To
cover a wide frequency range and still retain a
suitable tuning rate over arelatively narrow fre-
quency range requires the use of bandspreading.
Mechanical bandspreading utilizes some me- 01 00) 037 01 .02.03 05 07 I .2
chanical means to reduce the tuning rate; a
CHANGE IN FREQUENCY
typical example is the two- speed planetary drive
MAXIMUM FREQUENCY
to be found in some receivers. Electrical band-
spreading is obtained by using asuitable circuit Fig. 5- 10—Minimum circuit capacitance required in the
configuration. Several of these methods are circuit of Fig. 5-9A as a function of the capacitance
shown in Fig. 5-9. change and the frequency change. Note that maximum
In A, asmall bandspread capacitor, C1 ( 15- frequency and minimum capacitance are used.
Superheterodyne 93
more. The minimum capacitance is determined are identical in all "ganged" stages. A small trim-
principally by the setting of C 3 , which usually mer or padding capacitor may be connected
has low capacitance, and the maximum capaci- across the coil, so that various minimum capac-
tance by the setting of C 2 , which is of the order itances can be compensated. The use of the trim-
of 25 to 50 pf. This method is capable of close mer necessarily increases the minimum circuit
adjustment to practically any desired degree of capacitance but is a necessity for satisfactory
bandspread. Either C 2 and C 3 must be adjusted tracking. Midget capacitors having maximum ca-
for each band or separate preadjusted capacitors pacitances of 15 to 30 pf. are commonly used.
must be switched in. The same methods are applied to bandspread
The circuit at Fig. 5-9C also gives complete circuits that must be tracked. The circuits are
identical with those of Fig. 5-9. If both general-
spread on each band. C1,the bandspread capaci-
coverage and bandspread tuning are to be avail-
tor, may have any convenient value; 50 pf. is able, an additional trimmer capacitor must be
satisfactory. C 2 may be used for continuous fre- connected across the coil in each circuit shown.
quency coverage ("general coverage") and as a If only amateur-band tuning is desired, however,
bandsetting capacitor. The effective maximum- the C 3 in Fig. 5-9B, and C 2 in Fig. 5-9C, serve
minimum capacitance ratio depends upon C 2 and as trimmers.
the point at which C1 is tapped on the coil. The The coil inductance can be adjusted by starting
nearer the tap to the bottom of the coil, the with a larger number of turns than necessary
greater the bandspread, and vice versa. For a and removing a turn or fraction of a turn at a
given coil and tap, the bandspread will be greater time until the circuits track satisfactorily. An
if C 2 is set at higher capacitance. C 2 may be con- alternative method, provided the inductance is
nected permanently across the individual inductor reasonably close to the correct value initially, is
and preset, if desired. This requires a separate to make the coil so that the last turn is variable
capacitor for each band, but eliminates the neces- with respect to the whole coil.
sity for resetting C2 each time. Another method for trimming the inductance
is to use an adjustable brass ( or copper) or pow-
Ganged Tuning dered-iron core. The brass core acts like asingle
The tuning capacitors of the several r.f. cir- shorted turn, and the inductance of the coil is
cuits may be coupled together mechanically and decreased as the brass core, or "slug," is moved
operated by asingle control. However, this oper- into the coil. The powdered- iron core has the
ating convenience involves more complicated con- opposite effect, and increases the inductance as
struction, both electrically and mechanically. It it is moved into the coil. The Q of the coil is not
becomes necessary to make the various circuits affected materially by the use of the brass slug,
track—that is, tune to the same frequency for a provided the brass slug has aclean surface or is
given setting of the tuning control. silverplated. The powdered- iron core will raise
True tracking can be obtained only when the the Q of a coil, provided the iron is suitable for
inductance, tuning capacitors, and circuit induc- the frequency in use. Good powdered- iron cores
tances and minimum and maximum capacitances can be obtained for use up to about 50 Mc.

THE SUPERHETERODYNE
Years ago ( until about 1932) practically the audio-frequency signal is obtained at the second
only type of receiver to be found in amateur sta- detector. Code signals are made audible by auto-
tions consisted of a regenerative detector and dyne or heterodyne reception at the second
one or more stages of audio amplification. Re- detector.
ceivers of this type can be made quite sensitive As anumerical example, assume that an inter-
but strong signals block them easily and, in our mediate frequency of 455 kc. is chosen and that
present crowded bands, they are seldom used the incoming signal is at 7000 kc. Then the high-
except in emergencies. They have been replaced frequency oscillator frequency may be set to
by superheterodyne receivers, generally called 7455 kc., in order that one side frequency ( 7455
"superhets." minus 7000) will be 455 kc. The high-frequency
oscillator could also be set to 6545 kc. and give
The Superheterodyne Principle the same difference frequency. To produce an
audible code signal at the second detector of, say,
In a superheterodyne receiver, the frequency 1000 cycles, the autodyning or heterodyning
of the incoming signal is heterodyned to a new oscillator would be set to either 454 or 456 kc.
radio frequency, the intermediate frequency The frequency-conversion process permits r.f.
(abbreviated "i.f."), then amplified, and finally amplification at a relatively low frequency, the
detected. The frequency is changed by modu- i.f. High selectivity and gain can be obtained at
lating the output of a tunable oscillator ( the this frequency, and this selectivity and gain are
high-frequency, or local, oscillator) by the constant. The separate oscillators can be designed
incoming signal in a mixer or converter stage for good stability and, since they are working at
(first detector) to produce aside frequency equal frequencies considerably removed from the sig-
to the intermediate frequency. The other side nal frequencies, they are not normally "pulled"
frequency is rejected by selective circuits. The by the incoming signal.
94 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS
then — sometimes after further amplification—
Images reconverted to a lower i.f. where higher adja-
Each h.f. oscillator frequency will cause i.f. re- cent-channel selectivity can be obtained. Such a
sponse at two signal frequencies, one higher and receiver is called adouble-conversion superhet-
one lower than the oscillator frequency. If the erodyne.
oscillator is set to 7455 kc. to tune to a 7000-kc.
signal, for example, the receiver can respond also FREQUENCY CONVERTERS
to a signal on 7910 kc., which likewise gives a A circuit tuned to the intermediate frequency
455-kc. beat. The undesired signal is called the
is placed in the plate circuit of the mixer, to offer
image. It can cause unnecessary interference if
it isn't eliminated. ahigh impedance load for the i.f. current that is
The radio-frequency circuits of the receiver developed. The signal- and oscillator- frequency
(those used before the signal is heterodyned voltages appearing in the plate circuit are re-
to the il.) normally are tuned to the desired jected by the selectivity of this circuit. The i.f.
signal, so that the selectivity of the circuits re- tuned circuit should have low impedance for
duces or eliminates the response to the image these frequencies, a condition easily met if they
signal. The ratio of the receiver voltage output do not approach the intermediate frequency.
from the desired signal to that from the image is The conversion efficiency of the mixer is the
called the signal-to-image ratio, or image ratio. ratio of if. output voltage from the plate circuit
The image ratio depends upon the selectivity to r.f. signal voltage applied to the grid. High
of the r.f. tuned circuits preceding the mixer conversion efficiency is desirable. The mixer
tube. Also, the higher the intermediate fre- tube noise also should be low if agood signal-to-
quency, the higher the image ratio, since raising noise ratio is wanted, particularly if the mixer is
the i.f. increases the frequency separation be- the first tube in the receiver.
tween the signal and the image and places the A change in oscillator frequency caused by
latter further away from the resonance peak of tuning of the mixer grid circuit is called pulling.
the signal- frequency input circuits. Most re- Pulling should be minimized, because the stabil-
ceiver designs represent a compromise between ity of the whole receiver depends critically upon
economy ( few input tuned circuits) and image the stability of the h.f. oscillator. Pulling de-
rejection ( large number of tuned circuits). creases with separation of the signal and
h.f.-oscillator frequencies, being less with high
Other Spurious Responses intermediate frequencies. Another type of pull-
In addition to images, other signals to which ing is caused by regulation in the power supply.
the receiver is not ostensibly tuned may be heard. Strong signals cause the voltage to change,
Harmonics of the high-frequency oscillator may which in turn shifts the oscillator frequency.
beat with signals far removed from the desired
Circuits
frequency to produce output at the intermediate
frequency; such spurious responses can be re- If the first detector and high-frequency oscilla-
duced by adequate selectivity before the mixer tor are separate tubes, the first detector is called
stage, and by using sufficient shielding to prevent a "mixer." If the two are combined in one en-
signal pick-up by any means other than the an- velope ( as is often done for reasons of economy
tenna. When astrong signal is received, the har- or efficiency), the first detector is called a "con-
monics generated by rectification in the second verter." In either case the function is the same.
detector may, by stray coupling, be introduced Typical mixer circuits are shown in Fig. 5-11.
into the r.f. or mixer circuit and converted to the The variations are chiefly in the way in which
intermediate frequency, to go through the re- the oscillator voltage is introduced. In 5-11A, a
ceiver in the same way as an ordinary signal. pentode functions as a plate detector; the oscil-
These "birdies" appear as a heterodyne beat on lator voltage is capacitance-coupled to the grid of
the desired signal, and are principally bother- the tube through C 2. Inductive coupling may be
some when the frequency of the incoming signal used instead. The conversion gain and input se-
is not greatly different from the intermediate lectivity generally are good, so long as the sum
frequency. The cure is proper circuit isolation of the two voltages ( signal and oscillator) im-
and shielding. pressed on the mixer grid does not exceed the
Harmonics of the beat oscillator also may be grid bias. It is desirable to make the oscillator
converted in similar fashion and amplified voltage as high as possible without exceeding
through the receiver; these responses can be re- this limitation. The oscillator power required is
duced by shielding the beat oscillator and oper- negligible. If the signal frequency is only 5or 10
ating it at alow power level. times the i.f., it may be difficult to develop enough
oscillator voltage at the grid ( because of the
The Double- Conversion Superheterodyne
selectivity of the tuned input circuit). However,
At high and very- high frequencies it is diffi- the circuit is a sensitive one and makes a good
cult to secure an adequate image ratio when the mixer, particularly with high-transconductance
intermediate frequency is of the order of 455 kc. tubes like the 6AH6, 6AK5 or 6U8 ( pentode
To reduce image response the signal frequently section). Triode tubes can be used as mixers in
is converted first to a rather. high ( 1500, 5000, grid- injection circuits, but they are commonly
or even 10,000 kc.) intermediate frequency, and used only at 50 Mc. and higher, where mixer
Frequency Converters 95
Fig. 5- 11—Typical circuits for separately excited mixers.
Grid injection of a pentode mixer is shown at A, cath-
ode injection at B, and separate excitation of a penta-
grid converter is given in C. Typical values for C will
be found in Table 5.1—the values below are for the
pentode mixer of A and B.
MOB
C,-10 to 50 pf. megohm.
Cs-5to 10 pf. R3-0.47 megohm.
C5, Ca, C3-0.001 µf. R.-1500 ohms.
R1-6800 ohms.
Positive supply voltage can be 250 volts with a6AH6,
150 with a6AK5. IFTRANS

noise may become a significant factor. The tri-

ode mixer has the lowest inherent noise, the
pentode is next, and the multigrid converter
tubes are the noisiest. a
The circuit in Fig. 5-11B shows cathode in-
jection at the mixer. Operation is similar to the
grid- injection case, and the same considerations
apply.
It is difficult to avoid " pulling" in a triode or
pentode mixer, and a pentagrid mixer tube pro-
vides much better isolation. A typical circuit is
shown in Fig. 5-11C, and tubes like the 6SA7,
6BA7 or 6BE6 are commonly used. The oscil-
lator voltage is introduced through an " injec-
tion" grid. Measurement of the rectified current
flowing in R 2 is used as acheck for proper oscil-
lator- voltage amplitude. Tuning of the signal-
grid circuit can have little effect on the oscillator
frequency because the injection grid is isolated
from the signal grid by a screen grid that is at
r.f. ground potential. The pentagrid mixer is (C)
much noisier than a triode or pentode mixer, but
its isolating characteristics make it a very use-
ful device.
6K8 I.f. TRANS Many receivers use pentagrid converters, and
two typical circuits are shown in Fig. 5-12. The
circuit shown in Fig. 5-12A, which is suitable for
INPUT the 6K8, is for a "triode-hexode" converter. A
triode oscillator tube is mounted in the same
envelope with a hexode, and the control grid of
the oscillator portion is connected internally to
an injection grid in the hexode. The isolation
(A) between oscillator and converter tube is reason-
ably good, and very little pulling results, except
+250 on signal frequencies that are quite large com-
pared with the i.f.
The pentagrid-converter circuit shown in Fig.
5-1213 can be used with a tube like the 6SA7,
+100
6BA7 or 6BE6. Generally the only care neces-
sary is to adjust the feedback of the oscillator
65A7, 68E6 oR 6BA7 LE TRANS circuit to give the proper oscillator r.f. voltage.
The condition is checked by measuring the d.c.
current flowing in grid resistor R2.
A more stable receiver generally results, par-

Fig. 5- 12—Typical circuits for triode-hexode ( A) and

pentagrid ( B) converters. Values for R,, R3 and Re can
be found in Table 5-1; others are given below.
Cs-47 pf. C3-0.01 µf.
(B) + 250 C2, Cs, Cs - 0- 001 Ø. R4 - 1000 ohms.
96 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS

TABLE 5-1
Circuit and Operating Values for Converter Tubes
Plate voltage = 250 Screen voltage = 100, or through specified resistor from 250 volts
SELF-EXCITED SEPARATE EXCITATION
Cathode Screen Leak Grid Cathode Screen Grid Grid
Tube Resistor Resistor Grid Current Resistor Resistor Leak Current
6BA7 1 0 12,000 22,000 0.35 ma. 68 15,000 22,000 0.35 ma.
6BE6 1 0 22,000 22,000 0.5 150 22,000 22,000 0.5
6K8 2 240 27,000 47,000 0.15-0.2 — — —
6SA7 2 0 18,000 22,000 0.5 150 18,000 22,000 0.5
1 Miniature tube 2 Octal base, metal.

ticularly at the higher frequencies, when separate 5-13. The local oscillator current is injected in
tubes are used for the mixer and oscillator. Prac- the emitter circuit by inductive coupling to Li;
tically the same number of circuit components is L1 should have low reactance at the oscillator
required whether or not a combination tube is frequency. The input from the r.f. amplifier
used, so that there is very little difference to be should be at low impedance, obtained by induc-
tive coupling or tapping down on the tuned cir-
realized from the cost standpoint.
cuit. The output transformer T1 has the collector
Typical circuit constants for converter tubes
are given in Table 5-I. The grid leak referred connection tapped down on the inductance to
to is the oscillator grid leak or injection-grid maintain ahigh Q in the tuned circuit.
return, R. of Figs. 5-11C and 5-12.
Audio Converters
The effectiveness of converter tubes of the
type just described becomes less as the signal Converter circuits of the type shown in Fig.
frequency is increased. Some oscillator voltage 5-12 can be used to advantage in the reception of
will be coupled to the signal grid through " space- code and s.s.b. signals, by introducing the local
charge" coupling, an effect that increases with oscillator on the No. 1 grid, the signal on the
frequency. If there is relatively little frequency No. 3 grid, and working the tube into an audio
difference between oscillator and signal, as for load. Its operation can be visualized as hetero-
example a 14- or 28- Mc. signal and an i.f. of 455 dyning the incoming signal into the audio range.
kc., this voltage can become considerable because The use of such circuits for audio conversion has
the selectivity of the signal circuit will be unable been limited to selective i.f. amplifiers operating
to reject it. If the signal grid is not returned below 500 kc. and usually below 100 kc. An ordi-
directly to ground, but instead is returned nary a.m. signal cannot be received on such ade-
through a resistor or part of an a.g.c. system, tector unless the tuning is adjusted to make the
considerable bias can be developed which will local oscillator zero-beat with the incoming car-
cut down the gain. For this reason, and to reduce rier.
image response, the i.f. following the first con- Since the beat oscillator modulates the elec-
verter of areceiver should be not less than 5 or tron stream completely, a large beat-oscillator
10 per cent of the signal frequency. component exists in the plate circuit. To prevent
overload of the following audio amplifier stages,
Transistors in Mixers an adequate i.f. filter must be used in the output
Typical transistor circuitry for amixer operat- of the converter.
ing at frequencies below 20 Mc. is shown in Fig. The "product detector" of Fig. 5-6 is also a
converter circuit, and the statements above for
audio converters apply to the product detector.

THE HIGH- FREQUENCY OSCILLATOR

Stability of the receiver is dependent chiefly
upon the stability of the h.f. oscillator, and par-
ticular care should be given this part of the re-
ceiver. The frequency of oscillation should be
insensitive to mechanical shock and changes in
voltage and loading. Thermal effects ( slow
change in frequency because of tube or circuit
heating) should be minimized. They can be re-
duced by using ceramic instead of bakelite insu-
lation in the r.f. circuits, a large cabinet relative
Fig. 5- 13—Typical transistor mixer circuit. to the chassis ( to provide for good radiation of
Li—Low-impedance inductive coupling to oscillator. developed heat), minimizing the number of
Ti— Transistor i.f. transformer. Primary impedance of high-wattage resistors in the receiver and put-
50,000 ohms, secondary impedance of 800 ting them in the separate power supply, and not
ohms (Miller 2066). mounting the oscillator coils and tuning ca-
H.F. Oscillator 97
pacitor too close to a tube. Propping up the lid taneously; too little feedback will cause the out-
of a receiver will often reduce drift by lowering put to be low. In the tapped-coil circuits ( A,
the terminal temperature of the unit. B), the feedback is increased by moving the tap
Sensitivity to vibration and shock can be toward the grid end of the coil. In C, more feed-
minimized by using good mechanical support for back is obtained by increasing the number of
coils and tuning capacitors, a heavy chassis, and turns on L2 or moving L2 closer to LI.
by not hanging any of the oscillator-circuit com-
ponents on long leads. Tie points should be used
to avoid long leads. Stiff short leads are excellent
because they can't be made to vibrate.
Smooth tuning is a. great convenience to the
operator, and can be obtained by taking pains
with the mounting of the dial and tuning ca-
pacitors. They should have good alignment and
no backlash. If the capacitors are mounted off
the chassis on posts instead of brackets, it is al-
most impossible to avoid some back-lash unless
the posts have extra-wide bases. The capacitors
should be selected with good wiping contacts to
the rotor, since with age the rotor contacts can
be a source of erratic tuning. All joints in the
oscillator tuning circuit should be carefully sol-
dered, because a loose connection or "rosin
joint" can develop trouble that is sometimes hard
to locate. The chassis and panel materials should
be heavy and rigid enough so that pressure on the
tuning dial will not cause torsion and a shift in
the frequency.
In addition, the oscillator must be capable of
(B)
furnishing sufficient r.f. voltage and power for
the particular mixer circuit chosen, at all fre-
quencies within the range of the receiver, and its
harmonic output should be as low as possible to
reduce the possibility of spurious responses.
The oscillator plate power should be as low
as is consistent with adequate output. Low r--
plate power will reduce tube heating and thereby
lower the frequency drift. The oscillator and
mixer circuits should be well isolated, preferably
by shielding, since coupling other than by the
intended means may result in pulling.
If the h.f.-oscillator frequency is affected by (c)
changes in plate voltage, a voltage- regulated
plate supply ( VR tube) can be used.
Fig. 5- 14— High-frequency oscillator circuits. A, pentode
Circuits grounded- plate oscillator ; B, triode grounded- plate
oscillator; C, triode oscillator with tickler circuit. Cou-
Several oscillator circuits are shown in Fig.
pling to the mixer may be taken from points X and Y.
5-14. Circuits A and B will give about the same In A and 13, coupling from Y will reduce pulling effects,
results, and require only one coil. However, in but gives less voltage than from X; this type is best
these two circuits the cathode is above ground adapted to mixer circuits with small oscillator- voltage
potential for ri., which often is a cause of hum requirements. Typical values for components are as
modulation of the oscillator output at 14 Mc. and follows:
higher frequencies when a.c.-heated-cathode Circuit A Circuit B Circuit C
tubes are used. The circuit of Fig. 5-14C reduces
hum because the cathode is grounded. It is simple Cs- 100 pf. 100 pf. 100 pf.
C2-0.01 µf. 0.01 µf. 0.01 µf.
to adjust, and it is also the best circuit to use
Cs-0.01 µf.
with filament-type tubes. With filament-type
14-47,000 ohms. 47,000 ohms. 47,000 ohms.
tubes, the other two circuits would require r.f.
R,-47,000 ohms. 10,000 to 10,000 to
chokes to keep the filament above r.f. ground. 25,000 ohms. 25,000 ohms.
Besides the use of a fairly high CIL ratio in
the tuned circuit, it is necessary to adjust the The plate- supply voltage should be 250 volts. In circuits
feedback to obtain optimum results. Too much B and C, R_ is used to drop the supply voltage to 100-
feedback may cause "squegging" of the oscillator 150 volts; it may be omitted if voltage is obtained from
and the generation of several frequencies simul- a voltage divider in the power supply.
 116 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS

THE " SimpleX Super Mark II" THREE- TUBE RECEIVER

The name of the receiver shown in Figs. 5-30 regeneration is not essential to good c.w. or s.s.b.
and 5-33 derives from " simple," " X" for crystal reception, but it helps considerably on a.m. re-
(filter) and " super" for superheterodyne; hence ception. Audio amplification is obtained from the
a " simple crystal- filter superheterodyne." It is two triode sections of a6CG7. The primary of a
an improved version of an earlier model (QST, small output transformer, 7' 3,serves as the coup-
December, 1958), hence the " Mark II." For less ling for high- impedance headphone output, and a
than fifty dollars and a few nights at the work- small loudspeaker or low-impedance headphones
bench, this little receiver will allow you to copy can be connected to the secondary.
practically any c.w. or s.s.b. signal in the 40- or The power supply uses a small transformer
80-meter band that a much more expensive re- and two selenium rectifiers in a full-wave volt-
ceiver might bring in. By the throw of a switch age-doubling circuit. This is about as inexpen-
you can tune in WWV on 5.0 Mc. for time sig-
sive a power supply as can be built, and it also
nals and standard- frequency transmissions.
has the advantages of not occupying much space
Referring to the circuit diagram in Fig. 5-31, and not generating much heat.
the receiver is a superheterodyne with an inter- A switch, SiA ,at the input of the receiver is
mediate frequency of 1700 kc. With the h.f. os-
included so that the receiver can be used to lis-
cillator tuning 5.2. to 5.7 Mc., the 3.5- or 7- Mc. ten to one's own transmitter without too severe
amateur bands can be tuned merely by retuning blocking. Another section of the same switch,
the input circuit. Since C2 is large enough to hit SiB , shifts the mixer screen voltage from its
the two bands without a coil change, the band- operating value to zero, to reduce further the
changing process consists of turning C2 to the sensitivity of the receiver while one is transmit-
low- or high- capacitance end of its range. To ting. If it reduces it so much that the receiver
copy WWV at 5 Mc., the oscillator must be has too little gain, this section of the switch can
tuned to 3.3 Mc., and this is done by switching in be omitted from the circuit and the mixer oper-
(via S2A )a preset capacitor, C5,across the os- ated at full screen voltage at all times.
cillator circuit.
An 8 X 12 x 3- inch aluminum chassis takes
The advantage of a two-band receiver of this all of the parts without crowding, and the loca-
type is that the absence of coil switching makes tion of the components can be seen in the photo-
it easy to build astable high- frequency oscillator, graphs. The receiver is shown with a 7- inch
and the stability of this oscillator then deter- high standard relay- rack panel, which leaves
mines the stability of the receiver. Higher- room at one end of the panel for auxiliary
frequency bands ( 14, 21 and 28 Mc.) can be equipment or a small transmitter. If desired, a
listened to by adding a crystal-controlled con- shorter panel of h- inch aluminum can be used.
verter; the construction of such a converter is The panel is held to the chassis by the two
described later in this chapter.
switches and the headphones jack. The tuning
Selectivity at the i.f. is obtained through the
capacitor, C3, is mounted on a small aluminum
use of a single crystal. This, in conjunction with
bracket, and the capacitor is driven by aJackson
the regeneration provided by the detector, is Brothers Planetary Vernier ( Arrow Elec-
sharp enough to provide a fair degee of single-
tronics, N.Y.C.) via a Millen 39016 coupling.
signal c.w. reception and yet is broad enough for
Before the bracket is finally fastened to the chas-
copy of an s.s.b. phone signal.
sis the capacitor and bracket should be used to
In the detector stage, the pentode section of a
locate the center for the vernier hole. It pays to
6U8A is used as a regenerative detector, and the take care in mounting the tuning capacitor and
triode section serves as the b.f.o. Stray coupling
its drive, since a smooth tuning drive is essen-
at the socket and in the tube provides adequate tial to any receiver. A National HRT knob
injection. The regeneration control is not is used to turn the vernier, and a paper scale
mounted on the panel because, once set below the is made as can be seen in one of the photographs.
threshold of oscillation, it is not touched. The
Tie points are used liberally throughout the

Fig. 5- 30-- The SimpleX Super receiver uses three dual

tubes and a crystal filter to cover the 80- and 40- meter
bands, and it can tune to 5 Mc. for copying WWV.
The dial scale is made from white paper held to the
panel by black tape; the index is clear plastic.
Extra panel space is provided for control circuits or
a small transmitter.
I.F. Amplifiers 99
the point marked "MANUAL GAIN CONTROL." In I.F. Transformers
either case, the voltage increases the bias on the
The tuned circuits of i.f, amplifiers are built
tube and reduces the mutual conductance and
up as transformer units consisting of a metal
hence the gain. When two or more stages are
shield container in which the coils and tuning
used, these voltages are generally obtained from
capacitors are mounted. Both air- core and pow-
common sources. The decoupling resistor, R 3 ,
dered iron-core universal-wound coils are used,
helps to prevent unwanted interstage coupling.
the latter having somewhat higher Qs and hence
C 2 and R 4 are part of the automatic gain-control
greater selectivity and gain. In universal wind-
circuit ( described later) ; if no a.g.c. is used, the
ings the coil is wound in layers with each turn
lower end of the i.f.-transformer secondary is
traversing the length of the coil, back and forth,
connected to chassis.
rather than being wound perpendicular to the
Tubes for I.F. Amplifiers axis as in ordinary single- layer coils. In a
straight multilayer winding, afairly large capac-
Variable-µ ( remote cut-off) pentodes are al-
itance can exist between layers. Universal wind-
most invariably used in i.f, amplifier stages,
ing, with its "criss-crossed" turns, tends to
since grid-bias gain control is practically always
reduce distributed-capacitance effects.
applied to the i.f. amplifier. Tubes with high
For tuning, air-dielectric tuning capacitors are
plate resistance will have least effect on the se-
preferable to mica compression types because
lectivity of the amplifier, and those with high
their capacity is practically unaffected by
mutual conductance will give greatest gain. The
changes in temperature and humidity. Iron- core
choice of i.f. tubes normally has no effect on the
transformers may be tuned by varying the in-
signal-to-noise ratio, since this is determined by
ductance ( permeability tuning), in which case
the preceding mixer and r.f. amplifier.
stability comparable to that of variable air-ca-
Typical values of cathode and screen resistors
pacitor tuning can be obtained by use of high-
for common tubes are given in Table 5- II. The stability fixed mica or ceramic capacitors. Such
6BA6, 6B J6 and 6BZ6 are recommended for i.f. stability is of great importance, since a circuit
work because they have desirable remote cut-off whose frequency "drifts" with time eventually
characteristics. The indicated screen resistors will be tuned to a different frequency than the
other circuits, thereby reducing the gain and
selectivity of the amplifier.
TABLE 511 The normal interstage i.f. transformer is
Cathode and Screen- Dropping
loosely coupled, to give good selectivity consist-
Resistors for R.F. or I.F. Amplifiers
ent with adequate gain. A so-called diode trans-
former is similar, but the coupling is tighter, to
Tube Plate Screen Cathode Screen
Volts Volts Resistor R1 Resistor Ra give sufficient transfer when working into the
6AC7 1 300 160 62,000 finite load presented by a diode detector. Using
6AH6 3 300 150 160 62,000 a diode transformer in place of an interstage
6AK5 3 180 120 200 27,000 transformer would result in loss of selectivity;
6AU6 3 250 150 68 33,000
6BA6 2" 250 100 68 33,000
using an interstage transformer to couple to
6BH6 3 250 150 100 33,000 the diode would result in loss of gain.
6BJ6 2• 250 100 82 47,000 Besides the conventional i.f. transformers just
6BZ6 2• 200 150 180 20,000
6CB6 200 150 180 56,000
mentioned, special units to give desired selectiv-
6DC6 3 200 135 18 24,000 ity characteristics have been used. For higher-
6SO7 1• 250 125 68 27,000
6SH7 1 250 150 68
than-ordinary adjacent-channel selectivity, tri-
39,000
6SJ7 1 250 100 820 180,000 ple-tuned transformers, with a third tuned
6SK7 1* 250 100 270 56,000 circuit inserted between the input and output
1 Octal base, metal. Miniature tube
windings, have been made. The energy is trans-
2

• Remote cut-off type.

ferred from the input to the output windings via
this tertiary winding, thus adding its selectivity
drop the plate voltage to the correct screen to the over-all selectivity of the transformer.
voltage, as R 2 in Fig. 5-15. A method of varying the selectivity is to vary
When two or more stages are used the high the coupling between primary and secondary,
gain may tend to cause instability and oscillation, overcoupling being used to broaden the selec-
so that good shielding, bypassing, and careful tivity curve. Special circuits using single tuned
circuit arrangement to prevent stray coupling circuits, coupled in any of several different ways,
between input and output circuits are necessary. have been used in some advanced receivers.
When single-ended tubes- are used, the plate
and grid leads should be well separated. With Selectivity
these tubes it is advisable to mount the screen The over-all selectivity of the i.f. amplifier
bypass capacitor directly on the bottom of the will depend on the frequency and the number of
socket, crosswise between the plate and grid pins, stages. The following figures are indicative of
to provide additional shielding. If apaper capac- the bandwidths to be expected with good-quality
itor is used, the outside foil should be grounded circuits in amplifiers so constructed as to keep
to the chassis. regeneration at aminimum:
 118 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS
ANT IND.
in the audio and feedthrough around the crystal
filter. The shielded leads are marked in Fig. 5-31
71. 171
where feasible; the simple rule to follow is to
shield all B+ leads along with those shown
shielded in Fig. 5-31. For ease of wiring, these
shielded leads should be installed first or at least
early in the construction. As the wiring pro-
gresses, a neat- looking unit can be obtained by
dressing the leads and components in parallel
3L 43 t
lines or at right angles. D.c. and a.c. leads can be
\ tucked out of the way along the edges of the
IND. GRID PLATE 8+ GND. GRID
chassis, while r.f. leads should be as direct as is
reasonable.
Fig. 5-32— Details of the coil construction. Each one is If this is a first receiver or construction job,
made from 11 & W 3012 Miniductor or Illumitronic 632 there are several pitfalls to be avoided. When in-
stock, which is wound 32 t.p.i. and 34-inch diameter. stalling atube socket, orient the socket so the grid
The separation between coils in L i is 1/
12 turns; the
and plate leads will be direct and not cross over
separation between coils in Ls is 1turn. Ls is 43 turns the socket.
of the same stock. Another thing is to avoid stranded wire for
It is important that the coils be connected as in- making connections throughout the receiver.
dicated. The coil stock can be cut to the required lengths Where stranded wire must be used, be careful to
by pushing in aturn, cutting it inside the coil and then avoid wild strands that stray over to an adjacent
pushing the newly cut ends through to outside the coil. socket terminal. No. 20 or 22 insulated solid
Once outside, the wire can be peeled away with the tinned copper wire should be used for connections
help of long-nose pliers. When sufficient turns have wherever no shielding is used. Long bare leads
been removed, the support bars can be cut with afine from resistors or capacitors should be covered
saw. with insulating tubing unless they go to chassis
grounds.
receiver, as junctions for components and inter- The final bugaboo is a poorly- soldered con-
connecting wires. The coils L3 and L4 are nection. If this is first venture, by all means prac-
mounted on tie points, using short leads, and L1 tice soldering before starting to wire this re-
is mounted on S iA . If the leads from L, are too ceiver. Read an article or two on how to solder,
long, the coil will be " floppy" and the receiver or get afriend to demonstrate. A good soldering
may be unstable. Fig. 5-32 shows how the coils iron is an essential; there have been instances of
are constructed and connected. The leads from a first venture having been " soldered" with an
C2 are brought through the chassis in insulating iron that would just barely melt the solder; the
rubber grommets. The 3- to 30-µgf. mica com- iron was incapable of heating the solder and
pression trimmer across L1 is soldered to the work to where the solder would flow properly.
associated section of C2.C2 is mounted on top of When the wiring has been completed and
the chassis and surrounded by a Bud CU- 3002-A checked once more against the circuit diagram,
Minibox, which serves as adust cover. The par- plug in the tubes and the line cord and turn on
tition between the two sections of C 2 should be the receiver through S3.The tube heaters should
grounded to the chassis, to prevent capacitive light up and nothing should start to smoke or get
coupling between the two sections. The coil L2 hot. If you have avoltmeter you should measure
is wound on a high- resistance 1-watt resistor; about 270 volts on the B+ line.
the ends of the coil are soldered to the leads of With headphones plugged in the receiver, you
àle resistor, and the winding will stay in place should be able to hear a little hum when the
readily if the resistor is notched at each end be- volume control is advanced all the way. If you
fore the winding is started. can't hear any hum, touching a screwdriver to
The receiver is wired with shielded wire for Pin 2 of V3A should produce hum and a loud
many of the leads, in an effort to minimize hum click. This shows that the detector and audio
amplifier are working. The 100K regeneration
control should be set at mid range.
The next step is to tune 1, 6,L6 and L7 to 1700
kc., the crystal frequency. If you have or can

Fig. 5-33—Top view of the SimpleX Super. The tube at

the left is the mixer-oscillator 6ULIA; the 6CG7 audio
amplifier is at the far right. The black knob is on the
regeneration control. Toggle switch under the a.c. line
cord is the a.c, line switch, S5. Phono jack at left is the
antenna terminal; phono jack at right near volume con-
trol is speaker jack, 18.
SimpleX Super 119
borrow a signal generator, put 1700-kc. r.f. in at lates; just below this is the most sensitive con-
the control grid of the 6U8A mixer and peak L 5 dition for the reception of a.m. phone signals. Set
and L6.Lacking a signal generator, you may be the regeneration control at this point.
lucky enough to find a strong signal by tuning Turn the b.f.o. back on and tune in ac.w. sig-
around with C3,but it isn't likely. Your best bet is nal. Tuning through the signal with the tuning
to tune abroadcast receiver to around 1245 kc.; if knob on C 3 ,note that the signal is louder on one
the receiver has a 455-kc. if. the oscillator will side of zero beat than on the other. Experiment
then be on 1700 kc. Don't depend upon the cali- with the setting of the PITCH control until the
bration of the broadcast receiver; make your own maximum single- signal effect ( louder one side
by checking known stations. The oscillator of the than the other) is obtained. It may be necessary
broadcast receiver will furnish a steady carrier to pull up the plate of C., and to retune
that can be picked up by running a wire tempo- L, and L, before this is accomplished. After alit-
rarily from the grid of the 6U8A mixer to apoint tle adjustment, however, the single- signal effect
near the chassis of the b.c. receiver. Adjust L 7 should be quite apparent.
until you get abeat with the 1700-kc. signal, and All that remains is to install the dial scale and
then peak L, and L 6 .If the signal gets too loud, calibrate it. A 100-kc. oscillator is ideal for this
reduce the signal by moving the wire away from job; lacking one or the ability to borrow one,
the b.c. receiver. Now slowly swing the signal other signals must be used. If the crystal filter
frequency back and forth with the b.f.o. turned is 1700 kc. exactly, the 80- and 40- meter calibra-
off; a spot should be found where the noise tions will coincide as they do on the scale shown
rushes up quickly and then drops off. This is the in Fig. 5-30; if not, the calibration marks will be
crystal frequency, and L, and L 6 should be offset on the two bands.
peaked again on this frequency. To find WWV at 5 Mc., set S .2 so that C 5 is
An antenna connected to the receiver should switched in and the b.f.o. is on and adjust C 5 so
now permit the reception of signals. With C 2 that WWV falls on scale.
nearly unmeshed, the input tuning will be in the It may be noticed that tuning C 2 has a slight
region of the 7- Mc. band, and with C 2 almost effect on the tuning of the signal. In other words,
completely meshed, the input circuits will be near tuning C 2 "pulls" the oscillator slightly. To
3.5 Mc. Do the tuning with the C", in the oscil- remedy this would have made the receiver more
lator circuit, until a known frequency is found complicated, and the simple solution is merely to
(it can be asignal from the station transmitter). first peak C 2 on noise and then tune with C 3 .
Let's say the transmitter has acrystal at 3725 kc. If two peaks of noise are found in the 80- or 40-
Set C 3 at half capacitance and tune with C 4 un- meter bands, adjust Cl until they coincide.
til the transmitter is heard. No antenna should be This will be found to be apractical receiver in
needed on the receiver for this test. Once C 4 is every way for the c.w. ( or s.s.b.) operator. The
set, put the antenna on the receiver and look tuning rate is always the same on 80 or 40, or 15
around for other known signals. ( CHU, the with aconverter, and 21- Mc. s.s.b. signals tune as
Canadian standard-frequency station at 7335 kc., easily as those on 3.9 Mc. The warm-up drift is
is a good marker.) With luck the tuning should negligible, and the oscillator is surprisingly in-
just be able to cover the 80- meter band; if it sensitive to voltage changes. Whether or not the
covers one end but not the other, a minor read- oscillator is insensitive to shock and vibration
justment of the trimmer is indicated. will depend upon the care with which the compo-
Once the receiver is aligned to receive signals, nents are anchored to their respective tie points.
switch S 2 so that the b.f.o. is
turned off. Advance the regen-
eration control ( turn arm away
from grounded end) and a „m ialmmilmimiammimimmei
point will be found where the
noise increases and a slight
"thump" is heard. This is the
point where the detector oscil-

Fig. 5-34—Shielded wire, used for

most of the d.c. and 60-cycle leads,
lends to the clean appearance un-
derneath the chassis. Toggle switch
at the left shorts the input of the re-
ceiver, and the adjacent rotary
switch handles the b.f.o. and the
padding capacitor for WWV.
The pitch control, C2, is at the right,
next to the headphone jack. Power
supply components (Cs, C2 and CR,,
CR,) are mounted on or near rear
wall of chassis.
 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS
RECOVERY
DIODE Fig. 5- 18— Audio " hang" a.g.c. system. Re-
sistors are vs watt unless specified otherwise.
12,— Normal audio volume control in re-
ceiver.
L-1,3 step-up audio transformer ( Stancor
A-53 or equiv.)
The hang time can be adjusted by changing
the value of the recovery diode load resistor
(4.7 megohms shown here). The a.g.c. line in
the receiver must have no d.c. return to
ground and the receiver should have good
AG.C.LINE skirt selectivity for maximum effectiveness of
IN RECEIVER the system.

because the audio was stepped up through T1

and rectified in V 2A ,and the resultant used to
velop a.g.c. voltages that will reduce the receiver charge C2.This voltage holds VI,cut off for an
gain while listening to weak signals. When clear appreciable time, until C2 discharges through the
channels are available, however, c.w. and s.s.b. 4.7-megohm resistor. The threshold of compres-
a.g.c. will hold the receiver output constant over sion is set by adjusting the bias on the diodes
a wide range of signal inputs. A.g.c. systems de- (changing the value of the 3.3K or 100K re-
signed to work on these signals should have sistors). There can be no d.c. return to ground
fast-attack and slow-decay characteristics to from the a.g.c. line, because C1 must be dis-
work satisfactorily, and often a selection of time charged only by ViB .Even a v.t.v.m. across the
constants is made available. a.g.c. line will be too low a resistance, and the
The a.g.c. circuit shown in Fig. 5-18 is appli- operation of the system must be observed by the
cable to many receivers without too much modi- action of the Smeter.
fication. Audio from the receiver is amplified in Occasionally a strong noise pulse may cause
VI, and rectified in V2B .The resultant voltage the a.g.c. to hang until C2 discharges, but most of
is applied to the a.g.c. line through V2c .The the time the gain should return very rapidly to
capacitor C1 charges quickly and will remain that set by the signal. A.g.c. of this type is very
charged until discharged by Vi le This will helpful in handling netted s.s.b. signals of widely
occur some time after the signal has disappeared, varying strengths.

NOISE REDUCTION
an instantaneous amplitude much higher than
Types of Noise
that of the signal being received. The general
In addition to tube and circuit noise, much principles of devices intended to reduce such
of the noise interference experienced in recep- noise is to allow the desired signal to pass
tion of high-frequency signals is caused by do- through the receiver unaffected, but to make the
mestic or industrial electrical equipment and by receiver inoperative for amplitpdes greater than
automobile ignition systems. The interference is that of the signal. The greater the amplitude of
of two types in its effects. The first is the "hiss" the pulse compared with its time of duration, the
type, consisting of overlapping pulses similar in more successful the noise reduction.
nature to the receiver noise. It is largely reduced Another approach is to " silence" ( render in-
by high selectivity in the receiver, especially for operative) the receiver during the short dura-
code reception. The second is the "pistol- shot" tion time of any individual pulse. The listener
or "machine-gun" type, consisting of separated will not hear the "hole" because of its short
impulses of high amplitude. The " hiss" type of duration, and very effective noise reduction is
interference usually is caused by commutator obtained. Such devices are called " silencers"
sparking in d.c. and series-wound a.c. motors, rather than " limiters."
while the " shot" type results from separated In passing through selective receiver circuits,
spark discharges ( a.c. power leaks, switch and the time duration of the impulses is increased,
key clicks, ignition sparks, and the like). because of the Q of the circuits. Thus the more
The only known approach to reducing tube selectivity ahead of the noise- reducing device,
and circuit noise is through better "front-end" the more difficult it becomes to secure good
design and through more over-all selectivity. pulse-type noise suppression.

Impulse Noise Audio Limiting

Impulse noise, because of the short duration A considerable degree of noise reduction in
of the pulses compared with the time between code reception can be accomplished by am-
them, must have high amplitude to contain much plitude- limiting arrangements applied to the
average energy. Hence, noise of this type strong audio-output circuit of a receiver. Such limiters
enough to cause much interference generally has also maintain the signal output nearly constant
 Noise Reduction 103

ANL.
6AL5
2.2 MEG

RFC, Fig. 5- 19—Full-wove shunt limiter using contact-poten-

FROM
DETECTOR
tial-biased diodes. A low-level limiter OA volt), this
circuit finds greatest usefulness following a product
C,1 C2
1 VOLUME
detector.
2.2 MEG.
ATF
° AMP C1, C2—Part of low-pass filter with cutoff below i.f.
RFC1—Part of low-pass filter; see C1.
TI—Center-tapped heater transformer.
6AL5
1001,u 1
,

A circuit for a higher-level audio limiter is

shown in Fig. 5-20. Because it operates at a
higher level, it is ideal for use between receiver
output and headphones, requiring no alteration
to the receiver. The principle of operation is
during fading. These output- limiter systems are similar to that of the preceding limiter; when
simple, and they are readily adaptable to most the signal level exceeds the level of the bias pro-
receivers without any modification of the re- vided by the flashlight cells, the diodes conduct
ceiver itself. However, they cannot prevent noise and short-circuit the signal.
peaks from overloading previous stages. Second-detector noise- limiting circuits that
automatically adjust themselves to the received
SECOND- DETECTOR NOISE
carrier level are shown in Fig. 5-21. In either
LIMITER CIRCUITS circuit, 17 1 is the usual diode second detector,
Most audio limiting circuits are based on one RiR2 is the diode load resistor, and C1 is an
of two principles. In a series limiting circuit, a r.f. bypass. A negative voltage proportional to
normally conducting element ( or elements) is the carrier level is developed across C2,and this
connected in the circuit in series and operated voltage cannot change rapidly because R 3 and C2
in such amanner that it becomes non-conductive are both large. In the circuit at A, diode V 2 acts
above a given signal level. In a shunt limiting as a conductor for the audio signal up to the
circuit, a non-conducting element is connected point where its anode is negative with respect to
in shunt across the circuit and operated so that the cathode. Noise peaks that exceed the maxi-
it becomes conductive above a given signal mum carrier-modulation level will drive the an-
level, thus short-circuiting the signal and pre- ode negative instantaneously, and during this
venting its being transmitted to the remainder time the diode does not conduct. The long time
of the amplifier. The usual conducting element constant of C2R3 prevents any rapid change of
will be a forward-biased diode, and the usual the reference voltage. In the circuit at B, the
non-conducting element will be a back- biased diode V 2 is inactive until its cathode voltage ex-
diode. In many applications the value of bias ceeds its anode voltage. This condition will
is set manually by the operator; usually the obtain under noise peaks and when it does, the
clipping level will be set at about 5to 10 volts. diode V 2 short-circuits the signal and no voltage
A full-wave clipping circuit that operates at a is passed on to the audio amplifier. Diode recti-
low level ( approximately V2 volt) is shown in fiers such as the 6H6 and 6AL5 can be used for
Fig. 5-19. Each diode is biased by its own contact these types of noise limiters. Neither circuit is
potential, developed across the 2.2-megohm re- useful for c.w. or s.s.b. reception, but they are
sistors. The .001 -pf. capacitors become charged both quite effective for a.m. phone work. The
to close to this value of contact potential. A series circuit ( A) is slightly better than the
negative-going signal in excess of the bias will shunt circuit.
be shorted to ground by the upper diode; aposi-
tive-going signal will be conducted by the lower 10K
diode. The conducting resistance of the diodes is '/2W.
CR 1
small by comparison with the 220,000 ohms in
series with the circuit, and little if any of the o l'/2v V
excessive signal will appear across the 1-megohm OFF° 2 °' pup î
volume control. In order that the clipping does
not become excessive and cause distortion, the
input signal must be held down by again control
ahead of the detector. This circuit finds good
application following a low-level detector. Fig. 5- 20-- Circuit diagram of a simple audio limiter,
To minimize hum in the receiver output, it is to be plugged into the headphone jack of a receiver.
desirable to ground the center tap of the heater The flashlight cells draw very little current ( it depends
transformer, as shown, instead of the more upon the back resistance of the crystal diodes), but it
common practice of returning one side of the is advisable to open Si when the limiter is not in use.
heater circuit to chassis. Crystal diodes can be 1N34As or similar.
104 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS
IFTRANS IFTRANS Fig. 5-21—Self-adjusting series (A) and
r— shunt ( B) noise limiters. The functions of VI
and V2 can be combined in one tube like
the 6H6 or 6AL5.

C5-100 1.4.
Cs,Cs-0.05 µf.
R1-0.27 meg. in A; 47,000 ohms in B.
Rs- 0.27 meg. in A; 0.15 meg. in B.
megohm.
R4 -0.82 megohm.

R5- 6800 ohms.

It is necessary to avoid i.f. feedback around

I.F. NOISE SILENCER
the 6BE6 stage, and the closer RFC ,can be to
The i.f, noise silencer circuit shown in Fig. self- resonant at the i.f, the better will be the fil-
5-22 is designed to be used in a receiver, as far tering. The filtering cannot be improved by in-
along from the antenna stage as possible but creasing the values of the 150 -uf. capacitors
ahead of the high- selectivity section of the re- because this will tend to " stretch" the pulses and
ceiver. Noise pulses are amplified and rectified, reduce the signal strength when the silencer is
and the resulting negative-going d.c. pulses are operative.
used to cut off an amplifier stage during the
pulse. A manual "threshold" control is set by the SIGNAL- STRENGTH AND
operator to a level that only permits rectification
TUNING INDICATORS
of the noise pulses that rise above the peak am-
plitude of the desired signal. The clamp diode, The simplest tuning indicator is a milliamme-
17 1A , short circuits the positive- going pulse ter connected in the d.c. plate lead of an a.g.c.-
"overshoots." Running the 6BE6 controlled i.f. controlled r.f. or if, stage. Since the plate cur-
amplifier at low screen voltage makes it pos- rent is reduced as the age. voltage becomes
sible for the No. 3 grid ( pin 7) to cut off the higher with a stronger signal, the plate current
stage at a lower voltage than if the screen were is a measure of the signal strength. The meter
operated at the more- normal 100 volts, but it can have a 0-1, 0-2 or 0-5 ma. movement, and it
also reduces the available gain through the stage. should be shunted by a 25- ohm rheostat which is

+250
CONTROLLED I.E TO SELECTIVE

68E6 STAGES

MIXER OR CLAMP
IF AMP V ia 7

6AL5

4700

NOISE RECT.

.0Ipf.

THRESHOLD
+ 250
1
02LK
.

lw.

Fig. 5-22— Practical circuit diagram of an if, noise si- Ts— Diode if, transformer.
lencer. For best results the silencer should be used 12-33,000 to 68,000 ohms, depending upon gain up
ahead of the high- selectivity portion of. the receiver. to this stage.
Ti—Interstage i.f. transformer RFCI—R.f. choke, preferably self- resonant at
Tuning Indicators 105
set for a full meter reading with the i.f. tube
removed from its socket.
470 Neither of these S-meter circuits can be
"pinned," and only severe misadjustment of the
161 zero- set control can injure the meter.
2w.
TO A.G.0 LINE
HEADPHONES AND LOUDSPEAKERS
There are two basic types of headphones in
common use, the magnetic and the crystal. A
magnetic headphone uses a small electromagnet
that attracts and releases a steel diaphragm in
accordance with the electrical output of the radio
receiver; this is similar to the " receiver" por-
tion of the household telephone. A crystal head-
phone uses the piezoelectric properties of a pair
of Rochelle- salt or other crystals to vibrate a
diaphragm in accordance with the electrical out-
put - of the radio receiver. Magnetic headphones
can be used in circuits where d.c. is flowing, such
as the plate circuit of a vacuum tube, provided
Fig. 5- 23—Tuning indicator or S-meter circuits for super- the current is not too heavy to be carried by the
heterodyne receivers. wire in the coils; the limit is usually a few
milliamperes. Crystal headphones can be used
MA - 0-1 or 0-2 milliammeter. RI—R4—See text.
only on a.c. ( a steady d.c. voltage will damage
used to set the no- signal reading to full scale on the crystal unit), and consequently must be
the meter. If a "forward- reading" meter is de- coupled to a tube through a device, such as a
sired, the meter can be mounted upside down. capacitor or transformer, that isolates the d.c.
Two other S-meter circuits are shown in Fig. but passes the a.c. Most modern receivers have
5-23. The system at A uses a milliammeter in a a.c. coupling to the headphones and hence either
bridge circuit, arranged so that the meter read- type of headphone can be used, but it is wise to
ings increase with the a.g.c. voltage and signal look first at the circuit diagram in the instruc-
strength. The meter reads approximately in a tion book and make sure that the headphone jack
linear decibel scale and will not be "crowded." is connected to the secondary of the output
To adjust the system in Fig. 5-23A, pull the transformer, as is usually the case.
tube out of its socket or otherwise break the In general, crystal headphones will have con-
cathode circuit so that no plate current flows, siderably wider and " flatter" audio response than
and adjust the value of resistor R1 across the will magnetic headphones ( except those of the
meter until the scale reading is maximum. The "hi-fi" type that sell at premium prices). The
value of resistance required will depend on the lack of wide response in the magnetic head-
internal resistance of the meter, and must be phones is sometimes an advantage in code recep-
determined by trial and error ( the current is tion, since the desired signal can be set on the
approximately 2.5 ma.). Then replace the tube, peak and be given a boost in volume over the
allow it to warm up, turn the a.g.c. switch to undesired signals at slightly different frequen-
"off" so the grid is shorted to ground, and adjust cies.
the 3000-ohm variable resistor for zero meter Crystal headphones are available only in high-
current. When the a.g.c. is "on," the meter will impedance values around 50,000 ohms or so,
follow the signal variations up to the point where while magnetic headphones run around 10,000
the voltage is high enough to cut off the meter to 20,000 ohms, although they can be obtained in
tube's plate current. With a6J5 or 6SN7GT this values as low as 15 ohms. Usually the impedance
will occur in the neighborhood of 15 volts, a of a headphone set is unimportant because there
high-amplitude signal. is more than enough power available from the
The circuit of Fig. 5-23B requires no addi- radio receiver, but in marginal cases it is possible
tional tubes. The resistor R 2 is the normal cath- to improve the acoustic output through a better
ode resistor of an a.g.c.-controlled i.f. stage; its match of headphone to output impedance. When
cathode resistor should be returned to chassis headphone sets are connected in series or in
and not to the manual gain control. The sum of parallel they must be of similar impedance levels
R 3 plus R 4 should equal the normal cathode re- or one set will "hog" most of the power.
sistor for the audio amplifier, and they should be Loud speakers are practically always of the
proportioned so that the arm of R 3 can pick off a low-impedance permanent- field dynamic variet?,
voltage equal to the normal cathode voltage for and the loudspeaker output connections of a
the i.f. stage. In some cases it may be necessary receiver can connect directly to the voice coil of
to interchange the positions of R 3 and R 4 in the the loudspeaker. Some receivers also provide a
circuit. "500-ohm output" for connection to along line to
The zero- set control R 3 should be set for no a remote loudspeaker. A loudspeaker requires
reading of the meter with no incoming signal, mounting in a suitable enclosure if full low-
and the 1500-ohm sensitivity control should be frequency response is to be obtained.
2X4+ Superhet 123

▪
• 9
‹ borrowed. The receiver can be used to listen for
P •,-; .e7, ._ the signals from the 2x 4+ b.f.o. and high-
frequency oscillator, and the signal generator can
3E
,j •
e
co;3 .
i -:g15 °• be used to provide signals for aligning the i.f.
t 73 - T,5 ez6
- -
.--.. e _ circuits and the input. Lacking these, a grid-dip
§
'e
co 1 au
*Eg q 8S. meter can be used to provide asignal source and
9-113 .-
Q e C4 0 to check the resonances of the tuned circuits. If
... D
• tt- o
ci. 12.
Li- ia- O. •
a 100-kc. oscillator is available, it can be used to
To e .6 q s o
E z;z - Ce "6.
el .c align the receiver. A last desperate measure is to
. . '-
g"à° g e e_ ° .' . -. use a broadcast receiver as a signal generator;
—. .: 7; 2
e 6. .1-- e
t' 2 ° g when the b.c. receiver is tuned to 1245 kc. its
oscillator will be on 1700 kc. if the i.f. is 455 kc.,
=no ...L i.; .5 ' d▪.1; e
n g -2
as is usually the case. A wire from around the
--.- ° u :el ..---, J 8 gel-.
8..uiTEZE • • •• ee b.c. receiver to the 2x 4 + should provide suf-
ficient signal.
9 E2,..i.g .
• 2.i. -,î0 'n Je J21
r... _. g 'Jr, _è 1 The audio amplifier of the receiver should be
-, E c!' 2 to ,: c! O 8
1110 checked first, by turning on the receiver and
listening to the headphones as the audio control,
.. in — — — - , is advanced. When it is full clockwise a low-
I Icte1, 0 • vi- I L. 1 L R 2

i- 3:'
>.• pitched hum should be just audible in the head-
phones. A further check can be made by touching
the center terminal of R with the tip of ascrew-
2

driver, which should result in aclick in the out-

put.
4X 2, 4 X 2, 4 " Minibox" ( Bud CU-3003) is If a signal generator is available, the i.f. can
used as adust cover and shield for C1 ;the leads be aligned by introducing a modulated 1700-kc.
from the stators are brought through clearance signal at the control grid of V" and peaking L,
holes in the chassis. The input and oscillator coils and L for maximum audio output. As the in-
9

are supported by multiple tie-point strips, as are ductors are peaked the signal-generator output
the four silicon diodes of the power supply and should be reduced simultaneously, to avoid over-
many of the other components. The insulated loading the receiver. When the circuits are
couplings for C, and C are Millen 39006. Ca-
7
peaked on what the signal generator says is 1700
pacitor C is supported at one end by atie point
2 kc., "rock" the generator frequency slightly. If
and at the other by a contact on relay IC I.This •
the output increases sharply at something other
relay is one used in radio-controlled model air- than the nominal 1700-kc. setting of the gener-
plane work but it is ideal in this receiver applica- ator, it indicates that the calibration is slightly
tion because it is so small and inexpensive. off, since this sudden peak in response is the
Shielded wire is used in several places in the crystal- filter frequency. Trim L, and L on the 9

receiver, as indicated in Fig. 5-37. The leads to

the audio control, R , are made from audio wire,
2

"II
which is a shielded wire with an insulating outer
covering. This type of audio wire is also used for 431 At. 14E

iilloommilmoil
the long shielded lead running from R1 to / and 2
lIIIIlIIHIuuIuIuIuIIuuIIIlIIIlIIIIUIlllI

the short lead from / 1 to L1.

luallose
The two crystals, Y1 and Y , mount in an 2

octal socket ( Amphenol 77MIP8) from which

pins 2 and 6 have been removed. The crystals
plug into 1and 3and into 5and 7, and pins 4and IIPIIIIIHIIII

8 are grounded.
In the b.f.o. section, the rotor of C, is grounded ANT GND. GNU GRID PLATE B. GNO GRID
to atie point held in place by one of the mounting L2 - L
3 L6-
screws of L10 .The two 330- pf. capacitors are
supported by tie points on the same strip.
The shield on C1 is grounded to alug under the Fig. 5-38— Details of the coil construction. Each one is
head of the screw that holds the tie-point strip made from B & W 3012 Miniductor or Illumitronic 632
supporting L5.The grounding of this shield is stock, which is wound 32 t.p.i. and 34.inch diameter.
important because if it is omitted the input cir- The separation between Ls and 1 4 is 1turn; the separa-

cuits will be overcoupled. The 3- to 30- pf. mica tion between Le and L7 is 1turn. LS is 43 turns of the
trimmer across C IAis soldered directly to the same stock.
terminals of the capacitor section. The 100- pf. It is important that the coils be connected as in-
capacitor across L is mounted on the inductor
9 dicated. The coil stock can be cut to the required lengths
inside the shield can. by pushing in aturn, cutting it inside the coil and then
pushing the newly cut ends through to outside the coil.
Alignment Then the wire can be peeled away with the help of
The alignment procedure can be expedited if a long-nose pliers. When sufficient turns have been re-
short-wave receiver or asignal generator can be moved, the support bars can be cut with a fine saw.
Band- Pass Filters 107
nance curve. For single- signal reception, the
audio-frequency image can be reduced by 50 db.
or more. Besides practically eliminating the a.f.
image, the high selectivity of the crystal filter
provides good discrimination against adjacent
signals and also reduces the noise.
Two crystal- filter circuits are shown in Fig.
5-25. The circuit at A ( or a variation) is found
in many of the current communications receiv-
ers. The crystal is connected in one side of a
bridge circuit, and a phasing capacitor, C1 is
connected in the other. When C1 is set to balance
the crystal-holder capacitance, the resonance
curve of the filter is practically symmetrical; the
crystal acts as a series- resonant circuit of very
high Q and allows signals over anarrow band of
frequencies to pass through to the following
tube. More or less capacitance at C1 introduces
the "rejection notch" of Fig. 5-24 ( at 453.7 kc.
as drawn). The Q of the load circuit for the filter
is adjusted by the setting of R1,which in turn Fig. 5-25—A variable- selectivity crystal filter (
A) and a
varies the bandwidth of the filter from " sharp" band-pass crystal filter (
B).
to a bandwidth suitable for phone reception.
Some of the components of this filter are special
and not generally available to amateurs. cies below 1 Mc. These are made up of three
sections: an input transducer, a mechanically-
BAND-PASS FILTERS resonant filter section, and an output transducer.
A single high-Q circuit ( e.g., aquartz crystal The transducers use the principle of magne-
or regenerative stage) will give adequate single- tostriction to convert the electrical signal to
signal reception under most circumstances. For mechanical energy and back again. The mechani-
phone reception, however, either single-sideband cally- resonant section consists of carefully-
or a.m., a band-pass characteristic is more de- machined metal disks supported and coupled by
sirable. A band-pass filter is one that passes thin rods. Each disk has a resonant frequency
without unusual attenuation a desired band of dependent upon the material and its dimensions,
frequencies and rejects signals outside this band. and the effective Q of a single disk may be in
A good band-pass filter for single-sideband re- excess of 2000. Consequently a mechanical filter
ception might have a bandwidth of 2500 cycles can be built for either narrow or broad bandpass
at.-6 db. and 10 kc. at -60 db.; a filter for a.m. with a nearly rectangular curve. Mechanical fil-
would require twice these bandwidths if both ters are available commercially and are used in
sidebands were to be accommodated. both receivers and single-sideband transmitters.
The simplest band-pass crystal filter is one The signal-handling capability of a mechani-
using two crystals, as in Fig. 5-25B. The two cal filter is limited by the magnetic circuits to
crystals are separated slightly in frequency. If from 2 to 15 volts r.m.s., a limitation that is
the frequencies are only a few hundred cycles of no practical importance provided it is recog-
apart the characteristic is a good one for c.w. nized and provided for. Crystal filters are lim-
reception. With crystals about 2 kc. apart, a ited in their signal-handling ability only by the
reasonable phone characteristic is obtained. Fig. voltage breakdown limits, which normally would
5-1 shows a selectivity characteristic of an am- not be reached before the preceding amplifier
plifier with a bandpass ( at -6 db.) of 2.4 kc., tube was overloaded. A more serious practical
which is typical of what can be expected from a consideration in the use of any high- selectivity
two-crystal band-pass filter. Compare this with component is the prevention of coupling "around"
the single-crystal characteristic of Fig. 5-24. the filter ( coupling from input to output outside
More elaborate crystal filters, using four and the filter), which can only degrade the action of
six crystals, will give reduced bandwidth at the filter.
-60 db. without decreasing the bandwidth at Band-pass filters can also be made by using a
-6 db. The resulting increased " skirt selec- number of high- Q inductance-and-capacitance
tivity" gives better rejection of adjacent-chan- circuits, but their use is generally restricted to
nel signals. " Crystal- lattice" filters of this type frequencies around 100 kc. At higher frequencies
are available commercially for frequencies up to it is easier to get desirable selectivity by other
10 Mc. or so, and they have also been built by means.
amateurs from inexpensive transmitting-type
Q Multiplier
crystals. ( See Vester, " Surplus- Crystal High-
Frequency Filters," QST, January, 1959; The "Q Multiplier" is a stable regenerative
Healey, " High- Frequency Crystal Filters for stage that is connected in parallel with one of
S.S.B.," QST, October, 1960.) the i.f. stages of a receiver. In one condition it
"Mechanical" filters can be built at frequen- narrows the bandwidth and in the other condi-
108 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS
tion it produces a sharp "null" or rejection attenuation value, the circuit still provides some
notch. A " tuning" adjustment controls the fre- rejection, and in use the inductor is detuned or
quency of the peak or null, moving it across the shorted out when the rejection is not desired.
normal pass band of the receiver if. amplifier. At higher frequencies, the T-notch filter is not
The shape of the peak or null is always that of a sharp enough with available components to re-
single tuned circuit ( Fig. 2-50) but the effective ject only a narrow band of frequencies.
Q is adjustable over a wide range. A Q Multi-
plier is most effective at an i.f. of 500 kc. or Additional I.F. Selectivity
less; at higher frequencies the rejection notch Many commercial communications receivers,
becomes wide enough ( measured in cycles per and particularly the older ones, do not have
second) to reject a major portion of a phone sufficient selectivity for amateur use, and their
signal. Within its useful range, however, the Q performance can be improved by additional i.f.
Multiplier will reject an interfering carrier selectivity. One method is to loosely couple a
without degrading the quality of the desired BC-453 aircraft receiver ( war surplus, tuning
signal. 190 to 550 kc.) to the front end of the 455-kc.
In the "peak" condition the Q Multiplier can i.f, amplifier in the communications receiver
be made to oscillate by advancing the "peak" and use the resultant output of the BC- 453.
(regeneration) control far enough, and in this The aircraft receiver uses an 85-kc. i.f, ampli-
condition it can be made to serve as a beat- fier that is sharp for voice work ( 6.5 kc. wide
frequency oscillator. However, it cannot be made at -60 db.) and it helps considerably in backing
to serve as a selective element and as a b.f.o. up single- crystal filters for improved c.w. re-
at the same time. Some inexpensive receivers ception.
may combine either aQ Multiplier or some other The BC-453—sometimes called "The Poor
form of regeneration with the b.f.o. function, and Man's Q- Fiver"—uses 12- volt heater tubes and
the reader is advised to check carefully any in- is designed for 24-volt operation. If a 24- volt
expensive receiver he intends to buy that offers transformer is available, no wiring changes will
a regenerative type of selectivity, in order to be necessary. If a 12- volt transformer is avail-
make sure that the selectivity is available when able, the heaters can be rewired. It is usually
the b.f.o. is turned on. less expensive to obtain the proper transformer
Vacuum-tube versions of the Q Multiplier for than it is to buy 6.3- volt tubes for the receiver.
455-kc. i.f, amplifiers are available in kit form; Any plate- voltage source of 125 to 250 volts at
a transistorized version is described later in this 40 to 80 ma. will be adequate for the B+ supply.
chapter. A Q Multiplier will be of no use on A b.f.o. switch and audio and i.f, gain controls
c.w. or s.s.b. reception when used with areceiver should be added to the BC- 453 before it is used
that employs an oscillating i.f. stage for the b.f.o. with the short-wave receiver. Its performance
Some of the inexpensive "communications" re- can be checked by tuning in aircraft beacons or
ceivers are of this type. low- frequency broadcast stations.
Maximum selectivity will be obtained from
Tee Notch Filter
the BC- 453 when the plungers in the i.f. cans,
At low intermediate frequencies ( 50 — 100 kc.) accessible by unscrewing the caps, are pulled
the T notch filter of Fig. 5-26 will provide a up as far as they will go.
sharp tunable null. The BC- 453 can be coupled to the receiver
through a length of shielded wire or small co-
axial line. The inner conductor is connected to
the antenna post of the BC- 453 and the shield
is connected to the case. The shield should be
connected at the other end to the short-wave
receiver chassis, and the inner conductor, suitably
IMEG.
insulated, should be wrapped once or twice
around the plate pin of the first i.f. amplifier
ttç tube in the short-wave receiver. It may require
a little experimentation before the proper cou-
+ 250
pling is obtained; the objective is enough cou-
Fig. 5-26—Typical T-notch filter, to provide a sharp pling so that the short-wave receiver noise will
rejection notch at a low i.f. Adjustment of t changes mask any BC-453 noise, but not so much coupling
the frequency of the notch; adjustment of R controls that the BC-453 is overloaded. Reports of poor
the depth. performance when using the BC-453 have prac-
tically always reduced to overload of the surplus
aircraft receiver through too much coupling or
coupling at a high-level point in the short-wave
The inductor L resonates with C at the rejec- receiver.
tion frequency, and when R = 4X LIQ the rejec- If aBC-453 is not available, one can still enjoy
tion is maximum. ( XL is the coil reactance and Q the benefits of improved selectivity. It is only
is the coil Q). In a typical 50-kc. circuit, C necessary to heterodyne to alower frequency the
might be 3900 f., making L approximately 455-kc. signal existing in the receiver i.f. ampli-
2.6 mh. When R is greater than the maximum- fier and then rectify it after passing it through
R.F. Amplifiers 109
the sharp low- frequency amplifier. The J. W. age rejection is desired, because they have less
Miller Company offers 50-kc. transformers for loading effect on the tuned circuits.
this application.
Transistor R.F.Amplifier
A typical r.i, amplifier circuit using a 2N370
RADIO -
FREQUENCY AMPLIFIERS .
transistor is shown in Fig. 5-27. Since it is de-
While selectivity to reduce audio- frequency sirable to maintain a reasonable Q in the tuned
images can be built into the i.f. amplifier, dis- circuits, to reduce r.f. image response, the base
crimination against radio-frequency images can and collector are both tapped down on their
only be obtained in tuned circuits or other selec- tuned circuits. An alternative method, using low-
tive elements ahead of the first mixer or con- impedance inductive coupling, is shown in Fig.
verter stage. These tuned circuits are usually 5-27B; this method is sometimes easier to adjust
used as the coupling networks for one or more than the taps illustrated in Fig. 5-27A. The tuned
vacuum tubes or transistors, and the combina- circuits, LiCI and L2C2,should resonate at the
tions of circuits and amplifying devices are called operating frequency, and they should be mounted
radio- frequency amplifiers. The tuned circuits or shielded to eliminate inductive coupling be-
contribute to the r.f. image rejection and the tween each other.
amplifying device(s) determines the noise figure
of the receiver.
Knowing the Q of the coil in each tuned circuit
between the antenna and the first mixer or con-
verter stage, the image rejection capability can
be computed by using the chart in Fig. 2-50. The
Q of the input tuned circuit ( coupled to the an-
tenna) should be taken as about one-half the un-
loaded Q of that circuit, and the Q of any other
tuned circuit can be assumed to be the unloaded
Q to a first approximation ( the vacuum tubes
will reduce the circuit Q to some extent, espe-
cially at 14 Mc. and higher).
In general, receivers with an i.f. of 455 kc. can
be expected to have some noticeable image re-
sponse at 14 Mc. and higher if there are only two
tuned circuits ( one r.f. stage) ahead of the mixer
or converter. Regeneration in the r.f. amplifier
will reduce image response, but regeneration usu-
ally requires frequent readjustment when tun-
ing across a band. Regeneration is, however, a
useful device for improving the selectivity of an
r.f. amplifier without requiring a multiplicity
of tuned circuits; a practical example will be
found later in this chapter.
With three tuned circuits between the antenna
and the first mixer, and an i.f. of 455 kc., no im-
Fig. 5-27—Transistor r.f. amplifier circuit. The low-im-
ages should be encoutitered up to perhaps 25 Mc.
pedance connections to the base and collector can be
Four tuned circuits or more will eliminate any
(A) taps on the inductors or ( B) low-impedance coupling
images at 28 Mc. when an i.f. of 455 kc. is used.
links. LC,, I,C2—Resonant at signal frequency.
Obviously, a better solution to the r.f. selec-
tivity problem ( elimination of image response)
is to use an i.f. higher than 455 kc., and most
modern receivers use an i.f. of 1600 kc. or higher. FEEDBACK
The owner of a receiver with a 455-kc i.f. am- Feedback giving rise to regeneration and
plifier can enjoy image-free reception on the oscillation can occur in a single stage or it may
higher frequencies by using a crystal-controlled appear as an over-all feedback through several
converter ahead of the receiver and utilizing the stages that are on the same frequency. To avoid
receiver as a "tunable i.f. amplifier" at 3.5 or feedback in a single stage, the output must be
7.0 Mc. isolated from the input in every way possible,
For best selectivity r.f. amplifiers should use with the vacuum tube furnishing the only cou-
high- Q circuits and tubes with high input and pling between the two circuits. An oscillation
output resistance. Variable-i4 pentodes are prac- can be obtained in an r.f. or i.f. stage if there is
tically always used, although triodes ( neutral- any undue capacitive or inductive coupling be-
ized or otherwise connected so that they won't tween output and input circuits, if there is too
oscillate) are often used on the higher frequen- high an impedance between cathode and ground
cies because they introduce less noise. However, or screen and ground, or if there is any appre-
their lower plate resistance will load the tuned ciable impedance through which the grid and
circuits. Pentodes are better where maximum im- plate currents can flow in common. This means
 110 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS
good shielding of coils and tuning capacitors in use of variable-a tubes in the r.f. amplifier, re-
r.f. and i.f. circuits, the use of good bypass duced gain in the r.f. amplifier, or reduced
capacitors ( mica or ceramic at r.f., paper or antenna input to the receiver. The 6BJ6, 6BA6
ceramic at i.f.), and returning all bypass capaci- and 6DC6 are recommended for r.f. amplifiers
tors ( grid, cathode, plate and screen) for agiven where cross- modulation may be aproblem.
stage with short leads to one spot on the chassis. A receiver designed for minimum cross- modu-
When single-ended tubes are used, the screen or lation will use as little gain as possible ahead
cathode bypass capacitor should be mounted of the high- selectivity stages, to hold strong un-
across the socket, to serve as shield between wanted signals below the cross- modulation point.
grid and plate pins. Less care is required as the Cross-modulation often takes place in double-
frequency is lowered, but in high- impedance cir- conversion superheterodynes at the second con-
cuits, it is sometimes necessary to shield grid and verter stage because there is insufficient selec-
plate leads and to be careful not to run them close tivity up to this point and at this point the
together. signals have quite appreciable amplitudes. When-
To avoid over-all feedback in a multistage ever interference drops out quite suddenly with
amplifier, attention must be paid to avoid run- a reduction in the setting of the gain control,
ning any part of the output circuit back near the cross-modulation should be suspected. Normally,
input circuit without first filtering it carefully. of course, the interference would reduce in ampli-
Since the signal-carrying parts of the circuit tude in proportion to the desired signal as the
(the "hot" grid and plate leads) can't be filtered, gain setting is reduced.
the best design for any multistage amplifier is a
straight line, to keep the output as far away Gain Control
from the input as possible. For example, an r.f. To avoid cross- modulation and other over-
amplifier might run along achassis in a straight load effects in the mixer and r.f. stages, the gain
line, run into a mixer where the frequency is of the r.f. stages is usually made adjustable.
changed, and then the i.f, amplifier could be run This is accomplished by using variable-µ tubes
back parallel to the r.f. amplifier, provided there and varying the d.c. grid bias, either in the grid
was a very large frequency difference between or cathode circuit. If the gain control is auto-
the r.f. and the i.f. amplifiers. However, to avoid matic, as in the case of a.g.c., the bias is con-
any possible coupling, it would be better to run trolled in the grid circuit. Manual control of r.f.
the i.f. amplifier off at right angles to the r.f.- gain is generally done in the cathode circuit. A
amplifier line, just to be on the safe side. Good typical r.f. amplifier stage with the two types of
shielding is important in preventing over-all os- gain control is shown in schematic form in Fig.
cillation in high-gain- per- stage amplifiers, but it 5-28. The a.g.c. control voltage ( negative) is
becomes less important when the stage gain derived from rectified carrier or signal at the
drops to alow value. In ahigh- gain amplifier, the detector before the audio amplifier, or in the case
power leads ( including the heater circuit) are of ac.w. or s.s.b. receiver it can be derived from
common to all stages, and they can provide the rectified audio. The manual gain control voltage
over-all coupling if they aren't properly filtered. (positive with respect to chassis) is usually de-
Good bypassing and the use of series isolating rived from apotentiometer across the B+ supply,
resistors will generally eliminate any possibility since the bias can be changed even though little
of coupling through the power leads. R.f. chokes, plate current is being drawn.
instead of resistors, are used in the heater leads
where necessary. Tracking
In areceiver with no r.f. stage, it is no incon-
CROSS-MODULATION
Since a one- or two- stage r.f. amplifier will
have a bandwidth measured in hundreds of kc.
at 14 Mc. or higher, strong signals will be ampli-
fied through the r.f. amplifier even though it is
not tuned exactly to them. If these signals are EfT0 GRID
FROM
strong enough, their amplified magnitude may ANTENNA
OF WIRER
OR FOLLOWING
be measurable in volts after passing through OR PRECErmNG
STAGE
R.F. AMPLIFIER

several r.f. stages. If an undersired signal is

strong enough after amplification in the r.f.
stages to shift the operating point of a tube ( by
driving the grid into the positive region), the
undesired signal will modulate the desired signal. A.GC MANUAL +250
CON ROL GAIN -
CONTROL
This effect is called cross-modulation, and is of- VOLTAGE VOLTAGE

ten encountered in receivers with several r.f.

stages working at high gain. It shows up as a Fig. 5-28—Typical radio-frequency amplifier circuit for
superimposed modulation on the signal being a superheterodyne receiver. Representative values for
listened to, and often the effect is that a signal components are as follows:
can be tuned in at several points. It can be re- Cs to C.-0.01 µf. below 15 Mc., 0.001 µf. at 30 Mc.
duced or eliminated by greater selectivity in the R2— See Table 5- II.
antenna and r.f. stages ( difficult to obtain), the Ita-1800 ohms.
Receiver Sensitivity 111

the bandspread arrangement of Fig. 5-9A, the

tuning will be practically straight-line-frequency
if C2 (bandset) is 4times or more the maximum
capacitance of C1 ( bandspread), as is usually the
case for strictly amateur-band coverage. C1
should have semicircular plates.

Squelch Circuits
An audio squelch circuit is one that cuts off the
receiver output when no signal is coming
through the receiver. It is useful in mobile or net
work where the no- signal receiver noise may be
as loud as the signal, causing undue operator fa-
Fig. 5-29—A practical squelch circuit for cutting off the tigue during no- signal periods.
receiver output when no signal is present. A practical squelch circuit is shown in Fig.
5-29. A dual triode ( 12AX7) is . used as an ampli-
venience to adjust the high-frequency oscillator fier and as a control tube. When the a.g.c. volt-
and the mixer circuit independently, because age is low or zero, the lower ( control) triode
the mixer tuning is broad and requires little draws plate current. The consequent voltage
attention over an amateur band. However, when drop across the adjustable resistor in the plate
r.f. stages are added ahead of the mixer, the r.f. circuit cuts off the upper ( amplifier) triode
stages and mixer will require retuning over an and no signal or noise is passed. When the
entire amateur band. Hence most receivers with a.g.c. voltage rises to the cut-off value of the
one or more r.f. stages gang all of the tuning con- control triode, the tube no longer draws cur-
trols to give a single-tuning-control receiver. rent and the bias on the amplifier triode is
Obviously there must exist a constant difference now only its normal operating bias, furnished by
in frequency ( the i.f.) between the oscillator and the 1000-ohm resistor in the cathode circuit.
the mixer/r.f. circuits, and when this condition The tube now functions as an ordinary amplifier
is achieved the circuits are said to track. and passes signals. The relation between the
In amateur-band receivers, tracking is sim- a.g.c. voltage and the signal turn-on point is ad-
plified by choosing a bandspread circuit that justed by varying the resistance in the plate
gives practically straight-line-frequency tuning circuit of the control triode.
(equal frequency change for each dial division), Connections to the receiver consist of two a.f.
and then adjusting the oscillator and mixer tuned lines ( shielded), the a.g.c. lead, and chassis
circuits so that both cover the same total number ground. The squelch circuit is normally inserted
of kilocycles. For example, if the i.f. is 455 kc. between detector output and the audio volume
and the mixer circuit tunes from 7000 to control of the receiver. Since the circuit is used
7300 kc. between two given points on the dial, in the low-level audio point, its plate supply
then the oscillator must tune from 7455 to 7755 must be free from a.c. or objectionable hum will
kc. between the same two dial readings. With be introduced.

IMPROVING RECEIVER SENSITIVITY

The sensitivity ( signal-to-noise ratio) of a re- 6AH6, 6AK5 and the 6BZ6, in the order named.
ceiver on the higher frequencies above 20 Mc. The 6AK5 takes the lead around 30 Mc. The
is dependent upon the band width of the receiver 6J4, 6J6, and triode-connected 6AK5 are the best
and the noise contributed by the "front end" of of the triodes. For best noise figure, the an-
the receiver. Neglecting the fact that image re- tenna circuit should be coupled a little heavier
jection may be poor, areceiver with no r.f. stage than optimum. This cannot give best selectivity
is generally satisfactory, from asensitivity point, in the antenna circuit, so it is futile to try to
in the 3.5- and 7- Mc. bands. However, as the maximize sensitivity and selectivity in this cir-
frequency is increased and the atmospheric noise cuit.
becomes less, the advantage of a good "front When a receiver is satisfactory in every
end" becomes apparent. Hence at 14 Mc. and respect ( stability and selectivity) except sensi-
higher it is worth while to use at least one stage tivity on 14 through 30 Mc., the best solution for
of r.f. amplification ahead of the first detector the amateur is to add a preamplifier, a stage of
for best sensitivity as well as image rejection. r.f. amplification designed expressly to improve
The multigrid converter tubes have very poor the sensitivity. If image rejection is lacking in
noise figures, and even the best pentodes and the receiver, some selectivity should be built into
triodes are three or four times noisier when used the preamplifier ( it is then called apreselector).
as mixers than they are when used as amplifiers. If, however, the receiver operation is poor on the
If the purpose of an r.f. amplifier is to improve higher frequencies but is satisfactory on the
the receiver noise figure at 14 Mc. and higher, lower ones, a "converter" is the best solution.
a high-gm pentode or triode should be used. Some commercial receivers that appear to lack
Among the pentodes, the best tubes are the sensitivity on the higher frequencies can be im-
 112 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS
proved simply by tighter coupling to the antenna. High-gm tubes are the best as regenerative am-
This can be accomplished by changing the plifiers, and the feedback should not be controlled
antenna feed line to the right value ( as deter- by changing the operating voltages ( which
mined from the receiver instruction book) or by should be the same as for the tube used in ahigh-
using a simple matching device as described gain amplifier) but by changing the loading or
later in this chapter. Overcoupling the input cir- the feedback coupling. This is a tricky pro-
cuit will often improve sensitivity but it will, of cess and another reason why regeneration is not
course, always reduce the image- rejection con- too widely used.
tribution of the antenna circuit.
Gain Control
Regeneration
In a receiver front end designed for best sig-
Regeneration in the r.f. stage of a receiver nal-to-noise ratio, it is advantageous in the re-
(where only one stage exists) will often improve ception of weak signals to eliminate the gain
the sensitivity because the greater gain it pro- control from the first r.f. stage and allow it to
vides serves to mask more completely the first- run " wide open" all of the time. If the first stage
mixer noise, and it also provides a measure of is controlled along with the i.f. ( and other r.f.
automatic matching to the antenna through stages, if any), the signal-to-noise ratio of the
tighter coupling. However, accurate ganging be- receiver will suffer. As the gain is reduced, the
comes a problem, because of the increased selec- gm of the first tube is reduced, and its noise fig-
tivity of the regenerative r.f. stage, and the re- ure becomes higher. A good receiver might well
ceiver almost invariably becomes a two-handed- have two gain controls, one for the first r.f. stage
tuning device. Regeneration should not be and another for the i.f. ( and any other r.f.)
overlooked as an expedient, however, and ama- stages. The first r.f. stage gain would be re-
teurs have used it with considerable success. duced only for extremely strong signals.

TUNING A RECEIVER
described above, but with the crystal filter set
C.W. Reception at its sharpest position, if variable selectivity is
For making code signals audible, the beat os- available. The initial adjustment should be made
cillator should be set to afrequency slightly dif- with the phasing control in an intermediate posi-
ferent from the intermediate frequency. To ad- tion. Once adjusted, the beat oscillator should be
just the beat- oscillator frequency, first tune in a left set and the receiver tuned to the other side
moderately weak but steady carrier with the beat of zero beat ( audio-frequency image) on the
oscillator turned off. Adjust the receiver tuning same signal to give abeat note of the same tone.
for maximum signal strength, as indicated by This beat will be considerably weaker than the
maximum hiss. Then turn on the beat oscillator first, and may be " phased out" almost completely
and adjust its frequency ( leaving the receiver by careful adjustment of the phasing control.
tuning unchanged) to give a suitable beat note. This is the adjustment for normal operation; it
The beat oscillator need not subsequently be will be found that one side of zero beat has prac-
touched, except for occasional checking to make tically disappeared, leaving maximum response
certain the frequency has not drifted from the on the other.
initial setting. The b.f.o. may be set on either the An interfering signal having abeat note differ-
high- or low- frequency side of zero beat. ing from that of the a.f. image can be similarly
The best receiver condition for the reception phased out, provided its frequency is not too
of code signals will have the first r.f. stage run- near the desired signal.
ning at maximum gain, the following r.f., mixer Depending upon the filter design, maximum
and i.f. stages operating with just enough gain to selectivity may cause the dots and dashes to
maintain the signal-to-noise ratio, and the audio lengthen out so that they seem to " run together."
gain set to give comfortable headphone or It must be emphasized that, to realize the bene-
speaker volume. The audio volume should be fits of the crystal filter in reducing interference,
controlled by the audio gain control, not the i.f. it is necessary to do all tuning with it in the cir-
gain control. Under the above conditions, the cuit. Its high selectivity often makes it difficult
selectivity of the receiver is being used to best to find the desired station quickly, if the filter is
advantage, and cross-modulation is minimized. It switched in only when interference is present.
precludes the use of areceiver in which the gains
of the r.f. and if. stages are controlled simulta- A.M. Phone Reception
neously. In reception of a.m. phone signals, the normal
procedure is to set the r.f. and i.f. gain at maxi-
Tuning with the Crystal Filter
mum, switch on the a.g.c., and use the audio gain
If the receiver is equipped with acrystal filter control for setting the volume. This insures
the tuning instructions in the preceding para- maximum effectiveness of the a.g.c. system in
graph still apply, but more care must be used compensating for fading and maintaining con-
both in the initial adjustment of the beat oscil- stant audio output on either strong or weak sig-
lator and in tuning. The beat oscillator is set as nals. On occasion a strong signal close to the
Alignment and Servicing 113

frequency of a weaker desired station may take

Spurious Responses
control of the a.g.c., in which case the weaker
station may disappear because of the reduced Spurious responses can be recognized without
gain. In this case better reception may result if a great deal of difficulty. Often it is possible to
the a.g.c. is switched off, using the manual r.f. identify an image by the nature of the trans-
gain control to set the gain at a point that pre- mitting station, if the frequency assignments
vents "blocking" by the stronger signal. applying to the frequency to which the receiver
When receiving an a.m. signal on a frequency is tuned are known. However, an image also can
within 5 to 20 kc. from a single-sideband signal be recognized by its behavior with tuning. If the
it may also be necessary to switch off the a.g.c. signal causes a heterodyne beat note with the
and resort to the use of manual gain control, desired signal and is actually on the same fre-
unless the receiver has excellent skirt selectivity. quency, the beat note will not change as the re-
No ordinary a.g.c. circuit can handle the syllabic ceiver is tuned through the signal ; but if the in-
bursts of energy from the sideband station, but terfering signal is an image, the beat will vary in
there are special circuits that will. pitch as the receiver is tuned. The beat oscillator
A crystal filter will help reduce interference in in the receiver must be turned off for this test.
phone reception. Although the high selectivity Using acrystal filter with the beat oscillator on,
cuts sidebands and reduces the audio output at an image will peak on the side of zero beat op-
the higher audio frequencies, it is possible to use posite that on which desired signals peak.
quite high selectivity without destroying intelli- Harmonic response can be recognized by the
gibility. As in code reception, it is advisable to do "tuning rate," or movement of the tuning dial
all tuning with the filter in the circuit. Variable- required to give a specified change in beat note.
selectivity filters permit a choice of selectivity Signals getting into the i.f. via high-frequency
to suit interference conditions. oscillator harmonics tune more rapidly ( less dial
An undesired carrier close in frequency to a movement) through a given change in beat note
desired carrier will heterodyne with it to pro- than do signals received by normal means.
duce a beat note equal to the frequency differ- Harmonics of the beat oscillator can be rec-
ence. Such a heterodyne can be reduced by ad- ognized by the tuning rate of the beat-oscillator
justment of the phasing control in the crystal pitch control. A smaller movement of the control
filter. will suffice for a given change in beat note than
A tone control often will be of help in reducing that necessary with legitimate signals. In poorly-
the effects of high-pitched heterodynes, sideband designed or inadequately- shielded and - filtered re-
splatter and noise, by cutting off the higher audio ceivers it is often possible to find b.f.o. har-
frequencies. This, like sideband cutting with high monics below 2 Mc., but they should be very
selectivity circuits, reduces naturalness. weak or non-existent at higher frequencies.

ALIGNMENT AND SERVICING OF SUPERHETERODYNE

RECEIVERS

i.f, amplifier) will be suitable. However, with no

I.F. Alignment oscillator and tuning an amplifier for the first
A calibrated signal generator or test oscillator time, one's only recourse is to try to peak the
is auseful device for alignment of an i.f. ampli- i.f. transformers on "noise," a difficult task if
fier. Some means for measuring the output of the transformers are badly off resonance, as they
the receiver is required. If the receiver has a are apt to be. It would be much better to haywire
tuning meter, its indications will serve. Lacking together asimple oscillator for test purposes.
an S meter, ahigh- resistance voltmeter or avac- Initial alignment of a new i.f. amplifier is as
uum-tube voltmeter can be connected across the follows: The test oscillator is set to the correct
second-detector load resistor, if the second de- frequency, and its output is coupled through a
tector is a diode. Alternatively, if the signal capacitor to the grid of the last i.f. amplifier
generator is a modulated type, an a.c. voltmeter tube. The trimmer capacitors of the transformer
can be connected across the primary of the trans- feeding the second detector are then adjusted
former feeding the speaker, or from the plate for maximum output, as shown by the indicating
of the last audio amplifier through a 0.1-µf. device being used. The oscillator output lead is
blocking capacitor to the receiver chassis. Lack- then clipped on to the grid of the next- to-the-last
i.f. amplifier tube, and the second- from- the- last
ing an a.c. voltmeter, the audio output can be
judged by ear, although this method is not as ac- transformer trimmer adjustments are peaked for
maximum output. This process is continued,
curate as the others. If the tuning meter is used
working back from the second detector, until all
as an indication, the a.g.c. of the receiver should
of the if. transformers have been aligned. It
be turned on, but any other indication requires
that it be turned off. Lacking a test oscillator, a will be necessary to reduce the output of the test
steady signal tuned through the input of the re- oscillator as more of the i.f. amplifier is brought
ceiver ( if the job is one of just touching up the into use. It is desirable in all cases to use the
 114 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS
minimum signal that will give useful output dial to the low-frequency end of the range. Set
readings. The i.f. transformer in the plate circuit the test-oscillator frequency near the frequency
of the mixer is aligned with the signal introduced indicated by the receiver dial and tune the test
to the grid of the mixer. Since the tuned circuit oscillator until its signal is heard in the receiver.
feeding the mixer grid may have avery low im- If the frequency of the signal as indicated by the
pedance at the if., it may be necessary to boost test-oscillator calibration is higher than that
the test generator output or to disconnect the indicated by the receiver dial, more inductance
tuned circuit temporarily from the mixer grid. (or more capacity in the tracking capacitor) is
If the i.f. amplifier has a crystal filter, the needed in the receiver oscillator circuit; if the
filter should first be switched out and the align- frequency is lower, less inductance ( less track-
ment carried out as above, setting the test oscil- ing capacity) is required in the receiver oscil-
lator as closely as possible to the crystal fre- lator. Most commericial receivers provide some
quency. When this is completed, the crystal means for varying the inductance of the coils or
should be switched in and the oscillator fre- the capacity of the tracking capacitor, to permit
quency varied back and forth over a small range aligning the receiver tuning with the dial calibra-
either side of the crystal frequency to find the tion. Set the test oscillator to the frequency indi-
exact frequency, as indicated by a sharp rise in cated by the receiver dial, and then adjust the
output. Leaving the test oscillator set on the tracking capacity or inductance of the receiver
crystal peak, the i.f. trimmers should be re- oscillator coil to obtain maximum response. Af-
aligned for maximum output. The necessary ter making this adjustment, recheck the high-
readjustment should be small. The oscillator fre- frequency end of the scale as previously
quency should be checked frequently to make described. It may be necessary to go back and
sure it has not drifted frbm the crystal peak. forth between the ends of the range several times
A modulated signal is not of much value for before the proper combination of inductance and
aligning a crystal- filter i.f. amplifier, since the capacity is secured. In many cases, better over-
high selectivity cuts sidebands and the results all tracking will result if frequencies near but
may be inaccurate if the audio output is used as not actually at the ends of the tuning range are
the tuning indication. Lacking the a.g.c. tuning selected, instead of taking the extreme dial set-
meter, the transformers may be conveniently tings.
aligned by ear, using a weak unmodulated sig- After the oscillator range is properly adjusted,
nal adjusted to the crystal peak. Switch on the set the receiver and test oscillator to the high-
beat oscillator, adjust to a suitable tone, and frequency end of the range. Adjust the mixer
align the i.f. transformers for maximum audio trimmer capacitor for maximum hiss or signal,
output. then the r.f. trimmers. Reset the tuning dial
An amplifier that is only slightly out of align- and test oscillator to the low-frequency end of
ment, as a result of normal drift or aging, can the range, and repeat; if the circuits are properly
be realigned by using any steady signal, such as designed, no change in trimmer settings should
a local broadcast station, instead of the test os- be necessary. If it is necessary to increase the
cillator. One's 100-kc. standard makes an ex- trimmer capacity in any circuit, more inductance
cellent signal source for "touching up" an i.f. is needed; conversely, if less capacity resonates
amplifier. Allow the receiver to warm up thor- the circuit, less inductance is required.
oughly, tune in the signal, and trim the i.f. for Tracking seldom is perfect throughout a tun-
maximum output. ing range, so that a check of alignment at inter-
If you bought your receiver instead of making mediate points in the range may show it to be
it, be sure to read the instruction book carefully slightly off. Normally the gain variation will be
before attempting to realign the receiver. Most small, however, and it will suffice to bring the
instruction books include alignment details, and circuits into line at both ends of the range. If
any little special tricks that are peculiar to the most reception is in a particular part of the
receiver will also be described in detail. range, such as an amateur band, the circuits may
R.F. Alignment be aligned for maximum performance in that
region, even though the ends of the frequency
The objective in aligning the r.f. circuits range as a whole may be slightly out of align-
of a gang-tuned receiver is to secure adequate ment.
tracking over each tuning range. The adjust-
ment may be carried out with a test oscillator of Oscillation in R.F. or I.F. Amplifiers
suitable frequency range, with harmonics from Oscillation in high-frequency amplifier and
your 100-kc. standard or other known oscillator, mixer circuits shows up as squeals or "birdies"
or even on noise or such signals as may be heard. as the tuning is varied, or by complete lack of
First set the tuning dial at the high-frequency audible output if the oscillation is strong enough
end of the range in use. Then set the test oscil- to cause the a.g.c. system to reduce the receiver
lator to the frequency indicated by the receiver gain drastically. Oscillation can be caused by
dial. The test-oscillator output may be connected poor connections in the common ground circuits.
to the antenna terminals of the receiver for this Inadequate or defective bypass capacitors in
test. Adjust the oscillator trimmer capacitor cathode, plate and screen-grid circuits also can
in the receiver to give maximum response on cause such oscillation. A metal tube with an un-
the test-oscillator signal, then reset the receiver grounded shell may cause trouble. Improper
Improving Performance 115

screen-grid voltage, resulting from a shorted or a continuous squeal that appears when the gain
too-low screen-grid series resistor, also may be is advanced with the c.w. beat oscillator on. It
responsible for such instability. can result from defects in i.f.-amplifier circuits.
Oscillation in the i.f. circuits is independent Inadequate screen or plate bypass capacitance is
of high-frequency tuning, and is indicated by acommon cause of such oscillation.

IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF RECEIVERS

Frequently amateurs unjustly criticize a re- made from sheet metal. If there is already some
ceiver's performance when actually part of the backlash in the dial mechanism, the addition of
trouble lies with the operator, in his lack of the planetary drive will magnify its effect, so it
knowledge about the receiver's operation or in is necessary to minimize the backlash before at-
his inability to recognize a readily curable fault. tempting to improve the tuning rate. While
The best example of this is a complaint about this is not possible in all cases, it should be in-
"lack of selectivity" when the receiver contains vestigated from every angle before giving up.
an i.f. crystal filter and the operator hasn't Replacing asmall tuning knob with alarger one
bothered to learn how to use it properly. "Lack will add to ease of tuning; in many cases after
of sensitivity" may be nothing more than poor doing so it will then be desirable or necessary to
alignment of the r.f. and mixer tuning. The cures raise the receiver higher above the table.
for these two complaints are obvious, and the If the receiver appears to lack the ability to
details are treated both in this chapter and in the bring in the weak signals, particularly on the
receiver instruction book. higher-frequency bands, the performance can of-
However, many complaints about selectivity, ten be improved by the addition of an antenna
sensitivity, and other points are justified. In- coupler ( described elsewhere in this chapter) ; it
expensive, and most second-hand, receivers can- will always be improved by the addition of apre-
not be expected to measure up to the perform- selector ( also described elsewhere in this chapter).
ance standards of some of the current and top- If the receiver shortcoming is inadequate r.f.
priced receivers. Nevertheless, many amateurs selectivity, as indicated by r.f. " images" on the
overlook the possibility of improving the per- higher-frequency bands, a simple antenna coup-
formance of these "bargains" ( they may or may ler will often add sufficient selectivity to cure the
not be bargains) by a few simple additions or trouble. However, if the images are severe, it is
modifications. From time to time articles in QST likely that a preselector will be required, pref-
describe improvements for specific receivers, and erably of the regenerative type. The preselector
it may repay the owner of a newly- acquired will also add to the ability of the receiver to
second-hand receiver to examine past issues and detect weak signals at 14 Mc. and higher.
see if an applicable article was published. The In many of the inexpensive receivers the fre-
annual index in each December issue is a help quency calibration of the dial is not very accu-
in this respect. rate. The receiver's usefulness for determining
Where no applicable article can be found, a band limits will be greatly improved by the ad-
few general principles can be laid down. If the dition of a 100-kc. crystal-controlled frequency
complaint is the inability to separate stations, standard. These units can be built or purchased
better if. ( and occasionally audio) selectivity is complete at very reasonable prices, and no ama-
indicated. The answer is not to be found in teur station worthy of the name should be with-
better bandspread tuning of the dial as is some- out one.
times erroneously concluded. For code reception Some receivers that show a considerable fre-
the addition of a "Q Multiplier" to the quency drift as they are warming up can be
amplifier is a simple and effective attack; a Q improved by the simple expedient of furnishing
Multiplier is at its best in the region 100 to 900 more ventilation, by propping up the lid or by
kc., and higher than this its effectiveness drops drilling extra ventilation holes. In many cases
off. The Selectoject is a selective audio device the warm-up drift can be cut in half. A 7-watt
based on similar principles. For phone reception 115-volt lamp mounted under the receiver chassis
the addition of a Q Multiplier will help to reject and wired so that it is turned on when the re-
an interfering carrier, and the use of a BC-453 ceiver is turned off will maintain the receiver
as a " Q5-er" will add adjacent-channel selectiv- temperature above the room temperature and
ity. will reduce the warm-up drift. The auxiliary heat
With the addition of more i.f. selectivity, it source is also of help in reducing or eliminating
may be found that the receiver's tuning rate the ill effects of condensation in the receiver,
(number of kc. tuned per dial revolution) is too where the receiver is used in adamp location.
high, and consequently the tuning with good i.f. Receivers that show frequency changes with
selectivity becomes too critical. If this is the line- voltage or gain-control variations can be
case, a 5-to- 1 reduction planetary dial drive greatly improved by the addition of regulated
mechanism may be added to make the tuning voltage on the oscillators ( high-frequency and
rate more favorable. These drives are sold by b.f.o.) and the screen of the mixer tube. There
the larger supply houses and can usually be added is usually room in any receiver for the addition
to the receiver if a suitable mounting bracket is of aVR tube of the right rating.
 116 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS

THE " SimpleX Super Mark II" THREE- TUBE RECEIVER

The name of the receiver shown in Figs. 5-30 regeneration is not essential to good c.w. or s.s.b.
and 5-33 derives from " simple," " X" for crystal reception, but it helps considerably on a.m. re-
(filter) and " super" for superheterodyne; hence ception. Audio amplification is obtained from the
a " simple crystal- filter superheterodyne." It is two triode sections of a6CG7. The primary of a
an improved version of an earlier model (QST, small output transformer, 7' 3,serves as the coup-
December, 1958), hence the " Mark II." For less ling for high- impedance headphone output, and a
than fifty dollars and a few nights at the work- small loudspeaker or low-impedance headphones
bench, this little receiver will allow you to copy can be connected to the secondary.
practically any c.w. or s.s.b. signal in the 40- or The power supply uses a small transformer
80-meter band that a much more expensive re- and two selenium rectifiers in a full-wave volt-
ceiver might bring in. By the throw of a switch age-doubling circuit. This is about as inexpen-
you can tune in WWV on 5.0 Mc. for time sig-
sive a power supply as can be built, and it also
nals and standard- frequency transmissions.
has the advantages of not occupying much space
Referring to the circuit diagram in Fig. 5-31, and not generating much heat.
the receiver is a superheterodyne with an inter- A switch, SiA ,at the input of the receiver is
mediate frequency of 1700 kc. With the h.f. os-
included so that the receiver can be used to lis-
cillator tuning 5.2. to 5.7 Mc., the 3.5- or 7- Mc. ten to one's own transmitter without too severe
amateur bands can be tuned merely by retuning blocking. Another section of the same switch,
the input circuit. Since C2 is large enough to hit SiB , shifts the mixer screen voltage from its
the two bands without a coil change, the band- operating value to zero, to reduce further the
changing process consists of turning C2 to the sensitivity of the receiver while one is transmit-
low- or high- capacitance end of its range. To ting. If it reduces it so much that the receiver
copy WWV at 5 Mc., the oscillator must be has too little gain, this section of the switch can
tuned to 3.3 Mc., and this is done by switching in be omitted from the circuit and the mixer oper-
(via S2A )a preset capacitor, C5,across the os- ated at full screen voltage at all times.
cillator circuit.
An 8 X 12 x 3- inch aluminum chassis takes
The advantage of a two-band receiver of this all of the parts without crowding, and the loca-
type is that the absence of coil switching makes tion of the components can be seen in the photo-
it easy to build astable high- frequency oscillator, graphs. The receiver is shown with a 7- inch
and the stability of this oscillator then deter- high standard relay- rack panel, which leaves
mines the stability of the receiver. Higher- room at one end of the panel for auxiliary
frequency bands ( 14, 21 and 28 Mc.) can be equipment or a small transmitter. If desired, a
listened to by adding a crystal-controlled con- shorter panel of h- inch aluminum can be used.
verter; the construction of such a converter is The panel is held to the chassis by the two
described later in this chapter.
switches and the headphones jack. The tuning
Selectivity at the i.f. is obtained through the
capacitor, C3, is mounted on a small aluminum
use of a single crystal. This, in conjunction with
bracket, and the capacitor is driven by aJackson
the regeneration provided by the detector, is Brothers Planetary Vernier ( Arrow Elec-
sharp enough to provide a fair degee of single-
tronics, N.Y.C.) via a Millen 39016 coupling.
signal c.w. reception and yet is broad enough for
Before the bracket is finally fastened to the chas-
copy of an s.s.b. phone signal.
sis the capacitor and bracket should be used to
In the detector stage, the pentode section of a
locate the center for the vernier hole. It pays to
6U8A is used as a regenerative detector, and the take care in mounting the tuning capacitor and
triode section serves as the b.f.o. Stray coupling
its drive, since a smooth tuning drive is essen-
at the socket and in the tube provides adequate tial to any receiver. A National HRT knob
injection. The regeneration control is not is used to turn the vernier, and a paper scale
mounted on the panel because, once set below the is made as can be seen in one of the photographs.
threshold of oscillation, it is not touched. The
Tie points are used liberally throughout the

Fig. 5- 30-- The SimpleX Super receiver uses three dual

tubes and a crystal filter to cover the 80- and 40- meter
bands, and it can tune to 5 Mc. for copying WWV.
The dial scale is made from white paper held to the
panel by black tape; the index is clear plastic.
Extra panel space is provided for control circuits or
a small transmitter.
 Jedns xeidw!s
MIXER DE I AUDIO AMP

6U8A 6U8A 6CG7

RFC, 01 .025,uf
VI
A V3A Ho-Ni:HONES
V2A
6
1700KC. 5 VOL
2
100 100 T,

3.5-8 MC
r 101-.-1
f-

200
c2 INPUT
T
3-30
Ca
RFC,

jI
ANT I 1200 6U8A 6CG7

s
iA -I-- 4
CR , T2

47K 350 V. - c9
1 I
25V
5.2 - 5.7M C. TUNING SOMA

115V.
4
C98 CR2

S
.01 I

47K/1W.

Fig. 5-31- Circuit diagram ot the SimpleX Super receiver. Unless otherwise indicated, capacitances are in µµf., resistances are in ohms, resistors are /
2 watt. Polarity is shown on
1

electrolytic capacitors, 680 µ/d. or less are silver mica or NPO ceramic, 2000-µµf. fixed capacitor is mica. Capacitors specified in decimal-µf. values are ceramic.

C,-3- to 3010. mica compression trimmer. J,, .6-Phono jack. S - S.p.s.t. toggle
C,-140-140 dual variable ( Hammarlund HFD-140). 1,- Phone jack. RFC,, RFC2-1-mh. r.f. choke ( Millen J300-1000).

C3 - 35-µ0. midget variable ( Hammarlund HF-

35). L, Le, le,- See Fig. 5-32. Ti - Small output transformer, 10K plate to voice coil

C,- 100-µµf. midget trimmer ( Hammarlund MAPC-100). L-18 t. No. 22 enam., closewound on 1/
4-diam. form (Stancor A-3879 or equiv.).

C.- 180-µµf. silver mica in parallel with 150-µ0. mica- (1-watt resistor, 100K or more). L- 125-v. 50-ma. and 6.3-v. 2-amp. power transformer
compression trimmer (Arco 424). L., L-105-200 µh. shielded inductor ( North Hills SE- (Knight 61G411 or equiv.).

Ce- 3- to 30-µµf. mica compression trimmer with ad- 120- H). Yi-1700-kc. crystal ( International Crystal fA-5 or
justment screw removed. 1.1-36-64 µh. shielded inductor ( North Hills SE- 120-F). equiv.) ( All radio stores do not handle all of

Ci- 15-Vizf. midget variable ( Hammarlund HF-

15). L- 16- henry 50-ma, filter choke ( Knight 62G137 or the above components. North Hills coils and
equiv.). cans are available from Harrison Radio, N.Y.C.
C-- 60-µf. 350-v. electrolytic ( Mallory TC-68 or equiv.).
C‘,-40-40-µf. 150-v. electrolytic, negative not common P,-A.c. line plug, preferably fused. Knight is handled by Allied Radio, 100 N.

(Mallory TCS-48 or equiv.). S,-D.p.d.t. toggle. Western Ave., Chicago 80, III.)

CR1, CR,,- 50- ma. 130-v. selenium rectifier (Tarzian 50 6- position (4 used) rotary switch (Con-
or equiv.). tralab PA-2003 or equiv.).
 118 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS
ANT IND.
in the audio and feedthrough around the crystal
filter. The shielded leads are marked in Fig. 5-31
71. 171
where feasible; the simple rule to follow is to
shield all B+ leads along with those shown
shielded in Fig. 5-31. For ease of wiring, these
shielded leads should be installed first or at least
early in the construction. As the wiring pro-
gresses, a neat- looking unit can be obtained by
dressing the leads and components in parallel
3L 43 t
lines or at right angles. D.c. and a.c. leads can be
\ tucked out of the way along the edges of the
IND. GRID PLATE 8+ GND. GRID
chassis, while r.f. leads should be as direct as is
reasonable.
Fig. 5-32— Details of the coil construction. Each one is If this is a first receiver or construction job,
made from 11 & W 3012 Miniductor or Illumitronic 632 there are several pitfalls to be avoided. When in-
stock, which is wound 32 t.p.i. and 34-inch diameter. stalling atube socket, orient the socket so the grid
The separation between coils in L i is 1/
12 turns; the
and plate leads will be direct and not cross over
separation between coils in Ls is 1turn. Ls is 43 turns the socket.
of the same stock. Another thing is to avoid stranded wire for
It is important that the coils be connected as in- making connections throughout the receiver.
dicated. The coil stock can be cut to the required lengths Where stranded wire must be used, be careful to
by pushing in aturn, cutting it inside the coil and then avoid wild strands that stray over to an adjacent
pushing the newly cut ends through to outside the coil. socket terminal. No. 20 or 22 insulated solid
Once outside, the wire can be peeled away with the tinned copper wire should be used for connections
help of long-nose pliers. When sufficient turns have wherever no shielding is used. Long bare leads
been removed, the support bars can be cut with afine from resistors or capacitors should be covered
saw. with insulating tubing unless they go to chassis
grounds.
receiver, as junctions for components and inter- The final bugaboo is a poorly- soldered con-
connecting wires. The coils L3 and L4 are nection. If this is first venture, by all means prac-
mounted on tie points, using short leads, and L1 tice soldering before starting to wire this re-
is mounted on S iA . If the leads from L, are too ceiver. Read an article or two on how to solder,
long, the coil will be " floppy" and the receiver or get afriend to demonstrate. A good soldering
may be unstable. Fig. 5-32 shows how the coils iron is an essential; there have been instances of
are constructed and connected. The leads from a first venture having been " soldered" with an
C2 are brought through the chassis in insulating iron that would just barely melt the solder; the
rubber grommets. The 3- to 30-µgf. mica com- iron was incapable of heating the solder and
pression trimmer across L1 is soldered to the work to where the solder would flow properly.
associated section of C2.C2 is mounted on top of When the wiring has been completed and
the chassis and surrounded by a Bud CU- 3002-A checked once more against the circuit diagram,
Minibox, which serves as adust cover. The par- plug in the tubes and the line cord and turn on
tition between the two sections of C 2 should be the receiver through S3.The tube heaters should
grounded to the chassis, to prevent capacitive light up and nothing should start to smoke or get
coupling between the two sections. The coil L2 hot. If you have avoltmeter you should measure
is wound on a high- resistance 1-watt resistor; about 270 volts on the B+ line.
the ends of the coil are soldered to the leads of With headphones plugged in the receiver, you
àle resistor, and the winding will stay in place should be able to hear a little hum when the
readily if the resistor is notched at each end be- volume control is advanced all the way. If you
fore the winding is started. can't hear any hum, touching a screwdriver to
The receiver is wired with shielded wire for Pin 2 of V3A should produce hum and a loud
many of the leads, in an effort to minimize hum click. This shows that the detector and audio
amplifier are working. The 100K regeneration
control should be set at mid range.
The next step is to tune 1, 6,L6 and L7 to 1700
kc., the crystal frequency. If you have or can

Fig. 5-33—Top view of the SimpleX Super. The tube at

the left is the mixer-oscillator 6ULIA; the 6CG7 audio
amplifier is at the far right. The black knob is on the
regeneration control. Toggle switch under the a.c. line
cord is the a.c, line switch, S5. Phono jack at left is the
antenna terminal; phono jack at right near volume con-
trol is speaker jack, 18.
 136 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS

af:o.
RFC3
0 A.
M.
/TTT1
DEC IMAL VALUE S OF CAPACITAN CE ARE INpti
v
7. 6
10 rrth.
s
ck:*° cs B. OTH ERS ARE IN »Alf. EXCE PT AS INDICATED.
16 F 1 SO KC.

A GC RECT.

I
t

L J TO S50

>
JO A.D.C. AM P
VI .
3 PACO.
LE M DETECTOR +250 V.

6CG7
S METER
1500
SPICN.

AUDIO
OUTPUT
6A 05

100
Ve
1st. AUDIO AMR
CATI-1.

270K 270K 6600 800 K

.0068
SCOT
VIA O
6AL 5
OFF

Ft,
5-180
ON
000K
+260U
"
AUDI O
+I
05 V +2501C GAIN
330

Sse Kt ONES

Y5 10/A . + 250 V,
25%

break it; this leaves just the lead from the small
s 421 winding on terminal C. Terminals A and F repre-
A.G.C. UNE sent the large winding. The small coil is tuned by
connecting a 680-M. mica capacitor between
tuning capacitor and held firmly to it by the terminals C and D; these capacitors should be
capacitor mounting nut and a lock washer, as fastened on the soldering lugs inside the shield
shown in Fig. 5-55. Flexing of the chassis can be can. The can is then slipped back over the coil
minimized by the use of lengths of angle stock and capacitor, keeping in mind that the lugs
bolted to the chassis at strategic points through- must come out the bottom, and the assembly is
out the receiver. Exact alignment of the tuning ready for mounting on the chassis.
capacitor with the dial shaft is not always pos- The b.f.o. coil is also a Miller 6183, and the
sible, so aflexible coupling ( Millen 39016) is used. procedure for reversing the assembly before
When wiring the crystal filter keep leads as mounting is identical to that followed with the
short as possible, to minimize stray coupling be- 50-kc. transformers. However, it is not necessary
tween the input and output ends, which would de- to alter any of the wiring in the b.f.o. trans-
teriorate the performance of the filter. former, since only the large winding ( A — F)
The 50-kc. i.f. circuits used Miller 6183 TV and its tap ( C) is used.
horizontal- oscillator replacement coils as if. Point-to-point wiring is recommended, along
transformers. These cpils must be altered before with generous use of both insulated tie points and
they can be used. As they are supplied, the ter- ground lugs. Use of shielded wire facilitates rout-
minal lugs are brought out at the top of the can; ing wires throughout the receiver as the shields
these lugs must be reversed before the can is can be spot- soldered to ground lugs and to each
mounted. By applying slight pressure to the other in bundles. When wiring, mount compo-
phenolic coil form the assembly will slide out of nents at right angles to the chassis sides wherever
the aluminum shield can and then can be re- possible; this helps give the finished unit a neat
versed. However, before reassembling the unit a appearance. In critical circuits, however, do not
few slight changes must be made. There are actu- sacrifice short and direct leads for the sake of
ally two separate windings; each one will be tuned making the unit look pretty.
and used either as aprimary or secondary for the Placing the receiver in a rack cabinet and
50-kc. i.f. transformer. The tap on the large marking all controls on the front panel with de-
winding must be lifted off the soldering lug C, cals also helps in giving the finished receiver a
taped, and tucked away, being careful not to neat and "commercial" appearance.
120 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS
THE 2X4+ SUPERHETERODYNE
The receiver shown in Figs. 5-35, 5-36 and 5-38 tional capacitance across the oscillator and brings
is a two- band ( 80 and 40 meters) four-tube its frequency to 3.3 Mc.
(2X4) receiver plus (+) provision for receiving The mixer is followed by the dual crystal filter
WWV at 5 Mc. A dual-crystal filter provides at 1700 kc. and a stage of amplification. I.f. gain
good adjacent- channel selectivity, and two tuned is manually controlled by avariable bias control
circuits between the antenna and mixer give in the cathode circuit of the 6BA6 i.f. amplifier
image rejection of greater than 70 db. on both stage. One end of the gain control is brought to a
bands. The receiver can be used on other bands jack, .10, for possible use of the break-in or mut-
by the addition of acrystal-controlled converter. ing circuit of Fig. 8-9; if the circuit is not utilized
Referring to the circuit in Fig. 5-37, the pen- the end of the gain control is grounded by using a
tode portion of a 6EA8 is used as a mixer, with shorting plug in J2.
the triode portion of the same tube serving as the One triode of a .6CG7, V3A ,serves as a grid-
oscillator. The if, is 1700 kc. and the oscillator leak detector and the other is used as the b.f.o.
tunes 5.2 to 5.7 Mc.; tuning the input circuit to A two- stage audio amplifier follows, providing
the 80- meter band brings in 80- meter signals, low- impedance output for low- impedance phones
and all that is required to hear 40- meter signals or speaker when connected as shown; if high-
is to swing the input tuning, C1,to the low- impedance phones are used they should be coupled
capacitance end of its range. Although, e.g., a to the plate of V4B through a 0.02-d. capacitor,
7.0- Mc. ( 5.3 + 1.7) and a 3.6- Mc. ( 5.3 — 1.7) as shown by the dashed lines. The audio power
signal will appear at the same setting of the tun- is sufficient to give more than enough headphone
ing dial, the two signals cannot be received simul- volume and quite adequate loudspeaker volume in
taneously because the double-tuned circuit be- a quiet room.
tween antenna and mixer grid provides the neces- The power supply uses silicon diodes in a
sary rejection. Coupling between the two circuits bridge rectifier circuit, and a0132 provides stabil-
is provided by a small common inductor, L4.A ized + 105 volts for the high- frequency and beat
series inductor in the antenna lead makes the oscillators. Capacitor C5A appears to be in an
coupling more nearly constant on the two bands unusual place in the circuit, but it is required to
(reduced antenna coupling at 7Mc. compensates eliminate a slight hum that is present without it.
for increased Q of L5). For the reception of No a.c. line switch is included because it is as-
WWV at 5Mc., asmall relay, K1,cuts in addi- sumed that the receiver will be turned on by a

Fig. 5-35—The 2X4+ receiver uses four tubes and tunes 3.5 to 4.0 Mc. and 6.9 to 7.4 Mc.; the range is se-
lected by the setting of a two-section input tuning capacitor housed in a Minibox ( extreme right). The toggle
switches under the input tuning knob turn on (top) a5-Mc. range for reception of WWV and ( bottom) the b.f.o.
Knobs either side of the central main tuning knob control ( left) audio gain and ( right) i.f. gain. B.f.o. fre-
quency is set by the knob at the left.
Power-supply components, including an unshielded VR tube, are mounted along the rear of the chassis.
The mixer/oscillator 6EA8 tube is at the right, near the input tuning housing, and the audio amplifier 6CG7
is at the left, nearer the front of the chassis than the 6CG7 detector/b.f.o.
2X4 + Superhet 121

Fig. 5-36—This view underneath the chassis of the 2X 4+ receiver shows how the input circuit coils (top) are
mounted at right angles to each other. The small variable capacitor near the i.f. gain control is in the oscillator
circuit; the oscillator inductor is below this capacitor. The mica-compression trimmer visible at the bottom end of
the oscillator inductor trims the circuit for WWV reception; it is supported at the left-hand side by the small relay.
The audio output transformer is visible at the bottom, between the audio gain control and the extension shaft
for the b.f.o. capacitor.
Along the rear wall ( right-hand side in this view), the four silicon diodes of the power supply are mounted on
a multiple tie point. The two phono jacks are (upper) antenna and ( lower) break-in control.

wall or other switch. The receiver is fused in The most exacting job in the construction of
the line plug, P1. the receiver is the mounting of the tuning capa-
citor, C4.It is supported by a three- sided alum-
Construction inum bracket fashioned from scrap aluminum,
One of the objectives of the receiver design and it should be carefully aligned with the dial
was to make it as simple to construct as possible, to minimize the torque requirements of the dial.
and to this end the conventional panel-and-cabinet The specified capacitor is one requiring relatively
construction was eliminated by using a dial low torque, and its use is recommended over some
(Millen 10035) that is easy to mount on one side of the " stiffer" capacitors of the same range. A
of the 8x 12 x 3-inch chassis. Aluminum chassis National TPB bushing mounted near the end of
vary with the manufacturer; in the interests of the stator support bar carries the stator connec-
maximum mechanical strength a chassis with tion through the chassis.
welded corner gusset plates ( Premier ACH-430) The location of most of the components can
was used. The dial is held to the chassis by three be determined from the photographs. An
6-32 screws and the gain and audio controls. If L-shaped bracket that supports the b.f.o. tuning
the dial-drive action is stiff, it can be freed some- capacitor, C7,is the only other bit of metal fabri-
what by carefully prying the "crimp" drive with cation other than the bracket mentioned above
aheavy screwdriver blade. and the drilling and punching of the chassis. A
 MIX ER R.
F. AM P DE T. AU DI
O AM P
1700 KC. 1700 KC. RFC 2 .01pf.
6 EA 8 6 B A6 6 CG 7 6 C G7

.02 pl.

3-30 ch,

L3 T. PHONES

ANT.
.1 3
,..gm 470

10 AI
5V.

.001p1 — 100K 40/

I f.
150V.

2.2K =

5.2 - 5.7 Mc.

6 CG7 6BA 6 6E48

H .F. OSC
r--- 1

L.,
115V.
714 / 50 MA P,

SII3A13D311 ADN311031H-HOIH
47K 100K ,-, 105
15
K, TUN E
.1 , 2

3 082 —2 C 5C-D

I I

•
150V.
+140
6 Ii SI
LVER MICA

Fig. 5-37—Circuit diagram of the 2X4+ receiver. Unless otherwise indicated, capacitances are in pf. ( picofarads or µµf.), resistances are in ohms, re-
sistors are 1
/2-
watt. Capacitors marked with polarity are electrolytic; those marked with asterisk are silver mica.

Ci— Dual 140-

pf. variable ( Hammarlund HFD-140). 3- CR— Insulated wire soldered to Pin 6 of V8 and laid near L-3 turns No. 20, 16 t.p.i., /
4 " diam. ( B&W 3011
1

to 30-
pf. mica compression trimmer mounted Pin 2 of Vs. Miniductor)
OC 7055 C7- 15-
pf. variable ( Hammarlund MAPC-15-11). L., L
S, L
., 1.6, 17—See Fig. 5-38.
C6-300 pf. mica compression trimmer (Arco 427) and CR,—CR, -400 p.i.v. 200- ma. silicon rectifier ( Interna- L- 1.0-µh. choke ( Miller 4580).
270-pf. silver mica in parallel. tional Rectifier 2E4) L, 1.6-64 to 105 µh., adjustable ( North Hills 120-G in
C8- 100-pf. variable ( Hammarlund MAPC-100). 1.-- Phono jack. North Hills S-120 shield can).
C1- 50-
pf. variable (Johnson 167-3). is— Phone jack. Lm-36 to 64 µh., adjustable ( North Hills 120-F in
C6-40-, 40-, 40-, 30-µf. 150-volt electrolytic ( Sprague Ki-5000-ohm 1.5-ma. miniature relay ( Lafayette Radio, North Hills S-120 shield can).
TVL 4441). N.Y.C., F-260). Ln-7- henry 50-ma. choke ( Knight 61 G 408)
2X4+ Superhet 123

▪
• 9
‹ borrowed. The receiver can be used to listen for
P •,-; .e7, ._ the signals from the 2x 4+ b.f.o. and high-
frequency oscillator, and the signal generator can
3E
,j •
e
co;3 .
i -:g15 °• be used to provide signals for aligning the i.f.
t 73 - T,5 ez6
- -
.--.. e _ circuits and the input. Lacking these, a grid-dip
§
'e
co 1 au
*Eg q 8S. meter can be used to provide asignal source and
9-113 .-
Q e C4 0 to check the resonances of the tuned circuits. If
... D
• tt- o
ci. 12.
Li- ia- O. •
a 100-kc. oscillator is available, it can be used to
To e .6 q s o
E z;z - Ce "6.
el .c align the receiver. A last desperate measure is to
. . '-
g"à° g e e_ ° .' . -. use a broadcast receiver as a signal generator;
—. .: 7; 2
e 6. .1-- e
t' 2 ° g when the b.c. receiver is tuned to 1245 kc. its
oscillator will be on 1700 kc. if the i.f. is 455 kc.,
=no ...L i.; .5 ' d▪.1; e
n g -2
as is usually the case. A wire from around the
--.- ° u :el ..---, J 8 gel-.
8..uiTEZE • • •• ee b.c. receiver to the 2x 4 + should provide suf-
ficient signal.
9 E2,..i.g .
• 2.i. -,î0 'n Je J21
r... _. g 'Jr, _è 1 The audio amplifier of the receiver should be
-, E c!' 2 to ,: c! O 8
1110 checked first, by turning on the receiver and
listening to the headphones as the audio control,
.. in — — — - , is advanced. When it is full clockwise a low-
I Icte1, 0 • vi- I L. 1 L R 2

i- 3:'
>.• pitched hum should be just audible in the head-
phones. A further check can be made by touching
the center terminal of R with the tip of ascrew-
2

driver, which should result in aclick in the out-

put.
4X 2, 4 X 2, 4 " Minibox" ( Bud CU-3003) is If a signal generator is available, the i.f. can
used as adust cover and shield for C1 ;the leads be aligned by introducing a modulated 1700-kc.
from the stators are brought through clearance signal at the control grid of V" and peaking L,
holes in the chassis. The input and oscillator coils and L for maximum audio output. As the in-
9

are supported by multiple tie-point strips, as are ductors are peaked the signal-generator output
the four silicon diodes of the power supply and should be reduced simultaneously, to avoid over-
many of the other components. The insulated loading the receiver. When the circuits are
couplings for C, and C are Millen 39006. Ca-
7
peaked on what the signal generator says is 1700
pacitor C is supported at one end by atie point
2 kc., "rock" the generator frequency slightly. If
and at the other by a contact on relay IC I.This •
the output increases sharply at something other
relay is one used in radio-controlled model air- than the nominal 1700-kc. setting of the gener-
plane work but it is ideal in this receiver applica- ator, it indicates that the calibration is slightly
tion because it is so small and inexpensive. off, since this sudden peak in response is the
Shielded wire is used in several places in the crystal- filter frequency. Trim L, and L on the 9

receiver, as indicated in Fig. 5-37. The leads to

the audio control, R , are made from audio wire,
2

"II
which is a shielded wire with an insulating outer
covering. This type of audio wire is also used for 431 At. 14E

iilloommilmoil
the long shielded lead running from R1 to / and 2
lIIIIlIIHIuuIuIuIuIIuuIIIlIIIlIIIIUIlllI

the short lead from / 1 to L1.

luallose
The two crystals, Y1 and Y , mount in an 2

octal socket ( Amphenol 77MIP8) from which

pins 2 and 6 have been removed. The crystals
plug into 1and 3and into 5and 7, and pins 4and IIPIIIIIHIIII

8 are grounded.
In the b.f.o. section, the rotor of C, is grounded ANT GND. GNU GRID PLATE B. GNO GRID
to atie point held in place by one of the mounting L2 - L
3 L6-
screws of L10 .The two 330- pf. capacitors are
supported by tie points on the same strip.
The shield on C1 is grounded to alug under the Fig. 5-38— Details of the coil construction. Each one is
head of the screw that holds the tie-point strip made from B & W 3012 Miniductor or Illumitronic 632
supporting L5.The grounding of this shield is stock, which is wound 32 t.p.i. and 34.inch diameter.
important because if it is omitted the input cir- The separation between Ls and 1 4 is 1turn; the separa-

cuits will be overcoupled. The 3- to 30- pf. mica tion between Le and L7 is 1turn. LS is 43 turns of the
trimmer across C IAis soldered directly to the same stock.
terminals of the capacitor section. The 100- pf. It is important that the coils be connected as in-
capacitor across L is mounted on the inductor
9 dicated. The coil stock can be cut to the required lengths
inside the shield can. by pushing in aturn, cutting it inside the coil and then
pushing the newly cut ends through to outside the coil.
Alignment Then the wire can be peeled away with the help of
The alignment procedure can be expedited if a long-nose pliers. When sufficient turns have been re-
short-wave receiver or asignal generator can be moved, the support bars can be cut with a fine saw.
124 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS
crystal- filter frequency. Turn off the modulation gether, adjustment of the 30- pf. trimmer across
of the generator signal, switch on S2 and tune CIA is indicated. When the receiver is working
L10 for abeat note. Setting the b.f.o. to one side properly on 40 and 80 meters, S1 can be closed
or the other of the crystal- filter frequency should and C., adjusted to bring in WWV ( 5 Mc.) at
result in good single- signal c.w. reception, with the center ( or any preferred spot) of the tuning
little or no response on the "other side" of zero dial. C1 should be set around half scale ( noise
beat. peak) when receiving WWV. Since K 1 is
If a borrowed receiver is used to align the re- mounted upside down, it may be necessary to
ceiver, use the borrowed receiver to set the 2X reduce the spring tension slightly, to enable the
4 + b.f.o. on 1700 kc. and the high- frequency relay to close.
oscillator on 5.2 Mc. Then feed a3.5- Mc. signal When the receiver is properly aligned and with
from a v.f.o. or exciter into the 2x 4 + and no antenna connected, turning on the b.f.o. by
peak L, and L9 for loudest signal with the b.f.o. closing S., should produce an increase in back-
on. As with asignal generator, the signal should ground noise in the output of the receiver. If this
be kept at a low level, by reducing power or rushing noise is just barely audible, increase the
coupling to the v.f.o. or by detuning C1.After capacitance at C0 by moving the free end of the
the i.f. has been aligned roughly, the crystal- filter wire closer to Pin 2of VIA .With a v.t.v.m. the
frequency can be found by minor tuning excur- d.c. voltage to chassis at the output end of RFC 2
sions, looking for a sudden peak in signal re- should go from about + 30 to about + 35 or + 36
sponse. when S2 is closed.
Most grid-dip oscillators have enough modula- To check operation of the h.f. oscillator, con-
tion on the signal so that the signal can be used nect a voltmeter across the 3300-ohm resistor in
in the same way as the output from amodulated the plate lead (— terminal to end connected to
signal generator. If the g.d.o. calibration can be 0.01-µf. capacitor). The voltage should jump
trusted, the 2 x 4h.f. oscillator can be set on 5.2 from about 15 to 35 when the stator of C3 or C4
Mc. ( and left) and a3.5- Mc. g.d.o. signal intro- is momentarily shorted to chassis ( use a screw-
duced at the 2 x 4 input. Inductors L8 and L, driver with an insulated handle to avoid ashock).
should then be peaked for maximum signal, after If the oscillator doesn't work, it may be because
which S2 can be closed and L10 brought to tune. the outside turns of L, and L, are not connected
If the g.d.o. tunes to 1700 kc., the i.f. can be to plate and grid respectively.
aligned without regard for the setting of the h.f. The crystal filter should give good rejection of
oscillator. the "other side of zero beat" in c.w. reception.
Once the i.f. and b.f.o. have been aligned, all If it doesn't, try dressing the 470- pf. and the
that remains is proper setting of the h.f. oscillator 200- pf. capacitors across L, as close to the chassis
range by the setting of C3.When correctly set, as feasible, to minimize leakage around the crys-
the 3.5- to 4.0- Mc. band will tune roughly from tal. The selectivity of the receiver is such that
5to 95 on the tuning dial ( as will 6.9 to 7.4 Mc.). the reception of s.s.b. phone signals is quite
All that is necessary to go from one band to the normal, but turning off the b.f.o., for the recep-
other is to set C1 in the maximum capacitance end tion of a.m. phone signals, will result in a
(80 meters) or the low-capacitance end ( 40 "boomy" sound to the signal. This is an inescap-
meters). With an antenna having a coaxial feed able result of the selectivity; it can be reduced
line ( for which the receiver is designed), the 80- by tuning slightly to one side or the other of the
and 40- meter resonance peaks will be quite sharp "center" of the a.m. signal.
and the background noise will come up sharply Best reception will be obtained when the regu-
at these points. If two peaks are found close to- lar transmitting antenna is used with the receiver.

ADAPTOR PLUG

The sketch below shows an exploded view of with machine screws and solder the wire that is
an adaptor plug which adapts aconventional u.h.f. in the tip of the phono plug.
series connector for mating with a phono jack. —Robert J. Iarnutowski, K9ITS
To assemble the plug, solder a 1- inch length
of No. 12 copper wire to the renter conductor 50-239 1- INCH 83-1H PHONO
CONNECTOR LENGTH No.12 HOOD PLUG
of an SO-239 connector. Next sweat- solder
the cap end of a phono plug into the small
end of an 83-1H hood. Slip the hood and plug
assembly onto the SO-239 connector so that the
No. 12 wire inserts in the center conductor of
the phono plug. Attach the hood to the connector U.h.f series-to-phono -
plug adaptor.
Selective Converter 125

A SELECTIVE CONVERTER FOR 80 AND 40 METERS

Many inexpensive " communications" receivers appreciably if the power can be " borrowed" from
are lacking in selectivity and bandspread. The another source.
80- and 40-meter performance of such a receiver The converter uses the tuning principle em-
can be improved considerably by using ahead of ployed in the two-band superheterodynes de-
it the converter shown in Figs. 5-39 and 5-41. scribed earlier in this chapter. A double-tuned
This converter is not intended to be used ahead input circuit with large capacitors covers both 80
of a broadcast receiver except for phone recep- and 40 meters without switching, and the oscil-
tion, because the b.c. set has no b.f.o. or manual lator tunes from 5.2 to 5.7 Mc. Consequently with
gain control, and both of these features are neces- an i.f. of 1700 kc. the tuning range of the con-
sary for good c.w. reception. The converter can be verter is 3.5 to 4.0 Mc. and 6.9 to 7.4 Mc.
built for less than $20, and that cost can be cut Which band is being heard will depend upon the
setting of the input circuit tuning ( C1 in Fig.
5-40). The converter output is amplified in the
receiver, which must of course be set to 1700 kc.
To add selectivity, a 1700-kc. quartz crystal
is used in series with the output connection. A
small power supply is shown with the converter,
and some expense can be eliminated if 300 volts
d.c. at 15 ma. and 6.3 volts a.c. at 0.45 ampere
is available from an existing supply.

Construction

The unit is built on a7 x 11 >< 2-inch alumi-

num chassis. The front panel is made from a
6 x 7-inch piece of aluminum. The power supply
is mounted to the rear of the chassis and the
converter components are in the center and front.
Fig. 5-39— Used ahead of a small receiver that tunes to The layout shown in the bottom view should be
1700 kc., this converter will add tuning ease and selec- followed, at least for the placement of LI,L2,La
tivity on the 80- and 40-meter bands. The input capacitor and L4.
is the dual-section unit at the upper left-hand corner. The input and oscillator coils are made from a
The crystal and the tuning slug for L, are near the single length of B & W Miniductor stock, No.
center at the foreground edge. 3016. Count off 31 turns of the coil stock and
MIXER
TO
6 coOKC. RCVR.
6U8
+150v 01-0 )
47 L,

A .019E

GNO.
RECT.
162
50 MA. 5Y3

40 ,, 6 6
450V.

6U8
4

Fig. 5- 40— Circuit diagram of the 80- and 40- meter con-
verter. All capacitances given in µIA. unless otherwise 115 V.

noted.
C1-365-µaf. dual variable, t.r.f. type. 14-8 turns separated from I, by one turn ( see text).
Cs-3-30-µµf. trimmer. La, La- 19 turns.
C,- 15-f. variable ( Bud 1850, Cardwell ZR-15AS, 4- 21 turns separated from Ls by one turn.
Millen 20015). 1.5-8 turns.
L
I, L,, La, L., & W No. 3016 Miniductor, 1- inch Le-92-187 µh. slug-tuned coil ( Miller 42A 154 CBI)
diameter, 32 turns per inch, No. 22 wire, cut 1,— See text.
as below. Crystal- 1700 kc. ( E. B. Lewis Co. Type EL-3).
126 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS
bend the 32nd turn in toward the axis of the coil.
Testing and Adjustment
Cut the wire at this point and then unwind the
32nd turn from the support bars. Using ahacksaw A length of shielded wire is used to connect the
blade, carefully cut the polystyrene support bars converter to the receiver: the inner conductor of
and separate the 31- turn coil from the original the wire is connected to one antenna terminal;
stock. Next, count off 9 turns from the 31- turn the shield is connected to the other terminal and
coil and cut the wire at the 9th turn. At the cut grounded to the receiver chassis. The use of
unwind ahalf turn from each coil, and also un- shielded wire helps to prevent pickup of un-
wind a half turn at the outside ends. This will wanted 1700-kc. signals. Turn on the converter
leave two coils on the same support bars, with and receiver and allow them to warm up. Tune
half- turn leads at their ends. One coil has 21 the receiver to the 5.2- Mc. region and listen for
turns and the other has 8 turns, and they are the oscillator of the converter. The b.f.o. in the
separated by the space of one turn. These coils receiver should be turned on. Tune around until
are L, and L5. the oscillator is heard. Once you spot it, tune C3
The input coils L1 and L2 are made up in the to maximum capacitance and the receiver to as
same manner. Standard bakelite tie points are close to 5.2 Mc. as you can. Adjust the oscillator
used to mount the coils. Two 4-terminal tie trimmer capacitor, C2,until you hear the oscilla-
points are needed for LiL2 and 1. 41. 5,and aone- tor signal. Put your receiving antenna on the
terminal unit is required for L3.The plate load converter, set the receiver to 1700 kc., and tune
inductance L6 is a105-200 Ai. variable- inductance the input capacitor, C1,to near maximum capaci-
coil ( North Hills 120H). The coupling coil L7 is tance. At one point you'll hear the background
45 turns of No. 32 enam. scramble- wound adja- noise come up. This is the 80- meter tuning. The
cent to L6.If the constructor should have diffi- point near minimum capacitance — where the
culty in obtaining No. 32 wire, any size small noise is loudest — is the 40- meter tuning.
enough to allow 45 turns on the coil form can With the input tuning set to 80 meters, turn
be substituted. on your transmitter and tune in the signal. By
The input capacitor, C1, is a 2- gang t.r.f. spotting your crystal-controlled frequency you'll
variable, 365 mitt'. per section. As both the stators have one sure calibration point for the dial. By
and rotor must be insulated from the chassis, ex- listening in the evening when the band is crowded
truded fiber washers should be used with the you should be able to find the band edges.
screws that hold the unit to the chassis. The You'll find by experimenting that there is one
panel shaft hole should be made large enough to point at or near 1700 kc. on your receiver where
clear the rotor shaft. the background noise is the loudest. Set the re-
A National type 0 dial assembly is used to ceiver to this point and adjust the slug on L6 for
tune C3.One word of advice when drilling the maximum noise or signal. When you have the
holes for the dial assembly: the template fur- receiver tuned exactly to the frequency of the
nished with the unit is in error on the 2- inch crystal in the converter, you'll find that you have
dimension ( it is slightly short) so use a ruler to quite abit of selectivity. Tune in ac.v. signal and
measure the hole spacing. tune slowly through zero beat. You should notice
It is important that the output lead from the that on one side of zero beat the signal is strong,
crystal socket be run in shielded wire. A phono and on the other side you won't hear the signal
jack is mounted on the back of the chassis, and a or it will be very weak ( if it isn't, off- set the b.f.o.
piece of shielded lead connects from the jack to abit). This is single- signal c.w. reception.
the crystal socket terminal. The leads from the When listening to phone signals, it may be
stators of C1and C3 are insulated from the chassis found that the use of the quartz crystal destroys
by means of rubber grommets. some of the naturalness of the voice signal. If
this is the case, the crystal should be
unplugged and replaced by a 10- or
20-i.q.d. capacitor.

Fig. 5-41— Bottom view of the converter

showing placement of parts. The coil at
the lower left is La, and the input coil,
LILL., is just to the right of Ls. The oscillator
coil 1.,1.„ is at the left near the center. The
output coil, Lo, is near the top center.
Three- Band Converter 127

A CRYSTAL-CONTROLLED CONVERTER FOR 20, 15

AND 10 METERS
The cure for most of the high-frequency ills of the coils are mounted, they should be positioned
many receivers is the installation of agood crys- at least IA inch away from the chassis or panel.
tal-controlled converter between the antenna and Ceramic or mica capacitors can be used across
the receiver. The converter shown in Figs. 5-42 L3,L4 and L5.The 3- if. coupling capacitor be-
and 5-44 is intended to be used ahead of areceiver tween pins 1and 2 of the 6U8A can be a small
that tunes from 3.5 to 4.0 Mc., although its out- ceramic or it can be made from two 1-inch
put range can be modified merely by changing lengths of plastic-covered wire twisted together.
the crystal frequencies. Used with a receiver When the wiring has been completed and
tuning the 80-meter band only, the 14- and 21- checked, plug the tubes into their sockets and
Mc. bands are covered with something left over, turn the adjustment screws of L3,L4 and L5
but only 500-kc. segments of the 28- Mc, band can until the screws are out of the coil ends as far as
be covered without switching crystals. If com- they will go. Use a length of coaxial line and
plete coverage without switching is desired, a suitable plugs to connect the output of the con-
wider-range receiver can be used; e.g., the BC- verter to the antenna terminals of the receiver,
454 surplus receiver, which tunes 3to 6Mc. and connect an antenna to the antenna terminals
Referring to Fig. 5-43, the converter consists of the converter. Plug in the line plug ( fused
of an r.f. amplifier, mixer and oscillator stages,
- with Y2-ampere fuses) and turn on S1.The tube
and an inexpensive power supply. A cathode- heaters should light up. With S2 switched to the
bias control ( R1) on the r.f. stage determines 20-meter position, screw in the slug of L3 as
the stage gain and prevents overloading on strong the knob of C2 is rocked back and forth about
signals. The signal circuits, tuned by C1 and C2, the maximum-capacitance end of its range. When
cover 14 to 30 Mc. and are peaked by the opera- an increase in noise is heard as C2 is rocked
tor for the band in use. The selector switch, S2, through aparticular point, hold up on the adjust-
is used to switch to the required crystal and out- ment of L3 and turn the knob of C1.Peak C1 on
put circuit; on 10 meters the same output circuit noise and tune around with the receiver for any
is used for several crystals. No tuned output signals. If for any reason the crystal or oscil-
from the mixer is included; the tuned circuit ( s) lator is suspected of not operating properly, it
of the receiver following the converter being all can be checked by connecting avoltmeter across
that is necessary. the 1000-ohm resistor running to the arm of S2A
The converter is built on a 4 X 7 x 2- inch (-F side of meter to power- supply side). If the
chassis and is housed in a5 X 9 x 6grey ham- oscillator is functioning properly, when Y1 is re-
mertone aluminum utility cabinet. Although the moved from its socket the voltage measured
construction is straightforward and should pre- across the 1000-ohm resistor should increase.
sent no particular problems, there are places The slugs in L4 and L5 are adjusted in asimi-
where caution should be exercised. For example, lar manner, with S2 in the proper position. After
r.f. leads and bypassing at the 6BZ6 socket should one slug has been adjusted, it may be necessary
be made as short and direct as possible, to mini- to touch up the others slightly. A compromise
mize the chance for oscillation of this high-gain setting will be found for L5 that allows good
stage. Grounding should be done with soldering operation of either Y3 or Y4.
lugs to the screws that hold the socket to the
chassis. Generous use of tie points is advisable, so
that both ends of resistors and capacitors will
be supported.
Coils L1 and L2 are made from a single piece
of B&W 3011 Miniductor stock. Start with a
20-turn length of stock. With apin or knife push
in the 6th turn from one end and cut it. Push the
cut ends back out and unwind each approximately
a half turn to the support bar. Unwind the ends
to give the snecified turns in each coil ( see Fig.
5-43). The coils are supported by standard tie-
point strips; on L1 the outside ends go to an-
tenna ( small coil) and grid, and on L2 the out-
side ends go to plate ( small coil) and grid. When

Fig. 5-42—A 3- band crystal-controlled converter, to be

used ahead of a receiver tuning the 80- meter band.
The converter is shown out of its cabinet. Mixer tuning
control at right, gain control and line switch at left,
The tube in the center is the 6U8A mixer- oscillator.
128 HIGH -
FREQUENCY RECEIVERS

R F AMP M DOER
6BZ 6 6u8A

RFC , VIA OUT

2
3 5 - 4.0 MC
14-30 MC 14- 30 MC
J2
C
2
ANT

2K 22K

3
OSC .
10.5MC. 7.5 MC. 25 MC.
22 CR , 1000
T, 15
SI

100K

2 0 10
1000
2A

1=1 =1
Fig. 5- 43— Circuit diagram of the three- band crystal-
14
2TY3 T
''2 TY,
controlled converter. Unless indicated otherwise, ca-
pacitances are in puf., resistors are /
2
1 watt. 1)— Fused plug ( El Menco).
R1- 2000-ohm 1-watt potentiometer, with switch ( CTS-

C,-75-µµf. variable ( Hammarlund APC-75-8). IRC QI 1-110 with IRC 76-1 switch).

C3 - 30-80-µf. dual electrolytic, 150-volt, common nega- SI— Part of R,, see above.
5,-2- pole 5- position ( 4 used) rotary switch ( Centralab
tive.
CR, - 50- ma. 130-v. selenium rectifier ( International PA- 2003).

Rectifier 1065). RFC,-7 turns No. 20 wound on 47-ohm /

1
2-watt resistor.

J,, Jr— Chassis- mounting coaxial connector ( S0-239). T1-125 v. at 15 ma., 6.3 v. at 0.6 amp. ( Allied Radio's

L, L-12 turns No. 20, 16 t.p.i., diam. ( See Knight 61 G 410 or equiv.)

text). Primary on Li is 3 turns, 4 turns on I.,. Sep- Y1- 10.5-Mc. crystal ( International Crystal Co., Type

aration of 1/16 inch between primary and sec- FA-9).

ondary. Y.,- 17.5-Mc. crystal.

L-3.1- to 6.8-ph., slug-tuned ( Miller 4405). Y3- 24.5- Mc. crystal.

L, L-1.5- to 3.2-µh., slug-tuned ( Miller 4404). Y4- 25.0- Mc. crystal.

Fairly sharp tuning of C, and C.-, is normal, and

it may be found that any given settings will suf-
fice for a receiver tuning range of only a portion
of an amateur band. If the gain control cannot he
advanced to the maximum- gain position ( arm at
chassis end of RI) without oscillation, take a
second look at the wiring of the 6I1Z6 socket.
The grid and plate leads should imt lie able to
"see" each other, and the center post of the socket
should be grounded to the chassis by a short
length of wire.
With this converter, the 80- meter receiver is
serving as a tunable if, system. The signal fre-
quency is the indicated receiver frequency plus
the crystal frequency; e.g., on 20 meters a 14.1-
Mc. signal will appear at 3.6 Mc. ( 3.6 10.5 -=
14.1) on the receiver. The over-all system be-
comes a double- conversion superheterodyne with
a crystal- controlled " front end," a popular ar-
rangement found in many high-priced receivers.

Fig. 5-44—A view underneath the chassis of the three-

band converter. Input tuned circuit at left, oscillator
coils at center, and band switch and output connector
at right. The selenium rectifier is hidden by the lip of
the 4 X 6 >< 2-inch chassis.
Selectoject 129

THE " SELECTOJECT"

The Selectoject is a receiver adjunct that can they should be as close to each other as possible.
be used as a sharp amplifier or as a single- fre- An ohmmeter is quite satisfactory for doing the
quency rejection filter. The frequency of opera- matching. One- watt resistors are used because
tion may be set to any point in the audio range the larger ratings are usually more stable over a
by turning asingle knob. The degree of selectivity long period of time.
(or depth of the null) is continuously adjustable If the station receiver has an "accessory
and is independent of tuning. In phone work, the socket" on it, the cable of the Selectoject can be
rejection notch can be used to reduce or eliminate made up to match the connections to the socket,
a heterodyne. In c.w. reception, interfering sig- and the numbers will not necessarily match those
nals may be rejected or, alternatively, the desired shown in Fig. 5-45. The lead between the second
signal may be picked out and amplified. The detector and the receiver gain control should be
Selectoject may also be operated as alow-distor- broken and run in shielded leads to the two pins
tion variable-frequency audio oscillator suitable of the socket corresponding to those on the plug
for amplifier frequency-response measurements, marked " A.F. Input" and "A.F. Output." If the
modulation tests, and the like, by advancing the receiver has a VR-150 included in it for voltage
"selectivity" control far enough in the selective- stabilization there will be no problem in getting
amplifier condition. The Selectoject is connected the plate voltage — otherwise a suitable voltage
in a receiver between the detector and the first divider should be incorporated in the receiver,
audio stage. Its power requirements are 4ma. at with a 20- to 40-laf. electrolytic capacitor con-
150 volts and 6.3 volts at 0.6 ampere. For proper nected from the + 150-volt tap to ground.
operation, the 150 volts should be obtained from In operation, overload of the receiver or the
across aVR-150 or from asupply with an output Selectoject should be avoided, or all of the pos-
capacity of at least 20 d. sible selectivity may not be realized.
The wiring diagram of the Selectoject is shown The Selectoject is useful as ameans for obtain-
in Fig. 5-45. Resistors R 2 and R 3 ,and R 4 and R 5 , ing much of the performance for a"Q Mulitplier"
can be within 10 per cent of the nominal value but from a receiver lacking one.

PHASE SHIFTER AMPLIFIER

8

A.
OUTPUT

150V.
(REGULATED)
12AX7i 0
POSITION I.
---0A.F. INPUT SELECTIVE AMPLIFIER
ANO OSCILLATOR

f—OA.F. OUTPUT POSITION 2•

efe p1113 14 151617 I
SI REJECTION FILTER

Fig. 5-45—Complete schematic of Selectoject using 12AX7 tubes.

Ca-0.01-0., mica, 400 volts. Re-20,000 ohms, ih watt.
C15 C3-0.1-µf. paper, 200 volts. R7-2000 ohms, 1 2 watt.
/
C8, C8-0.002-0. paper, 400 volts. R8-10,000 ohms, 1watt.
Cs-0.05-0. paper, 400 volts. 14-6000 ohms, Y2 watt.
Ce-16-µf. 150-volt electrolytic. R10-20,000 ohms, / watt.
12

C7--0.0002-p.f. mica. Ru-0.5-megohm 1 /2-

.watt potentiometer (selectivity).

R1-1 megohni, Ya watt. Ru—Ganged 5-megohm potentiometers (tuning control)

123, R8-1000 ohms, 1watt, matched as closely as possible (IRC PQ11-141 with IRC M11-141.)
(see text). R1 3-0.12 megohm, ½ watt.
Ity R5-2000 ohms, 1watt, matched as closely as possible Ss—D.p.d.t. toggle (can be ganged).
(see text).
130 HIGH- FREQUENCY CONVERTER

ANTENNA COUPLER FOR RECEIVING

In many instances reception can be improved
by the addition of an antenna coupler between
the antenna feedline and the receiver, and in
all cases the r.f. image rejection will be increased.
The unit shown on this page consists of one
series- tuned circuit and one parallel-tuned cir-
cuit; usually its best performance is obtained
with the parallel- tuned circuit connected to the
receiver input, as indicated in Fig. 5-46. How-
ever, the coupler should also be tried with the
connections reversed, to see which gives the better
results. The desired connection is the one that
gives the sharper peak or louder signals when
the circuits are resonated.
The coupler is built on one section of a 5 x
4 x 3- inch Minibox• ( Bud CU-2105A). Tuning
capacitors Ci and C2 are mounted directly on the
Minibox face, since there is no need to insulate
the rotors. The arrangement of the components
can be seen in Fig. 5-47.
The coils Li and L2 are made from a single
length of B & W 3011 Miniductor. The wire is
snipped at the center of the coil and unwound
in both directions until there are three empty
spaces on three support bars and two empty
Fig. 5- 47— Receiver antenna coupler, with cover removed
spaces on the bar from which the snipped ends
project. These inner ends run to the connectors from case. Unit tunes 6to 30 Mc. The coil is supported by

Ji and 12.(Fig. 5-46). Unwind turns at the ends the leads to the capacitors and switches.

of the coils until each coil has atotal of 22 turns.

When soldering the leads to the 3rd, 6th, 8th make it easier to bring out the cables neatly.
and 12th turns from the inside ends of the coils, Normally the coupler will be adjusted for
protect the adjacent turns from solder and flux optimum coupling or maximum image rejection,
by placing strips of aluminum cooking foil be- but by detuning the coupler it can be used as an
tween the turns. An iron with a sharp point will auxiliary gain control to reduce the overloading
be required for the soldering. effects of strong local signals. The coupler cir-
The "panel" side of the box can be finished cuits do not resonate below 6Mc., but a coupler
off with decals indicating the knob functions and of this type is seldom if ever used in the 80- meter
switch positions. band; its major usefulness will be found at the
The antenna coupler should be mounted within higher frequencies.
afew feet of the receiver, to minimize the length As shown, the coupler is designed for use with
of RG-59/U between coupler and receiver. In an antenna fed with coaxial line. If asimple wire
crowded quarters, the use of M-359A right-angle antenna is used, try connecting the antenna to ./ 2
adapters ( Amphenol 83-58) at /1 and /2 will and the receiver to J.

Fig. 5-46— Circuit diagram of the receiver antenna coupler.

C2-100-µ0. midget variable ( Hammarlund HF -

100). on spacing and tapping.
J1, JR— Coaxial cable connector, SO- 239. S", SR—Single-pOle 11- position switch ( 5 used) rotary
1.1, 12-22 turns No. 20, /
4 -
3 inch diameter, 16 t.p.i. Tapped switch (
Centraiao PA- 1000).
3, 6, 8 and 12 turns from inside end. See text
Pi- Section Output Tanks 151
Fig. 6-16—Multiband tuner circuits. In the unbal-
anced circuit of A, C, and C2 are sections of a single
split- stator capacitor. In the balanced circuit of D.
the two split- stator capacitors are ganged to a single
control with an insulated shaft coupling between the
two. In D, the two sections of L2 are wound on the
same form, with the inner ends connected to Cs. In
A, each section of the capacitor should have o volt-
age rating the same as Fig. 6-33A. In D, C, should
have a rating the same as Fig. 6-33H (or Fig. 6-33E
if the feed system corresponds). C2 may have the
rating of Fig. 6-33E so long as the rotor is not
(C) (D)
grounded or bypassed to ground.

quired for the lower frequencies, it is common A single-ended, or unbalanced, circuit of this
practice to switch fixed capacitors in parallel type is shown in Fig. 6-16A. In principle, the
with the variable air capacitor. While the voltage reactance of the high- frequency coil, L2, is small
rating of amica or ceramic capacitor may not be enough at the lower frequencies so that it can be
exceeded in aparticular case, capacitors of these largely neglected, and C1 and C2are in parallel
types are limited in current-carrying capacity. across LI. Then the circuit for low frequencies
Postage- stamp silver- mica capacitors should be becomes that shown in Fig. 6-16B. At the high
adequate for amplifier inputs over the range from frequencies, the reactance of L1 is high, so that
about 70 watts at 28 Mc. to 400 watts at 14 Mc. it may be considered simply as achoke shunting
and lower. The larger mica capacitors ( CM-45 The high- frequency circuit is essentially that
case) having voltage ratings of 1200 and 2500 of Fig. 6-16C, L2being tuned by C1 and C2in
volts are usually satisfactory for inputs varying series.
from about 350 watts at 28 Mc. to 1kw. at 14 Mc. In practice, the effect of one circuit on the
and lower. Because of these current limitations, other cannot be neglected entirely. L2 tends to
particularly at the higher frequencies, it is ad- increase the effective capacitance of C2, while
visable to use as large an air capacitor as prac- L1tends to decrease the effective capacitance of
ticable, using the micas only at the lower frequen- C1. This effect, however, is relatively small.
cies. Broadcast- receiver replacement- type capaci- Each circuit must cover somewhat more than a
tors can be obtained very reasonably. They are 2-to- 1frequency range to permit staggering the
available in triple units totaling about 1100 pf., two ranges sufficiently to avoid simultaneous
or dual units totaling about 900 pf. Their insu- responses to a frequency in the low- frequency
lation should be sufficient for inputs of 500 watts range, and one of its harmonics lying in the range
or more. Air capacitors have the additional ad- of the high- frequency circuit.
vantage that they are seldom permanently dam- In any circuit covering a frequency range as
aged by avoltage break-down. great as 2 to 1 by capacitance alone, the circuit
Q must vary rather widely. If the circuit is de-
Neutralizing with Pi Network
signed for aQ of 12 at 80, the Q will be 6at 40,
Screen- grid amplifiers using api-network out- 24 at 20, 18 at 15, and 12 at 10 meters. The in-
put circuit may be neutralized by the system crease in tank current as aresult of the increase
shown in Figs. 6-23 B and C. in Q toward the low- frequency end of the high-
frequency range may make it necessary to design
MULTIBAND TANK CIRCUITS
the high- frequency coil with care to minimize
Multiband tank circuits provide a convenient loss in this portion of the tuning range. It is
means of covering several bands without the need generally found desirable to provide separate
for changing coils. Tuners of this type consist output coupling coils for each circuit.
essentially of two tank circuits, tuned simultane- Fig. 6-16D shows a similar tank for balanced
ously with a single control. In a tuner designed circuits. The same principles apply.
to cover 80 through 10 meters, each circuit has a Series or parallel feed may be used with either
sufficiently large capacitance variation to assure balanced or unbalanced circuits. In the balanced
an approximately 2- to- 1 frequency range. Thus, circuit of Fig. 6-16D, the series feed point would
one circuit is designed so that it covers 3.5 be at the center of L1,with an r.f. choke in
through 7.3 Mc., while the other covers 14 series.
through 29.7 Mc. (For further discussion see QST, July, 1954.)

R.F. AMPLIFIER- TUBE OPERATING CONDITIONS

In addition to proper tank and output-coupling All r.f. amplifier tubes require a voltage to
circuits discussed in the preceding sections, an operate the filament or heater ( a.c. is usually
r.f. amplifier must be provided with suitable permissible), and a positive d.c. voltage between
electrode voltages and an r.f. driving or excita- the plate and filament or cathode ( plate voltage).
tion voltage ( see vacuum-tube chapter). Most tubes also require a negative d.c. voltage
132 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS
FOLLOWER

Vie A

old

RG-58/U

iii

CR
125V. IOW — iouf
150VZ

21-30 MC. rel o S

o u)

Fig. 5-50—Circuit diagram of the regenerative preselector. Unless otherwise specified, resistors are Y2 watt, capa-
citors are in 1.q.d., capacitors marked in polarity are electrolytic.

C1-140-µ0. midget variable ( Hammarlund HF-

140). Si—Three-wafer rotary switch. S1A and SIR are 1-pole
12-position (4 used) sections (Centrelab PA- 1);
C2-3- to 30-wif. mica compression trimmer.
C3-100-µ,iif. variable ( Hammarlund MAPC-100-B). Sic and SID are 2-pole 6- position ( 4 used) sec-
tions (Centrolab PA-3), all mounted on Cen-
CR1-50-ma. selenium ( International Rectifier T050).
tralab PA-301 index assembly.
Ji, .12— Phono jack.
T1-125 v. at 15 ma., 6.3 v. at 0.6 amp. ( Stancor PS-
Li- 19 turns, 7-turn primary.
L2-5 turns, 2-turns primary. Coils are /
4 -
3 inch diameter, 8415 or Knight 610410).
16 t.p.i., No. 20 Wire ( B & W 3011 Miniductor). RFC1-100-µ11. r.f. choke ( National R-33).
One-turn spacing between coils and primaries.

60 H 355). The bandswitch Si is made from the Now turn Si to the 21- to 30- Mc. range. Swing
specified sections ( see Fig. 5-50). The first sec- the TUNE capacitor, C1,and listen for a loud
tion is spaced 3/ inch from the indexing head,
4
rough signal which indicates that the preselector
there is 1-inch separation between this and the is oscillating. If nothing is heard, advance the
next section ( Sill ), and the next section (SID , regeneration control toward the minimum ca-
SID ) is spaced 2/12 inches from SIB . pacitance end and repeat. If no oscillation is
The regeneration control, C 3 , is mounted on a heard, it may be necessary to change the setting
small aluminum bracket. Its shaft does not have of C 2 . Once the oscillating condition has been
to be insulated from the chassis, so either an found, set the regeneration control at minimum
insulated or a solid shaft connector can be used. capacitance and slowly adjust C 2 until the pre-
The small neutralizing capacitor, C 2 ,is supported selector oscillates only when the regeneration con-
by soldering one lead of it to astator bar of C 3 and trol is set at minimum capacitance. You can now
running awire from the other lead to pin 6of the swing the receiver to 21 Mc. and peak the pre-
tube socket. The rotor and stator connections selector tuning capacitor. It will be found that the
from Ci are brought through the chassis deck regeneration capacitance will have to be increased
through small rubber grommets. to avoid oscillation.
Power supply components, resistors and ca- Check the performance on the lower range by
pacitors are supported by suitable lugs and tie tuning in signals at 14 and 7 Mc. and peaking
points. Phono. jacks are used for the input and the preselector. It should be possible to set the
output connectors. regeneration control in these two ranges to give
Assuming that the wiring is correct and that both an oscillating and anon-oscillating condition.
the coils have been constructed properly and A little experience will be required to get the
cover the required ranges, the only preliminary best performance out of the preselector. Learn to
adjustment is the proper setting of C.,. Connect set the regeneration so that the preselector is se-
an antenna to the input jack and connect the lective, but not so selective that it must be re-
receiver to the output jack through a suitable tuned every 10 kc. or so. Changing to another
length of RG-58/U. Turn on the receiver b.f.o. antenna may modify the best regeneration setting
and tune to 28 Mc. with Si in the ON position. because the loading is changed.
DCS-500 133

DCS-500 DOUBLE-CONVERSION SUPERHETERODYNE

The receiver shown in Fig. 5-51 was designed necessary adjacent-channel selectivity. Three de-
to meet aneed for abetter-than-average ham re- grees of selectivity are available, depending on
ceiver requiring a minimum of mechanical work the degree of capacitive coupling between the
and using standard and easily obtainable parts. It two windings of each i.f. transformer. The greater
incorporates such features as a100-kc. calibrator, the number of capacitors switched in parallel —
provision for reception on all ham bands from 80 that is, the larger the coupling capacitance — the
through 10 meters, adequate selectivity for to- lower the coupling between the windings and
day's crowded bands, and stability high enough thus the greater the selectivity.
for copying s.s.b. signals. Dubbed the DCS-500 A standard diode detector develops the audio
because of its 500-cycle selectivity in the sharpest output for all reception modes. The output of the
i.f. position, it is a double- conversion super- detector is simultaneously applied to both the
heterodyne receiver capable of giving good results first audio amplifier and the audio a.g.c. circuit.
on either a.m., c.w. or s.s.b. A series-type noise limiter can be used on a.m, to
reduce impulse- noise interference, but this type
The Circuit is ineffective on c.w. or s.s.b. because of the large
Referring to the circuit diagram, Figs. 5-52 amplitude of the b.f.o. injection voltage.
and 5-53, a 6BA6 r.f., stage is followed by a The b.f.o., a Hartley- type oscillator, can be
6U8A mixer- oscillator. The 4.5-Mc. mixer output tuned from 3kc. above to 3 kc. below its 50-kc.
is amplified by a 6BA6 and filtered by a two- center frequency by the tuning capacitor.
stage crystal filter, after which a 6U8A second The first audio stage is anormal Class A volt-
mixer-oscillator, crystal- controlled, heterodynes age amplifier with its output either coupled to
the signal to 50 kc. the grid circuit of the audio output tube or to a
The combination of i.f. amplifiers may appear phone jack. High- impedance head- phones (20,000
rather unusual at first glance, since one might ohms a.c. impedance or higher) are required.
expect that a cascade crystal filter in the high- Plugging in the phones automatically discon-
frequency i.f. would make further selectivity nects the speaker. If low- impedance headphones
unnecessary. This would be true with highly de- are used, they can be connected to the speaker
veloped filters, but two filters are needed if the terminals. Capacitances shunting the grid re-
best possible job is to be done on both phone and sistors restrict the audio response to an upper
c.w., and such filters are expensive. With inexpen- limit of about 4000 cycles.
sive surplus crystals such as are used in this re- The audio output transformer couples to alow-
ceiver it would be difficult, if not impossible, to impedance ( 3.2-ohm) speaker. The 47-ohm re-
match the performance of the high-class filters; sistor across the secondary protects the trans-
in addition, special test equipment and extreme former in the absence of aspeaker load.
care in adjustment would be necessary. The ap- The audio output of the detector is also ampli-
proach used here is to use the surplus crystals fied separately in the audio a.g.c. circuit and then
without such special adjustment, thereby achiev- rectified to develop a negative voltage that can
ing agood, if not quite optimum, degree of selec- be used for a.g.c. on c.w. and s.s.b. Two different
tivity against strong signals near the desired one, time constants are used in the rectifier filter cir-
and then to back up the filter by alow-frequency cuit, for either fast- or slow-decay a.g.c.
i.f. amplifier that will give the " close- in" straight- The 100-kc. calibrator employs two 2N107
sided selectivity needed in present-day operation. p- n-p transistors, one as the oscillator and the
The over-all result is a high order of protection second as a 100-kc. amplifier. Its transistors ob-
against strong interfering signals at considerably tain the necessary operating potential from the
less cost, for the entire double-i.f. system, than cathode resistor of the audio output tube. Output
that of two high-performance filters alone. The from the 100-kc. unit is capacity-coupled to the
choice of 4.5 Mc., approximately, for the first i.f. antenna winding of the r.f. coil. Calibrating sig-
was based on the availability of surplus crystals nals at 100-kc. intervals are available on all fre-
around this frequency, with due consideration for quencies covered by the receiver.
minimizing spurious responses. A second i.f. of The calibrator unit is constructed in aseparate
50 kc. was chosen because it lent itself nicely to Minibox so that it can be plugged into the ac-
the utilization of low-cost TV horizontal-oscil- cessory socket of the receiver or used as an indi-
lator coils as i.f. transformers.
The two i.f. amplifiers at 50 kc. contribute the

Fig. 5-51— The DCS-500 double-conversion superhetero-

dyne. Left bottom, antenna trimmer, 100-kc. calibrator
switch; center, left, top to bottom, noise- limiter switch,
volume control, sensitivity control; center, right, b.f.o.
switch, a.g.c. speed, selectivity; right, headphone jack,
b.f.o. pitch control. The dial is a National ICN. Front
panel is 834 inches high; the receiver is mounted in a
Bud CR- 1741 rack cabinet.
 134 HIGH-FREQUENCY RECEIVERS
CALIBRATOR H.E OSC.

+105V.
AMP 4700

ioo•c. 2N107

100 001

DECIMAL VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE IN pti

OTHERS ARE IN Apt EXCEPT AS INDICATED.

0—.70 V10

R.F. AMP Isr MIXER LE AMP

V3 6BA6
u8A 5

14 4495 KC. 4495 KC.

r-
im
3 100 K L
3

ANT o
Y, 7

200 — ; 3
9Y

o
Y3 T3
s

01 I 4490 KC.
• L__ J O F.' e
4490 KC.

RFC' RFC,
2200 100 K 2200
1000

+250V. + 105V. + 250V. +105V. + 250V.

TO A.G.C. LINE

Fig. 5-52 — Front-end circuit of the receiver. Unless otherwise specified, resistors are /2
1 watt; 0.01 and 0.02-0. ca-

pacitors are disk ceramic, 600 volts; 0.5 capacitors are tubular pape' or Mylar; capacitors below 0.01 µf. are mica;

capacitors marked with polarities are electrolytic.

Cx-50-µ0. variable ( Hammarlund HF -50). L - 4.7 mh. ( Miller 6304).

C2, C, — See coil table. 1,-1-2-mh. slug- tuned ( North Hills 120K).

Cs- 2- section variable, 5-28.5 p.p.f. per section, double RFC1, RFC_- 100-µh. r.f. choke resonant at 4.4 Mc.
spaced (Hammarlund HFD-30-X). ( Miller 70F104A1).

C5-3-30-µ0. ceramic trimmer. Si— Single- pole rotary.

Ji — Coaxial receptacle, chassis mounting ( S0-239). Y1 - 100 kc. ( James Knights H-93).

L, L, L— See coil table. Ys, Y.,-4495 kc. ( surplus).

L, L- 18-36-µh. slug-tuned (North Hills 120E coil Ys, Y3 - 4490 kc. ( surplus).

mounted in North Hills S-120 shield can).

vidual unit powered by penlite cells. tuning of the r.f. amplifier along with the h.f.
The power supply, Fig. 5-54, is afull- wave rec- oscillator and mixer circuits was decided against
tifier with a choke- input filter. It pros- ides ap- because of the complexities it would cause in coil
proximately 250 volts d.c. under load. A 0.25 - pl. construction and the problem of keeping three
capacitor is shunted across the 10- henry filter stages tracking with each other. The r.f. amplifier
choke to form a parallel- resonant circuit at 120 has to be peaked separately by the antenna trim-
cycles ; this provides an increased impedance to mer, but separate peaking insures maximum
the ripple component and thus reduces hum in performance at all frequencies.
the output of the supply.
The power- supply requirements are 250 volts Construction
at 110 milliamperes, and 6.3 volts at approxi- The receiver is constructed on a 12 X 17 X
mately 5 amperes. Any transformer-choke com- 2- inch aluminum chassis with an 83 /4 x 19- inch

bination fulfilling the requirements can be used. aluminum front panel, which permits it to be
installed in a table- top rack cabinet. The gen-
Front End eral layout of components can be seen in Figs.
The use of plug-in coils for the front end 5-55 and 5-57. A good procedure to follow when
eliminated the mechanical problems of a band- starting to wire the receiver is first to complete
switching tuner, and also offered the possibility the power supply and heater wiring, and then
of realizing higher- Q tuned circuits. Ganged start wiring from the antenna toward the
 DCS-500 135
2ND CONV. OSC. Fig. 5-53 — If. amplifier, detector, a.g.c. and audio circuits. Unless other-

wise specified, resistors are /2

1 watt; 0.01- and 0.02-µf. capacitors are disk

V
40 ceramic, 600 volts; 0.1- and 0.5-µf. capacitors are tubular paper or Mylar;

capacitors below 0.01 µf. are mica; capacitors marked with polarities are
9
electrolytic.

100 IC
KC.

1000

DECIMAL VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE IN jut'

OTHERS ARE imppf. EXCEPT AS INDICATED.

2No.MIXER LE AMP

BAG
r uss, ioe—
T1 1 21 t

2200 ON

+I05V. + 250V. TO A.G.C.

A.G.C. LINE
SENSITIVITY
(4 S4A
2500 FAST —0%
4e
+250 1it •--0 sLow

Cs, C7, Ca, Ca, C10, C17-0.01 mica ( Aerovox CM- 308-103). Sa— Rotary, 2 section, 1 pole per section, progressively

CL2 - 9-180-Kof. mica compression trimmer. shorting. Switch section Centralab PA- 12, index

Cis—SO -Kif. variable ( Hammarlund HF -50). Centralab PA- 302.

CH- 0.1-µf. paper ( Sprague 21M- Pi). Ss— Rotary, 1 section, 5 poles per section ( 4 poles used),

.12- - Phono jack. 3- position rotary switch ( Centralab PA- 2015).

JS — Closed-circuit phone jack. Ss— Rotary, 1 section, 2 poles per section, 2 positions

L-125 mh. ( Meissner 19-6848). used. ( Centralab PA- 2003).

14.-9-18 µh., slug-tuned ( North Hills 120D). inc. - 50-kc. if, transformers made from TV com-

M1 - 0-1 d.c. milliammeter ( Triplett 227- PL). ponents ( Miller 6183); see text.

121 - 2500- ohm, 4- watt control, wire- wound. Ta — B.f.o. transformer ( Miller 6183); see text.

Its - 0.5-megohm control, audio taper with push-pull type 17—Audio interstage transformer, 1:2 ratio ( Thordarson

switch ( S.i) ( Mallory No. PP55DT1683). 20A16).

Ra- 1000- ohm, 1-watt control, wire-wound. TX—Audio output transformer, 5000 to 4 ohms ( Stancor

RFC8-10 mh. ( National R- 50-I). 3856).

Si, Ss — Rotary, 1 section, 1 pole, 2 position. Y0- 4540 kc. (surplus).

speaker. This allows proceeding in alogical order padder capacitors are mounted in the recesses at
so that the work can be picked up readily at any the tops of the coil forms. After finishing acoil it
time after an intermission. is a good idea to fasten the winding and the
In the front end ( r.f. amplifier and first trimmer capacitor in place with Duco cement.
mixer), the use of short leads coupled with good Decal each set of coils for aparticular band and
quality ceramic tube and coil sockets, is highly mount them on small wooden bases that have
recommended. When mounting the sockets orient holes to take the pins. Then paint or stain each
them so that the leads to the various points in of the coil- set bases. The final result will be a
the circuit will be as short as possible. neat and convenient arrangement for holding the
Millen coil shields ( 80008) are used around coils for each band ( Fig. 5-56). Plug-in coil data
the plug-in coils in the front end — i.e., the r.f., for each band are given in the coil table.
mixer and oscillator — and the shield bases are The tuning capacitor, C3,is mounted on the
mounted with the same screws that hold the chassis and reinforced by a bracket to minimize
ceramic coil sockets. All plug-in coils are wound any rocking movement. This bracket is triangular
with No. 26 enameled wire on Amphenol poly- in shape with a right-angle flange at the bottom.
styrene forms, and Hammarlund APC-type air- It is drilled to take the front bearing sleeve of the
158 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
provided by Cg. For the purposes both of sta- moving the grid tap up on the circuit. Since the
bility and harmonic reduction, experience has coupling to the grid is comparatively loose under
shown that a value of 100 pf. for C8 usually is any condition, it may be found that it is impos-
sufficient. In general, C7 and L2 should have sible to utilize the full power capability of the
values approximating the capacitance and in- driver stage. If sufficient excitation cannot be ob-
ductance used in a conventional tank circuit. tained, it may be necessary to raise the plate volt-
A reduction in the inductance of L2 results in an age of the driver, if this is permissible. Other-
increase in coupling because C7 must be in- wise a larger driver tube may be required. As
creased to retune the circuit to resonance. This shown in Fig. 6-21B, parallel driver plate feed
changes the ratio of C7 to Cg and has the effect of and amplifier grid feed are necessary.

R.F. POWER AMPLIFIER CIRCUITRY

STABILIZING AMPLIFIERS
A straight amplifier operates with its input and
output circuits tuned to the same frequency.
Therefore, unless the coupling between these two
circuits is brought to the necessary minimum, the
amplifier will oscillate as atuned- plate tuned- grid
circuit. Care should be used in arranging com-
ponents and wiring of the two circuits so that
there will be negligible opportunity for coupling
external to the tube itself. Complete shielding
between input and output circuits usually is re-
quired. All r.f. leads should be kept as short as
possible and particular attention should be paid
to the r.f. return paths from plate and grid tank
circuits. to cathode. In general, the best arrange-
ment is one in which the cathode connection to
ground, and the plate tank circuit are on the same
side of the chassis or other shielding. The " hot"
lead from the grid tank ( or driver plate tank)
should be brought to the socket through a hole
in the shielding. Then when the grid tank capaci-
tor or bypass is grounded, a return path through
the hole to cathode will be encouraged, since
transmission- line characteristics are simulated.
A check on external coupling between input
and output circuits can be made with a sensitive
indicating device, such as the one diagrammed in DRIVER
Fig. 6-22. The amplifier tube is removed from
its socket and if the plate terminal is at the
XTAL

LINK

Fig. 6- 22— Circuit of sensitive neutralizing indicator.

Xtal is a 1N34 crystal detector, MA a 0-1 direct-
current milliammeter and C a 0.001-1.0. mica bypass
Fig. 6- 23— Screen- grid neutralizing circuits. A— Induc-
capacitor. tive neutralizing. B- C— Capacitive neutraliz-

socket, it should be disconnected. With the driver ing.

stage running and tuned to resonance, the indi- Cs— Grid bypass capacitor—approx. 0.001-µf. mica.
Voltage rating some as biasing voltage in
cator should be coupled to the output tank coil
B, same as driver plate voltage in C.
and the output tank capacitor tuned for any in-
dication of r.f. feedthrough. Experiment with CS— Neutralizing capacitor—approx. 2 to 10 1.4.—

shielding and rearrangement of parts will show see text. Voltage rating same as amplifier

whether the isolation can be improved. plate voltage for c.w., twice this value for
plate modulation.
Screen-Grid Tube Neutralizing Circuits LI, 1, —Neutralizing link— usually a turn or two will be
The plate- grid capacitance of screen- grid tubes sufficient.
DCS-500 137
TO V11 +260 V
CI,
JU MPER
+250 K

r— — — 2111AR
s
6 j_21±L +I
05 K
ILONA.
P, Tsi
Ts
0C3
II 5V
A. C.
68 A6s
6AL 5
6U8As 6CGT 6A05

Fig. 5-54— Power-supply circuit.

i -6.3 V. y
.orn
(.\ Capacitors marked with polari-
ties are electrolytic.

C15- 0.25-µf. paper, 600 volts. So-- See Fe, Fig. 5-55.
La—Filter choke, 10.5 henry, 110 ma. ( Knight 62 G 139). To— Power transformer, 700 v. c.t., 120 ma.; 5 v., 3amp.;
Pi— Fuse plug. 6.3 v., 4.7 amp. ( Knight 62 G 044).

used ; however, these are hard to come by. Some

The Calibrator
of the better audio oscillators go as high as 50 kc.
The 100-kc. calibrator is built in a separate and can be used for alignment purposes. A second,
4 X 4 X 2- inch aluminum box and plugs into the and possibly superior, method is to use any of
accessory socket at the left rear of the receiver the numerous signal generators which will deliver
chassis. Fig. 5-58 shows the internal construction. 4.5- Mc, output; fed into the first i.f, amplifier
The accessory socket provides the necessary grid, the 4.5- Mc, signal will beat against the
operating voltage for the transistors and offers second conversion oscillator to produce a 50-kc.
a convenient means for coupling the 100-kc. har- i.f, signal which then can be used for alignment.
monics out of the calibrator into the receiver. If This method also insures that the first i.f, signal
the calibrator is to be used as a self-contained will fall within the crystal filter bandpass in case
unit it must be supplied with 7 to 10 volts. the crystal frequencies are not exact. When align-
ing, connect a d.c. voltmeter ( preferably a
I.F. Alignment
v.t.v.m.) across the detector load resistor ( point
Before starting alignment of the receiver, first D of T 5 and chassis), set S,, for high selectivity,
determine whether the audio stages are function- (all capacitors in), turn the i.f, gain control
ing correctly. An audio signal should be coupled about three-quarters open, and tune both the
to the top end of the volume control, and varying plate circuit of the second conversion oscillator
the control should change the output level of the and the 50-kc. i.f, transformers for maximum out-
audio signal. If an audio signal is not available, put, as indicated on the meter. The output of the
the 60- cycle heater voltage will provide a con- signal generator should not be modulated, and at
venient audio signal for checking. the start will most likely be " wide open." How-
There are various ways to approach the align- ever, as alignment progresses the output of the
ment problem. A 50-kc. signal generator can be generator will have to be progressively decreased.
When aligning the i.f. transformers there should
Fig. 5-55—The power supply is built along
the back of the chassis; filter capacitor and
VR tube are just in back of the filter choke in
this view. The crystal calibrator unit at right
is cushioned by rubber bumpers mounted on
the receiver chassis. Cs is on top of the cali-
brator unit. Front-end coil shields are at the
top right in this photograph, along with the
tuning capacitor bracket and flexible cou-
pling. The on-off switch, Se, on rear of the
audio gain control, is a new push-pull type.
Filter crystals are grouped behind the vol-
ume control, and the second conversion oscil-
lator crystal is slightly to their left. The
4.5-Mc. if, transformers (in the small shield
cans) are close to the filter crystals. The b.f.o.
coil is at the extreme left in this view ; all
other large cans contain the 50-kc. if. trans-
formers. Connections on the back chassis
wall, left to right, are the muting terminals,
B- plus output for auxiliary use, speaker term-
inals, if, output ( phono jack), and antenna
input connector.
 138 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS

DCS -500 COIL TABLE

All coils wound with No. 26 enameled wire on 1V4- inch diameter polystyrene forms. R.f. coil
forms are four-prong ( Allied Radio 71 H 713) ; mixer and oscillator coils are five- prong ( 71
H 714). C2 and C4 are Hammarlund APC-50 except on 3.5 Mc., which takes APC-75. Taps
are counted from ground end. Primaries and ticklers are close- wound in the same direction as
the main coil at bottom of coil form; grid and plate ( or antenna) connections at outside ends.
Band Secondary Primary or Tickler
Li, 4554 turns close-wound. 1034 turns, 34-inch spacing from secondary.
3.5 Mc. Ls, 36% turns close-wound, tapped at 2634 turns. 11% turns, 54-inch spacing from secondary.
La, 2834 turns close- wound, tapped at 19 turns. 7% turns, 54-inch spacing from secondary.
Li, 2654 turns, close- wound. 7% turns, 54- inch spacing from secondary.
7 Mc. L2, 1834 turns spaced to 1inch. Tapped at 944 turns. 644 turns, Winch spacing from secondary.
Ls, 1734 turns spaced to 74 inch. Tapped at 444 turns. 744 turns, 54- inch spacing from secondary.
Lt. 13% turns spaced to % inch. 63
/
4 turns, IY1.inch spacing from secondary.
14 Mc. Ls, 10% turns spaced to 1inch. Tapped at 3turns. 5% turns, 34-inch spacing from secondary.
Ls, 534 turns spaced to IM.8 inch. Tapped at 1% turns. 344 turns, 54.inch spacing from secondary.
Li, 9% turns spaced to % inch. 644 turns, 4e- inch spacing from secondary.
21 Mc. Ls, 7% turns spaced to 1% inches. Tapped at 2 turns. 544 turns, 94-inch spacing from secondary.
Ls, 644 turns spaced to 1Vie inch. Tapped at 2 turns. 344 turns, 4i
,3-inch spacing from secondary.
Li, 654 turns spaced to 1/e- inch.
2 544 turns, 54- inch spacing from secondary.
28 Mc. Ls, 5% turns spaced to 1% inches. Tapped at 2turns. 444 turns, 54- inch spacing from secondary.
Ls, 434 turns spaced to 34 inch. Tapped at PA turns. 244 turns, 54-inch spacing from secondary.

Fig. 5-56— Each set of coils is provided with a wooden

base for storage. C, and C., are mounted in the recesses
at the tops of the oscillator and mixer coil forms.
0.'
e
'14lareineoe

Fig. 5-57—The potentiometer for S- meter adjustment and the audio output transformer are on the right chassis
wall in this view. The 50-kc. i.f, trap is located just above the power transformer in the lower right-hand corner.
The antenna trimmer is located at extreme life center. The crystal filter sockets are at top center, and to their
left on the front wall is the calibrator switch SI.To the right of the calibrator switch is the sensitivity control, fol-
lowed to the right by the selectivity switch S and the b.f.o. pitch-control capacitor. The octal accessory socket for
the calibrator is at the lower left. As shown, shielded w ire spot- soldered together in bundles can be routed conven-
iently to various points in the receiver. Ceramic sockets are used throughout the front end ( center left). Mounting
components parallel with the chassis sides helps give the finished unit a neat appearance.

1'110
DCS-500 139
be a definite peak in output as each circuit is be spread apart or the tap itself must be moved
brought through resonance. If a particular coil down. If the trimmer capacitance has to be de-
does not peak, that coil and its associated circuits creased the tap is too low. Coil specifications
should be checked. After peaking one winding of might possibly have to be altered slightly from
a transformer, recheck the other; it may need those given in the table, particularly on the higher
touching up. After alignment of all the 50-kc. frequencies, because of variations in strays from
coils is completed, go back and " rock" each coil one receiver to another.
slug to be sure it is peaked for maximum output.
This completes the 50-kc. alignment. General
Leave the signal generator on, set the b.f.o. Adjustment of the calibrator is relatively
pitch control at half capacitance, turn the b.f.o. straightforward, and should present no problems.
on, and adjust its coil slug for zero beat with the Turn on the calibrator and you should hear the
50-kc. i.f. signal. Varying the pitch control over 100-kc. harmonics on whatever band you happen
its range should produce atone with amaximum to be using. Once it is determined that the unit is
frequency of 3kc. either side of zero beat. working correctly, the only adjustment necessary
Next, the 50-kc. trap on the output of the is to set the frequency of the calibrator exactly.
detector should be adjusted. Connect the vertical The usual reference is WWV or any broadcast
input terminals of an oscilloscope between the station that is on a frequency which is awhole-
plate of the first audio amplifier and chassis, turn number multiple of 100 kc. The frequency tol-
on the b.f.o., and adjust C 12 for minimum 50-kc. erance for standard broadcast stations is 20
signal on the scope. This trap, made up of C 12 and cycles, thus b.c. stations represent a source for
L 8 ,attenuates any 50-kc. feed- through. accurate frequency determination.
The first-i.f. coils at 4.5- Mc, should next be Using ageneral-coverage or b.c. receiver, tune
adjusted. Couple the signal generator to the grid in either WWV or aknown broadcast station and
of the first mixer and peak L 4 and L, for maxi- adjust the calibrator trimmer C 5 for zero beat.
mum deflection of the v.t.v.m. at the detector. The The calibrator will then provide accurate 100-kc.
i.f. system is then completely aligned. signals that can be used for frequency determina-
tion and band-edge marking.
Front- End Alignment
The first intermediate frequency can be altered
To adjust the front end, plug in a set of coils slightly to facilitate the use of particular sets of
and check the oscillator frequency range either crystals available. However, if the deviation is
with a calibrated g.d.o. or on a calibrated gen- more than 20 kc. or so, slight changes may be
eral-coverage receiver, the latter being preferable. needed in the h.f. oscillator coil specifications to
Keep in mind that the oscillator works 4.5 maintain the proper bandspread.
Mc. above the signal on 80, 40 and 20 meters, and If the receiver is to be worked in arack cabinet
4.5 Mc. below the signal frequency on the 15- and as shown in Fig. 5-51, or if a cover plate is at-
10- meter bands. This means that on 15 and 10 tached to the bottom of the receiver chassis,
meters the oscillator trimmer capacitor, C 4 ,must minor alignment touch-up may be necessary.
be at the larger-capacitance setting of the two Spraying the receiver chassis with alight coat
that bring in signals. After establishing the cor- of clear plastic lacquer before mounting any of
rect frequency range of the oscillator, inject a the components will prevent fingerprints and
signal at the low end of the band into the antenna oxidation of the chassis.
terminals and peak the mixer capacitor, C 2 ,and The audio output stage has adequate power to
the antenna trimmer, C1,for maximum signal. drive a 5- or 6- inch speaker, which may be
Then move the test signal to the high end of the mounted in a small open-back metal utility box.
band and recheck the mixer trimmer capacitor The i.f. output jack at the rear provides a
(the antenna trimmer also will have to be re- convenient way of attaching accessory devices
peaked) for correct tracking. If C 2 has to be such as an oscilloscope for modulation checking.
readjusted, spread the mixer coil turns apart or A side-by- side comparison of the finished re-
compress them together until the signal strength ceiver with some of the better-quality commer-
is uniform at both ends of the band, without read- cial units will show that this receiver can hold
justment of C 2 .If the mixer trimmer capacitance its own in sensitivity, selectivity and stability.
had to be increased at the high- frequency end of Needless to say, the more care taken in construc-
the band to maintain tracking, the coil tap is too tion, wiring and alignment the better the results.
far up the coil and the turns below the tap must
Fig. 5-58— Inside view of the calibrator unit. The 100-kc.
oscillator coil, L15, is at the right, the oscillator transistor,
Q2, is in the foreground mounted to the crystal socket,
and the amplifier transistor, 02, is mounted at the right
on a terminal strip. The 100-kc. crystal is mounted
horizontally between the plate and the octal plug. The
plug can be mounted on 2-inch screws as shown in the
photograph, or on the bottom plate of the Minibox,
with flexible leads to the circuit. If the calibrator is to
be used as aself-contained unit ( see text) the octal plug
is not necessary.
140 HIGH- FREQUENCY RECEIVERS

A TRANSISTORIZED Q MULTIPLIER
A "Q multiplier" is an electronic device that regenerative circuit is such that it feeds back the
boosts the Q of atuned circuit many times beyond signal out of phase.
its normal value. In this condition the single The schematic diagram of the Q multiplier is
tuned circuit has much greater selectivity than shown in Fig. 5-59. The inductor L, furnishes
normal, and it can be utilized to reject or amplify coupling from the receiver to the Q multiplier,
anarrow band of frequencies. There are vacuum- and C 4 is required to prevent short-circuiting
tube versions of the Q- multiplier circuit, but the the receiver's plate supply. The multiplier proper
transistorized Q multiplier to be described has consists of the tunable circuit CiC3L2 connected
the advantage that it eliminates a power- supply to a transistor in the collector-tuned common-
problem and is very compact. base oscillator circuit using capacitive feedback
via C 2 .Regeneration is controlled by varying the
Circuit and Theory d.c. operating voltage through dropping resistor
Parallel-tuned circuits have been used for years R1.
as " suck-out" trap circuits. Properly coupling a
Layout
parallel-tuned circuit loosely to a vacuum- tube
amplifier stage, it will be found that the amplifier The unit and power supply are built in asmall
stage has no gain at the frequency to which the aluminum " Minibox" measuring 5 x 2 4
trap circuit is tuned. The additional tuned circuit inches ( Bud CU-3004) and the operating controls
puts a "notch" in the response of the amplifier. are mounted on a lucite or aluminum subpanel.
The principle is used in TV and other amplifiers All parts of the unit are built on one half of the
to minimize response to a narrow band of fre- box. This feature not only simplifies construction
quencies. Increasing the Q of the trap circuit but makes abattery change a simple job, even if
reduces the width of the rejection notch. this is required only acouple of times ayear.
The transistorized Q multiplier makes use of All major components, such as the two slug-
the above effect for its operation. A tuned circuit tuned coils, tie point, battery holder, regenera-
is made regenerative to increase its Q and is tion and tuning controls, are mounted directly on
coupled into the i.f. stage of areceiver. By chang- the box and subpanel. The remaining resistors,
ing the frequency of the regenerative circuit, the capacitors and the single transistor are sup-
sharp notch can be moved about across the pass- ported by their connections to the above parts.
band of the receiver. The width of the notch is The two slug- tuned coils, L1 and L 2 , are cen-
changed by controlling the amount of regen- tered on the box and spaced one inch apart on
eration. centers. Operating controls C1 and R1 are placed
Although it seems paradoxical, the transistor- 11
/4 inches from the ends of the subpanel and
ized Q multiplier with no change in circuitry will centered. The tie point mounts directly behind
also permit " peaking" an incoming signal the tuning control C1.
way avacuum-tube Q multiplier does. The mode Power for the unit is supplied by four penlight
of operation is selected by adjustment of the re- cells ( type 912) which are mounted in the battery
generation control, and this then usually re- holder ( Lafayette Radio Co. Stock No. MS- 170)
quires a slight readjustment of the frequency directly behind regeneration control RI.Total
control. The peaking effect is not quite as pro- drain on the battery never exceeds 0.2 ma.
nounced as the notch, but it is still adequate to Connection to the receiver is made with athree-
give fairly good single- signal c.w. reception with foot length of RG-58/U cable brought through
a receiver of otherwise inadequate selectivity. the rear wall of the Minibox. A rubber grommet
The regenerative circuit builds up the signal should be placed in the hole to prevent chafing of
and feeds it back to the amplifier at ahigher level the cable insulation.
and in the proper phase to add to the original When soldering the transistor in place, be sure
signal. The notch effect described earlier works to take the usual precautions against heat damage.
in asimilar manner except that the tuning of the

Fig. 5-59—Circuit diagram of

TO
the 455-kc. transistorized Q MIXER
PATE
multiplier. Unless otherwise in-
dicated, capacitances are in
resistances are in ohms,
resistors are 1h watt.

C1- 15-µµf. variable capacitor ( Hammarlund HF- 15). unit

L.-1000-20001th. slug-tuned coil ( North Hills 120-K.
North Hills Electronics, Inc., Glen Cove, L.I.,
N.Y.
Le-500-1000-µh. slug-tuned coil ( North Hills 120-J).
Q,—CK768 PNP junction transistor.
Si— Part of
I5K I5K
W I—Three-foot length of RG-58/U cable. REGENERATION
Q Multiplier 141

Alignment
After completing the wiring ( and double-check-
ing it) connect the open end of the three-foot
cable to the plate circuit of the receiver mixer
tube. This can be done in a permanent fashion
by soldering the inner conductor of the cable to
the plate pin on the tube socket or any point that
is connected directly to this pin, and by soldering
the shield to any convenient nearby ground point.
If you are one of those people who is afraid to
take the bottom plate off his receiver, and you
have areceiver with octal tubes, a "chicken con-
nection" can be made by removing the mixer
tube and wrapping a short piece of small wire
around the plate pin. Reinsert the tube in its
socket and solder the center conductor of the
coax to the small wire coming from the plate pin.
Now ground the coax shield to the receiver
chassis. It is important to keep the lead from the
tube pin to the coax as short as possible, to pre- Hg. 5-60— View of the Q multiplier showing its single
vent stray pickup. connecting cable to the receiver. The box can be placed
Check the schematic diagram of the receiver in any convenient spot on or around the receiver.
for help in locating the above receiver connec-
tions.
Turn on the receiver and tune in a signal retouching of L2 may have to be done in the
strong enough to give an S-meter reading. Any above alignment, since the movement of any one
decent signal on the broadcast band will do. control tends to "pull" the others. The optimum
Next, tune the slug on L1 until the signal peaks situation is to have the tuning control C1 set at
up. You are tuning out the reactance of the con- about half capacity when the notch is in the
necting cable, and effectively peaking up the i.f. center of the passband.
If the receiver has no S meter, use an a.c. volt- If you happen to get a super active transistor
meter across the audio output. When this step and the regeneration control does not have the
has been successfully completed the Q multiplier range to stop oscillator action, increase the value
is properly connected to the receiver and when of the series resistor R2.Conversely, if the unit
switched to "off" ( S1 opened) will not affect nor- fails to oscillate, reduce the value of R2.
mal receiver operation. Note that the audio tone can be peaked as well
The next step is to bring the multiplier into as nulled. If it can not be peaked, a little more
oscillation, and to adjust its frequency to auseful practice with the controls should produce this con-
range. Set the tuning control to half capacity and dition. In the unit shown here, the best null was
advance the regeneration control to about half produced with the regeneration control turned
open. This latter movement also turns the power only a few degrees. Optimum peak position was
on. Tune the receiver to aclear spot and set the obtained with the regeneration control almost at
receiver b.f.o. to the center of the pass-band. the point of oscillation.
Now adjust the slug of L2.The multiplier should
be oscillating, and somewhere in the adjustment Fig. 5-61— The Q multiplier and its battery supply are
of L2 abeat note will be heard from the receiver. combined in one small Minibox. The single transistor is
This indicates the frequency of oscillation is visible near the top right corner.
somewhere on or near the i.f. Swing this into zero
beat with the b.f.o.

Final Adjustment
One of the best ways to make final alignment
is to simulate an unwanted heterodyne in the
receiver and adjust the Q multiplier for maximum
attenuation of the unwanted signal. To do this,
tune in a moderately weak signal with the b.f.o.
on. A broadcast station received with the antenna
disconnected will do. The b.f.o. will beat with the
incoming signal, producing an audio tone. Adjust
the b.f.o. for atone of about 1kc. or so.
Back off un control R1 until the oscillator be-
comes regenerative. By alternately adjusting the
tuning control, C1,and the regeneration control,
RI,a point can be found where the audio tone
disappears, or at least is attenuated. Some slight
 Chapter 6

High- Frequency
Transmitters

The principal requirements to be met in c.w. design and construction if its stability is to com-
transmitters for the amateur bands between 1.8 pare with that of a crystal oscillator.
and 30 Mc. are that the frequency must be as In all types of transmitter stages, screen- grid
stable as good practice permits, the output signal tubes have the advantage over triodes that they
must be free from modulation and that harmonics require less driving power. With a lower- power
and other spurious emissions must be eliminated exciter, the problem of harmonic reduction is
or reduced to the point where they do not cause made easier. Most satisfactory oscillator circuits
interference to other stations. use ascreen- grid tube.
The over-all design depends primarily upon the
bands in which operation is desired, and the
power output. A simple oscillator with satisfac-
tory frequency stability may be used as atrans-
mitter at the lower frequencies, as indicated in
Fig. 6-1A, but the power output obtainable is
small. As ageneral rule, the output of the oscil-
lator is fed into one or more amplifiers to bring
the power fed to the antenna up to the desired
level, as shown in B.
An amplifier whose output frequency is the
(A) (B)
same as the input frequency is called a straight
amplifier. A buffer amplifier is the term some-
times applied to an amplifier stage to indicate
that its primary purpose is one of isolation,
rather than power gain. OSC DBLR --+-1 AMP
Because it becomes increasingly difficult to
maintain oscillator frequency stability as the
frequency is increased, it is most usual prac- PWR PWR
tice in working at the higher frequencies to
operate the oscillator at a low frequency and
(c)
follow it with one or more frequency multi-
pliers as required to arrive at the desired out-
put frequency. A frequency multiplier is an
amplifier that delivers output at a multiple
of the exciting frequency. A doubler is a mul-
tiplier that gives output at twice the exciting
frequency; a tripler multiplies the exciting fre-
quency by three, etc. From the viewpoint of any
particular stage in a transmitter, the preceding
stage is its driver.
(D)
As ageneral rule, frequency multipliers should
not be used to feed the antenna system directly,
but should feed a straight amplifier which, in
turn, feeds the antenna system, as shown in OSC DBLR DBLR H MAP H

Fig. 1-C, D and E. As the diagrams indicate, it is

often possible to operate more than one stage
from asingle power supply. PWR PWR PWR

Good frequency stability is most easily ob-

tained through the use of a crystal-controlled (E)
oscillator, although adifferent crystal is needed
for each frequency desired ( or multiples of that Fig. 6- 1— Block diagrams showing typical combinations
frequency). A self-controlled oscillator or of oscillator and amplifiers and power- supply arrange-
v.f.o. ( variable- frequency oscillator) may be ments for transmitters. A wide selection is possible,
tuned to any frequency with a dial in the depending upon the number of bands in which opera-
manner of a receiver, but requires great care in tion is desired and the power output.

142
A Novice Transmitter 169

A THREE- BAND OSCILLATOR TRANSMITTER FOR THE NOVICE

The novice transmitter shown in Figs. 6-35-
6-38, inclusive, is easy to build and get working. Power Supply
It is a crystal-controlled, one- tube oscillator The power supply uses a 5U4G in a full-wave
capable of running at 30 watts input on the 3.5-, circuit. A capacitor- input filter is used and the
7-, and 21- Mc. Novice bands. A special feature output voltage is approximately 370 volts with
of the transmitter is a built-in keying monitor a cathode current of 90 milliamperes. A 0-150
which permits the operator to listen to his own milliammeter reads cathode current. The screen
sending. and grid currents are approximately 4ma. when
Regulated voltage is used on the screen of the the oscillator is loaded.
oscillator. This minimizes frequency shift of the
oscillator with keying, which is the cause of Construction
chirp. In addition, a small amount of cathode All of the components, including the power
bias (R4) is used on the oscillator. This also supply, are mounted on a 2 X 7 X 13-inch
tends to improve the keying characteristics in a aluminum chassis that is in tire enclosed in a
cathode-keyed simple-oscillator transmitter. 7X 9X 15-inch aluminum box. (Premier AC-
1597). One of the removable covers of the box is
Circuit Details
used as the front panel, as shown in Fig. 6-35.
The oscillator circuit used is the grid-plate The box has a -inch lip around both openings,
type, and the tube is a 6DQ6A pentode. The so the bottom edge of the chassis should be
power output is taken from the plate circuit of placed one inch from the bottom of the panel.
the tube. On 80 meters, an 80-meter crystal is The sides of the chassis are also one inch from
needed. On 40, either 80-, or 40-meter crystals the sides of the panel. The chassis is held to the
can be used, although slightly more output will panel by SI J1,and, the mounting screws for
be obtained by using 40-meter crystals. To oper- the crystal socket, so both the front edge of the
ate on 15 meters, a40- meter crystal is used. chassis and the panel must be drilled alike for
The tank circuit is a pi network. The plate these components. Si, at the left in the front
tank capacitor is the variable Co, and the tank view, is one inch from the edge of the chassis
inductance is L21. 3.Cgis atwo-section variable, (that is, two inches from the edge of the panel)
approximately 365 µAL per section, with the and centered vertically on the chasis edge. Thus
stators connected together to give atotal capaci- it is one inch from the bottom of the chassis
tance of about 730 ed. This range of capacitance edge and two inches from the bottom edge of the
is adequate for coupling to 50 or 75 ohms on 7 panel. The hole for /1 is centered on the chassis
and 21 Mc. When operating on 3.5 Mc., an addi- edge and the holes for the crystal socket are
tional 1000 gpf. (C7) is added to furnish the drilled at the right-hand end of the chassis to
needed range of capacitance. Li and R2 are essen- correspond with the position of Si at the left.
tial for suppressing v.h.f. parasitic oscillations. There is nothing critical about the placement
The keying-monitor circuit uses a neon bulb of the meter or the shafts for Cg, Cgand Si. As
(type NE-2) audio-frequency oscillator con- shown in Fig. 6-38, Cg is mounted directly above
nected to the cathode of the 6DQ6A at the key .1i and approximately two inches from the top
jack, / 1.The headphones are plugged into 12, a of the panel. Cg similarly is above the crystal
jack mounted on the back of the transmitter socket and on the same horizontal line as Cg.
chassis. Another jack, 13,is used as a terminal Si is about at the middle of the square formed
for the leads that go to the headphone jack on by these four components.
the receiver.

Fig. 6-35—This 30-watt three-bond

Novice transmitter is enclosed in a
7 X 9 X 15- inch aluminum box. A
group of /
4 -
1 inch- diameter holes should
be drilled in the top of the box over «".

the oscillator tube, as shown, to pro-

vide ventilation. A similar set of holes
should be drilled in the bock cover
behind the oscillator circuit.
é
 170 HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

„ „
6D06A RFC 3

365 730 2.5mh.

3.5,7,
10.5 cl
I 1419
MICA

2- egA

I RFC,

0 41

J: 000

370 V.

64 2
KEY
6.3V. T,

L.
5l.14G 116V.
A. C.
2
PHONES
6.8 MEG. (SEE TEXT)
CI4A C49___,

T
13
50 I 4e0;,.
TO RCVR.>-.
(SEE TEXT)<1.i3

Fig. 6- 36— Circuit diagram of the three- band transmitter. Unless otherwise specified, capacitances are in Auf.
Resistances are in ohms ( K=1000).

Ci -3-30-µµf. trimmer. 1,-6 turns No. 16 wire, 8 turns per inch, 11

/
2 inches
C2— 100-µM. mica. diam. (
B & W 3018).
C3, CB, CIO, CII, C,5, C16- 0.001- id. disk ceramic. 13-23 turns No. 16 wire, 8 turns per inch, 11
/
4 inches
C., Cs- 0.001-µf. 1600- volt disk ceramic. diam. (
B & W 3018). The 7- Mc. tap is 18
C6- 365- Me. variable capacitor, single section, broad- turns from the junction of I, and
cast- replacement type. 1.4-8-h. 150- ma, filter choke ( Thordarson 20054).
C7- 0.001-µf. 600- volt mica. M:-0-150 ma ( Shunte 950).
C8-365-gp.f. variable capacitor, dual section, broad- inc.—As specified.
cast- replacement type. RFC:, RFC,, RFC:-2.5-mh. r.f. choke ( National R-50
C13-500-Mif. mica or ceramic. or similar).
CI3-0.01-µf. disk ceramic. S:— Single- pole 3- position switch ( Centralab 1461).
C1.-8 / 8-,af. 450- volt dual electrolytic capacitor. S,— Single- pole single- throw toggle switch.
11, .1.,— Open- circuit phone jack. To— Power transformer: 360-0-360 volts, 120 ma.; 6.3
13 —Phono jack, RCA type. volts, 3.5 amp.; 5 volts, 3 amp. ( Stancor PM-
J.— Coaxial chassis connector, SO- 239. 8410).
I,-10 turns No. 18 wire space-wound on R3. Y: —Crystal ( see text).

The holes on the rear edge of the chassis for Some of these have holes tapped in the front of
the coaxial connector J4, phone jack J2, receiver the frame, and this type can be mounted directly
connector J3, and for the a.c. cord are drilled on the panel using machine screws and spacers.
at the same height as those on the front edge. Others have mounting holes only in the bottom.
Access holes should be cut in the rear cover of In this case, the capacitor can be mounted on a
the box at the corresponding positions; these pair of L-shaped brackets made from strips of
holes may be large enough to clear the com- aluminum.
ponents, but not larger than is necessary for Both L2 and L3 are supported by their leads.
this purpose. The cover fits tightly against the One end of L3 is connected to the stator of Cg
rear edge of the chassis and thus maintains the and the other end is connected to a junction on
shielding for preventing radiation of harmonics top of aone- inch- long steatite stand-off insulator.
in the television bands. However, it is advisable L2 has one end connected to the stator of Cg and
to fasten the cover to the chassis edge with afew the other end to one of the terminals on St.
sheet-metal screws, in order to insure good elec- The voltage- dividing network consisting of
trical contact. Rg and R7 provides the correct voltage for oper-
There are several different types of broadcast- ating the keying monitor, Rg is 1.65 megoluns, a
replacement variable capacitors on the market. value obtained by using two 3.3-megohm 1-watt
Oscillators 145
be found that, other things being equal, drift reduced considerably by designing the oscillator
will be less with the low- C circuit. for half the desired frequency and doubling fre-
For best stability, the ratio of C12 or C13 quency in the output circuit.
(which are usually equal) to Cio ± C11 should It is desirable, although not a strict necessity
be as high as possible without stopping oscilla- if detuning is recognized and taken into account,
tion. The permissible ratio will be higher the to approach as closely as possible the condition
higher the Q of the coil and the mutual conduct- where the adjustment of tuning controls in the
ance of the tube. If the circuit does not oscillate transmitter, beyond the v.f.o. frequency control,
over the desired range, a coil of higher Q must will have negligible effect on the frequency. This
be used or the capacitance of C12 and C13 re- can be done by substituting a fixed- tuned circuit
duced. in the output of the oscillator, and adding
Load Isolation isolating stages whose tuning is fixed between the
In spite of the precautions already discussed, oscillator and the first tunable amplifier stage in
the tuning of the output plate circuit will cause a the transmitter. Fig. 6-6 shows such an arrange-
noticeable change in frequency, particularly in ment that gives good isolation. In the first stage,
the region around resonance. This effect can be a 6C4 is connected as a cathode follower. This

+7510150 + 15010300 +7510150 + 15010300

(A) HARTLEY (B) HARTLEY — UNTUNED OUTPUT

+75 10150 + 15010300 +7510 150 + 150 TO 300

(c) COLPITT5 (D) SERIES — TUNED COLPITTS

Fig. 6-5—V.f.o. circuits. Approximate values for 3.5- 4.0- Mc. output are given below. Grid circuits are tuned to
half frequency (1.75 Mc.).

Cs— Oscillator bandspread tuning capacitor- 200-µµf. C.— Oscillator bandspread tuning capacitor- 50-µµf.
variable. variable.
Cs — Output - circuit tank capacitor- 47-AM. Cs2, C13 — Tube -coupling capacitor-0.002-4. zero-tem-
CS— Oscillator tank capacitor- 600-µµf. zero-tempera- perature- coefficient mica.
ture- coefficient mica. R,-47.000 ohms, Y2 watt.
CS— Grid coupling capacitor- 100-µµf. zero- tempera- Id— Oscillator tank coil- 10 en., tapped about one-
ture- coefficient mica. third- way from grounded end.
CS — Screen bypass- 0.001-µf. disk ceramic. 1,— Output- circuit tank coil- 20-40 µh., adjustable.

Cs— Plate bypass-0.001-µf. disk ceramic. LS— Oscillator tank coil- 10 µh.
Cs —Output coupling capacitor -50 to 100-IL/if, mica. LS— Oscillator tank coil- 10 µh.
CS— Oscillator tank capacitor -750 -AM. zero- tempera- 14 — Oscillator tank coil- 70 µh.
ture- coefficient mica. Is— Output coil- 100-140 µh., adjustable.
Ce—Oscillator tank capacitor- 0.0033-µf. zero- temper- RFC- 100 µh. r.f. choke.
ature- coefficient mica. V1-6AG7, 5763 or 6AH6 preferred; other types
Cso—Oscillator bandspread padder-100-µµf. variable usable.
air. Ve-‘6AG7, 5763 or 6AH6 required for feedback ca-
pacitances shown.
146 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
drives a 5763 buffer amplifier whose input from tubes and resistors. The shielding also will
circuit is fixed-tuned to the approximate band of eliminate changes in frequency caused by move-
the v.f.o. output. For best isolation, it is impor- ment of nearby objects, such as the operator's
tant that the 6C4 does not draw grid current. hand when tuning the v.f.o. The circuit of Fig.
The output of the v.f.o., or the cathode resistor 6-5D lends itself well to this arrangement, since
of the 6C4 should be adjusted until the voltage relatively long leads between the tube and the
across the cathode resistor of the 6C4 ( as meas- tank circuit have negligible effect on frequency
ured with a high- resistance d.c. voltmeter with because of the large shunting capacitances. The
an r.f. choke in the positive lead) is the same with grid, cathode and ground leads to the tube can
or without excitation from the v.f.o. L1 should be bunched in a cable up to several feet long.
be adjusted for most constant output from the Variable capacitors should have ceramic in-
5763 over the band. sulation, good bearing contacts and should pref-
erably be of the double- bearing type, and fixed
Chirp
capacitors should have zero temperature coeffi-
In all of the circuits shown there will be some cient. The tube socket also should have ceramic
change of frequency with changes in screen and insulation and special attention should be paid to
plate voltages, and the use of regulated voltages the selection of the coil in the oscillating section.
for both usually is necessary. One of the most
serious results of voltage instability occurs if Oscillator Coils
the oscillator is keyed, as it often is for break-in The Q of the tank coil used in the oscillating
operation. Although voltage regulation will portion of any of the circuits under discussion
supply a steady voltage from the power supply should be as high as circumstances ( usually
and therefore is still desirable, it cannot alter space) permit, since the losses, and therefore
the fact that the voltage on the tube must rise the heating, will be less. With recommended care
from zero when the key is open, to full voltage in regard to other factors mentioned previously,
when the key is closed, and must fall back again most of the drift will originate in the coil. The
to zero when the key is opened. The result is a coil should be well spaced from shielding and
chirp each time the key is opened or closed, other large metal surfaces, and be of a type that
unless the time con- radiates heat well, such as a commercial air-
stant in the keying
circuit is reduced V. F. O. CATH. FOLLOWER BUFFER
6C4 1000 5763 100
to the point where
the chirp takes
I-0
place so rapidly
that the receiving RFC,
operator's ear can-
not detect it. Un-
fortunately, as ex-
plained in the chap-
ter on keying, a
certain minimum
time constant is
necessary if key +350
clicks are to be Fig. 6-6— Circuit of an isolating amplifier for use between v.f.o. and first tunable
minimized. There- stage. Unless otherwise specified, all capacitances are in picofarads, all resistors are
fore it is evident 1h watt. Li„ for the 3.5-Mc, band, consists of 100-140 µh. adjustable inductor. RFC]. is
that the measures 100 µh. All capacitors are disk ceramic.
necessary for the
reduction of chirp and clicks are in opposition, wound type, or should be wound tightly on a
and a compromise is necessary. For best keying threaded ceramic form so that the dimensions will
characteristics, the oscillator should be allowed not change readily with temperature. The wire
to run continuously while asubsequent amplifier with which the coil is wound should be as large
is keyed. However, a keyed amplifier represents as practicable, especially in the high- C circuits.
awidely variable load and unless sufficient isola-
tion is provided between the oscillator and the Mechanical Vibration
keyed amplifier, the keying characteristics may To eliminate mechanical vibration, components
be little better than when the oscillator itself is should be mounted securely. Particularly in the
keyed. ( See keying chapter for other methods of circuit of Fig. 6-5D, the capacitor should pref-
break-in keying.) erably have small, thick plates and the coil
braced, if necessary, to prevent the slightest me-
Frequency Drift chanical movement. Wire connections between
Frequency drift is further reduced most easily tank- circuit components should be as short as
by limiting the power input as much as possible possible and flexible wire will have less tendency
and by mounting the components of the tuned to vibrate than solid wire. It is advisable to cush-
circuit in a separate shielded compartment, so ion the entire oscillator unit by mounting on
that they will be isolated from the direct heat sponge rubber or other shock mounting.
R.F. Amplifiers 147
affect the reliability of the check. Most crystals
Tuning Characteristic have a sufficiently low temperature coefficient
If the circuit is oscillating, touching the grid of to give a check on drift as well as on chirp and
the tube or any part of the circuit connected to it signal quality if they are not overloaded.
will show achange in plate current. In tuning the Harmonics of the crystal may be used to beat
plate output circuit without load, the plate cur- with the transmitter signal when monitoring at
rent will be relatively high until it is tuned near the higher frequencies. Since any chirp at the
resonance where the plate current will dip to a lower frequencies will be magnified at the higher
low value, as illustrated in Fig. 6-4. When the frequencies, accurate checking can best be done
output circuit is loaded, the dip should still be by monitoring at a harmonic.
found, but broader and much less pronounced as The distance between the crystal oscillator and
indicated by the dashed line. The circuit should receiver should be adjusted to give a good beat
not be loaded beyond the point where the dip is between the crystal oscillator and the transmitter
still recognizable. signal. When using harmonics of the crystal
oscillator, it may be necessary to attach a piece
Checking V.F.O. Stability
RECEIVER- BFO OFF
A v.f.o. should be checked thoroughly before
it is placed in regular operation on the air. Since o
o
succeeding amplifier stages may affect the signal
characteristics, final tests should be made with
the complete transmitter in operation. Almost
any v.f.o. will show signals of good quality and
XTAL
stability when it is running free and not con- VFO
OSC.
nected to a load. A well-isolated monitor is a
necessity. Perhaps the most convenient, as well Fig. 6-7— Setup for checking v.f.o. stability. The re-
as one of the most satisfactory, well- shielded ceiver should be tuned preferably to a harmonic of
monitoring arrangements is a receiver combined the v.f.o. frequency. The crystal oscillator may oper-
with a crystal oscillator, as shown in Fig. 6-7. ate somewhere in the band in which the v.f.o is
(See " Crystal Oscillators," this chapter.) The operating. The receiver b.f.o. should be turned off.
crystal frequency should lie in the band of the
lowest frequency to be checked and in the fre- of wire to the oscillator as an antenna to give
quency range where its harmonics will fall in the sufficient signal in the receiver. Checks may
higher- frequency bands. The receiver b.f.o. is show that the stability is sufficiently good to
turned off and the v.f.o. signal is tuned to beat permit oscillator keying at the lower frequencies,
with the signal from the crystal oscillator in- where break-in operation is of greater value,
stead. In this way any receiver instability caused but that chirp becomes objectionable at the
by overloading of the input circuits, which may higher frequencies. If further improvement does
result in "pulling" of the h.f. oscillator in the not seem possible, it would be logical in this case
receiver, or by a change in line voltage to the to use oscillator keying at the lower frequencies
receiver when the transmitter is keyed, will not and amplified keying at the higher frequencies.

R.F. POWER-AMPLIFIER TANKS AND COUPLING

In the remainder of this chapter the vacuum will have an effect on the coefficient of coupling
tubes will be shown, for the most part, with in- necessary for proper loading of the amplifier.
directly- heated cathodes. However, many trans- In respect to all of these factors, atank Q of 10 to
mitting tubes used directly- heated filaments for 20 is usually considered optimum. A much lower
the cathodes; when this is done the filament Q will result in less efficient operation of the am-
"center- tap" connection will be used, as shown plifier tube, greater harmonic output, and greater
in Fig. 6-8. difficulty in coupling inductively to a load. A
much higher Q will result in higher tank current
PLATE TANK Q with increased loss in the tank coil.
R.f. power amplifiers used in amateur trans- The Q is determined ( see chapter on electrical
mitters are operated under Class- C or -AB
conditions ( see chapter on tube fundamentals).
The main objective, of course, is to deliver as Fig. 6-8— Filament center-tap con-
much fundamental power as possible into aload, nections to be substituted in place
R, without exceeding the tube ratings. The load of cathode connections shown in
resistance R may be in the form of a transmis- diagrams when filament- type tubes
sion line to an antenna, or the grid circuit of an- are substituted. T, is the filament
other amplifier. A further objective is to mini- transformer. Filament bypasses,
mize the harmonic energy ( always generated by should be 0.01-µf. disk ceramic
a Class C amplifier) fed into the load circuit. In capacitors. If a self- biasing ( cath-
attaining these objectives, the Q of the tank cir- ode) resistor is used, it should be
cuit is of importance. When aload is coupled in- placed between the center tap
ductively, as in Fig. 6-10, the Q of the tank circuit and ground. 115 VAC
Inexpensive 75-watter 173
L,
OSC AMP RFC 3
sot \VrrTY ,
.001 .001 ANT.
1625
12BY7 I(

.001

xTAL c2 100 17l0.

1400. pf. p

L_ S

/ 1 0- 200

C4 lc, 0-10

3900

KEY
J3

339 40
'w . •50v.

330 K 40
1w > T 450 12

I2877 1625

Fig. 6-40— Circuit diagram of the inexpensive 75-watt transmitter. Unless indicated otherwise, all resistors are
2 -
/
1 watt, all resistances are in ohms, all capacitances are in if. Electrolytic capacitors are marked with polarity,
mica capacitors are marked with other fixed capacitors under 0.1 0. are ceramic.

C1- 100-
pf. variable ( Hammarlund HF -
100). P,— Fused line plug, 5-ampere fuses.
C:,- 140-
pf. variable ( Hammarlund HFA-140-A). RFC,, RFC:,-1-mh. 135- ma. r.f. choke ( National R-50).
Ca- 1100-
pf. variable—triple b.c. capacitor (Allied RFCa-7 turns No. 20 space-wound on 47-ohm 1-watt
Radio 60 I. 726). resistor.
C4, C-500-
pf. feedthrough ( Centralab FT-500). RFC,-2.5-mh. 115-ma. r.f. choke ( National R- 100U).
CR I—CR., - 1000 p.i.v. 300-ma. silicon ( 1N3563). Si-3- pole 3- position rotary switch ( Centralab PA- 1007).
J1—Octal socket ( Amphenol 77MIP8). 52—D.p.d.t. toggle ( one pole used, see text).
.1:,— Coaxial chassis receptacle, SO-239. S.—D.p.d.t. toggle.
Ja— Standard phone jack. 11-540 v.c.t. at 120 ma., 5 v. at 3 amp. ( not used),
Ji — Phono jack. 6.3 v. at 3.5 amp. ( Knight 61 G 456).
LI, Lo — See coil table. v. at Iamp. ( Knight 62 G 030).

Two brackets of sheet aluminum are required,

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS one for the 1625 socket and one for the meter.
Before drilling any holes for the components, The bracket for the tube socket is held to ihe
it would be wise to study the arrangement of chassis by the 4- pin socket for 1. 1,and the tube
parts on the 10 x 12 x 3- inch aluminum chassis. socket is centered 1/,, inches from the chassis.
While the location of components is not critical, The meter panel is held to the chassis by the two
some initial planning will permit leads to be made feedthrough capacitors at the rear and by a 6-32
direct and as short as possible. screw and nut at the front.
Coupling 149
If the line is operating with a low s.w.r., the
system shown in Fig. 6-11A will require tight
coupling between the two coils. Since the sec-
ondary ( pick-up coil) circuit is not resonant, the
leakage reactance of the pick-up coil will cause
some detuning of the amplifier tank circuit. This
detuning effect increases with increasing cou-
pling, but is usually not serious. However, the
(A) amplifier tuning must be adjusted to resonance,
as indicaled by the plate-current dip, each time
the coupling is changed.

Tuned Coupling
The design difficulties of using "untuned"
pick-up coils, mentioned above, can be avoided
by using a coupling circuit tuned to the operat-
ing frequency. This contributes additional se-
(B) lectivity as well, and hence aids in the suppres-
ALTERNATIVE FOR USE sion of spurious radiations.
WITH SMALL LINKS
If the line is flat the input impedance will be
essentially resistive and equal to the Ze of the
COAXIAL LINE line. With coaxial cable, a circuit of reasonable
Q can be obtained with practicable values of in-
ductance and capacitance connected in series with
(C) the line's input terminals. Suitable circuits are
given in Fig. 6-11 at B and C. The Q of the cou-
Fig. 6- 11— With flat transmission lines, power transfer
pling circuit often may be as low as 2, without
is obtained with looser coupling if the line input is
running into difficulty in getting adequate cou-
tuned to resonance. C, and L, should resonate at the
pling to a tank circuit of proper design. Larger
operating frequency. See table for maximum usable
values of Q can be used and will result in in-
value of C,. If circuit does not resonate with maxi-
creased ease of coupling, but as the Q is in-
mum C or less, inductance of L, must be increased,
creased the frequency range over which the cir-
or added in series at Ly.
cuit will operate without readjustment becomes
smaller. It is usually good practice, therefore, to
amplifier are described elsewhere in this chapter. use acoupling-circuit Q just low enough to per-
Assuming that the cable is properly terminated, mit operation, over as much of aband as is nor-
proper loading of the amplifier will be assured, mally used for a particular type of communica-
using the circuit of Fig. 6-11A, if tion, without requiring retuning.
1) The plate tank circuit has reasonably high Capacitance values for a Q of 2 and line
value of Q. A value of 10 is usually sufficient. impedances of 52 and 75 ohms are given in the
2) The inductance of the pick-up or link coil accompanying table. These are the maximum
is close to the optimum value for the frequency values that should be used. The inductance in the
and type of line used. The optimum coil is one circuit should be adjusted to give resonance at
whose self-inductance is such that its reactance the operating frequency. If the link coil used for
at the operating frequency is equal to the charac- a particular band does not have enough induc-
teristic impedance, Zo, of the line. tance to resonate, the additional inductance may
3) It is possible to make the coupling between be connected in series as shown in Fig. 6-11C.
the tank and pick-up coils very tight.
The second in this list is often hard to meet. Characteristics
Few manufactured link coils have adequate in- In practice, the amount of inductance in the
ductance even for coupling to a 50-ohm line at circuit should be chosen so that, with somewhat
low frequencies. loose coupling between L1 and the amplifier tank
coil, the amplifier plate current will increase
when the variable capacitor, Ci is tuned through
Capacitance in pf. Required for Coupling to the value of capacitance given by the table. The
Flat Coaxial Lines with Tuned Coupling Circuit coupling between the two coils should then be
Frequency Characteristic Impedance of Line increased until the amplifier loads normally,
Band 52 75
without changing the setting of C1.If the trans-
Mc. ohms ohms
3.5 450 300 mission line is flat over the entire frequency band
7 230 150 under consideration, it should not be necessary to
14 115 75 readjust Ci when changing frequency, if the
21 80 50
28 60 40
values given in the table are used. However, it is
'Capacitance values are maximum usable.
unlikely that the line actually will be flat over
Note: Inductance in circuit must be adjusted to
such arange, so some readjustment of Ci may be
resonate at operating frequency. needed to compensate for changes in the input
impedance of the line. If the input impedance
150 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
variations are not large, C1 may be used as a PI- NETWORK DESIGN CHARTS FOR FEEDING 52-
loading control, no changes in the coupling be- OR 72- OHM COAXIAL TRANSMISSION LINES
tween L1 and the tank coil being necessary.
The degree of coupling between L1 and the 600
amplifier tank coil will depend on the coupling- .1
circuit Q. With a Q of 2, the coupling should be x
tight — comparable with the coupling that is ? soo
typical of "fixed- link" manufactured coils. With
a swinging link it may be necessary to increase t-400
the Q of the coupling circuit in order to get suffi-
cient power transfer. This can be done by in- 0se.
creasing the L/C ratio. ,_, 300
-.
PI- SECTION OUTPUT TANK ?
2
200
A pi- section tank circuit may also be used in 0
coupling to an antenna or transmission line, as
t00
shown in Fig. 6-12. The optimum values of ca- ,..

(.1
pacitance for C1 and C2, and inductance for L1
are dependent upon values of tube power input Z
.' o
e
and output load resistance.
Plate Voltage
Ratio
Plate Current ( m0.)

Fig. 6- 13— Reactance of input capacitor, C,, as a

function the ratio of plate voltage to plate current.

TUBE ,-267 WAD)

+SG. + H.V.

Fig. 6- 12— Pi- section output tank circuit.

Cs— Input or plate tuning capacitor. See text or Fig.
6-13 for reactance. Voltage rating equal to
d.c. plate voltage; twice this for plate modu-
lation.
Ca— Output or loading capacitor. See text or Fig.
6-15 for reactance. See text for voltage rat-
ing.
Cs— Screen bypass. See Fig. 6-10. Piste Voltage
Ratio
Plote Current ( mo.)
Ce —Plate bypass. See Fig. 6-10.
Cs— Plate blocking capacitor-0.001-isf. disk ceramic
Fig. 6- 14— Reactance of tank coil, t,, as a function
or mica. Voltage rating same as Ca.
of plate voltage and current, for pi networks.
Ls— See text or Fig. 6-14 for reactance.
RFC,— See later paragraph on r.f. chokes.
RFC2-2.5-mh. receiving type ( to reduce peak voltage TUBE ANT. LOAD)
,30
across both Cs and C2 and to blow plate
11
YY -1
power supply fuse if Cs fails). % 90 . L,

•,:j.00 C,

Values of reactance for C1, L1 and C2 may be 70

taken directly from the charts of Figs. 6-13, 6-14
and 6-15 if the output load resistance is the usual
52 or 72 ohms. It should be borne in mind that
these values apply only where the output load is
resistive, i.e., where the antenna and line have 4
30
been matched.
20

Output- Capacitor Ratings

10

The voltage rating of the output capacitor will L _L _ I

e to 12
depend upon the s.w.r. If the load is resistive, 4 6

Ratio Plate Voltage

receiving- type air capacitors should be adequate Plate Current ( mo.)
for amplifier input powers up to 1 kw. with
plate modulation when feeding 52- or 72- ohm Fig. 6- 15— Reactance of loading capacitor, C,, as a
loads. In obtaining the larger capacitances re- function of plate voltage and current, for pi networks.
Pi- Section Output Tanks 151
Fig. 6-16—Multiband tuner circuits. In the unbal-
anced circuit of A, C, and C2 are sections of a single
split- stator capacitor. In the balanced circuit of D.
the two split- stator capacitors are ganged to a single
control with an insulated shaft coupling between the
two. In D, the two sections of L2 are wound on the
same form, with the inner ends connected to Cs. In
A, each section of the capacitor should have o volt-
age rating the same as Fig. 6-33A. In D, C, should
have a rating the same as Fig. 6-33H (or Fig. 6-33E
if the feed system corresponds). C2 may have the
rating of Fig. 6-33E so long as the rotor is not
(C) (D)
grounded or bypassed to ground.

quired for the lower frequencies, it is common A single-ended, or unbalanced, circuit of this
practice to switch fixed capacitors in parallel type is shown in Fig. 6-16A. In principle, the
with the variable air capacitor. While the voltage reactance of the high- frequency coil, L2, is small
rating of amica or ceramic capacitor may not be enough at the lower frequencies so that it can be
exceeded in aparticular case, capacitors of these largely neglected, and C1 and C2are in parallel
types are limited in current-carrying capacity. across LI. Then the circuit for low frequencies
Postage- stamp silver- mica capacitors should be becomes that shown in Fig. 6-16B. At the high
adequate for amplifier inputs over the range from frequencies, the reactance of L1 is high, so that
about 70 watts at 28 Mc. to 400 watts at 14 Mc. it may be considered simply as achoke shunting
and lower. The larger mica capacitors ( CM-45 The high- frequency circuit is essentially that
case) having voltage ratings of 1200 and 2500 of Fig. 6-16C, L2being tuned by C1 and C2in
volts are usually satisfactory for inputs varying series.
from about 350 watts at 28 Mc. to 1kw. at 14 Mc. In practice, the effect of one circuit on the
and lower. Because of these current limitations, other cannot be neglected entirely. L2 tends to
particularly at the higher frequencies, it is ad- increase the effective capacitance of C2, while
visable to use as large an air capacitor as prac- L1tends to decrease the effective capacitance of
ticable, using the micas only at the lower frequen- C1. This effect, however, is relatively small.
cies. Broadcast- receiver replacement- type capaci- Each circuit must cover somewhat more than a
tors can be obtained very reasonably. They are 2-to- 1frequency range to permit staggering the
available in triple units totaling about 1100 pf., two ranges sufficiently to avoid simultaneous
or dual units totaling about 900 pf. Their insu- responses to a frequency in the low- frequency
lation should be sufficient for inputs of 500 watts range, and one of its harmonics lying in the range
or more. Air capacitors have the additional ad- of the high- frequency circuit.
vantage that they are seldom permanently dam- In any circuit covering a frequency range as
aged by avoltage break-down. great as 2 to 1 by capacitance alone, the circuit
Q must vary rather widely. If the circuit is de-
Neutralizing with Pi Network
signed for aQ of 12 at 80, the Q will be 6at 40,
Screen- grid amplifiers using api-network out- 24 at 20, 18 at 15, and 12 at 10 meters. The in-
put circuit may be neutralized by the system crease in tank current as aresult of the increase
shown in Figs. 6-23 B and C. in Q toward the low- frequency end of the high-
frequency range may make it necessary to design
MULTIBAND TANK CIRCUITS
the high- frequency coil with care to minimize
Multiband tank circuits provide a convenient loss in this portion of the tuning range. It is
means of covering several bands without the need generally found desirable to provide separate
for changing coils. Tuners of this type consist output coupling coils for each circuit.
essentially of two tank circuits, tuned simultane- Fig. 6-16D shows a similar tank for balanced
ously with a single control. In a tuner designed circuits. The same principles apply.
to cover 80 through 10 meters, each circuit has a Series or parallel feed may be used with either
sufficiently large capacitance variation to assure balanced or unbalanced circuits. In the balanced
an approximately 2- to- 1 frequency range. Thus, circuit of Fig. 6-16D, the series feed point would
one circuit is designed so that it covers 3.5 be at the center of L1,with an r.f. choke in
through 7.3 Mc., while the other covers 14 series.
through 29.7 Mc. (For further discussion see QST, July, 1954.)

R.F. AMPLIFIER- TUBE OPERATING CONDITIONS

In addition to proper tank and output-coupling All r.f. amplifier tubes require a voltage to
circuits discussed in the preceding sections, an operate the filament or heater ( a.c. is usually
r.f. amplifier must be provided with suitable permissible), and a positive d.c. voltage between
electrode voltages and an r.f. driving or excita- the plate and filament or cathode ( plate voltage).
tion voltage ( see vacuum-tube chapter). Most tubes also require a negative d.c. voltage
152 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
(biasing voltage) between control grid ( Grid wish to obtain maximum output with reasonable
No. 1) and filament or cathode. Screen- grid tube life.
tubes require in addition a positive voltage
(screen voltage or Grid No. 2voltage) between Maximum Ratings
screen and filament or cathode. Maximum ratings, where they differ from the
Biasing and plate voltages may he fed to the values given under typical operating values, are
tube either in series with or in parallel with the not normally of significance to the amateur ex-
associated r.f. tank circuit as discussed in the cept in special applications. No single maximum
chapter on electrical laws and circuits. value should be used unless all other ratings can
It is important to remember that true plate, simultaneously be held within the maximum
screen or biasing voltage is the voltage between values. As an example, a tube may have amax-
the particular electrode and filament or cathode. imum plate- voltage rating of 2000, a maximum
Only when the cathode is directly grounded to plate- current rating of 300 ma.. and amaximum
the chassis may the electrode- to- chassis voltage plate- power- input rating of 400 watts. There-
be taken as the true voltage. fore, if the maximum plate voltage of 2000 is
The required r.f. driving voltage is applied used, the plate current should be limited to
between grid and cathode. 200 ma. ( instead of 300 ma.) to stay within the
maximum power- input rating of 400 watts.
Power Input and Plate Dissipation
Plate power input is the d.c. power input to SOURCES OF ELECTRODE VOLTAGES
the plate circuit ( d.c. plate voltage X d.c. plate
current).— Screen power input likewise is the Filament or Heater Voltage
d.c. screen voltage x the d.c. screen current. The heater voltage for the indirectly heated
Plate dissipation is the difference between the cathode- type tubes found in low- power classifi-
r.f. power delivered by the tube to its loaded cations may vary 10 per cent above or below
plate tank circuit and the d.c. plate power input. rating without seriously reducing the life of the
The screen, on the other hand, does not deliver tube. But the voltage of the higher- power fila-
any output power, and therefore its dissipation ment- type tubes should be held closely between
is the same as the screen power input. the rated voltage as a minimum and 5 per cent
above rating as amaximum. Make sure that the
TRANSMITTING- TUBE RATINGS plate power drawn from the power line does not
Tube manufacturers specify the maximum cause adrop in filament voltage below the proper
values that should be applied to the tubes they value when plate power is applied.
produce. They also publish sets of typical oper- Thoriated-type filaments lose emission when
ating values that should result in good efficiency the tube is overloaded appreciably. If the over-
and normal tube life. load has not been too prolonged, emission some-
Maximum values for all of the most popular times may be restored by operating the filament
transmitting tubes will be found in the tables of at rated voltage with all other voltages removed
transmitting tubes in the last chapter. Also in- for a period of 10 minutes, or at 20 per cent
cluded are as many sets of typical operating above rated voltage for a few minutes.
values as space permits. However, it is recom-
mended that the amateur secure a transmitting- Plate Voltage
tube manual from the manufacturer of the tube D.c. plate voltage for the operation of r.f. am-
or tubes he plans to use. plifiers is most often obtained from a trans-
former- rectifier- filter system ( see power- supply
CCS and ICAS Ratings chapter) designed to deliver the required plate
The same transmitting tube may have differ- voltage at the required current. However, bat-
ent ratings depending upon the manner in which teries or other d.c.-generating devices are some-
the tube is to be operated, and the service in times used in certain types of operation ( see
which it is to be used. These different ratings are portable-mobile chapter).
based primarily upon the heat that the tube can
safely dissipate. Some types of operation, such as Bias and Tube Protection
with grid or screen modulation, are less efficient Several methods of obtaining bias are shown
than others, meaning that the tube must dissipate in Fig. 6-17. In A, bias is obtained by the voltage
more heat. Other types of operation, such as c.w. drop across a resistor in the grid d.c. return
or single-sideband phone are intermittent in na- circuit when rectified grid current flows. The
ture, resulting in less average heating than in proper value of resistance may be determined by
other modes where there is a continuous power dividing the required biasing voltage by the d.c.
input to the tube during transmissions. There are grid current at which the tube will be operated.
also different ratings for tubes used in transmit- Then, so long as the r.f. driving voltage is ad-
ters that are in almost constant use ( CCS — justed so that the d.c. grid current is the recom-
Continuous Commercial Service), and for tubes mended value, the biasing voltage will be the
that are to be used in transmitters that average proper value. The tube is biased only when ex-
only a few hours of daily operation ( ICAS — citation is applied, since the voltage drop across
Intermittent Commercial and Amateur Service). the resistor depends upon grid- current flow.
The latter are the ratings used by amateurs who When excitation is removed, the bias falls to
Transmitting-Tube Ratings 153

NO R,
OP
- ER
- ATING
PROTECTIVE
BIAS
BIAS --r R,
OPERATING
PROTECTIVE - OPERATING
- - BIAS
BIAS - BIAS
_L. 1+ PROTEC
- TIVE
BIAS , t7
_t_

(4) (B) (C

-1-

PROTECTIVE
AND
OPERATING BIAS
_L_
PROTECTIVE OPERATING
TO BIAS
AND BIAS
PACK R3 TO PROTECTIVE
OPERATING BIAS
PACKBIAS
BIAS
_t___

(D) (E) (F)

Fig. 6- 17— Various systems for obtaining protective and operating bias for r.f. amplifiers. A— Grid- leak
B— Battery. C—Combination battery and grid leak. D— Grid leak and adjusted-voltage bias pack. E— Combi-
nation grid leak and voltage-regulated pack. F—Cathode bias.

zero. At zero bias most tubes draw power far in grid-current flow is in such a direction as to
excess of the plate- dissipation rating. So it is charge the battery, rather than to discharge it.
advisable to make provision for protecting the In Fig. 6-17F, bias is obtained from the volt-
tile when excitation fails by accident, or by in- age drop across a resistor in the cathode ( or
tent as it does when a preceding stage in ac.w. filament center-tap) lead. Protective bias is ob-
transmitter is keyed. tained by the voltage drop across R5 as a result
If the maximum c.w. ratings shown in the tube of plate ( and screen) current flow. Since plate
tables are to be used, the input should be cut to current must flow to obtain avoltage drop across
zero when the key is open. Aside from this, it is the resistor, it is obvious that cut-off protective
not necessary that plate current be cut off com- bias cannot be obtained. When excitation is ap-
pletely but only to the point where the rated plied, plate ( and screen) current increases and
dissipation is not exceeded. In this case plate- the grid current also contributes to the drop
modulated phone ratings should be used for c.w. across R5, thereby increasing the bias to the op-
operation, however. erating value. Since the voltage between plate
With triodes this protection can be supplied and cathode is reduced by the amount of the volt-
by obtaining all bias from asource of fixed volt- age drop across R5, the over-all supply voltage
age, as shown in Fig. G- 17B. It is preferable, must be the sum of the plate and operating- bias
however, to use only sufficient fixed bias to pro- voltages. For this reason, the use of cathode bias
tect the tube and obtain the balance needed for usually is limited to low-voltage tubes when the
operating bias from a grid leak, as in C. The extra voltage is not difficult to obtain.
grid- leak resistance is calculated as above, except The resistance of the cathode biasing resistor
that the fixed voltage is subtracted .first. R5 should be adjusted to. the value which will
Fixed bias may be obtained from dry batteries give the correct operating bias voltage with rated
or from a power pack ( see power- supply chap- grid, plate and screen currents flowing with the
ter). If dry batteries are used, they should be amplifier loaded to rated input. When excitation
checked periodically, since even though they may is removed, the input to most types of tubes will
show normal voltage, they eventually develop a fall to a value that will prevent damage to the
high internal resistance. Grid-current flow tube, at least for the period of time required to
through this battery resistance may increase the remove plate voltage. A disadvantage of this
bias considerably above that anticipated. The life biasing system is that the cathode r.f. connection
of batteries in bias service will be approximately to ground depends upon abypass capacitor. From
the same as though they were subject to a drain the consideration of v.h.f. harmonics and sta-
equal to the grid current, despite the fact that the bility with high-perveance tubes, it is preferable
154 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
to make the cathode-to-ground impedance as
close to zero as possible.

Screen Voltage
For c.w. operation, and under certain condi-
TO AMP.
tions of phone operation ( see amplitude-modula- GRID
tion chapter), the screen may be operated from
a power supply of the same type used for plate
supply, except that voltage and current ratings
should be appropriate for screen requirements.
The screen may also be operated through aseries AMP
SCREEN
GRID
resistor or voltage-divider from a source of RESISTOR
LEAK
higher voltage, such as the plate-voltage supply,
thus making a separate supply for the screen
unnecessary. Certain precautions are necessary, 6.3V. -4-SG

depending upon the method used. Fig. 6- 18— Screen clamper circuit for protecting
It should be kept in mind that screen current screen- grid power tubes. The VR tube is needed only
varies widely with both excitation and loading. for complete screen- voltage cut-off.
If the screen is operated from a fixed- voltage
source, the tube should never be operated with- the damper tube. However, when excitation is
out plate voltage and load, otherwise the screen removed, the clamper-tube bias falls to zero and
may be damaged within a short time. Supplying it draws enough current through the screen drop-
the screen through a series dropping resistor ping resistor usually to limit the input to the
from a higher-voltage source, such as the plate amplifier to a safe value. If complete screen-
supply, affords ameasure of protection, since the voltage cut-off is desired, a VR tube may be in-
resistor causes the screen voltage to drop as the serted in the screen lead as shown. The VR-tube
current increases, thereby limiting the power voltage rating should be high enough so that it
drawn by the screen. However, with a resistor, will extinguish when excitation is removed.
the screen voltage may vary considerably with
excitation, making it necessary to check the volt- FEEDING EXCITATION TO THE GRID
age at the screen terminal under actual operating The required r.f. driving voltage is supplied
conditions to make sure that the screen voltage by an oscillator generating a voltage at the de-
is normal. Reducing excitation will cause the sired frequency, either directly or through inter-
screen current to drop, increasing the voltage; mediate amplifiers or frequency multipliers.
increasing excitation will have the opposite ef- As explained in the chapter on vacuum- tube
fect. These changes are in addition to those fundamentals, the grid of an amplifier operating
caused by changes in bias and plate loading, so under Class C conditions must have an exciting
if a screen-grid tube is operated from a series voltage whose peak value exceeds the negative
resistor or a voltage divider, its voltage should biasing voltage over a portion of the excitation
be checked as one of the final adjustments after cycle. During this portion of the cycle, current
excitation and loading have been set. will flow in the grid-cathode circuit as it does in
An approximate value for the screen-voltage a diode circuit when the plate of the diode is
dropping resistor may be obtained by dividing positive in respect to the cathode. This requires
the voltage drop required from the supply volt- that the r.f. driver supply power. The power re-
age ( difference between the supply voltage and quired to develop the required peak driving
rated screen voltage) by the rated screen current voltage across the grid-cathode impedance of
in decimal parts of an ampere. Some further ad- the amplifier is the r.f. driving power.
justment may be necessary, as mentioned above, The tube tables give approximate figures for
so an adjustable resistor with a total resistance the grid driving power required for each tube
above that calculated should be provided. under various operating conditions. These fig-
ures, however, do not include circuit losses. In
Protecting Screen-Grid Tubes general, the driver stage for any Class C ampli-
Screen-grid tubes cannot be cut off with bias fier should be capable of supplying at least three
unless the screen is operated from afixed- voltage times the driving power shown for typical oper-
supply. In this case the cut-off bias is approxi- ating conditions at frequencies up to 30 Mc.,
mately the screen voltage divided by the amplifi- and from three to ten times at higher frequencies.
cation factor of the screen. This figure is not Since the d.c. grid current relative to the bias-
always shown in tube-data sheets, but cut-off ing voltage is related to the peak driving voltage,
voltage may be determined from an inspection of the d.c. grid current is commonly used as a con-
tube curves, or by experiment. venient indicator of driving conditions. A driver
When the screen is supplied from a series adjustment that results in rated d.c. grid current
dropping resistor, the tube can be protected by when the d.c. bias is at its rated value, indicates
the use of aclamper tube, as shown in Fig. 6-18. proper excitation to the amplifier when it is
The grid-leak bias of the amplifier tube with fully loaded.
excitation is supplied also to the grid of the In coupling the grid input circuit of an ampli-
clamper tube. This is usually sufficient to cut off fier to the output circuit of a driving stage the
A 75-Watt Transmitter 179

1W AIM •
-1
PP

11
4"
• / 7'

Fig. 6-46— Group of six octal sockets ( upper left) serves as crystal sockets. Socket at
center of chassis holds 6AG7 oscillator tube; the 3- 30-pf. mica compression trimmer
mounted alongside is excitation control for oscillator stage. Small midget capacitor
above coil is neutralizing capacitor adjusted from above chassis; this capacitor and
grid tuning capacitor to right must be insulated from chassis.

through its range. Watch closely for aflicker in meter operation, and 7- Mc, crystals should be
grid current. If one is observed, try a different used on 40, 20 and 15 meters. For 10- meter
setting of C2. Work carefully until the flicker operation, it is recommended that a v.f.o. with
is a minimum. A more sensitive indication of 20- meter output be used to drive the 6AG7;
neutralization can be obtained by using agerma- trying to drive the 6DQ5 with the 4th harmonic
nium diode and a0-1 milliammeter in the output of a7- Mc, crystal is too marginal for all but the
at /2; adjust C2 for minimum meter indication. most experienced operators. With v.f.o. control,
If using this sensitive test, it is wise to start out always frequency multiply ( double or triple)
with R1 set at half range or less, until it has been in the 6AG7 stage to the desired band.
determined that the meter will not swing off Because the 6DQ5 is capable of drawing high
scale. Under no circumstances use this test with values of plate current when not tuned properly,
P2 in place; the 6DQ5 output is quite likely to it will pay to take care in learning how to adjust
destroy the crystal diode. the transmitter. Once the controls have been
When the amplifier has been neutralized, con- "calibrated" and the approximate settings for
nect a dummy load ( a 60- watt lamp will do) each band become known, it should no longer
at .12 and replace P2. Set . 53 to PLATE and send be necessary to tune up with the " series-of- dots?'
a few dots as C3 is tuned through its range. At technique mentioned above. However, in the
resonance the lamp should light up and the plate early stages of familiarization with the trans-
current should dip. The plate current can be mitter, the dots, or a fast hand on the key, may
made to increase, along with the lamp brilliance, save a tube or power supply. The fact that the
by decreasing the capacitance at Ct. The 6DQ5 6DQ5 can draw such heavy currents at low plate
plate current can be run up to 180 ma. ( 9 ma. voltages makes it an excellent tube for an effec-
on the meter) for Novice work; the grid current tive inexpensive transmitter, but the tube is
should be held at 2 to 4 ma. Crystals in the 3.5- not as tolerant of careless tuning habits as are
to 4.0- Mc. range should be used for 80- and 40- some other tubes.
156 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
cator such as the " Micromatch" ( acommercially justed so that the s.w.r. is close to 1to 1over the
available instrument) may be connected as shown desired frequency range, it is certain that the
and the adjustments made under actual operating power put into the link line will be delivered to
conditions; that is, with full power applied to the grid circuit. Coupling will be facilitated if the
the amplifier grid. line is tuned as described under the earlier sec-
Assuming that the coupling is adjustable, start tion on output coupling systems.
with atrial position of L4 with respect to L2, and
Link Feed with Unmatched Line
adjust C2 for the lowest s.w.r. Then change the
coupling slightly and repeat. Continue until the When the system is to be treated without re-
s.w.r. is as low as possible; if the circuit con- gard to transmission- line effects, the link line
stants are in the right region is should not be must not offer appreciable reactance at the oper-
difficult to get the s.w.r. down to 1to 1. The Q ating frequency. Any appreciable reactance will
of the tuned grid circuit should be designed to in effect reduce the coupling, making it impos-
be at least 10, and if it is not possible to get a sible to transfer sufficient power from the driver
very low s.w.r. with such agrid circuit the prob- to the amplifier grid circuit. Coaxial cables es-
able reason is that 1.4 is too small. Maximum pecially have considerable capacitance for even
coupling, for agiven degree of physical coupling short lengths and it may be more desirable to
will occur when the inductance of L4 is such that use a spaced line, such as Twin- Lead, if the
its reactance at the operating frequency is equal radiation can be tolerated.
to the characteristic impedance of the link line. The reactance of the line can be nullified only
The reactance can be calculated as described in by making the link resonant. This may require
the chapter on electrical fundamentals if the changing the number of turns in the link coils,
inductance is known; the inductance can either the length of the line, or the insertion of atun-
be calculated from the formula in the same ing capacitance. Since the s.w.r. on the link line
chapter or measured as described in the chapter may be quite high, the line losses increase be-
on measurements. cause of the greater current, the voltage increase
Once the s.w.r. has been brought down to 1to may be sufficient to cause a breakdown in the in-
1, the frequency should be shifted over the band sulation of the cable and the added tuned circuit
so that the variation in s.w.r. can lie observed, makes adjustment more critical with relatively
without changing C2 or the coupling between L2 small changes in frequency.
and L4. If the s.w.r. rises rapidly on either side of These troubles may not be encountered if the
the original frequency the circuit can be made link line is kept very short for the highest fre-
"flatter" by reducing the Q of the tuned grid cir- quency. A length of 5 feet or more may be tol-
cuit. This may be done by decreasing C2 and cor- erable at 3.5 Mc., but alength of afoot at 28 Mc.
respondingly increasing L2 to maintain reso- may be enough to cause serious effects on the
nance, and by tightening the coupling between L2 functioning of the system.
and L4, going through the same adjustment Adjusting the coupling in such a system must
process again. It is possible to set up the system necessarily be largely a matter of cut and try.
so that the s.w.r. will not exceed .1.5 to 1over, for If the line is short enough so as to have negligi-
example, the entire 7- Mc, band and proportion- ble reactance, the coupling between the two tank
ately on other bands. Under these circumstances circuits will increase within limits by adding
a single setting will serve for work anywhere in turns to the link coils, or by coupling the link
the band, with essentially constant power trans- coils more tightly, if possible, to the tank coils.
fer from the line to the power- amplifier grids. If it is impossible to change either of these, a
If the coupling between L2 and L4 is not ad- variable capacitor of 300 ttpf. may be connected
justable the same result may be secured by vary- in series with or in parallel with the link coil at
ing the L/C ratio of the tuned grid circuit — that the driver end of the line, depending upon which
is, by varying its Q. If any difficulty is encoun- connection is the most effective.
tered it can be overcome by changing the number If coaxial line is used, the capacitor should be
of turns in L4 until amatch is secured. The two connected in series with the inner conductor. If
coils should be tightly coupled. the line is long enough to have appreciable react-
When a resistance-bridge type s.w.r. indicator ance, the variable capacitor is used to resonate
(see measurements chapter) is used it is not the entire link circuit.
possible to put the full power through the line The size of the link coils and the length of the
when making adjustments. In such case the oper- line, as well as the size of the capacitor, will
ating conditions in the amplified grid circuit can affect the resonant frequency, and it may take an
be simulated by using a carbon resistor ( , /2 or adjustment of all three before the capacitor will
1watt size) of the same value as the calculated show apronounced effect on the coupling.
amplifier grid impedance, connected as indicated When the system has been made resonant,
by the arrows in Fig. 6-19. In this case the ampli- coupling may be adjusted by varying the link
fier tube must be operated "cold"— without fila- capacitor.
ment or heater power. The adjustment process
Simple Capacitive Interstage Coupling
is the same as described above, but with the
driver power reduced to a value suitable for The capacitive system of Fig. 6-21A is the
operating the s.w.r. bridge. simplest of all coupling systems. In this circuit,
When the grid coupling system has been ad- the plate tank circuit of the driver, CiLi, serves
A 90-Watt Amplifier 181
insulated from the chassis by mounting it in ex
Construction
truded fiber washers and a suitable hole in the
Most of the components can be identified in chassis. Connection to the rotor should be made
Figs. 6-47, 6-48 and 6-51, but a few construction under the chassis by using a suitable soldering
notes are in order. The octal socket for the 6146 lug under the nut on the threaded sleeve bearing.
is mounted on two V2- inch- long collars above the (Old volume controls are a good source for this
usual 1 - inch diameter hole in the chassis. The lug.)
three . 001-µf. ceramic capacitors connected to The high- voltage lead from the base of RFC 3
the cathode pins ( 1, 4 and 6) ground to the is run in well- insulated wire to a feed- through
chassis at lugs under the nuts holding the socket- bushing that runs through the chassis and to
mounting screws. The . 001-µf, ceramic capacitors the meter switch terminal Z1.A high- voltage
in the screen and heater circuits ground to their bypass capacitor is connected between the bush-
respective wire shields which in turn are con- ing and the chassis.
nected to the same ground lugs as the cathode A simple clamp, Fig. 6-52, holds the length of
circuit. The grounded side of the 680-µµf. capaci- RG-58/1: from C4 in place and at the same time
tor in the grid- circuit return should also be insures that the r.f. leaves the compartment via
soldered to one of the ground lugs. the inside of the cable and not the outside.
The neutralizing capacitor, C2, has its rotor Aluminum cane metal is available in many

-o di
2
D 0 D r
»o
3
4 C .0

. ,,, I, ,
1 .2 ;.;

1 :2 . t .,-;•Qoa,È
— .E «
-§ ' '' e
ó •É 2 E o-

?, t ‹ • Ë .6 o .
.k, .
2> 2x
..ii2Égi!
- e i , it)1(g...,, i ,:
S.-
....: e....
... .. 4:-: ..- .
iite-2 'f-cim?
. •.,...
E o.., .;.•
*1 D'
f>1,-gC,Le
TD

E . 8 oCt
N 2 .2
O
t ..,e...- ti2 6-

c,''....-'2-.Ei
g..g 7)
_
d 2
1.5. -g .641 .2 ,,'.
,I'
F
.5'
1,5.
A
2 :
E, 1
.> 7{? 1 ,A .¡ g -:-,i?§,., g
i•i 8. - 2. 2. 6, . -a .:-.
1A •L 1
44 Cf.; 6:1 •• kj
l 1I .:*
1 B' a-
gtO5i tOLS
I Id

Q . o
C‘I >
° 0 •
U • • rà
.E
4= 0
158 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
provided by Cg. For the purposes both of sta- moving the grid tap up on the circuit. Since the
bility and harmonic reduction, experience has coupling to the grid is comparatively loose under
shown that a value of 100 pf. for C8 usually is any condition, it may be found that it is impos-
sufficient. In general, C7 and L2 should have sible to utilize the full power capability of the
values approximating the capacitance and in- driver stage. If sufficient excitation cannot be ob-
ductance used in a conventional tank circuit. tained, it may be necessary to raise the plate volt-
A reduction in the inductance of L2 results in an age of the driver, if this is permissible. Other-
increase in coupling because C7 must be in- wise a larger driver tube may be required. As
creased to retune the circuit to resonance. This shown in Fig. 6-21B, parallel driver plate feed
changes the ratio of C7 to Cg and has the effect of and amplifier grid feed are necessary.

R.F. POWER AMPLIFIER CIRCUITRY

STABILIZING AMPLIFIERS
A straight amplifier operates with its input and
output circuits tuned to the same frequency.
Therefore, unless the coupling between these two
circuits is brought to the necessary minimum, the
amplifier will oscillate as atuned- plate tuned- grid
circuit. Care should be used in arranging com-
ponents and wiring of the two circuits so that
there will be negligible opportunity for coupling
external to the tube itself. Complete shielding
between input and output circuits usually is re-
quired. All r.f. leads should be kept as short as
possible and particular attention should be paid
to the r.f. return paths from plate and grid tank
circuits. to cathode. In general, the best arrange-
ment is one in which the cathode connection to
ground, and the plate tank circuit are on the same
side of the chassis or other shielding. The " hot"
lead from the grid tank ( or driver plate tank)
should be brought to the socket through a hole
in the shielding. Then when the grid tank capaci-
tor or bypass is grounded, a return path through
the hole to cathode will be encouraged, since
transmission- line characteristics are simulated.
A check on external coupling between input
and output circuits can be made with a sensitive
indicating device, such as the one diagrammed in DRIVER
Fig. 6-22. The amplifier tube is removed from
its socket and if the plate terminal is at the
XTAL

LINK

Fig. 6- 22— Circuit of sensitive neutralizing indicator.

Xtal is a 1N34 crystal detector, MA a 0-1 direct-
current milliammeter and C a 0.001-1.0. mica bypass
Fig. 6- 23— Screen- grid neutralizing circuits. A— Induc-
capacitor. tive neutralizing. B- C— Capacitive neutraliz-

socket, it should be disconnected. With the driver ing.

stage running and tuned to resonance, the indi- Cs— Grid bypass capacitor—approx. 0.001-µf. mica.
Voltage rating some as biasing voltage in
cator should be coupled to the output tank coil
B, same as driver plate voltage in C.
and the output tank capacitor tuned for any in-
dication of r.f. feedthrough. Experiment with CS— Neutralizing capacitor—approx. 2 to 10 1.4.—

shielding and rearrangement of parts will show see text. Voltage rating same as amplifier

whether the isolation can be improved. plate voltage for c.w., twice this value for
plate modulation.
Screen-Grid Tube Neutralizing Circuits LI, 1, —Neutralizing link— usually a turn or two will be
The plate- grid capacitance of screen- grid tubes sufficient.
Neutralizing 159
is reduced to afraction of amicromicrofarad by The grid-current meter may also be used as a
the interposed grounded screen. Nevertheless, neutralizing indicator. With plate and screen
the power sensitivity of these tubes is so great voltages removed as described above, there will
that only a very small amount of feedback is be a change in grid current as the plate tank
necessary to start oscillation. To assure a stable circuit is tuned through resonance. The neutral-
amplifier, it is usually necessary to load the grid izing capacitor should be adjusted until this de-
circuit, or to use a neutralizing circuit. flection is brought to a minimum. As afinal ad-
Fig. 6-23A shows how a screen-grid amplifier justment, plate and screen voltages should be
may be neutralized by the use of an inductive link applied and the neutralizing capacitance adjusted
line coupling the input and output tank circuits to the point where minimum plate current, maxi-
in proper phase. If the initial connection proves mum grid current and maximum screen current
to be incorrect, connections to one of the link occur simultaneously. An increase in grid current
coils should be reversed. Neutralizing is ad- when the plate tank circuit is tuned slightly on
justed by changing the distance between the the high- frequency side of resonance indicates
link coils and the tank coils. In the case of ca- that the neutralizing capacitance is too small. If
pacitive coupling between stages, one of the link the increase is on the low- frequency side, the
coils will be coupled to the plate tank coil of the neutralizing capacitance is too large. When neu-
driver stage. tralization is complete, there should be a slight
A capacitive neutralizing system for screen- decrease in grid current on either side of res-
grid tubes is shown in Fig. 6-23B. C2 is the onance.
neutralizing capacitor. The capacitance should
be chosen so that at some adjustment of C2, Grid Loading
The use of aneutralizing circuit may often be
C2 Tube grid-plate capacitance (
or Cgp) avoided by loading the grid circuit if the driving
Ci Tube input capacitance (
or Cm ) stage has some power capability to spare. Load-
ing by tapping the grid down on the grid tank
The tube interelectrode capacitances C., and coil ( or the plate tank coil of the driver in the
CID( are given in the tube tables in the last chapter. case of capacitive coupling), or by a resistor
The grid-cathode capacitance must include all from grid to cathode is effective in stabilizing an
strays directly across the tube capacitance, in- amplifier, but either device may increase v.h.f.
cluding the capacitance of the tuning- capacitor harmonics. The best loading system is the use of
stator to ground. This may amount to 5 to 20 a pi-section filter, as shown in Fig. 6-21B. This
Aid. In the case of capacitance coupling, as circuit places acapacitance directly between grid
shown in Fig. 6-23C, the output capacitance of and cathode. This not only provides the desirable
the driver tube must be added to the grid- loading, but also avery effective capacitive short
cathode capacitance of the amplifier in arriving for v.h.f. harmonics. A 100- pf. mica capacitor
at the value of C2. If C2 works out to an im- for C8, wired directly between tube terminals,
practically large or small value, C1 can be will usually provide sufficient loading to stabilize
changed to compensate by using combinations of the amplifier.
fixed mica capacitors in parallel.
V.H.F. Parasitic Oscillation
Neutralizing Adjustment
Parasitic oscillation in the v.h.f. range will
The procedure in neutralizing is essentially take place in almost every r.f. power amplifier.
the same for all types of tubes and circuits. The To test for v.h.f. parasitic oscillation, the grid
filament of the amplifier tube should be lighted tank coil ( or driver tank coil in the case of ca-
and excitation from the preceding stage fed to
the grid circuit. Both screen and plate voltages
should be disconnected at the transmitter ter-
minals.
The immediate objective of the neutralizing
process is reducing to aminimum the r.f. driver
voltage fed from the input of the amplifier to
its output circuit through the grid-plate capac-
itance of the tube. This is done by adjusting
carefully, bit by bit, the neutralizing capacitor
or link coils until an r.f. indicator in the output
circuit reads minimum.
The device shown in Fig. 6-22 makes asensitive
neutralizing indicator. The link should be coupled
to the output tank coil at the low-potential or
"ground" point. Care should be taken to make
sure that the coupling is loose enough at all
times to prevent burning out the meter or the
rectifier. The plate tank capacitor should be re- Fig. 6- 24— A— Usual parasitic circuit. B— Resistive load-
adjusted for maximum reading after each change ing of parasitic circuit. C— Inductive coupling of
in neutralizing. loading resistance into parasitic circuit.
160 HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
pacitive coupling) should be short-circuited with up again when voltage is raised, the tap must be
aclip lead. This is to prevent any possible t.g.t.p. moved to include more turns. So long as the
oscillation at the operating frequency which parasitic is suppressed, the resistors will heat up
might lead to confusion in identifying the para- only from the operating- frequency current.
sitic. Any fixed bias should be replaced with a Since the resistor can be placed across only
grid leak of 10,000 to 20,000 ohms. All load on that portion of the parasitic circuit represented
the outpth of the amplifier should be discon- by L,, the latter should form as large a portion
nected. Plate and screen voltages should be re- of the circuit as possible. Therefore, the tank
duced to the point where the rated dissipation is and bypass capacitors should have the lowest
not exceeded. If a Variac is not available, volt- possible inductance and the leads shown in heavy
age may be reduced by a 115-volt lamp in series lines should be as short as possible and of the
with the primary of the plate transformer. heaviest practical conductor. This will permit Le
With power applied only to the amplifier under to be of maximum size without tuning the cir-
test, a search should be made by adjusting the cuit below the 100- Mc. limit.
input capacitor to several settings, including Another arrangement that has been used suc-
minimum and maximum, and turning the plate cessfully is shown in Fig. 6-24C. A small turn
capacitor through its range for each of the grid- or two is inserted in place of L, and this is cou-
capacitor settings. Any grid current, or any dip pled to acircuit tuned to the parasitic frequency
or flicker in plate current at any point, indi- and loaded with resistance. The heavy-line circuit
cates oscillation. This can be confirmed by an should first be checked with a g.d.o. Then the
indicating absorption wavemeter tuned to the loaded circuit should be tuned to the same fre-
frequency of the parasitic and held close to the quency and coupled in to the point where the
plate lead of the tube. parasitic ceases. The two coils can be wound on
The heavy lines of Fig. 6-24A show the usual the same form and the coupling varied by sliding
parasitic tank circuit, which resonates, in most one of them. Slight retuning of the loaded circuit
cases, between 150 and 200 Mc. For each type of may be required after coupling. Start out with
tetrode, there is aregion, usually below the para- low power as before, until the parasitic is sup-
sitic frequency, in which the tube will be self- pressed. Since the loaded circuit in this case car-
neutralized. By adding the right amount of in- ries much less operating- frequency current, a
ductance to the parasitic circuit, its resonant single 100- ohm 1- watt resistor will often be suf-
frequency can be brought down to the frequency ficient and a 30- pf. mica trimmer should serve
at which the tube is self-neutralized. However, as the tuning capacitor, C,.
the resonant frequency should not be brought
Low-Frequency Parasitic Oscillation
down so low that it falls close to TV Channel 6
(88 Mc.). From the consideration of TVI, the The screening of most transmitting screen-grid
circuit may be loaded down to a frequency not tubes is sufficient to prevent low- frequency para-
lower than 100 Mc. If the self-neutralizing fre- sitic oscillation caused by resonant circuits set up
quency is below 100 Mc., the circuit should be by r.f. chokes in grid and plate circuits. Should
loaded down to somewhere between 100 and 120 this type of oscillation ( usually between 200 and
Mc. with inductance. Then the parasitic can be 1200 kc.) occur, see paragraph under triode am-
suppressed by loading with resistance, as shown plifiers.
in Fig. 6-24B. A coil of 4 or 5turns, , Át inch in
diameter, is a good starting size. With the tank PARALLEL- TUBE AMPLIFIERS
capacitor turned to maximum capacitance, the The circuits for parallel- tube amplifiers are the
circuit should be checked with a g.d.o. to make same as for a single tube, similar terminals of
sure the resonance is above 100 Mc. Then, with the tubes being connected together. The grid im-
the shortest possible leads, a noninductive 100- pedance of two tubes in parallel is half that of a
ohm 1-watt resistor should be connected across single tube. This means that twice the grid tank
the entire coil. The amplifier should be tuned up capacitance shown in Fig. 6-20 should be used
to its highest- frequency band and operated at for the same Q.
low voltage. The tap should be moved alittle at The plate load resistance is halved so that the
a time to find the minimum number of turns re- plate tank capacitance for a single tube ( Fig.
quired to suppress the parasitic. Then voltage 6-10) also should be doubled. The total grid cur-
should be increased until the resistor begins to rent will be doubled, so to maintain the same grid
feel warm after several minutes of operation, bias, the grid- leak resistance should be half that
and the power input noted. This input should be used for a single tube. The required driving
compared with the normal input and the power power is doubled. The capacitance of aneutral-
rating of the resistor increased by this propor- izing capacitor, if used, should be doubled and
tion; i.e., if the power is half normal, the wattage the value of the screen dropping resistor should
rating should be doubled. This increase is best be cut in half.
made by connecting 1-watt carbon resistors in In treating parasitic oscillation, it is often
parallel to give a resultant of about 100 ohms. necessary to use a choke in each plate lead,
As power input is increased, the parasitic may rather than one in the common lead to avoid
start up again, so power should be applied only building in a push-pull type of v.h.f. circuit, a
momentarily until it is made certain that the factor in obtaining efficient operation at higher
parasitic is still suppressed. If the parasitic starts frequencies.
Neutralizing 161

PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIERS
Basic push-pull circuits are shown in Fig.
6-26C and D. Amplifiers using this circuit are
cumbersome to bandswitch and consequently are
not very popular below 30 Mc. However, since
the push-pull configuration places tube input
and output capacitances in series, the circuit is
widely used at 50 Mc. and higher.

TRIODE AMPLIFIERS
Circuits for triode amplifiers are shown in
Fig. 6-26. Neglecting references to the screen,
all of the foregoing information applies equally
OR/VER
well to triodes. All triode straight amplifiers
must be neutralized, as Fig. 6-26 indicates. From
the tube tables, it will be seen that triodes require
considerably more driving power than screen-
grid tubes. However, they also have less power
sensitivity, so that greater feedback can be tol-
erated without the danger of instability.

Low-Frequency Parasitic Oscillation

—B ES cil. \\lien r.f. chokes are used in both grid and
plate circuits of a triode amplifier, the split-
Fig. 6- 25— When a pi- network output circuit is used stator tank capacitors combine with the r.f.
with a triode, a balanced grid circuit must be pro-
chokes to form a low- frequency parasitic circuit,
vided for neutralizing. A— Inductive- link input. B—
unless the amplifier circuit is arranged to prevent
Capacitive input coupling.
DRIVER AMP

o
OUTPUT
o

RFC

(D)
(C)
-BIAS +
-HV +

Fig. 6- 26— Triode amplifier circuits. A— Link coupling, single tube. B— Capacitive coupling, single tube. C— Link
coupling, push-pull. D— Capacitive coupling, push-pull. Aside from the neutralizing circuits, which are manda-
tory with triodes, the circuits are the same as for screen- grid tubes, and should have the same values through-
out. The neutralizing capacitor, Cli should have a capacitance somewhat greater than the grid- plate capaci-
tance of the tube. Voltage rating should be twice the d.c. plate voltage for c.w., or four times for plate
modulation, plus safety factor. The resistance R, should be at least 100 ohms and it may consist of part or
preferably all of the grid leak. For other component values, see similar screen- grid diagrams.
162 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

ŒH
R.F.
INPUT

—BIAS —BIAS —BIAS + S.G

(A) (B) (C)

Fig. 6- 27— A— Grounded- grid triode input circuit. B—Tetrode input circuit with grid and screen directly in
parallel. C—Tetrode circuit with d.c. voltage applied to the screen. Plate circuits are conventional.

it. In the circuit of Fig. 6-26B, the amplifier grid where the available driving power far exceeds
is series fed and the driver plate is parallel fed. the power that can be used in driving a conven-
For low frequencies, the r.f. choke in the driver tional grounded-cathode amplifier.
plate circuit is shorted to ground through the D.c. electrode voltages and currents in
tank coil. In Figs. 6-26C and D, aresistor is sub- grounded-grid triode-amplifier operation are the
stituted for the grid r.f. choke. This resistance same as for grounded-cathode operation. Ap-
should be at least 100 ohms. If any grid- leak re- proximate values of driving power, driving im-
sistance is used for biasing, it should be substi- pedance, and total power output in Class C
tuted for the 100-ohm resistor. operation can be calculated as follows, using in-
formation normally provided in tube data sheets.
Triode Amplifiers with Pi-Network Output R.m.s. values are of the fundamental components:
Pi- network output tanks, designed as de- Eg = r.m.s. value of r.f. plate voltage
scribed earlier for screen- grid tubes, may also be
d.c. plate volts + d.c. bias volts
used with triodes. However, in this case, a bal-
anced input circuit must be provided for neu- peak r.f. grid volts
MM.

tralizing. Fig. 6-25A shows the circuit when 1.41

inductive-link input coupling is used, while B 4 - r.m.s. value of r.f. plate current
shows the circuit to be used when the amplifier
is coupled capacitively to the driver. Pi- network rated power output watts
circuits cannot be used in both input and output Ep
circuits, since no means is provided for neu-
Eg r.m.s. value of grid driving voltage
tralizing.
peak r.f. grid volts
GROUNDED- GRID AMPLIFIERS 1.41
Fig. 6-27A shows the input circuit of agrounded- /g = r.m.s. value of r.f. grid current
grid triode amplifier. In configuration it is sim-
ilar to the conventional grounded-cathode circuit rated driving power watts
except that the grid, instead of the cathode, is at Ea
ground potential. An amplifier of this type is Driving power (watts) Eg ( Ip Ig)
characterized by a comparatively low input im-
Eg
pedance and a relatively high driver- power re- Driving impedance ( ohms)
quirement. The additional driver power is not
4
consumed in the amplifier but is " fed through" Power fed through from driver stage (watts)=E gIp
to the plate circuit where it combines with the
Total power output (watts) Ip (Eg Ep)
normal plate output power. The total r.f. power
output is the sum of the driver and amplifier out- Screen- grid tubes are also used sometimes in
put powers less the power normally required to grounded-grid amplifiers. In some cases, the
drive the tube in agrounded- cathode circuit. screen is simply connected in parallel with the
Positive feedback is from plate to cathode grid, as in Fig. 6-27B, and the tube operates as a
through the plate-cathode capacitance of the high-µ triode. In other cases, the screen is by-
tube. Since the grounded grid is interposed be- passed to ground and operated at the usual d.c.
tween the plate and cathode, this capacitance is potential, as shown at C. Since the screen is still
small, and neutralization usually is not necessary. in parallel with the grid for r.f., operation is very
In the grounded-grid circuit the cathode must much like that of atriode except that the positive
be isolated for r.f. from ground. This presents a voltage on the screen reduces driver- power re-
practical difficulty especially in the case of a quirements. Since the information usually fur-
filament-type tube whose filament current is nished in tube-data sheets does not apply to
large. In plate-modulated phone operation the triode- type operation, operating conditions are
driver power fed through to the output is not usually determined experimentally. In general,
modulated. the bias is adjusted to produce maximum output
The chief application for grounded-grid ampli- (within the tube's dissipation rating) with the
fiers in amateur work below 30 Mc. is in the case driving power available.
 Power Amplifiers 163
15ph.

Fig. 6- 28— Two

ways to couple a
low- impedance
driver to a
grounded- grid in-
put. A— L network.
B — Link - coupled
tank circuit.
— BIAS —BIAS
(A) (B)

Fig. 6-28 shows two methods of coupling a harmonics and consequent TVI possibilities. If
grounded- grid amplifier to the 50- ohm output of the excitation is keyed in a c.w. transmitter,
an existing transmitter. At A an L network is Class-C operation of subsequent amplifiers will,
used, while a conventional link- coupled tank is under certain conditions, introduce key clicks
shown at B. The values shown will be approxi- not present on the keyed excitation ( see chapter
mately correct for most triode amplifiers oper- on " Keying"). The peak envelope power ( p.e.p.)
ating at 3.5 Mc. Values should be cut in half each input or output of any c.w. (or f.m.) transmitter
time frequency is doubled, i.e., 250 µid. and 7.5 is the "key-down" input or output.
ph. for 7 Mc., etc. A.m.: In an amplitude-modulated phone trans-
mitter, plate modulation of aClass- C output am-
Filament Isolation
plifier results in the highest output for a given
In indirectly- heated cathode tubes, the low input to the output stage. The efficiency is the
heater- to-cathode capacitance will often provide same as for c.w. or f.m. with the same amplifier,
enough isolation to keep r.f. out of the heater from 65 to 75 per cent. ( In most cases the manu-
transformer and the a.c. lines. If not, the heater facturer rates the maximum allowable input on
voltage must be applied through r.f. chokes. plate-modulated phone at about % that of c.w. or
In a directly- heated cathode tepe, the filament f.m.). A plate-modulated stage running 100 watts
must be maintained above r.f. gtiound. This can input will deliver a carrier output of from 63 to
be done by using apair of filament chokes or by 75 watts, depending upon the tube, frequency and
using the input tank circuit, as shown in Fig. circuit factors. The p.e.p. output of any a.m. sig-
6-29. In the former method, a double solenoid nal is four times the carrier output power, or 260
(often wound on aferrite core) is generally used, to 300 watts for the 100-watt input example.
although separate chokes can be used. When the Grid- ( control or screen) modulated ampli-
tank circuit is used, the tank inductor is wound fiers in a.m. operation run at a carrier efficiency
from two ( insulated) conductors in parallel or of 30 to 35 per cent, and a grid- modulated stage
from an insulated conductor inside atubing outer with 100 watts input has a carrier output of 30
conductor. to 35 watts. ( The p.e.p. output, four times the
carrier output, is 120 to 140 watts.
Running the legal input limit in the United
States, a plate-modulated output stage can de-
liver a carrier output of 650 to 750 watts, while
ascreen- or control-grid- modulated amplifier can
deliver only acarrier of 300 to 350 watts.
S.s.a.: Only linear amplifiers can be used to
amplify s.s.b. signals without distortion, and this
INPup
limits the choice of amplifier operation to Classes
A, AB i,AB 2 and B. The efficiency of operation
of these amplifiers runs from about 20 to 65 per
(A) r rn-1 B)
cent. In all but Class-A operation the indicated
FIL.TPANS. (by plate-current meter) input will vary with
Fig. 6- 29— Methods of isolating filament from ground. the signal, and it is not possible to talk about
A—R.f. chokes in filament circuit. B— Filament fed relative inputs and outputs as readily as it is with
through input tank inductor. other modes. Therefore linear amplifiers are
rated by p.e.p. ( input or output) at a given dis-
POWER AMPLIFIERS FOR tortion level, which indicates not only how much
TRANSMITTERS s.s.b. signal they will deliver but also how effec-
C.w. or F.M. : In ac.w. or f.m. transmitter, any tive they will be in amplifying an a.m. signal.
class of amplifier can be used as an output or LINEAR AMPLIFIERS FOR A.M.: In considering
intermediate amplifier. ( For reasonable effi- the practicality of adding a linear amplifier to
ciency, a frequency multiplier must be operated an existing a.m. transmitter, it is necessary to
Class C.) Class- C operation of the amplifier know the carrier output of the a.m. transmitter
gives the highest efficiency ( 65 to 75 per cent), and the p.e.p. output rating of the linear ampli-
but it is likely to be accompanied by appreciable fier. Since the p.e.p. output of an a.m. signal is
164 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
four times the carrier output, it is obvious that a tuned close to the same frequency, neutralization
linear with a p.e.p. output rating of only four usually will not be required. Instances may be
times the carrier output of the a.m. transmitter encountered with tubes of high trans-conduct-
is a poor investment. If the linear amplifier has ance, however, when a doubler will oscillate in
a p.e.p. output rating of 8 times the a.m. trans- t.g.t.p. fashion. The link neutralizing system of
mitter carrier output, the output power will be Fig. 6-23A is convenient in such a contingency.
doubled and a 3-db. improvement will be ob- Push- Push Multipliers
tained. In most cases a 3-db. change is just dis-
cernible by the receiving operator. A two- tube circuit which works well at even
By comparison, a linear amplifier with ap.e.p. harmonics, but not at the fundamental or odd
output rating of four times an existing s.s.b., c.w. harmonics, is shown in Fig. 6-30. It is known as
or f.m. transmitter will quadruple the output, a the push-push circuit. The grids are connected
in push-pull while the plates are connected in
6-db. improvement. It should be noted that the
linear amplifier must be rated for the mode parallel. The efficiency of a doubler using this
circuit approaches that of astraight amplifier.
(s.s.b., c.w. or f.m.) with which it is to be used.
GROUNDED-GRID AMPLIFIERS: The preceding This arrangement has an advantage in some
applications. If the heater of one tube is turned
discussion applies to vacuum-tube amplifiers con-
nected in grounded-cathode or grounded-grid off, its grid- plate capacitance, being the same as
circuits. However, there are a few points that that of the remaining tube, serves to neutralize
apply only to grounded-grid amplifiers.
A tube operated in agiven class ( AB I,B, C)
will require more driving power as a grounded-
grid amplifier than as agrounded-cathode ampli-
fier. This is not because the grid losses run higher
in the grounded- grid configuration but because
some of the driving power is coupled directly
through the tube and appears in the plate load
circuit. Provided enough driving power is avail-
able, this increased requirement is of no concern
in c.w. or linear operation. In a.m. operation,
-13IPS 1
-NV
however, the fed-through power prevents the
grounded-grid amplifier from being fully modu- Fig. 6- 30— Circuit of a push- push frequency multiplier
lated ( 100 per cent). for even harmonics.
C,1.1 and Cala —See text
FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS Ca— Plate bypass- 0.001-M. disk ceramic or mica.

Single-Tube Multiplier
the circuit. Thus provision is made for either
Output at a multiple of the frequency at straight amplification at the fundamental with a
which it is being driven may be obtained from
single tube, or doubling frequency with two tubes.
an amplifier stage if the output circuit is tuned
The grid tank circuit is tuned to the frequency
to a harmonic of the exciting frequency instead of the driving stage and should have the same
of to the fundamental. Thus, when the fre-
constants as indicated in Fig. 6-20 for balanced
quency at the grid is 3.5 Mc., output at 7 Mc.,
grid circuits. The plate tank circuit is tuned to
10.5 Mc., 14 Mc., etc., may be obtained by tuning
an even multiple of the exciting frequency, and
the plate tank circuit to one of these frequencies.
The circuit otherwise remains the same as that should have the same values as astraight ampli-
for a straight amplifier, although some of the fier for the harmonic frequency ( see Fig. 6-10),
values and operating conditions may require bearing in mind that the total plate current of
change for maximum multiplier efficiency. both tubes determines the C to be used.
A practical limit to efficiency and output within
Push- Pull Multiplier
normal tube ratings is reached when the multi-
plier is operated at maximum permissible plate A single- or parallel-tube multiplier will deliver
voltage and maximum permissible grid current. output at either even or odd multiples of the
The plate current should be reduced as necessary exciting frequency. A push-pull stage does not
to limit the dissipation to the rated value by in- work as adoubler or quadrupler but it will work
creasing the bias. as atripler.
Multiplications of four or five sometimes are
METERING
used to reach the bands above 28 Mc. from a
lower- frequency crystal, but in the majority of Fig. 6-31 shows how avoltmeter and milliam-
lower- frequency transmitters, multiplication in meter should be connected to read various volt-
a single stage is limited to a factor of two or ages and currents. Voltmeters are seldom in-
three. Screen-grid tubes make the best multipliers stalled permanently, since their principal use is in
because their high power-sensitivity makes them preliminary checking. Also, milliammeters are
easier to drive properly than triodes. not normally installed permanently in all of the
Since the input and output circuits are not positions shown. Those most often used are the
Frequency Multipliers 165
grid, screen and plate currents of all stages.
The exciter stages in a multistage transmitter
often do not require metering after initial ad-
justments. It is common practice to provide a
meter- switching system by which a single milli-
PLATE ammeter may be switched to read currents in as
cURRENT many circuits as desired. Two such meter-
RESISTOR switching circuits are shown in Fig. 6-32. In
BIAS
Fig. 6-32A the resistors R (there could be more,
GRID TOTAL. of course) are connected in the various circuits
CURRENT CATHODE
CURRENT
PLATE 4. in place of the milliammeters shown in Fig. 6-31.
SCREEN
4.CURRENT
If the resistance of R is much higher than the
internal resistance of the milliammeter, it will
+.
FIXED BIAS have no practical effect upon the reading of the
meter. Care should be taken to observe proper
polarity in making the connections between the
resistors and the switch, and the switch should
have adequate insulation and be of the "non-
shorting" type. The circuit is used when the cur-
rents to be metered are of the same order.
When the meter must read currents of widely
differing values, a low-current meter should be
used as avoltmeter to measure the voltage drop
across a resistor of, say, 10 to 100 ohms. An
example of this circuit is shown in Fig. 6-32B;
the resistor in series with the meter serves as the
PLATE +
SCREEN+
voltmeter multiplier ( see chapter on measure-
BLEEDER ments). Both the line resistor and the higher
CURRENT
multiplier can be varied, to give a wide range
FIXED BIAS + N.V.
for the single meter. Standard values of resistors
Fig. 6-31— Diagrams showing placement of voltmeter can usually be found for any desired range.
and milliammeter to obtain desired measurements.
AMPLIFIER ADJUSTMENT
A— Series grid feed, parallel plate feed and series
screen voltage-dropping resistor. B— Parallel grid Earlier sections in this chapter have dealt with
feed, series plate feed and screen voltage divider. the design and adjustment of input ( grid) and

ones reading grid current and plate current, or 00

grid current and cathode current.
Milliammeters come in various current ranges.
Current values to be expected can be taken from
the tube tables and the meter ranges selected
accordingly. To take care of normal overloads
and pointer swing, a meter having a current
range of about twice the normal current to be
expected should be selected.
Grid-current meters connected as shown in
Fig. 6-31 and meters connected in the cathode
circuit need no special precautions in mounting (A)
on the transmitter panel so far as safety is con- 0O
cerned. However, milliammeters having zero-
adjusting screws on the face of the meter should
be recessed behind the panel so that accidental
contact with the adjusting screw is not possible,
if the meter is connected in any of the other posi-
tions shown in Fig. 6-31. The meter can be
mounted on a small subpanel attached to the
front panel with long screws and spacers. The
meter opening should be covered with glass or
celluloid. Illuminated meters make reading
easier. Reference should also be made to the TVI (B)
chapter of this Handbook in regard to wiring and Fig. 6- 32— Two circuits for switching a single milliam-
shielding of meters to suppress TVI. meter. ( A) Where all currents are of the same order,
the single meter is switched across resistors having 10
Meter Switching to 20 times the internal resistance of the meter. (
B)
Milliammeters are expensive items and there- Where a wide range of currents i, to be metered, a
fore it is seldom feasible to provide metering of low-current meter is used as a voltmeter.
 166 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
output ( plate) coupling systems, the stabilization fier is to feed an antenna system. After proper
of amplifiers, and the methods of obtaining the match has been obtained, all adjustments in cou-
required electrode voltages. Reference to these pling should be made at the input end of the line.
sections should be made as necessary in follow- Until preliminary adjustments of excitation
ing aprocedure of amplifier adjustment. have been made, the amplifier should be operated
The objective in the adjustment of an inter- with filament voltage on and fixed bias, if it is
mediate amplifier stage is to secure adequate required, but screen and plate voltages off. With
excitation to the following stage. In the case of the exciter coupled to the amplifier, the coupling
the output or final amplifier, the objective is to to the driver should be adjusted until the ampli-
obtain maximum power output to the antenna. fier draws rated grid current, or somewhat above
The adjustment must be consistent with the tube's the rated value. Then a load ( the antenna grid
voltage, current and dissipation ratings. of the following stage, or adummy load) should
Adequate drive to a following amplifier is be coupled to the amplifier.
normally indicated when rated grid current in the With screen and plate voltages ( preferably re-
following stage is obtained with the stage operat- duced) applied, the plate tank capacitor should
ing at rated bias, the stage loaded to. rated plate be adjusted to resonance as indicated by a dip
current, and the driver stage tuned to resonance. in plate current. Then, with full screen and plate
In afinal amplifier, maximum output is normally voltages applied, the coupling to the load should
indicated when the output coupling is adjusted be adjusted until the amplifier draws rated plate
so that the amplifier tube draws rated plate current. Changing the coupling to the load will
current when it is tuned to resonance. usually detune the tank circuit, so that it will be
Resonance in the plate circuit is normally necessary to readjust for resonance each time a
indicated by the dip in plate- current reading change in coupling is made. An amplifier should
as the plate tank capacitor is tuned through its not be operated with its plate circuit off reso-
range. When the stage
is unloaded, or lightly
loaded, this dip in plate
current will be quite pro-
nounced. As the loading
is increased, the dip will
become less noticeable.
See Fig. 6-4. However, in
the base of a screen-grid
tube whose screen is fed
through a series resistor,
maximum output may not
be simultaneous with the
dip in plate current. The RFC
reason for this is that the
screen current varies
(D)
widely as the plate circuit +11V

is tuned through resonance.

This variation in screen +HV
current causes a corre- (E) Fig. 6-33-- Diagrams showing the
sponding variation in the peak voltage for which the plate
voltage drop across the tank capacitor should be rated for
screen resistor. In this c.w. operation with various circuit
case, maximum output arrangements. E is equal to the
may occur at an adjust- d.c. plate voltage. The values
ment that results in an should be doubled for plate mod-
optimum combination of
ulation. The circuit is assumed to
screen voltage and near- RFC
+H V be fully loaded. Circuits A, Cand
ness to resonance. This
Erequire that the tank capacitor
effect will seldom be ob- (G) (H) +HV be insulated from chassis or
served when the screen is
ground, and from the control.
operated from a fixed
voltage source. nance for any except the briefest necessary time,
The first step in the adjustment of an amplifier since the plate dissipation increases greatly when
is to stabilize it, both at the operating frequency the plate circuit is not at resonance. Also, a
by neutralizing it if necessary, and at parasitic screen- grid tube should not be operated without
frequencies by introducing suppression circuits. normal load for any appreciable length of time,
If " flat" transmission-line coupling is used, the since the screen dissipation increases.
output end of the line should be matched, as de- It is normal for the grid current to decrease
scribed in this chapter for the case where the when the plate voltage is applied, and to decrease
amplifier is to feed the grid of a following stage, again as the amplifier is loaded more heavily. As
or in the transmission- line chapter if the ampli- the grid current falls off, the coupling to the
Component Ratings 167
driver should be increased to maintain the grid
current at its rated value.

COMPONENT RATINGS AND

INSTALLATION

Plate Tank- Capacitor Voltage

In selecting a tank capacitor with a spacing
between plates sufficient to prevent voltage -BIA S
breakdown, the peak r.f. voltage across a tank
circuit under load, but without modulation, may (A)
be taken conservatively as equal to the d.c. plate - BIAS

voltage. If the d.c. plate voltage also appears

across the tank capacitor, this must be added to Fig. 6- 34— The voltage rating of the grid tank capaci-
the peak r.f. voltage, making the total peak volt- tor in A should be equal to the biasing voltage plus
age twice the d.c. plate voltage. If the amplifier about 20 per cent of the plate voltage.
is to be plate-modulated, this last value must be
dophled to make it four times the d.c. plate
voltage, because both d.c. and r.f. voltages tion of the shaft attached to the dial should be
déluble with 100- per-cent plate modulation. At well grounded. This can be done conveniently
the higher plate voltages, it is desirable to through the use of panel shaft- bearing units.
choose atank circuit in which the d.c. and modu-
lation voltages do not appear across the tank Grid Tank Capacitors
capacitor, to permit the use of a smaller capac- In the circuit of Fig. 6-34A, the grid tank ca-
itor with less plate spacing. Fig. 6-33 shows the pacitor should have a voltage rating approxi-
peak voltage, in terms of d.c. plate voltage, to be mately equal to the biasing voltage plus 20 per
expected across the tank capacitor in various cent of the plate voltage. In the balanced circuit
circuit arrangements. These peak- voltage values of B, the voltage rating of each section of the
are given assuming that the amplifier is loaded capacitor should be this same value.
to rated plate current. Without load, the peak The grid tank capacitor is preferably mounted
r.f. voltage will run much higher. with shielding between it and the tube socket for
The plate spacing to be used for agiven peak isolation purposes. It should, however, be
voltage will depend upon the design of the varia- mounted close to the socket so that a short lead
ble capacitor, influencing factors being the me- can be passed through a hole to the socket. The
chanical construction of the unit, the insulation rotor ground lead or bypass lead should be run
used and its placement in respect to intense directly to the nearest point on the chassis or
fields, and the capacitor plate shape and degree other shielding. In the circuit of Fig. 6-34A, the
of polish. Capacitor manufacturers usually rate same insulating precautions mentioned in connec-
their products in terms of the peak voltage tion with the plate tank capacitor should be used.
between plates. Typical plate spacings are shown
in the following table. Plate Tank Coils
The inductance of a manufactured coil usu-
ally is based upon the highest plate-voltage/
Typical Tank-Capacitor Plate Spacings
plate-current ratio likely to be used at the
Spacing Peak Spacing Peak Spacing Peak maximum power level for which the coil is de-
(In.) Voltage (In.) Voltage (In.) Voltage signed. Therefore in the majority of cases, the
0.015 1000 0.07 3000 0.175 7000 capacitance shown by Figs. 6-9 and 6-20 will be
0.02 1200 0.08 3500 0.25 9000 greater than that for which the coil is designed
0.03 1500 0.125 4500 0.35 11000
0.05 2000 0.15 6000 0.5 13000
and turns must be removed if a Q of 10 or more
is needed. At 28 Mc., and sometimes 21 Mc., the
value of capacitance shown by the chart for a
Plate tank capacitors should be mounted as high plate-voltage/plate-current ratio may be
close to the tube as temperature considerations lower than that attainable in practice with the
will permit, to make possible the shortest capaci- components available. The design of manufac-
tive path from plate to cathode. Especially at the tured coils usually takes this into consideration
higher frequencies where minimum circuit ca- also and it may be found that values of capaci-
pacitance becomes important, the capacitor tance greater than those shown ( if stray capaci-
should be mounted with its stator plates well tance is included) are required to tune these
spaced from the chassis or other shielding. In coils to the band.
circuits where the rotor must be insulated from Manufactured coils are rated according to the
ground, the capacitor should be mounted on plate- power input to the tube or tubes when the
ceramic insulators of size commensurate with the stage is loaded. Since the circulating tank'current
plate voltage involved and — most important of is much greater when the amplifier is unloaded,
all, from the viewpoint of safety to the operator care should be taken to operate the amplifier
— a well- insulated coupling should be used be- conservatively when unloaded to prevent damage
tween the capacitor shaft and the dial. The sec- to the coil as a result of excessive heating.
 168 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
Tank coils should be mounted at least their at the higher- power levels does not usually rep-
diameter away from shielding to prevent a resent a serious loss percentagewise. A more
marked loss in Q. Except perhaps at 28 Mc., it is serious consequence, especially at the higher fre-
not important that the coil be moulded quite quencies, is that coils of the popular "air- wound"
close to the tank capacitor. Leads up to 6 or 8 type supported on plastic strips may deform. In
inches are permissible. It is more important to this case, it may be necessary to use wire ( or
keep the tank capacitor as well as other compo- copper tubing) of sufficient size to make the coil
nents out of the immediate field of the coil. For self-supporting. Coils wound on tubular forms
this reason, it is preferable to mount the coil so of ceramic or mica- filled bakelite will also stand
that its axis is parallel to the capacitor shaft, higher temperatures.
either alongside the capacitor or above it.
Plate- Blocking and Bypass Capacitors
There are many factors that must be taken
into consideration in determining the size of wire Plate- blocking and bypass capacitors should
that should be used in winding a tank coil. The have low inductance. Between 3.5 and 30 Mc. a
considerations of form factor and wire size that capacitance of 0.001 µf. is commonly used. The
will produce acoil of minimum loss are often of voltage rating should be 50% above the peak sup-
less importance in practice than the coil size that ply voltage.
will fit into available space or that will handle the Disk ceramic capacitors are to be preferred as
required power without excessive heating. This bypass capacitors, since when they are applied
is particularly true in the case of screen- grid correctly ( see TVI chapter), they are series
tubes where the relatively small driving power resonant in the TV range and thus very useful in
required can be easily obtained even if the losses filtering power leads.
in the driver'are quite high. It may be considered
R. F. Chokes
preferable to take the power loss if the physical
size of the exciter can be kept down by making The characteristics of any r.f. choke will vary
the coils small. with frequency, from characteristics resembling
The accompanying table shows typical con- those of a parallel- resonant circuit, of high im-
ductor sizes that are usually found to be adequate pedance, to those of a series- resonant circuit,
for various power levels. For powers under 25 where the impedance is lowest. In between these
watts, the minimum wire sizes shown are largely extremes, the choke will show varying amounts
a matter of obtaining acoil of reasonable Q. So of inductive or capacitive reactance.
far as the power is concerned, smaller wire could In series- feed circuits, these characteristics are
be used. of relatively small importance because the r.f.
voltage across the choke is negligible. In a
parallel-feed circuit, however, the choke is
Wire Sizes for Transmitting Coils shunted across the tank circuit, and is subject to
the full tank r.f. voltage. If the choke does not
Power Input ( Watts) Band ( Mc.) Wire Size present a sufficiently high impedance, enough
power will be absorbed by the choke to cause it to
28-21 6
1000 14-7 8
burn out.
3.5-1.8 10 To avoid this, the choke must have a suffi-
ciently high reactance to be effective at the low-
28-21 8
14-7 12
est frequency, and yet have no series resonances
500
3.5-1.8 14 near the higher-frequency bands.
Universal pie- wound chokes of the " receiver"
28-21 12
type ( 2.5 mh., 125 ma.) are usually satisfactory
150 14-7 14
3.5-1.8 18 if the plate voltage does not exceed 750. For
higher voltages, a single- layer solenoid- type
28.21 14
18
choke of correct design has been found satisfac-
75 14-7
3.5-1.8 22 tory. The National type R- 175A and Raypar
RL-100, RL-101 and RL-102 are representative
28-21 18
24
manufactured types.
25 or less 14-7
3.5-1.8 28 Since the characteristics of a choke will be
affected by any metal in its field, it should be
*Wire size limited principally by consideration of Q.
checked when mounted in the position in which
it is to be used, or in a temporary set-up simu-
lating the same conditions. The plate end of the
Space-winding the turns invariably will result choke should not be connected, but the power-
in a coil of higher Q, especially at frequencies supply end should be connected directly, or by-
above 7 Mc., and a form factor in which the passed, to the chassis. The g.d.o. should be cou-
turns spacing results in a coil length between 1 pled as close to the ground end of the choke as
and 2 times the diameter is usually considered possible. Series resonances, indicating the fre-
satisfactory. Space winding is especially desir- quencies of greatest loss, should be checked with
able at the higher power levels because the heat the choke short-circuited with a short piece of
developed is dissipated more readily. The power wire. Parallel resonances, indicating frequencies
lost in a tank coil that develops appreciable heat of least loss, are checked with the short removed.
A Novice Transmitter 169

A THREE- BAND OSCILLATOR TRANSMITTER FOR THE NOVICE

The novice transmitter shown in Figs. 6-35-
6-38, inclusive, is easy to build and get working. Power Supply
It is a crystal-controlled, one- tube oscillator The power supply uses a 5U4G in a full-wave
capable of running at 30 watts input on the 3.5-, circuit. A capacitor- input filter is used and the
7-, and 21- Mc. Novice bands. A special feature output voltage is approximately 370 volts with
of the transmitter is a built-in keying monitor a cathode current of 90 milliamperes. A 0-150
which permits the operator to listen to his own milliammeter reads cathode current. The screen
sending. and grid currents are approximately 4ma. when
Regulated voltage is used on the screen of the the oscillator is loaded.
oscillator. This minimizes frequency shift of the
oscillator with keying, which is the cause of Construction
chirp. In addition, a small amount of cathode All of the components, including the power
bias (R4) is used on the oscillator. This also supply, are mounted on a 2 X 7 X 13-inch
tends to improve the keying characteristics in a aluminum chassis that is in tire enclosed in a
cathode-keyed simple-oscillator transmitter. 7X 9X 15-inch aluminum box. (Premier AC-
1597). One of the removable covers of the box is
Circuit Details
used as the front panel, as shown in Fig. 6-35.
The oscillator circuit used is the grid-plate The box has a -inch lip around both openings,
type, and the tube is a 6DQ6A pentode. The so the bottom edge of the chassis should be
power output is taken from the plate circuit of placed one inch from the bottom of the panel.
the tube. On 80 meters, an 80-meter crystal is The sides of the chassis are also one inch from
needed. On 40, either 80-, or 40-meter crystals the sides of the panel. The chassis is held to the
can be used, although slightly more output will panel by SI J1,and, the mounting screws for
be obtained by using 40-meter crystals. To oper- the crystal socket, so both the front edge of the
ate on 15 meters, a40- meter crystal is used. chassis and the panel must be drilled alike for
The tank circuit is a pi network. The plate these components. Si, at the left in the front
tank capacitor is the variable Co, and the tank view, is one inch from the edge of the chassis
inductance is L21. 3.Cgis atwo-section variable, (that is, two inches from the edge of the panel)
approximately 365 µAL per section, with the and centered vertically on the chasis edge. Thus
stators connected together to give atotal capaci- it is one inch from the bottom of the chassis
tance of about 730 ed. This range of capacitance edge and two inches from the bottom edge of the
is adequate for coupling to 50 or 75 ohms on 7 panel. The hole for /1 is centered on the chassis
and 21 Mc. When operating on 3.5 Mc., an addi- edge and the holes for the crystal socket are
tional 1000 gpf. (C7) is added to furnish the drilled at the right-hand end of the chassis to
needed range of capacitance. Li and R2 are essen- correspond with the position of Si at the left.
tial for suppressing v.h.f. parasitic oscillations. There is nothing critical about the placement
The keying-monitor circuit uses a neon bulb of the meter or the shafts for Cg, Cgand Si. As
(type NE-2) audio-frequency oscillator con- shown in Fig. 6-38, Cg is mounted directly above
nected to the cathode of the 6DQ6A at the key .1i and approximately two inches from the top
jack, / 1.The headphones are plugged into 12, a of the panel. Cg similarly is above the crystal
jack mounted on the back of the transmitter socket and on the same horizontal line as Cg.
chassis. Another jack, 13,is used as a terminal Si is about at the middle of the square formed
for the leads that go to the headphone jack on by these four components.
the receiver.

Fig. 6-35—This 30-watt three-bond

Novice transmitter is enclosed in a
7 X 9 X 15- inch aluminum box. A
group of /
4 -
1 inch- diameter holes should
be drilled in the top of the box over «".

the oscillator tube, as shown, to pro-

vide ventilation. A similar set of holes
should be drilled in the bock cover
behind the oscillator circuit.
é
 170 HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

„ „
6D06A RFC 3

365 730 2.5mh.

3.5,7,
10.5 cl
I 1419
MICA

2- egA

I RFC,

0 41

J: 000

370 V.

64 2
KEY
6.3V. T,

L.
5l.14G 116V.
A. C.
2
PHONES
6.8 MEG. (SEE TEXT)
CI4A C49___,

T
13
50 I 4e0;,.
TO RCVR.>-.
(SEE TEXT)<1.i3

Fig. 6- 36— Circuit diagram of the three- band transmitter. Unless otherwise specified, capacitances are in Auf.
Resistances are in ohms ( K=1000).

Ci -3-30-µµf. trimmer. 1,-6 turns No. 16 wire, 8 turns per inch, 11

/
2 inches
C2— 100-µM. mica. diam. (
B & W 3018).
C3, CB, CIO, CII, C,5, C16- 0.001- id. disk ceramic. 13-23 turns No. 16 wire, 8 turns per inch, 11
/
4 inches
C., Cs- 0.001-µf. 1600- volt disk ceramic. diam. (
B & W 3018). The 7- Mc. tap is 18
C6- 365- Me. variable capacitor, single section, broad- turns from the junction of I, and
cast- replacement type. 1.4-8-h. 150- ma, filter choke ( Thordarson 20054).
C7- 0.001-µf. 600- volt mica. M:-0-150 ma ( Shunte 950).
C8-365-gp.f. variable capacitor, dual section, broad- inc.—As specified.
cast- replacement type. RFC:, RFC,, RFC:-2.5-mh. r.f. choke ( National R-50
C13-500-Mif. mica or ceramic. or similar).
CI3-0.01-µf. disk ceramic. S:— Single- pole 3- position switch ( Centralab 1461).
C1.-8 / 8-,af. 450- volt dual electrolytic capacitor. S,— Single- pole single- throw toggle switch.
11, .1.,— Open- circuit phone jack. To— Power transformer: 360-0-360 volts, 120 ma.; 6.3
13 —Phono jack, RCA type. volts, 3.5 amp.; 5 volts, 3 amp. ( Stancor PM-
J.— Coaxial chassis connector, SO- 239. 8410).
I,-10 turns No. 18 wire space-wound on R3. Y: —Crystal ( see text).

The holes on the rear edge of the chassis for Some of these have holes tapped in the front of
the coaxial connector J4, phone jack J2, receiver the frame, and this type can be mounted directly
connector J3, and for the a.c. cord are drilled on the panel using machine screws and spacers.
at the same height as those on the front edge. Others have mounting holes only in the bottom.
Access holes should be cut in the rear cover of In this case, the capacitor can be mounted on a
the box at the corresponding positions; these pair of L-shaped brackets made from strips of
holes may be large enough to clear the com- aluminum.
ponents, but not larger than is necessary for Both L2 and L3 are supported by their leads.
this purpose. The cover fits tightly against the One end of L3 is connected to the stator of Cg
rear edge of the chassis and thus maintains the and the other end is connected to a junction on
shielding for preventing radiation of harmonics top of aone- inch- long steatite stand-off insulator.
in the television bands. However, it is advisable L2 has one end connected to the stator of Cg and
to fasten the cover to the chassis edge with afew the other end to one of the terminals on St.
sheet-metal screws, in order to insure good elec- The voltage- dividing network consisting of
trical contact. Rg and R7 provides the correct voltage for oper-
There are several different types of broadcast- ating the keying monitor, Rg is 1.65 megoluns, a
replacement variable capacitors on the market. value obtained by using two 3.3-megohm 1-watt
A Novice Transmitter 171

rig. 6-37— Rear view of the transmitter showing the placement of components above chassis. The loading capacitor,
Cs, is at the left, t
sis the vertical coil and L., the horizontal one. Rubber grommets are used to prevent chafing and
to furnish additional insulation on the leads coming from below chassis.

resistors in parallel. These resistors and other for maximum lamp brilliance. The cathode cur-
small components may be mounted on standard rent should read between 90 and 100 milliam-
bakelite tie points. peres when the oscillator is fully loaded.
C1 should be adjusted for the best keying
Adjustment and Testing characteristics consistent with reasonably good
When the unit is ready for testing, a 15- or power output. It is not advisable to attempt to
25- watt electric light will serve as adummy load. adjust C1 with a lamp dummy load, since the
One side of the lamp should be connected to the lamp resistance will change during the heating
output lead and the other side to chassis ground. and cooling that take place during keying, and
A crystal appropriate for the band to be used this will affect the keying characteristic of the
should be plugged into the crystal socket, and a oscillator. Use aregular antenna, with or without
key connected to the key jack. SI should be set an antenna coupler or matching network as the
to the proper band. S2 may then be closed and antenna system may require, and listen to the
the transmitter allowed to warns up. keying on the station receiver. Remove the
Set C8 at maximum capacitance ( plates com- antenna from the receiver to prevent overload-
pletely meshed) and close the key. Quickly tune ing, and adjust the r.f. gain control for a signal
Cg to resonance, as indicated by a dip in the level comparable with that at which signals on
cathode- current reading. Gradually decrease the that band are normally heard. Further details on
capacitance of C8, while retouching the tuning checking keying will be found in the chapter on
of Cg as the loading increases. Increased loading keying and break-in.
will be indicated by increasing lamp brightness (Originally described in QST December,
and by larger values of cathode current. Tune 1957.)

Fig. 6-38— Below-chas-

sis view. Power-supply
components are
mounted in the left-
hand side and the os-
cillator section is at the
right-hand side.
Mounted on the back
wall of the chassis is
the keying monitor.
Although not visible in
this view, the monitor
components are
mounted on a four.
terminal tie point.
 172 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

AN INEXPENSIVE 75-WATT TRANSMITTER

The transmitter shown in Figs. 6-39 and 6-41 the inductance of a small coil, since any coil of
combines the efficiency and flexibility of plug-in sufficient turns ( without the ferrite) would of
coils with good shielding for TVI prevention. It necessity be wound of wire too small to handle
is atwo- stage transmitter using a 12BY7 crystal the r.f. current adequately.
oscillator and an inexpensive 1625 tetrode ampli- Two methods of keying are provided. The os-
fier. The latter tube is quite inexpensive in sur- cillator and amplifier can be keyed simultane-
plus and probably represents the least "dollars ously with switch S2 in the "break-in" position,
per watt" of any available tube. Provision is in- or the amplifier only can be keyed, with the oscil-
cluded for crystal-controlled operation, and ter- lator running all the time, turned on by a switch
minals are provided for connecting a v.f.o. Con- connected at 14.The latter keying system should
struction has been simplified by holding the metal be used if reports of achirpy signal are received
work to aminimum. (a possibility on 10 and 15 meters with some
Referring to the circuit diagram of the trans- crystals). However, good keying is provided for
mitter, Fig. 6-40, a12BY7 grid-plate type crystal- in the break-in condition through the inclusion of
controlled oscillator is used. The output can be a4-gf. " shaping" capacitor across the keyed cir-
tuned to the crystal frequency or to multiples of cuit.
it, depending upon the coil plugged in at /. 1. The switch S1 provides "cm." ("calibrate")

Fig. 6-39—The inexpensive 75-watt trans-

mitter is a two-tube five- band crystal-con-
trolled transmitter; v.f.o. control can be
added at any time. To simplify construction
and testing, plug-in coils are used, housed
in the two shield cans ( Millen 80011 o.
Miller S-42 with S- 42C base). The crystal-
oscillator tube, a 12BY7, is housed in the
black tube shield at the left; the 1625
amplifier tube is mounted under the chassis.
Two toggle switches under the meter select
(left) remote oscillator control or break-in
keying and ( right) grid or cathode current
of the 1625. Two voltage regulator tubes
can be seen at the rear of the chassis; the
key jack, antenna jack, remote oscillator
control jack and line-cord outlet are at the
rear of the chassis ( not visible).

Both 80- and 40-meter crystals are used; 80- and "TUNE" positions as well as the normal "os"
meter crystals for 80- or 40-meter operation, and ("operate") condition. At CAL only the oscillator
40- meter crystals for 40-, 20-, 15- and 10- meter is turned on, so that listening in the receiver will
work. Output on 10 meters is obtained by quad- show the location of the signal in the band. In
rupling to 10 meters in the oscillator and running the TUNE position, the oscillator and amplifier are
the amplifier at reduced input because the exci- both turned on, but the amplifier is operated at
tation is marginal. reduced input by grounding the screen grid. This
The amplifier tank circuit is a pi network de- allows tuning C1 and C2 without putting much
sned primarily for working into a low impe- of a signal out on the air.
dance ( 50 to 75 ohms). A 140 - pf. capacitor, C2, A 0-1 milliammeter can be switched to either
iS used for plate tuning on all bands; on 80 meters the grid or cathode circuit of the 1625; switched
it is shunted by an additional 100 pf. This is done to the grid the meter has afull-scale deflection of
automatically by ajumper connection in the coil. 10 ma., and to the cathode the full-scale deflec-
The loading capacitor is a 3- section broadcast- tion is 200 ma. The meter is mounted outside the
tuning type capacitor ( 365 pf. per section) with chassis, but the leads are bypassed by two small
all stators connected in parallel. On 80 meters it feedthrough capacitors, to minimize stray radia-
is shunted by an additional 470- pf. mica capaci- tion from the transmitter.
tor. The coils are ready-wound coil stock mounted For economy and simplification, no a.c. switch
in polystyrene coil forms. A piece of ferrite rod is included. The a.c. plug contains the fuses for
is mounted in the 80-meter output coil to increase the transmitter.
Inexpensive 75-watter 173
L,
OSC AMP RFC 3
sot \VrrTY ,
.001 .001 ANT.
1625
12BY7 I(

.001

xTAL c2 100 17l0.

1400. pf. p

L_ S

/ 1 0- 200

C4 lc, 0-10

3900

KEY
J3

339 40
'w . •50v.

330 K 40
1w > T 450 12

I2877 1625

Fig. 6-40— Circuit diagram of the inexpensive 75-watt transmitter. Unless indicated otherwise, all resistors are
2 -
/
1 watt, all resistances are in ohms, all capacitances are in if. Electrolytic capacitors are marked with polarity,
mica capacitors are marked with other fixed capacitors under 0.1 0. are ceramic.

C1- 100-
pf. variable ( Hammarlund HF -
100). P,— Fused line plug, 5-ampere fuses.
C:,- 140-
pf. variable ( Hammarlund HFA-140-A). RFC,, RFC:,-1-mh. 135- ma. r.f. choke ( National R-50).
Ca- 1100-
pf. variable—triple b.c. capacitor (Allied RFCa-7 turns No. 20 space-wound on 47-ohm 1-watt
Radio 60 I. 726). resistor.
C4, C-500-
pf. feedthrough ( Centralab FT-500). RFC,-2.5-mh. 115-ma. r.f. choke ( National R- 100U).
CR I—CR., - 1000 p.i.v. 300-ma. silicon ( 1N3563). Si-3- pole 3- position rotary switch ( Centralab PA- 1007).
J1—Octal socket ( Amphenol 77MIP8). 52—D.p.d.t. toggle ( one pole used, see text).
.1:,— Coaxial chassis receptacle, SO-239. S.—D.p.d.t. toggle.
Ja— Standard phone jack. 11-540 v.c.t. at 120 ma., 5 v. at 3 amp. ( not used),
Ji — Phono jack. 6.3 v. at 3.5 amp. ( Knight 61 G 456).
LI, Lo — See coil table. v. at Iamp. ( Knight 62 G 030).

Two brackets of sheet aluminum are required,

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS one for the 1625 socket and one for the meter.
Before drilling any holes for the components, The bracket for the tube socket is held to ihe
it would be wise to study the arrangement of chassis by the 4- pin socket for 1. 1,and the tube
parts on the 10 x 12 x 3- inch aluminum chassis. socket is centered 1/,, inches from the chassis.
While the location of components is not critical, The meter panel is held to the chassis by the two
some initial planning will permit leads to be made feedthrough capacitors at the rear and by a 6-32
direct and as short as possible. screw and nut at the front.
174 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

aweeie . ist

Fig. 6-41—A view underneath the chassis of the 75-watt transmitter with the perforated- metal bottom plate re-
moved. The four silicon rectifiers are mounted on a multiple tie point strip ( lower right); the center electro-
lytic filter capacitor has its metal strap removed, and the capacitor is supported by its two leads and another
multiple tie point strip. The small electrolytic capacitor at the lower left is across the keying circuit. Ventilation
of the chassis is obtained through the holes above the 1625 ( see Fig. 6-39) and by raising the chassis above the
table by the height of the rubber feet. The rubber feet and several sheetmetal screws normally hold the perforated-
metal bottom plate in place. C3 must have the three stators connected together to give the full 1100-
pf. capacitance
(upper right). A pair of the 8-32 mounting screws for T1 also anchor T2 ( bottom center).

All other construction is straightforward as- and 2000-ohm resistors in the 1625 cathode cir-
sembly on the chassis, with 4-40 hardware for cuit. Screen and cathode bypass capacitors are
the 12BY7 socket and 6-32 hardware for every- mounted and grounded close to their respective
thing else but the transformers, which are big tube sockets.
enough to require 8-32 hardware. Multiple tie- The 6.3-volt windings of T1 and T2 must be
point strips are used at several points to furnish connected "aiding" to furnish the 12.6 volts for
mounting terminals for the silicon rectifiers and the tube heaters. Connect the primary leads in
some filter and bypass capacitors, and chassis parallel first, and then try the 6.3-volt windings
connections are made to soldering lugs held in connected in series, with one of the tubes con-
place by the tube- socket hardware. The metal nected across the " 12.6-volt" leads. If the secon-
mounting strap around one of the 40-µf. filter daries are aiding, the tube heater will light when
capacitors is removed, and the capacitor is sup- the primaries are connected to the 115-volt line.
ported by its two leads and tie- points. This is the If not, reverse the connections of one of the sec-
4O- f. capacitor in Fig. 6-40 that has neither ter- ondaries.
minal grounded to the chassis. Pin 5on the 1625 The construction of the coils is straightfor-
socket is used as a tie- point for the junction of ward, and the only precaution one should take is
the 22K and 470-ohm resistors, and an unused to hold the pin of the coil form with a pair of
terminal on S2 is used as a tie-point for the 10- pliers ( to form a "heat sink") when soldering
Inexpensive 75-watter 175

Fig. 6-42—The normal coil is simply a section of coil

stock mounted inside a polystyrene coil form ( left).
The 80-meter amplifier inductor uses a length of fer-
rite rod within the coil to increase the inductance
(right). Rod is held in place with transparent tape.

the end of the coil. If this is not done, the hot pin rent should be reduced slightly by detuning C1.
may move around in the softened polystyrene. Operation on the other bands is similar. With
It makes the soldering easier if the pins of the an 80-meter crystal, 40-meter output is obtained
coil forms are cleaned out first with a suitable with 40-meter coils at L1 and L 2.With a40- meter
drill. The ferrite rod can be brought to size by crystal, output can be obtained on 40, 20, 15 or 10
first filing anotch around it with athree-cornered meters by the proper selection of coils and tun-
file, and then splitting it over the sharp edge of ing. It will be found that the same coil at L1 can
acold chisel held upright in avise. A sharp ham- tune to either 20 meters ( near maximum capaci-
mer blow on the ferrite while the rod is pressed tance) or 15 meters ( near minimum capaci-
against the cold chisel will usually result in a tance). Be careful when first tuning to be certain
fairly clean break. The rod can be brought to the right band is tuned. When quadrupling in the
exact size with a grindstone. oscillator for 10-meter operation, it will not be
possible to obtain the ma. grid current re-
Tune- Up Procedure
quired for high- efficiency operation. However,
For the initial testing, aOù- watt lamp bulb will with 3 / ma. or so the input to the 1625 can be
4
make a suitable dummy load. Connect it at 12 reduced to 100 ma. cathode current, for an out-
through a short length of cable or wires and a put of about 20 watts. The tuning on 15 and 10
plug. Plug in an 80-meter crystal at Pins 2and 4 meters becomes a little critical, and an output
(or 6 and 8) of ./ 1,and plug in atelegraph key indicator ( r.f. ammeter or voltmeter) is auseful
at / 3.Plug in the 80- meter L1 and L 2,and set C1 device for getting the most output for a given
at minimum capacitance. Plug in the tubes and input.
set S1 at os'. When the a.c. is turned on ( by a The keying can be made "softer" by adding
wall switch or by plugging in P1 to a " live" more capacitance across the 4-14. capacitor in the
socket) the voltage- regulator tubes should glow key circuit, if it becomes desirable to do so.
immediately and the tube heaters should light.
After a minute, turn S1 to TUNE. With S3 set to
read grid current, turn C1 through its range. If
the crystal is oscillating, grid current will be Coil Table for the 75-Watt Transmitter
indicated, and the amount can be controlled by
The L1 coils are mounted inside 4-pin
the setting of C1.Set for about 2%2 ma., on the
polystyrene coil form ( Allied Radio 71
low-capacitance side of the setting that gives
H 713) ; L 2 coils are mounted inside
maximum reading. Flip S3 to read cathode cur-
5-pin form ( Allied Radio 71 H 714). Coil
rent and, with C3 set at maximum capacitance,
stocks are ( A) 1-inch diameter 32 t.p.i.
tune C2 while watching the cathode current. A
No. 24, (B) 1- inch diameter 16 t.p.i. No.
sudden dip in the current indicates resonance;
20, and ( C) 3
/-
4 inch diameter 16 t.p.i. No
leave C2 at this position momentarily. Turn S1
20. ( B & W 3016, 3015 and 3011.)
to os' and load the amplifier to acathode current
of about 120 ma. ( 0.6 on the meter) by reducing Band L1 L2
capacitance in C3 and retuning to resonance 80 m. 42 turns A 16 ,
/2 turns C*
(dip) with C2.The plate voltage should be about 40 m. 20 turns B 24Y2 turns B
680, so with ascreen current of about 10 ma. the 20 m. turns B 12 /
,2 turns B
plate input to the 1625 under these conditions is 15 m. Same as 20 m. turns B
0.11 x 680 = 74.8 watts. With the amplifier 10 m. turns B 554 turns B
loaded, recheck the grid current; it should be With 2-inch length of 54-inch diameter ferrite
about 2.5 ma. ( 0.25 on the meter). Observe the rod ( Lafayette MS- 333). See text. Jumper
VR tubes when the key is closed; if the glow leads to connect 100- and 470 -
pf. capacitors are
also included in this coil.
goes out entirely it indicates heavy screen current
caused by excessive excitation, and the grid cur-
176 HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

A 75-WATT 6DQ5 TRANSMITTER

The transmitter shown in Fig. 6-43 is designed the 0-15 milliammeter reads 0-15 ma. in the grid-
to satisfy the requirements of either a Novice current position and 0-300 ma. in the plate-
or General Class licensee. As described here it is current position.
capable of running the full 75 watts limit in the The transmitter is keyed at . 13, and a key-
80-, 40- and 15-meter Novice bands, with band click filter ( 100-ohm resistor and C5) is included
switching, crystal switching and other operating to give substantially click- free keying. The v.f.o.
features. The General license holder can use the jack, J4, allows a v.f.o. to be keyed along with
transmitter in any band 80 through 10 meters, the transmitter for full break-in operation.
and he can add v.f.o. control or amplitude modu-
lation at any time without modifying the 6DQ5 Construction
transmitter. Crystal switching is a convenience A 10 X 17 X 3- inch aluminum chassis is used
for rapidly shifting frequency within aband to as the base of the transmitter, with a standard
dodge QRM, and a SPOT position on the operate 834-inch aluminum relay rack panel held in
switch permits identifying one's frequency rela- place by the bushings of the pilot light, excitation
tive to others in a band. An accessory socket, control and other components common to the
XI furnishes a convenient point for borrowing chassis and panel. The panel was cut down to
power for av.f.o. or for controlling the oscillator 17 inches in length so that the unit would take a
by an external switch. minimum of room on the operating table. A
Referring to Fig. 6-44, the circuit diagram of good idea of the relative location of the parts
the transmitter, the crystal selector switch, can be obtained from the photographs. The sup-
is used to choose the desired crystal. For crystal- port for the r.f. portion housing is made by fas-
controlled operation crystals would be plugged tening strips of 1- inch aluminum angle stock
in pins 1and 3and 5and 7of socket Xi. Similar (Reynolds aluminum, available in many hardware
sockets ( not shown in the diagram) are used to stores) to the panel and to a sheet of aluminum
hold the other crystals. When v.f.o. operation is inches long that is held to the rear chassis
desired, the v.f.o. output is connected to apron by screws and the key jack, /3. A piece of
the plug Pi is inserted in socket X1 and the aluminum angle must also be cut to mount on
former 6AG7 crystal oscillator stage becomes an the chassis and hold the cane-metal ( Reynolds
amplifier or multiplier stage when switch Si is aluminum) housing. Fig. 6-46 shows the three
turned to osition 1. clearance holes for the screws that hold this lat-
Since the output of the 6AG7 stage will vary ter angle to the chassis after the cane metal is in
considerably with the bands in use, an excitation place. Build the cane- metal housing as though the
control, RI,is included to allow for proper adjust- holes weren't there and the box has to hold
ment of the drive to the 6DQ5 amplifier. The water; this will minimize electrical leakage and
6DQ5, a highly sensitive tube, is neutralized to the chances for TVI. To insure good electrical
avoid oscillation; the small variable capacitor C2 contact between panel and angle stock, remove
and the 390-ed. mica capacitor form the neutral- the paint where necessary by heavy applications
izing circuit. Screen or screen and plate modula- of varnish remover, with the rest of the panel
tion power can be introduced at socket X2; for masked off. The paint will blister and be easy
radiotelegraph operation these connections are to remove; wash the panel and then drill the
completed by P2. Grid or plate current of the holes for the components and screws. ( If the
6DQ5 can be read by proper positioning of S5; holes are drilled first, the remover may leak

Fig. 6-43—This 75-watt crystal-con-

trolled transmitter has provision for
the addition of v.f.o. control. A
6AG7 oscillator drives a 6DQ5 am-
plifier on 80 through 15 meters.
As a precaution against electrical
shock, the meter switch, to the im-
mediate right of the meter, is pro-
tected by a cane- metal housing. Tho
switch to the right of the meter
switch handles the spot- operate func-
tion, and the switch at the far top
right is the plate- circuit band switch.
Along the bottom, from left to
right: pilot light, excitation control,
crystal switch, grid-circuit band-switch,
and grid-circuit tuning.
 202 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

ONE- BAND KILOWATT AMPLIFIERS

Separate kilowatt amplifiers on each of the ampllfier control unit contains the filament, bias
bands 80 through 10 meters has always been the and screen supplies. A 3- position mode switch,
ne plus ultra of transmitter construction. How- S2,selects the bias for either Class-AB I or - C
ever, space limitations and cost are the two key operation, and in the third position grounds the
factors that have prevented many from realizing screen grids, to limit the plate current during
this goal. The amplifiers to be described are com- initial tuning. Another 3- position switch, Si,
pact and are constructed economically; the allows the total or individual screen currents to
builder may wish to construct one amplifier for be read. The latter position is useful in matching
his favorite band or the group of five for versa- tubes. The high-voltage supply should furnish
tile all-band operation. Advantages of the sep- from 1750 to 2250 volts.
arate-amplifier philosophy include optimum cir-
cuit Q for every band, simplified construction Construction
and band switching, less chance for tube failure Each amplifier is assembled on a13 X 17- inch
because each amplifier is pretuned, and fast band aluminum bottom plate. Two 5 X 13 X 3- inch
changing for the contest- minded. The supply aluminum chassis are used as the sides of the
voltages remain on all the amplifiers; only the enclosure. The paint is removed from the back
filament and excitation power are switched to the of a 7- inch aluminum rack panel, and apiece of
desired final amplifier. Reynolds cane metal is sandwiched between the
The availability and proven dependability of panel and the two chassis. A rectangular window
the 813 make apair of them the logical choice for in the panel provides additional ventilation and
the kilowatt amplifier. A shrewd amateur should a means for inspecting the color of the tube
have no trouble procuring the tubes through plates. The top and back of the enclosure are
surplus channels or by bartering with local hams. formed from asingle piece of cane metal, bent to
Referring to the circuit diagram, Fig. 6-74, the fit the chassis rear and top. Three lengths of
1 X 1 X g-inch aluminum angle stock are used
in the corners of the enclosure, as can be seen
in Figs. 6-76 and 6-77.
The variable tank capacitors, C4, are mounted
on 1- inch stand-off insulators, to bring the shafts
to the proper panel height. In the 10- meter am-
plifier the capacitor shaft must remain above
r.f. ground, and a suitable insulated shaft cou-
pling is used. On the other bands, the rotors of
the capacitors are grounded to the chassis
through metal straps.
On 20, 15 and 10 meters the tank coils are
wound self-supporting of - inch diameter sof t-
drawn copper tubing, and they are supported by
their leads. On 80 and 40 the coils are lengths of
Air- Dux stock, and they are supported by small
ceramic insulators.
The special plate r.f. chokes, RFC2, are con-
sti ucted by close- winding No. 24 enameled wire
on 34.- inch diameter ceramic insulators. Four- inch
long insulators ( National GS-4) are used on the
80- and 4O-niter bands, and 2-inch long insula-
tors ( National GS-3) are used on the other
bands. In each case the original base uf the in-
sulator is removed and the insulator is mounted
on a stand-off (Johnson 135-20). The high-
voltage lead and the "cold" end of the choke
are connected to a soldering lug mounted be-
tween the two insulators.
Bridge neutralization is included in the 20-,
Fig. 6-73--- Individual kilowatt amplifiers for two bands 15- and 10-meter amplifiers. The neutralizing ca-
plus complete metering and all control circuits and pacitors are made from two - inch wide alumi-
power supplies (except plate) fit handily into a table num strips 5inches long. One strip is connected
rock. Amplifiers for five bands plus the plate supply directly to the plate lead at C3 and the other is
will mount in floor rack. Band switch at lower left supported by a ceramic feed- through insulator
(S s in Fig. 6-74) switches filament supply, excitation that connects to the rotor of C1. The amplifiers
and output connections to all amplifiers in use; are neutralized by adjusting the spacing between
screen and plate supplies are connected to all the aluminum strips.
amplifiers at all times. The metal ring surrounding the base of the 813
 178 HIGH -FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
through and spoil the paint on the front of the disable the amplifier stage by removing P2,plug
panel.) in P3 and turn on S5. The tube heaters and fila-
From asuitable piece of cane metal, make the ments should light up. If avoltmeter is available
four-sided 21% X 2 V I X 2%- inch box that cov- and connected across Cg, it should indicate over
ers S5, and fasten it to the utility-box cover with 500 volts. Later on, with full loading, the plate
sheet-metal screws. Don't forget J1 on the side voltage will run around 400.
of the box. With S1 switched to an 80- meter crystal, 53
The self-supporting coil, L3,can be wound on switched to 80 or 40 and S5 switched to GRID,
the envelope of the 6AG7 and then pulled apart flip S2 YO SPOT and tune C1 through its range.
to give the correct winding length. If the crystal is oscillating the meter should give
Installation of the electrical components should an indication at some setting of C1.The grid
present no problems. To insulate it from the current reading should vary with the setting of
chassis, capacitor C1 is mounted on a small C1 ( maximum at resonance) and with the setting
ceramic cone insulator ( Johnson 135-500 or of R1 ( maximum with arm at 20K end). If akey
National GS- 10). The socket for the 6DQ5 is plugged in at /3 and 52 is set to OPER, the grid
is mounted above the chassis on a pair of 44- current should appear only when the key is
inch sleeves, with alarge clearance hole under the closed. Listen to the signal on a receiver ( no
socket for the several leads running from under antenna) ; if the signal is chirpy try adjusting the
the chassis. Cathode and screen bypass capacitors 3-30 pf. compression trimmer between grid
for the 6DQ5 connect to the chassis at soldering and cathode of the 6AG7.
lugs under the sleeves. With a 40-meter crystal switched in, check
Taps on L2 are readily made by first pushing for grid current at 14 and 21 Mc., by switching
the wire on either side of the desired turn toward S3 to the desired band and tuning with C1.These
the center of the coil. settings should be checked with an absorption-
Note that shielded wire is used for many of the type wavemeter, since it is possible in some cases
a.c. and d.c. ( but not r.f.) power leads; this is to find more than one harmonic in the range of
done to minimize the chances for stray radiation C1. The 28- Mc, range can also be checked, but
and it also contributes to the stability of the the 4th harmonic of the 7- Mc, crystal will yield
transmitter. only about 1ma. of grid current.
Next check the neutralization on the 15-meter
Adjustment
band. With 21- Mc, grid current indicating, switch
When the wiring is completed and checked, S4 to 15, set C4 at half scale, and swing C3

Fig. 6-45—Top view of the 6DQ5 transmitter with cane- metal cover removed. A
3X 4X 5- inch utility box ( upper right) serves as a shield for the crystals; the
cane- metal protection for the meter switch is fastened to the box cover. Phono
jack mounted on the meter- side of the box receives v.f.o. output; short length
of Twin- Lead from this jack to octal plug brings v.f.o. output to crystal socket.
For protection against high voltage, meter terminals are covered by ceramic
tube plate caps (Millen 36001).
A 75-Watt Transmitter 179

1W AIM •
-1
PP

11
4"
• / 7'

Fig. 6-46— Group of six octal sockets ( upper left) serves as crystal sockets. Socket at
center of chassis holds 6AG7 oscillator tube; the 3- 30-pf. mica compression trimmer
mounted alongside is excitation control for oscillator stage. Small midget capacitor
above coil is neutralizing capacitor adjusted from above chassis; this capacitor and
grid tuning capacitor to right must be insulated from chassis.

through its range. Watch closely for aflicker in meter operation, and 7- Mc, crystals should be
grid current. If one is observed, try a different used on 40, 20 and 15 meters. For 10- meter
setting of C2. Work carefully until the flicker operation, it is recommended that a v.f.o. with
is a minimum. A more sensitive indication of 20- meter output be used to drive the 6AG7;
neutralization can be obtained by using agerma- trying to drive the 6DQ5 with the 4th harmonic
nium diode and a0-1 milliammeter in the output of a7- Mc, crystal is too marginal for all but the
at /2; adjust C2 for minimum meter indication. most experienced operators. With v.f.o. control,
If using this sensitive test, it is wise to start out always frequency multiply ( double or triple)
with R1 set at half range or less, until it has been in the 6AG7 stage to the desired band.
determined that the meter will not swing off Because the 6DQ5 is capable of drawing high
scale. Under no circumstances use this test with values of plate current when not tuned properly,
P2 in place; the 6DQ5 output is quite likely to it will pay to take care in learning how to adjust
destroy the crystal diode. the transmitter. Once the controls have been
When the amplifier has been neutralized, con- "calibrated" and the approximate settings for
nect a dummy load ( a 60- watt lamp will do) each band become known, it should no longer
at .12 and replace P2. Set . 53 to PLATE and send be necessary to tune up with the " series-of- dots?'
a few dots as C3 is tuned through its range. At technique mentioned above. However, in the
resonance the lamp should light up and the plate early stages of familiarization with the trans-
current should dip. The plate current can be mitter, the dots, or a fast hand on the key, may
made to increase, along with the lamp brilliance, save a tube or power supply. The fact that the
by decreasing the capacitance at Ct. The 6DQ5 6DQ5 can draw such heavy currents at low plate
plate current can be run up to 180 ma. ( 9 ma. voltages makes it an excellent tube for an effec-
on the meter) for Novice work; the grid current tive inexpensive transmitter, but the tube is
should be held at 2 to 4 ma. Crystals in the 3.5- not as tolerant of careless tuning habits as are
to 4.0- Mc. range should be used for 80- and 40- some other tubes.
 180 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

A 90-WATT ALL-PURPOSE AMPLIFIER

The amplifier shown in Figs. 6-47 through
6-50 will serve as a Class- AB, linear amplifier
or as a Class- C power amplifier with no changes
other than the proper adjustment of -excitation
and loading. To accomplish this, a stabilized
bias supply provides proper Class- AB ' bias; the
bias increases to the correct value for Class- C
operation when the excitation is brought up to
the point that yields normal grid current. A stabi-
lized screen supply is included to insure good
linear operation.
Referring to the amplifier circuit in Fig. 6-49,
excitation on the desired band is introduced at
/1.The grid circuit is a commercial assembly,
Z1, that can be switched to the correct band by
S1 and tuned by C1.A pi- network coupler is used
in the output, switched by So and tuned by C3.
Proper loading is obtained by adjustment of C4 ;
to provide sufficient output capacitance in the
80- meter band an additional 680 µµf. is added.
A neutralizing circuit, Co and a 680-iipf. capaci- Fig. 6-47— Front view of the 6146 all-purpose ampli-
tor, adds to the fundamental stability at the fier. The upper panel is part of an 8 X 6 • 31
2 -
/
higher frequencies. Parasitic suppressors were inch Minibox ( Bud CU- 2109); the ventilated shielding
found to be necessary in the grid and plate circuits. of Reynolds Aluminium cane metal is fastened to the
Overload protection is provided by a 250- ma. Minibox and base with sheet- metal screws.
fuse in the cathode circuit. The grid, plate or Plate- circuit tuning controls and switch are mount-
screen current can be metered by a suitable ed on the Minibox, and the grid- circuit controls,
setting of S3 ;with the resistances shown the power switches and meter are mounted on the end
meter provides a full-scale reading 5 ma. on of the 8 X 12 X 3- inch aluminum chassis that serves
grid current, 25 ma. on screen current, and 250 as a base.
ma. on plate current.
If it is desired to plate- or screen- modulate the The power- supply circuit is shown separately
amplifier for a.m. operation, the necessary audio (Fig. 6-51) for convenience only, since the ampli-
power can be introduced at 13. fier and power supply are all built on the same
8 X 12 x 3- inch chassis. High volt-
age for the plate of the 6146 is provided
by a bridge rectifier using a 5I:4- GB
and two 6DE4 rectifiers; stabilized
screen voltage is obtained from the
same supply and two voltage- regulator
tubes.

Fig. 6-48— Rear view of the 90-watt all-

purpose amplifier with the cane- metal
cover removed. One voltage- regulator tube
has been removed from its socket ( right
edge of transformer) to allow the neutral-
izing capacitor and plate blocking capa-
citor to be seen. The plate r.f. choke (
RFC,
in Fig. 6-49) is mounted on one side wall,
and the load capacitor and safety choke
(C, and RFC, in Fig. 6-49) are mounted on
the far side wall.
The rear apron of the chassis ( fore-
ground) carries the input and output coax-
ial- connector jacks, the 6146 cathode
fuse, and the socket for the a.m, modula-
tor connections. A shorting plug is shown
in the socket.
A 90-Watt Amplifier 181
insulated from the chassis by mounting it in ex
Construction
truded fiber washers and a suitable hole in the
Most of the components can be identified in chassis. Connection to the rotor should be made
Figs. 6-47, 6-48 and 6-51, but a few construction under the chassis by using a suitable soldering
notes are in order. The octal socket for the 6146 lug under the nut on the threaded sleeve bearing.
is mounted on two V2- inch- long collars above the (Old volume controls are a good source for this
usual 1 - inch diameter hole in the chassis. The lug.)
three . 001-µf. ceramic capacitors connected to The high- voltage lead from the base of RFC 3
the cathode pins ( 1, 4 and 6) ground to the is run in well- insulated wire to a feed- through
chassis at lugs under the nuts holding the socket- bushing that runs through the chassis and to
mounting screws. The . 001-µf, ceramic capacitors the meter switch terminal Z1.A high- voltage
in the screen and heater circuits ground to their bypass capacitor is connected between the bush-
respective wire shields which in turn are con- ing and the chassis.
nected to the same ground lugs as the cathode A simple clamp, Fig. 6-52, holds the length of
circuit. The grounded side of the 680-µµf. capaci- RG-58/1: from C4 in place and at the same time
tor in the grid- circuit return should also be insures that the r.f. leaves the compartment via
soldered to one of the ground lugs. the inside of the cable and not the outside.
The neutralizing capacitor, C2, has its rotor Aluminum cane metal is available in many

-o di
2
D 0 D r
»o
3
4 C .0

. ,,, I, ,
1 .2 ;.;

1 :2 . t .,-;•Qoa,È
— .E «
-§ ' '' e
ó •É 2 E o-

?, t ‹ • Ë .6 o .
.k, .
2> 2x
..ii2Égi!
- e i , it)1(g...,, i ,:
S.-
....: e....
... .. 4:-: ..- .
iite-2 'f-cim?
. •.,...
E o.., .;.•
*1 D'
f>1,-gC,Le
TD

E . 8 oCt
N 2 .2
O
t ..,e...- ti2 6-

c,''....-'2-.Ei
g..g 7)
_
d 2
1.5. -g .641 .2 ,,'.
,I'
F
.5'
1,5.
A
2 :
E, 1
.> 7{? 1 ,A .¡ g -:-,i?§,., g
i•i 8. - 2. 2. 6, . -a .:-.
1A •L 1
44 Cf.; 6:1 •• kj
l 1I .:*
1 B' a-
gtO5i tOLS
I Id

Q . o
C‘I >
° 0 •
U • • rà
.E
4= 0
182 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
hardware stores, and it is an easy matter to bend heaters should light up. The screen- supply regu-
a piece of it to form the cover. Make the cover lators should glow. If avoltmeter is available, the
with lips on the vertical portion that slip tightly high- voltage supply should show first around 400
over the sides of the Minibox, and with a bend volts, and then rise slowly to about 950 volts.
at the bottom that can be fastened to the chassis. Switch off the power; the plate supply voltage
Another piece of cane metal should be cut to should decay to less than 100 in under 20 seconds,
serve as abottom cover; mounting the chassis on indicating that the 40,000-ohm resistors are
rubber feet lifts it above the table and permits "bleeding" the supply. Note also how long it
good air circulation through the unit. takes for the voltage to reach a value of only a
The self- supported inductor L3can be wound few volts: this will demonstrate forcefully how
on the envelope of one of the 6DE4 rectifiers, long it takes to discharge a high-capacitance
removed and pulled apart slightly to give the filter.
specified winding length. The taps on L4 are When the power supply has discharged, plug in
made by first bending inward the wire on either the 6146, connect the plate cap, and set S4 Y O
side of the turn to be tapped, then looping the STAND BY. Set the neutralizing capacitor C2 at
tap wire around the turn and soldering it securely half capacitance and the band switches on 80
in place. Both L3 and L4are supported only by meters. Turn on the power and set the meter
their leads. switch, S3, to read plate current. The 6146
heater should warm up. Now flip 54 to operate;
Testing and Adjustment the meter should read 10-20 ma. (.2-.4 on the
With all tubes in their sockets except the 6146, scale). Switching to read screen current, the
the line cord.should he plugged in and the power meter should show under 1ma. ( 2 divisions on
switch turned on. The bias- supply 0A3 should the meter). There should be no grid current.
glow immediately and the rectifier filament and Turn off the power and remove the three

Fig. 6-50—Bottom view of

the all-purpose amplifier.
The 150- ma. filter choke is
mounted on the left-hand
wall; the smaller filter
choke, the small filament
transformer (
T;in Fig. 6-
49)
and the selenium rectifier
are mounted on the right-
hand wall. The strap of alu-
minum, visible below the
meter at the top right, pro-
vides additional support for
the length of RG-58/U cable
that runs to the output coax-
ial connector. All power
leads except the high volt-
age to the plate are run in
shielded wire.
A 90-Watt Amplifier 183
6DE4 6DES

tr- 71t

Fig. 6-51-- Power supply section of the all -

purpose amplifier.

L-7- henry 150- ma. choke ( Stancor C-1710).

1,- 81
2 -
/ henry 50- ma. choke ( Stancor C-1279).
P,— Fused line plug, 3- ampere fuses.
S,—S.p.s.t. toggle.
T1-800 v.c.t. at 200 ma., 6.3 v. at 5 amp., 5 v. at 3 amp ( Allied Radio Knight 62 G 033).

rectifier tubes. Connect at J1 the driver or excita- about 100 ma. plate current. Under these condi-
tion source to be used — less than a watt is re- tions of loading, a sideband signal will kick the
quired for linear operation, and only a shade plate current to about 40 or 50 ma. on peaks.
more for Class C. Use the drive at a high fre- Measured p.e.p. input before clipping should be
quency, such as 21 or 28 Mc. Turn on the ampli- 60 to 70 watts.
fier and switch the band switches to the band When used as a Class- C amplifier, the drive
corresponding to the excitation-source frequency. should be increased to where about 2 to 3 ma.
Adjust the grid tuning capacitor for a show of grid current is drawn, and the loading to where
grid current; peak the tuning and ( if necessary) the 6146 draws about 125 ma. If the amplifier is
adjust the excitation for ahalf-scale reading of plate modulated, the plate current should be re-
grid current. With the loading capacitor C4 set duced to 95 ma., to stay within the tube ratings.
at half scale, swing the tuning capacitor Cs Since the amplifier uses a fixed and " stiff"
through its range. Watch carefully for a slight screen supply, it is good practice always to bring
flicker in grid current. If one is found, adjust up the excitation and loading together, while
the neutralizing capacitor C2 until the flicker is checking to see that the screen current never
minimized. The amplifier is now neutralized. exceeds about 15 ma. In normal Class-C opera-
Alternatively, a sensitive detector of r.f. can be tion the screen current will run around 10 ma.
coupled at the output connector, /2, and used
instead of the grid-current flicker. Adjust C2
for minimum r.f. in the output when the plate
circuit is tuned through resonance. Turn off
the power switch and disconnect the excitation
source.
Remove the sensitive detector, if used, and
replace the rectifier tubes. Turn on the power
and switch the meter to read plate current. With
the grid and plate circuits switched to the same
band ( 10, 15, 20 or 40) it should be possible to
swing the grid and plate tuning to any combina-
tion of settings with no change in plate current
reading. This indicates that the amplifier is stable
and free from oscillation. ( The amplifier can be
made to oscillate on 80 meters with no grid or
plate loading, but in loaded operation it will be
stable.)
The antenna and excitation can now be con- Fig. 6-52—Exploded view of the cable clamp used to
nected and the amplifier used in normal fashion. hold the coaxial cable running to J,. The top plate
Used as a linear amplifier, the excitation should is a 11
2 -
/ inch square of sheet aluminum with holes at
be adjusted just below the level that would kick the four corners for 6-32 screws. The arch is a 7
46-
the grid-current indication on signal peaks. inch wire strap that mounts diagonally under the
Proper loading will be obtained when a steady chassis. When tightened, the top plate clamps the
carrier just under the grid-current level is used cable braid to the chassis; the arch lends support to
for drive and the loading at resonance is set for the cable.
184 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

AN 811-A 200-WATT GROUNDED-GRID LINEAR AMPLIFIER

The amplifier shown in Figs. 6-53, 6-55 and To meter grid or plate current, a 0-1 milli-
6-56 requires about 15 watts of excitation power ammeter is used as a 0-1 voltmeter to measure
to drive it to full peak input ( 200 watts) on 3.5 the drop across 10 ohms in the grid circuit or 2.5
through 30 Mc. For convenience and compact- ohms in the plate circuit, giving 0-100 and 0-400
ness, the amplifier is completely self-contained; ma. full-scale readings respectively.
silicon- diode rectifiers in the plate and bias sup- A panel operate- standby switch, S4,removes
plies contribute materially to the small size. the fixed grid bias during operate periods. If an
Referring to the circuit diagram in Fig. 6-54, external control is available, is in a VOX-
the input impedance of the grounded- grid 811-A controlled s.s.b. exciter, S4 is left open and the
amplifier ( about 300 ohms) is stepped down external circuit connected through /2.
through an " L" network to offer approximately All of the power is derived from asingle husky
50 ohms as a load for the driver. The network TV power transformer. The plate power is de-
makes for little or no complication, since the cir- rived from a voltage-doubling circuit using in-
cuits are fixed-tuned and, once adjusted, need not expensive silicon diodes and 450- volt electrolytic
be touched again. It will be noted that on the 15- capacitors. The filament voltage for the 811-A is
and 10- meter bands no lumped capacitance is used obtained from one transformer secondary, and
in the network; this is because the capacitance of another 6.3- volt secondary is utilized in avoltage-
the length of RG-58/U running from SIB is suf- doubling circuit to provide cut-off bias for the
ficient. 811-A, to avoid diode- noise problems if an elec-
The filament choke, RFC 1,is an inexpensive tronic t.r. switch is used. High-voltage filtering
homemade one ( described later). Since the fila- is furnished by four 40 - pf. capacitors connected
ment winding of the power transformer has no in series.
center tap, two 22-ohm resistors are used to pro-
vide a center tap for the filament circuit. In the Construction
band- switched plate circuit, acommercial induc- The amplifier is built on a 10 X 12 X 3- inch
tor ( with two winding pitches) is used, and be- aluminum chassis, with apanel and back panel of
cause the output capacitor is not large enough on 0.063-inch aluminum measuring 9 x 12 inches.
80 meters, on that band an additional 500 pf. is One- inch aluminum angle stock is used to make
switched in by S2. side and top lips that take the perforated-

Fig. 6-53—The 200-watt grounded-grid amplifier with its perforated- metal cover re-
moved. This compact amplifier uses an 811-A and a simple 1300- volt power supply. To
simplify construction, two bondswitches are used (
input at lower left, plate at upper
right). The single meter can be switched to read either grid or plate current.
200-Watt Linear 185

AMPLIFIER
R FC,
OUTPUT
5KV.
811-A

250 • RO- 58/

00 47

‘—j— 560 pl.

L, L, L. L,
610/.

01 PLATE
GRID
10
INPUT RG- 58/U

51.
80
JI

10

Fig. 6-54—Circuit diagram of the 200- watt grounded-grid linear amplifier. Unless specified, all capacitances are
In picofarads ( pf. or 1.q.d.), all resistors are 1
2 watt, all resistances are in ohms. Capacitors marked with polarity
/
are electrolytic; 0.01-µf. capacitors are 1200-volt disk ceramic.

Ci-250-
pf. variable, 0.045-inch spacing (Johnson type Pi—Mounting plate a.c. plug ( Amphenol 61-M1).
154-1). RFC1—Dual winding, 29 turns No. 14 Formvar or
Cs-3-gang capacitor, 365 pf. each section (Allied Nylclad, spacewound on ferrite rod. See text.
Radio 60 L726). RFC2-4 turns No. 14, %-inch diam., 11/4 inch long,
CRi, CR2-200 p.i.v. 750 ma. silicon ( RCA 1N3253 or wound outside two 100-ohm 1-watt resistors
equiv.). in parallel.
C123, C124—Each three 600-p.i.v. 500- ma, silicon diodes RFC3-1-mh. r.f. choke ( National R- 154U).
in series ( RCA 1N3195 or equiv.). 6- position rotary ceramic (Centralab PA-
11, Jo— Coaxial receptacle, chassis type ($0-239). 2003).
Jo—Open-circuit jack. S2- 1-pole 6-position rotary ceramic (Centralab PA-
14-5-9-gh., adjustable (Miller 4505). 2001).
14-3-5-µh., adjustable ( Miller 4504). So—D.p.d.t. toggle.
1.-1-1.6-01., adjustable (Miller 4502). S4, So—S.p.s.t. toggle.
1.8-0.4-0.8-µh., adjustable ( Miller 4501). v.c.t. 400 ma.; 6.3 v. 8.5 a.; 6.3 v. 4.5 a.
Le-22 turns No. 12, 2- inch diameter, tapped at 2, 3, 5, (Stancor P-8167).
and 10 turns from C1 end ( Air-Dux PI 1608D6). Knobs are Barker & Williamson 901; bar knobs are
National HRB.
186 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
aluminum cover. The cover, not shown in the eral capacitors associated with this circuit.
photographs, is asingle piece 10 inches wide bent Lengths of RG-58/U run from the arms of Si
in a broad " U" shape; it is held to the lips by to the input jack, J1,and the 811-A socket. The
sheet- metal screws. unused socket pin ( No. 2) is used as a tie point
Capacitors C1 and C 2 are fastened to the top of for the coaxial line and the 0.01-µf, coupling
the chassis by 6-32 hardware; C1 is located far capacitor.
enough in from the edge so that its stator will The filament choke, RFC 1,is made by winding
clear the cane-metal side by 1 4 inch or better. The No. 14 Formvar or Nylclad wire on a 71 /2-inch
plate bandswitch, S2,is supported by an alumi- length of / 12-inch diameter ferrite antenna core
num bracket that is fastened to the rear of C1. (Lafayette Radio, N.Y.C., MS- 333). To obtain
The 500- pf. plate-blocking capacitor and the a high- Q coil, the two windings are wound par-
RFC 2 assembly are supported by the top of allel but spaced by lacing twine to give 29 turns
RFC 3,and the 500- pf. 80- meter output padding in each coil. The coil is wound by securing the
capacitor is bolted to the chassis below 52.Plate two ends and the length of spacing twine in avise,
coil Le is supported by two 2V2- inch ceramic securing the other wire ends to a2- terminal strip
pillars. To reduce the height taken by the 811-A held in place by a - inch diameter nylon cable
above the chassis, the 811-A socket is supported clamp, and then winding the coils as the wires are
below the chassis by mounting it ( Amphenol stretched taut. Each turn of the core winds two
49RSS4) in a recessed shell ( Amphenol 61-61). turns of wire and one of twine. The twine is left
Underneath the • chassis, the two toggle on the coil, and no insulation is required between
switches, the 6.3-volt pilot lamp, and the band- wires and core when the recommended surface
switch S1 are mounted on the front lip of the covering ( Formvar or Nylclad) is used. The
chassis. The input inductors, L1 through 1. 5,are choke assembly is supported below the chassis by
clustered around the bandswitch, as are the sev- 1- inch ceramic posts and the nylon cable clamps.

Fig. 6-55—A top view of the 811-A amplifier. The adjusting screws for the five switched
input circuits project through the chassis under the meter. A bracket fastened to the
back plate of the plate tuning capacitor ( lower left) supports the plate bandswitch.
200-Watt Linear 187
The bias- supply rectifiers, resistors and capaci- with adriver capable of delivering apeak signal
tors or mounted on a multiple tie-point strip. of 15 watts or so. A dummy load should be used
In the high- voltage supply, the diodes and capaci- during initial tests, and an output indicator ( r.f.
tors are mounted on a 4 X 7-inch piece of 'M- ammeter or voltmeter) is very useful. Using a
inch thick prepunched phenolic terminal board c.w. signal to drive the amplifier, it should be
(Vector 85G24EP) with push- in terminals ( Vec- found possible to load the amplifier so that at
tor T-28). The resistors, both 50-ohm 5- watt and plate- circuit resonance the plate current is 160
25,000-ohm 10- watt, are mounted on tie points or ma. and the grid current is about 27 ma. As the
narrow strips of terminal board located several drive is reduced the grid and plate currents
inches from the diode and capacitor board. The should drop back at roughly the same rate. If
reason for this is simple: the resistors become hot the amplifier is not loaded heavily enough, the
and might damage the diodes if mounted too close grid current will run proportionately higher than
to them. The 2.5-ohm 3-watt resistor consists of the plate current. There is, of course, no real sub-
three 7.5-ohm 1-watt resistors connected in par- stitute for atwo-tone linearity test, as outlined in
allel. Chapter Eleven, but the above figures will serve
as a rough guide. When the amplifier has been
Tuning loaded to the figures above with a c.w. driving
When the wiring has been completed and the source, an s.s.b. signal driving it to peak output
power supply checked (+ 1500 volts no-load, about will kick the plate meter to about 80 ma. ( 0.2 on
1450 with the 811-A drawing idling current of meter) or the grid meter to 15 ma. ( 0.15 on
30 ma.), the amplifier can be checked on aband meter).

-a1111111.1k
O e
Fig. 6-56—The 811-A socket is mounted below the chassis in a recessed shell. One end of
the homemade filament choke is supported near the socket, and the other end is
mounted near the transformer. Four 25,000-ohm bleeder resistors ( bottom) and two
50-ohm resistors ( upper left) are mounted well away from the plate-supply diodes
(left) and bias diodes (top center, to right of filament choke).
188 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

A SELF-CONTAINED 500-WATT TRANSMITTER

Figs. 6-57 through 6-62 show the details of a ventional full-wave rectifier circuit with an
500- watt c.w. transmitter, completely self-con- ICAS d.c. output rating of 300 ma. at 750
tained except for the external remote v.f.o. tun- volts. A bridge rectifier is used with this
ing box shown in Figs. 6-61 and 6-62. Provision transformer so that an output voltage of 1500
is made for introducing s.s.b. inpùt at the grid of is obtained. The short duty cycle of c.w. or s.s.b.
the driver stage. While plate modulation can be operation makes it possible to draw up to the
applied to the final amplifier in the usual manner, rated maximum of the 7094 ( 330 ma.) through
ratings of the plate power supply limit the safe a choke- input filter without a prohibitive rise in
input to about 250 watts. transformer temperature.
The circuit is shown in Fig. 6-60. Switch S2 The low-voltage supply has two rectifiers. A
permits either v.f.o. or crystal-controlled opera- full-wave rectifier with a capacitive- input filter
tion using a6AH6 oscillator. Either 80- or 40- provides 400 volts for the plate of the driver and
meter crystals may be used. The v.f.o. circuit is the screen of the final amplifier. A tap on avolt-
in the 80- meter band and S1 selects either of two age divider across 400 volts provides 300 volts
frequency ranges — 3.5 to 4 Mc. for complete for the plates of the oscillator, buffer and keyer
coverage of all bands, and 3.5 to 3.6 Mc. for tubes. A half- wave rectifier with a choke- input
greater bandspread over the low- frequency ends filter supplies 250 volts of bias for the keyer and
of the wider bands. The plate circuit of the oscil- fixed bias for the 2E26 and 7094 when they are
lator is on 40 meters for all output bands except operating as Class AB' linear amplifiers.
80 meters where it is non- resonant.
Control Circuits
A 6CL6 buffer separates the oscillator and the
first keyed stage. This stage doubles to 20 meters S7 is the main power switch. It turns on the
for 20- and 10-meter output and triples to 15 low-voltage, filament and bias supplies. Until
meters. The driver is a 2E26 which doubles to it has been closed, the high-voltage supply can-
10 meters and works straight through on all not be turned on. In addition to turning on the
other bands. This stage is neutralized and a high-voltage supply, S8 operates the relay K1
potentiometer in its screen circuit serves as an which applies screen voltage to the final ampli-
excitation control. fier. Thus, to protect the screen, screen voltage
The final is a 7094, also neutralized, with a cannot be applied without applying plate voltage
pi-network output circuit using a B&W 851 simultaneously. h is in parallel with S8 so that
band- switching inductor unit. the high- voltage supply can be controlled re-
A differential break-in keying system using a motely from an external switch. Also, in parallel
12AU7 is included. Both the final amplifier and with the primary of the high- voltage trans-
driver are keyed by the grid-block method. former is another jack, ..17, which permits control
The differential is adjusted by RI.Clicks are of an antenna relay or other device by S8 if
prevented by envelope- shaping circuits which in- desired.
clude C7, C11 and the grid-leak resistances. The V.F.O.-SET switch S5 turns on the exciter
The 100-ohm meter shunts give a full-scale and grounds the screen of the final amplifier.
reading of 50 ma., the 51-ohm shunts a full- S2 has three positions. One is for crystal con-
scale reading of 100 ma., and the 10-ohm resistor trol, the second for v.f.o. operation, and the third
in the negative high-voltage lead provides a500- position is for operating the last two stages of
ma. scale. the transmitter as linear amplifiers with an ex-
Power Supply ternal s.s.b. exciter. In addition to shifting the
The plate transformer in the high-voltage input of the driver siage from the buffer ampli-
supply uses a transformer designed for a con- fier to an s.s.b. input connector, fixed bias is
provided for ABi operation of both stages.

Construction
The transmitter is assembled on a 17 X 13 X

Fig. 6-57—A 500-watt transmitter. Power supplies and

a differential keyer are included. It operates with
the external v.f.o. tuner shown in Fig. 6-58. Controls
along the bottom, from left to right, are for low.
voltage power, v.f.o./crystals/s.s.b. switch, driver
tank switch, driver tank capacitor, final loading,
v.f.o. set switch, and high-voltage. Above, from left
to right, are controls for excitation, final tank switch,
final tank capacitor and meter switch. The band.
switch pointer is made by cutting down the metal
skirt of a dial similar to the one to the right.
All dials are Johnson.
Pig. 6-38 The only shielding required Oh
top of the chassis is the amplifier enclo-
sure shown. A perforated cover for the
enclosure is not shown.

4- inch aluminum chassis with a 19 X

12 1
/4-inch panel. The amplifier enclo-
sure measures 8, A inches wide, 8g
inches deep and 7, A inches high. The
three permanent sides shown in Fig.
6-55 can be bent up from asingle sheet
of solid aluminum stock. The top and
back ( not shown) are made from asin-
gle piece of Reynolds perforated sheet aluminum. tween the outer end of the low- frequency section
The tube socket is mounted on 34- inch ce- and the plate cap of the 2E26. Coil-tap leads run
ramic cones over a large hole cut in the chassis through small feed- through points or grom-
and covered with a patch of perforated sheet. meted clearance holes in the side of the box.
The tank capacitor C15 is mounted on metal The loading capacitor C16 is placed so that its
spacers to bring its shaft level up to that of the shaft is symmetrical with the shaft of S3, and S5
switch on the B&W inductor which is mounted is spaced from it to balance S2 at the other end.
directly on the chassis. The two shafts are spaced
The V.F.O. Tuner
4inches.
The v.f.o. tuner is assembled in a 5 X 6 X
Exciter 9- inch aluminum box ( Premier AC- 596). The
A 4 X 5 X 6- inch aluminum box is used as dual tuning capacitor C2 has 7plates, 4rotor and
the foundation for the exciter. The driver tank 3stationary, in each section. In the front section,
capacitor is centered on the chassis with its cen- which is used to cover the entire 80- meter band,
ter approximately 3 inches back from the front the two rotor plates nearest the front should be
edge of the chassis. The capacitor specified has removed. This leaves two rotor plates and two
an insulated mounting. If an uninsulated ca- active stator plates, the front stator plate being
pacitor is substituted, an insulating mounting inactive. In the rear section, the front rotor plate
must be provided. The shafts of S2 and 53 are and the last two rotor plates are removed. This
spaced 2V2 inches and centered on the front end leaves one rotor plate riding between two stators.
of the box. On the side of the box toward the The capacitor is mounted on a bracket fas-
tuning capacitor, the oscillator tube, the buffer tened against the bottom of the box, although it
tube, the low- frequency section (L6) of the could be mounted from the front cover with
driver tank coil, and the 2E26 are lined up so as spacers to clear the hub of the Millen 10035 dial.
to clear the tank capacitor and its shaft. The The shaft of the capacitor should be central on
latter is fitted with an insulated cou-
pling and a panel-bearing unit. The
slug- tuned coils are mounted in holes
near the bottom edge of the box. Neu-
tralizing capacitor Cg is mounted at the
rear end of the box, close to the 2E26
socket. The high- frequency section
(L5) of the tank coil is suspended be-

Fig. 6-59—The exciter is assembled using

a standard aluminum box as the founda-
tion. The perforated cover has been re-
moved. The bottom of the chassis should also
hove a perforated metal cover.
 0 SC.- DB LR. B FR - MULT.

3.5 OR 71.1e.
10 1000

XTAL [ h e

6AH6 6 6CL6
SSS .
6
rj3I.
C
:err-
1000

PI .1
1
S.S.13.0 S2A
> A
1000
VEO.
> too Ra
220

22 K + 120 v. REG.

RG-22U I2AU7

KEYER
2 RFC,
.44
2.2rnh.
V.F0.
SET
MEG. 47 K
18K C.W. AM.
S LY. _2141.
150 MA.

4
680 V. + R„

-5
6X 501
2 4
7:0
,
BIAS

-25 V

63V.
2200
3

S6B
Fig. 6-60- Circuit of the 500-watt self-contained transmitter. Capacitance less than
0.001 µf. are in µµf. Fixed capacitors of capacitance greater than 100 µO.should
be disk ceramic, except as noted below. Fixed capacitors of 100 µµf. and 220
µµf. should be mica. Capacitors marked with polarity are electrolytic. Resistors not
otherwise marked are Y2 watt. R.f. chokes in µh. unless otherwise marked.

Bo-Blower (Allied 72P715). K,-S.p.s.t. 115- volt a.c. relay ( Advance GHA/1C/
Co, C- 100-µµf. air trimmer ( Hammarlund APC-100- 115VA or similar).
B). 1. 1-35 µh.-32 turns No. 18, 2 inches diameter, 2
Co- Midget dual variable, 25 µµf. per section (John- inches long ( Airdux 1616).
son 167-51 altered as described in the text). 1,-Approx. 10 µh.-65 turns No. 26 enam., on
C4, Cs- 0.001-µf. silver mica. inch iron- slug form (Waters CSA-1011-3).
C4- 30-µµf. mica trimmer ( National M-30). LO-Approx. 2 µh.-16 turns No. 26 enam., close-
CI, CII-0.1 -
id. paper ( keyer shaping). wound at center of form similar to L.
Co- 30-µµf, miniature variable ( Johnson 160-130). 1“-Approx. 1 µh.-13 turns No. 26 enam., 1/2 inch
C4- 100-µµf. midget variable ( Johnson 167-11). long at center of form similar to Ls.
Coo- 330-µµf. mica. 1. 5-16 turns No. 20, /
34 inch diameter, 1 inch long,
C,,-10-gisf. neutralizing capacitor ( Johnson 159-125). tapped at 10 turns and 13 turns from La
CIO- 0.001- AL 3000- volt disk ceramic. end ( Airdux 616).
Co.- 0.001-µf. 5000- volt ceramic (CRL 8585). 1. 4-40 turns No. 16, 11/4 inches diameter, 23/
4 inches

C,5-250-AAL 2000- volt variable (Johnson 154-1). long, tapped at mid point and at L5 end
CM- Triple- gang broadcast variable, 365 µµf. or more (Airdux 1016).
per section, sections connected in parallel. 1,-3 turns No. 14, /
12 inch diameter, 34 inch long.
1,- One- inch 115- volt panel lamp. I. s-4 turns r'r. X J,- inch copper strip, 1% inches
Jo- Cable connector for RG-22/U (Amphenol 83- diameter, 21
/
2 inches long ( part of B&W 851
22R, UG-103/U). coil unit).
Jo- Crystal socket (Millen 33102). L-4 3
/
4 turns Na. 8, 21
/
2 inches diameter, 13/
4 inches

Ja, Js- Coaxial receptacle ( 50-239). long, tapped at 13/4 turns from L end, plus
is- Key jack, open circuit. 91
/
2 turns No. 12, 21
/
2 inches diameter, /
11
2

J7, is-Chassis- mounting' a.c. receptacle (Amphenol inches long, tapped at 6 turns from output
61-F). end ( part of B&W 851 coil unit).
 SSB IN PU T
DRI VER AM P
3.5- 28 Mc
3.5 - 141.1c. 1000
t
O 2.5 KU
Ci2
100
L7
7094
7 1000
3.5
100

OUTPUT

S 2D

S SB

eopf f
450 V. I 20W
N 0

!LI
U
450V. 20«

RI4
out + 12.5K
450 V T . 20IK
se

10 AMP toA. 95
816 450 V I 20W
25 VCI

O P
00,0. I2.5 K

E XT RELAY REM OTE KV 450 V.1- 20«

I
2AU7 6 X5 6A H6 6CL6 2E26 7094
SWI TC H

RFC7, RFC2, RFC3, RFC4, RFC2-750 ¡oh. rf. choke ( Na-

tional R-33).
RFC 5, RFC2-1-mh. r.f. choke ( National R-100).
RFC7-120 µh. r.f. choke ( Raypar R2-101).
RFC2-2.5-mh. r.f. choke ( National R-100).
I.70-7-hy. 150- ma, filter choke (Stancor C-1710). Si-Single- pole ceramic rotary switch (Centralab 2000,
L77 -15-hy. 75- ma, filter choke ( Stoncor C-1002). 2 of 12 positions used).
la2-5/25-hy. 300- ma. swinging filter choke (Triad Sa-Two-wafer ceramic rotary switch (Centralab PA.
C- 33A). 300 index, PA- 4 wafers. 52,.. and SIB are on
M I-Shielded 0- 5- ma. d.c. milliammeter, 31
2 -
/ inch one wafer, S20, S2D nd SSE on second wafer).
rectangular ( Phoostron). Sa-Three-wafer ceramic rotary switch (Centralab PA-
Pa, Pa- Plug for RG-22/U cable (Amphenol 83-22SP). 301 index, wafers PA-0, 5 positions used).
12,- 100,000- ohm potentiometer. S4- Part of B&W 851 coil unit.
R2, R3, 115-100 ohms, 5%. S5- 2- pole 3- position ceramic rotary switch (Centralab
Ri -20,000- ohm 4-watt potentiometer (Mallory M20- 2003, two positions used).
MPK). Sa -Double- pole ceramic rotary switch (Centralab
Pa, Rs- 51 ohms, 1watt, 5%. 2003).
Pa- Two 10,000- ohm 2- watt resistors in series. S7, SS-S.p.s.t. toggle switch.
RD- Three 100- ohm 1-watt noninductive resistors in 71- Power transformer: 750 v.a.c., c.t., 150 ma.; 5
parallel. volts 3 amps.; 6.3 volts, 4.7 amps. (Thordar-
R»-25,000 ohms, 25 watts with slider. son 22R06).
R5-15,000 ohms, 20 watts, with slider. T2- Filament transformer: 5 volts, c.t., 3 amps. (Triad
Pa2-4700 ohms, 1watt. F-7X).
R73-2200 ohms, 1watt. T5- Filament transformer: 2.5 volts, c.t., 3 amps.
127.7-10 ohms ( five 51-ohm 1-watt 5% resistors in (Triad F- ix).
parallel). T2- Plate transformer: 1780 volts, c.t., 310 ma., center
Pas- 1000 ohms, /2
1 watt 5%. tap not used (Triad P- 14A).
192 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
the front cover. The coil is suspended between a
pair of 2- inch ceramic pillars ( Millen 31002).
It is placed immediately to the rear of the tuning
II ----n II
capacitor. The two air trimmers, C1 and Cs,are I

mounted on the top side of the box with their

shafts protruding so that they can be adjusted
from the top. Switch S1 is mounted in one end
of the box and the cable connector at the other
end.
The unit is housed in astandard cabinet ( Bud
C-1781) having an 8 X 10- inch panel. The dial
should be fastened to the panel, making sure
that the hub of the dial lines up accurately with
the shaft of the tuning capacitor. Then the box
is inserted in the cabinet through the front open-
Fig. 6-62— Interior of the v.f.o. tuning box showing
ing. The switch shaft goes out through a hole
the mounting of the coil and other components.
drilled in the side of the cabinet, and the cable

bend the rear rotor plate of the 80-meter section

of C2 outward alittle at atime to get the desired
bandspread. Always reset the trimmer to bring
3500 kc. at zero on the dial.
The same procedure should be followed in ad-
justing for the other v.f.o. range, aiming for 3600
kc. (or above if desired) at 100 on the dial.
The 2E26 should now be plugged in and the
excitation control R4 set at the ground end ( zero
screen voltage). S2 should he set in the v.f.o.
position. With low voltage on and the key closed,
a 2E26 grid- current reading should be obtained
with the band switch in the 80- meter position.
With the switch in the 40- meter position, the
slug of L2 should be adjusted for maximum grid
Fig. 6-61—The remote v.f.o. tuning unit is housed in current to the 2E26. With the band switch in the
a standard metal cabinet. The cable at the right 20- meter position, L3 should be adjusted for
plugs into the main chassis. maximum grid current, and then the slug of L4
should be adjusted for maximum grid current
goes through a hole in the opposite end to the with the band switch in the 15- meter position.
cable connector. The dial should be set to read Now insert the 7094 in its socket and neutral-
zero at maximum capacitance of the tuning ca- ize the 2E26 as described earlier in this chapter.
pacitor. The box should be supported on spacers. Testing of the final amplifier requires a load
applied to the output connector. Two 150-watt
Adjustment lamps connected in parallel should serve the
With all tubes except the rectifiers out of their purpose. Turning on the high voltage will also
sockets, the power supplies should be checked apply screen voltage through the relay Ki. With
first to be sure that they are functioning prop- both band switches set to 10 meters, and C16 set
erly. The voltage output of the low-voltage sup- at about half capacitance, quickly tune the out-
ply should be in excess of 400 volts, the biasing put circuit to resonance as indicated by the
voltage 300 or more and the high voltage above plate-current dip. The load lamp should show
1500. The slider on the low-voltage bleeder an indication of output. Switch the meter to
should be set at approximately three quarters read grid current and neutralize as described
of the way from ground. The slider on the bias- earlier in this chapter. After neutralization the
supply bleeder should be set for a reading of amplifier can be loaded to rated plate current.
—250 volts to ground. If it is above the rated maximum value, increase
Plug in the oscillator and buffer tubes and an C16 and retune to resonance, or decrease C16 if
80-meter crystal if one is available; otherwise the plate current is below the rated value.
connect the v.f.o. tuner. With the low-voltage With the final adjusted and the entire trans-
supply turned on, the 0A2 should glow. When mitter operating, make afinal check on the volt-
the key is closed, the 0A2 should stay ignited. age at the tap on the low- voltage supply, adjust-
The v.f.o. can now be adjusted to frequency. ing the slider if necessary to bring the voltage to
Set C2 at maximum capacitance. Set Si to the 300 with the key closed. Be sure to turn off all
80- meter position. Adjust the 80- meter trimmer voltages each time an adjustment is made.
until a signal is heard at 3500 kc. on acalibrated The last adjustment is in the keyer. Adjust the
receiver. Then set the receiver to 4000 kc. and potentiometer Ri to the point where the oscil-
tune the v.f.o. until the signal is heard. If the lator cannot be heard between dots and dashes
signal is not close to 100 on the dial, carefully at normal keying speed.
900-Watt Amplifier 193

A 900-WATT GROUNDED-GRID AMPLIFIER

The grounded-grid amplifier shown in Figs. allel and they are followed by a bridge rectifier
6-63, 6-65 and 6-66 uses a single 3-400Z triode and a capacitor filter. The primaries are shown
and an inexpensive silicon- diode power supply. connected in parallel, for 115-volt operation, but
Although the tube is capable of more than 900 if 230 volts a.c. is available, it is recommended
watts input, the additional power wouldn't that the primaries be connected in series for 230-
amount to much in decibels. Running at 900 volt operation. The transformers have enough
watts permits the use of relatively inexpensive resistance in their windings so that additional
components, and a voltmeter is not required to current-limiting resistors are not required. The
conform with FCC regulations. An exciter de- no-load d.c. voltage output is over 2500 volts,
livering 35 watts p.e.p. or more will drive the dropping to around 2400 with the idling plate
amplifier adequately. current of 70 ma. and to 2250 with a key-down
Referring to the circuit diagram in Fig. 6-64, current of 400 ma.
the input circuit is kept simple by not using a For maximum utilization of the power trans-
tuned circuit. The extra coaxial plug and re- formers, a very light bleeder current is used.
ceptacle were used as a construction expedient. However, for safety reasons ( to discharge the
A home-made choke, RFC 3, maintains the filter capacitor), a third pole of the power
cathode above r.f. ground. The plate circuit is switch, S3, shunts the 10,000-ohm bias resistor
a conventional band- switched pi network, with and allows the tube to discharge the filter. It
an additional 500 pf. switched in on the output is, however, an excellent idea to discharge the
side on 80 and 40 meters. filter with a "grounding stick" whenever work is
The plate and grid currents are metered to be done on the unit, since the filter ( 34 AL) is
constantly, by 0-500 and 0-250 milliammeters re- capable of storing a lethal amount of electrical
spectively. A 10,000-ohm resistor in the filament energy.
return provides substantially cut-off bias when The four rectifier legs of the power supply
the amplifier is on stand-by. are each made of four 1N3196 silicon diodes,
Since no suitable single plate transformer was protected against surges by 0.01-µf. disc ceramic
available, two plate transformers were used. The capacitors connected across them and equalized
secondaries ( 1840 v.c.t.) are connected in par- by 0.47-megohm resistors. The filter capacitor

Fig. 6-63—A 900- watt grounded-grid linear amplifier, complete with silicon-diode power supply.
Two transformers with secondaries connected in parallel furnish the plate power. Panel controls
are bandswitch ( to left of meters), loading ( upper) and plate tuning. Switches control filament
power, plate power and standby-operate.
220 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
use and close the key. A slight indication of 150 and 200 ma. With the transmitter fully
grid current should show on the meter. There is loaded, adjust C1 in the crystal oscillator so that
no plate or screen current because there are the lamp brilliance just starts to decrease. This
no screen or plate voltages on the amplifier. If is the optimum setting for C1 and no further ad-
no grid current is obtained, adjust C1 until grid justments are required.
current shows, or try another crystal. If ad.c. voltmeter is available, check the differ-
The next step is to peak the amplifier grid ent voltages in the setup. Using the power supply
circuit — that is, the 1626 v.f.o tank — for shown here, the plate voltage on the 1625s is
maximum grid-current reading. The v.f.o. trim- approximately 400 with the amplifier fully
mer capacitor is in an aluminum box on the loaded. With the plate voltage on the oscillator
top of the chassis at the rear. There is a 1 A- inch and screen voltage on the 1625s adjusted to 250
diameter hole in the side of the box; loosen the volts ( tap on R1), the oscillator screen voltage is
small screw visible through this hole, thus un- 160 volts. The oscillator takes approximately 30
locking the rotor shaft of the trimmer capacitor. ma. and the 1625 amplifier screens about 10 ma.
Move the rotor- arm shaft in either direction, when the amplifier is fully loaded.
observing the meter reading, and find the posi-
Getting on the Air
tion that gives the highest reading. This should
be something more than 10 ma. To put the transmitter on the air it is necessary
Now connect the plate and screen voltage leads only to connect an antenna to the antenna post
to P1.Be sure to turn off the power supply be- and connect a ground lead from the transmitter
fore making the connections! chassis to a water-pipe ground or to a metal
The first test of the rig should be with adummy stake driven in the ground. Almost any length
load; a 115-volt, 60-watt light bulb can be used of antenna will work, but for best results the
for this purpose. The lamp should be connected minimum length should not be less than about
between the antenna terminal and chassis ground. wavelength for the band in use. This is ap-
However, to make the lamp take power it may proximately 33 feet for 80 meters and 16 feet
be necessary to add capacitance in parallel with for 40 meters. It is of course better to make the
it. A receiving- type variable capacitor having antenna longer — and to be sure to get the far
250 µid. or more maximum capacitance will be end as high as possible.
adequate for the job. An output indicator will prove to be a handy
Turn on the power and allow the tubes to device for knowing when power is actually going
warm up, but leave the key open. Set the antenna into the antenna. For this purpose use a6.3- volt,
coupling control on the transmitter to 7 or 8, 150- ma, dial lamp. Connect two leads, each about
and set the variable capacitor connected across one foot long, to the shell and base of the bulb,
the dummy load to about maximum capacitance. respectively. Clip one lead to the antenna post
Next, close the key and adjust the antenna in- and the other lead on the antenna wire two feet
ductance control for an increase in càthode cur- from antenna post. A small amount of power
rent. Turn the frequency control for a dip in will go through the bulb and this will provide a
current reading. The indicated frequency will visual indication of output. Follow the same
probably differ from that of the crystal in use, tuning procedure as outlined above for the
but don't worry about it. dummy antenna. If the bulb gets so bright that it
Adjust the three transmitter controls, antenna is in danger of burning out, move the leads closer
inductance, antenna coupling, and frequency, together to reduce the pickup.
along with the variable capacitor across the lamp It may be found that certain antenna lengths
load, until the lamp lights up to apparently full won't work — that is, the amplifier won't load —
brilliance. The cathode current should be between no matter where the antenna coupling and in-
ductance are set. In such acase, connect avaria-
ble capacitor — like the one used with the lamp
dummy — between the antenna post and the
transmitter chassis. Adjust the capacitor and
antenna inductance for maximum brilliance of
the output indicator.
A superior antenna system uses a two- wire
feeder system and an antenna coupler; examples
are given in Chapters 13 and 14. If a coupler is
used, the transmitter and coupler should be con-
nected together with coax line. The inner con-
ductor of the coax should be connected to the
antenna terminal and the outer braid to the
transmitter case, as close to the antenna terminal
as possible. If desired, the antenna terminal can
be removed and acoax fitting substituted.
Fig. 6- 93— This bottom view of the crystal oscillator When the coveted General Class ticket is ob-
shows the arrangement of components. Terminal tained, it is only necessary to unplug the crystal
strips are used for the cable connections and also oscillator, put the original tube back in the rig,
as a support for C,, the feedback capacitor. and move out of the Novice band.
900-Watt Amplifier 195
aluminum chassis, with a standard 10 3 4 -
/ inch In the power- supply filter above the chassis,
aluminum rack panel. A solid back plate fur- the capacitors are held in place by a strip of 34 -
/
nishes support for the input and output jacks, inch thick clear plastic ( Lucite or Plexiglas)
as well as for the strips of 3 4 -
/ inch aluminum drilled with 3/-
4 inch holes to clear the capacitor
angle used to support the perforated- metal cover. terminals. This clamp strip is held to the chassis
Similar strips on the back of the panel furnish by 4- inch long insulators ( two 2- inch ones back
cover support also. The panel is fastened to the to back), and the capacitors are insulated from
chassis by the switches and by supplementary the chassis by a strip of clear plastic on which
6-32 hardware. However, since the power they stand. The capacitors are separated by
transformers are heavy and the completed unit strips of clear plastic cemented to the bottom
would be flimsy otherwise, two panel brackets strip of plastic. ( Plastic cements are available
made of 3 /-
4 inch copper tubing, flattened at the in hardware and model- supply stores. Test it
ends, tie the chassis and panel together. A view- first to insure that it is suitable for the plastic
ing window in the panel is a rectangular hole you are using.)
covered with aluminum screen. Underneath the chassis, the construction is
The tuning capacitor, C1,is mounted on the straightforward. Multiple tie-point strips are
chassis and the loading capacitor, C2,is sup- used to support components where necessary.
ported by an aluminum bracket fastened to the The filament choke, RFC 3,is wound directly on
front of C1.This relieves the need for removing the ferrite rod by treating a long "hairpin" of
the paint from the front panel, necessary if C2 No. 14 Formvar wire as a single conductor and
is to be connected back to the chassis through then space- winding it with string as the sepa-
the panel. The coil assembly is mounted four rator. When the 29 turns are completed, the
inches above the chassis on ceramic cone insu- closed end of the hairpin is cut to give two
lators back-to-back. Nearer the tube, the plate parallel windings of 29 turns each. The spacing
choke, RFC 2,supports the plate blocking ca- is not highly critical, but it does give a slightly
pacitor and the parasitic suppressor, RFC i-R 1. better choke than close-winding does.
A strip of rooting copper is used as a flexible The cooling fan is mounted on the bottom
connection between the parasitic suppressor and plate and connected by a length of "zip cord" to
the tube plate connector. the filament-transformer primary.

Fig. 6-65—Another view of the amplifier. The loading capacitor is mounted on an aluminum
bracket fastened to the front of the plate-tuning capacitor. The additional fixed capacitor, used
across the loading capacitor on 80 and 40 meters, is mounted on the chassis below the band
switch.
196 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

Fig. 6-66—A view underneath the chassis of

the amplifier. Protective capacitors and
balancing resistors for the diodes are
mounted on the other side of the perforated
insulating board. The seventh filter capacitor
is held to the chassis by a metal clamp.
Homemade filament r.f. choke can be seen
to the right of the tube socket. It is sup-
ported by two plastic cable clamps.

the filter, unless an auxiliary temporary

bleeder is used.
Having determined that the power
The silicon diodes are mounted on a sheet of supply is working ( and discharged), the tube can
pre- punched terminal board ( Vector 85G24EP), be replaced and a dummy load connected to the
with push- in terminals ( Vector T28) serving as output jack. Check for parasitic oscillations in all
tie points. The board is supported at one end the bands ( they are most likely to show up at
by a bracket mounted on the side wall of the 15 and 10 meters) by setting C1 and C., at
chassis. The 0.01-µf. capacitors and 0.47- maximum capacitance. Turn on the plate power
megohm resistors across the diodes are mounted at S., ; the plate meter should indicate about
on the other side of the board, using the same 70 ma. With one hand on S,, slowly decrease
terminals that are used for the diodes. The capacitance at C1 until minimum is reached. If
lone filter capacitor under the chassis is the one this can be done on every band, without any
that is connected to the chassis; it is held to change in plate current, the amplifier is free of
the chassis by a simple aluminum strap, since parasitic oscillations. To be absolutely certain,
no elaborate insulation precautions are necessary the test should be repeated later with the ex-
with this capacitor. citer unit connected and tuned to the band under
test ( but not driving the amplifier). If the plate
Adjustment current changes, flip off the power supply and,
After checking the operation of the blower observing all safety precautions, push the turns
and the filament voltage at the tube socket (4.75 of RFC 1 closer together. In some cases an ad-
to 5.25 for maximum tube life), the tube can ditional turn may be required, since variations
be removed and the power supply operation in component arrangements and ground con-
checked. A suitable voltmeter should be con- nections can affect the amplifier stability.
nected across the supply and, with every pre- Having determined the amplifier to be free
caution against shock, the switch S, can be from parasitics, it can be tuned by adjusting
closed. The output voltage should be almost drive and loading for ( single-tone drive) grid
2600 volts; open 53 and observe that it takes a current of 140 ma. and plate current of 400 ma.
very long time to discharge the filter unless a An output indicator is a very useful device
200-ohms- per- volt meter has been used. A when finding the operating conditions initially,
v.t.v.m. will take a very long time to discharge since the tubes and amplifiers may vary slightly.
A Kilowatt Amplifier 197

A KILOWATT 4-400A AMPLIFIER

Any transmitter delivering about ten watts through Rg. To reset the relay the screen voltage
will drive the amplifier shown in Figs. 6-67 must be momentarily disconnected so that the
through 6-72. When used as a Class AB I linear relay will return to its unenergized condition.
for sideband, a peak driving voltage of about This can be done by opening S7. The current at
150 is required. The plate tank circuit of the which the overload relay throws is set with shunt
amplifier is homemade from readily available resistor R7; maximum allowable screen dissipa-
parts. tion is 35 watts.
Referring to Fig. 6-68, the amplifier uses the
conventional neutralized grounded-cathode am- Contruction
plifier circuit. Switch Si B shorts out the unused The amplifier is built on a4 X 13 X 17-inch
part of grid coil L 2 , and 5 1A modifies the input chassis and uses a 14-inch rack panel. All major
link coupling. A Harrington Electronics GP-20L components are visible in the photographs. The
subassembly is shown, but an equivalent circuit Harrington grid circuit, output loading capacitors
can be built from standard parts. The output and switch, and filament transformer are all
circuit is ashunt- fed pi network for the amateur below the chassis.
bands 3.5 to 30 Mc. The smaller tuning capacitor, An insulated coupling must be used between
Cio, is used on 20, 15 and 10 meters, and the the rotor of C1 and the shaft going to the grid
larger Cu. is added for tuning on 40 and 80 tuning knob. Leads from the grid circuit are
meters. Having two tuning capacitors allows the brought out through the 3 X 5-inch aluminum
optimum L/C ratio to be maintained on all bands back plate via afeed- through capacitor and bush-
without resorting to an expensive vacuum ings. The input link is connected to the coax
variable. receptacle through a length of RG-58/U. The
A 17-c.f.m. blower supplies adequate forced air flanged cover of a 5 X 4 X 3-inch Minibox is
cooling for the 4-400A base and plate seals. The slipped over the grid assembly, and this cover is
blower is connected across the 4-400A filament secured to the back plate with four self-tapping
transformer primary and operates whenever the screws and to the main chassis with four 6-32
filament is energized. spade bolts.
All required control and metering circuits are The ganged loading capacitors ( C12 ) are
mounted on a separate chassis. Meters are pro- mounted off the chassis on 1-inch spacers. Con-
vided for amplifier grid current, screen current, nections in the output circuit are made with
cathode current and plate voltage, to comply
with the FCC rule regarding measurement of
input powers over 900 watts.
The amplifier is fixed biased at —225 volts for
Class C and — 150 volts for Class-AB i operation.
The full-wave rectifiers in the bias supply are
silicon diodes, with no warm-up time, and full
operating bias is applied as soon as the power
switch, Se, is closed. Time-delay relay K1 oper-
ates K2, which is in series with the screen supply
primary. Thus there is a60-second delay before
screen potential can be applied to the amplifier
tube.
The accessory a.c. socket, /8, and the high-
voltage filament transformer socket, /9, are
energized as soon as power switch S1 is closed.
The h.v. plate transformer is turned on by a
relay plugged into ho and controlled by the time-
delay relay. With this arrangement, it is impos-
sible to apply a.c. to the h.v. rectifier plates
before their filaments have had a chance to
warm up.
A variable autotransformer in series with the
screen- supply primary allows the screen voltage
to be adjusted from zero to about 800 volts under Fig. 6-67--The kilowatt 4-400A amplifier and its con-
load. This makes a convenient arrangement for trol unit ore mounted in a 21- inch gray hammer.
setting the screen voltage when changing from tone rack cabinet (Bud CR-1727). Shelf brackets (Bud
Class C to Class AB 1 or vice versa, and for ad- SA- 1350) are mounted on both sides of the cabinet
justing the power input of the amplifier. to hold the amplifier chassis. Below the meters, from
A screen overload protection circuit is in- left to right: filament pilot light, key-type a.c. switch,
cluded. If excessive screen current flows, K3 is Class Aft i/C bias switch, screen autotransformer,
energized and is kept energized by the current plate switch and plate pilot light.
 198 HIGH— FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

AMP
3.5 — 28 MC .
L
3 500 L4
"r—rif` 20 KV
R, •
3.5 — 28 MC .
50
C
7
TO I-4 OUTPUT
low
14,21,28 LI
4-400A 54
RFC2 0
140 204M. . 0-

3.5,7
514 28 3.0
INPUT 35 S2 s3
L2 28
CeT) 1C14 RFC4
2.5 MH
JI ""m)
1_, «sec, .
C
1000 30 Ci2 C13 y C15
SIB 3?5
3KV. 150
650
500
Cli

ZC3 /TT

RFC,
10M1-1. P

ào
iL RFC 3
YYY TO MV.SUPPLY

1000
500

.01 20KV.

(TO J6)
(To J
7)
INTERLOCK — BIAS 0 (ATM. 0 CON. o
1- SCREEN H.V.
METER
nt7

4 1MEG.
Ls 10 K 2W
10W. R6
_ _ _ 0-4000

Rz R3 R4 Rs _ I 4"
M4
17 4
( 7
003
0-100 \, 1000 5R4GY
1;4
OP - M2 M 3+
( 3 KV. V. 4
1200 V

0-500
C T

• MA 0-5 0
MI
8.5 H
460V.,CT 200 MA . ouf
500 V
5V.,C.T.
Tz E ry)__
STANDBY ,.
8022.
200W +30,Uf
L,
+ T
3
/ _ 500 V./.,

+2 100K
2W

6AMP AB 58

J
5e
Ji
S TO ....1
( )
3
N.V. Fl L .
XFORM ER
115V To 7 1
5
AC.

o
DECIMAL VALUES OF CAPACITANCE ARE IN,uf., PLATE C)
OTHERS ARE IN ppf. EXCEPT AS INDICATED. RELAY

•
Fig. 6-68— Circuit diagram of the 4-400A amplifier ( above the dashed line) and power supply/control unit.
Resistances are in ohms, and resistors are t/2-watt unless otherwise indicated. Capacitors not listed
are 600-volt disk ceramic except for those marked with polarity, which are electrolytic.
A Kilowatt 4-400A Amplifier 199
copper or brass strapping to provide low- induct-
ance leads.
The blower is mounted on the rear apron of
the chassis by four 6-32 spade lugs attached to
the walls of the blower output housing. A 11 /4 X
P/8- inch hole cut in the rear apron of the chassis
accommodates the blower; acork gasket is used
between the plastic blower housing and the am-
plifier chassis.
The chassis should be as airtight as possible to
provide maximum air flow to the 4-400A tube,
and any small holes should be sealed by covering
them with tape.

Plate Tank and Enclosure

The plate tank coil, .1. 4,band switch, S3,and
plate tuning capacitor switch, 52, are mounted
on two Lucite plates in the center of the chassis.
The tank coil comes prewound on one Lucite
Fig. 6-69-This view of the amplifier shows the band-
plate which is positioned 3, /2 inches above the
switch trap door, air- exhaust port and hole for ad-
chassis on ceramic spacers. Hard rubber washers
justing neutralization, all in the top of the shielding
(the type used for packing faucets) are inserted
enclosure. The large knob on the left of the panel
between the ceramic spacers and the Lucite plates
is for the 20/15/10- meter plate tuning capacitor, and
to provide atight fit.
the matching knob adjusts the capacitor used on 80
Counting from the blocking capacitor end, the
and 40. Farther down, from left to right: grid BAND
switch, grid TUNING control, variable LOADING ad-

B.- Blower- motor assembly, 17 c.f.m. ( Ripley, Inc., justment and LOADING switch.
Middletown, Conn., type 8433).
C1- 140-
µPf. midget variable ( Hammarlund APC-
140-B). See L
S. Harrington GP-20L assembly; available Har-
C2-10.6-izerf. neutralizing (Johnson N250). rington Electronics, Box 189, Topsfield, Mass.)
CS- 500- volt mica. LS- 3 turns No. 10 tinned, %- inch diam., 1 inch long,
C.- 0.001-AL feed- through (Centralab FT- 1000). mounted on R,.
CS, C., Cm, C18-0.001-Af., 3000- volt disk ceramic 4- Pi- network coil assembly (Air Dux 195-2 available
Centralab DD30-120). from Illumitronics Engineering, Sunnydale,
Cl • CS, CS-500-Airf., 20,000- volt ceramic (Centralab Calif.); see text.
TV- 207). P1- 2- contact plug (Cinch- Jones P- 202 -
CCT).
C20-30-µµf. variable, 0.25-inch spacing ( Barker & 12 1- 50-ohm 5-watt wire-wound ( Sprague 5KT).
Williamson CX-45-C butterfly, one section Re, R3- 10- watt adjustable.
used), or Johnson 50D90 with two stator R9-200-watt adjustable; set tap at midpoint.
plates removed). RFC.-10-mh. r.f. choke (National R- 50-I).
C.1-150-Pfif- variable, 0.25- inch spacing (Johnson RFC,- 120-Ph. plate r.f. choke ( Raypar RI- 101).
150D90). RFC.- 4-ph. r.f. choke ( National R-60).
C,5-650-Airf. variable (two Hammarlund MC-325M RFC.- 2.5 mh. r.f. choke ( National R-50).
ganged and paralleled). Si-Miniature ceramic rotary, 2 poles, 6 positions, 1
Cm, CIS- 2500- vo I
t mica (Aerovox 16521). section, shorting, 5 positions used (Centralab
Cm- 200- volt molded paper. PA-2002). See L.
CR., CR2-500-ma. 600- volt peak inverse silicon diode Ss, SS- Homemade, see text and Fig. 6-72.
(Sarkes Tarzian F-6). SS- Ceramic rotary, 9 positions, 1 section, progres-
J2- Coaxial receptacle, chassis mounting (SO- 239). sively shorting, 4 positions used (Centralab
JS, Je -2- contact socket (Cinch- Jones S- 202-B). PISD section and p-270 index assembly).
Ji. .15- 115-volt plug, chassis mounting (Amphenol 61- SS
-S.p.d.t. microswitch (Unimax 2HBW-1).
M1). Se- Lock switch (Arrow- Hart & Hegeman 817154).
.12-110, incl.-115-volt socket (Amphenol 61-F1). S.-S.p.s.t. toggle.
K,-1 15- volt 60- second time- delay, normally open S8-S.p.d.t. toggle
(Amperite 115N060). Ti-Filament transformer, 5.2 volts, c.t., 24 amp. (Triad
KS-S.p.d.t. relay, 115- volt a.c. coil ( Potter & Brum- F- 11U).
field KA5AY). Ts-Power transformer, 460 volts, c.t., 50 ma. (Stancor
KS-S.p.d.t. relay, 2500- ohm 7.2- ma. coil (Advance PC- 8418).
GHE/1C/2500). TS- Filament transformer, 5 volts c.t., 3 amp. (Thord-
4-3 3/
4 turns No. 18 insulated wire on cold end of arson 21F03).
t:; tapped 2 turns from ground end. T.- Powe rtransformer, 1200 volts, c.f., 200 ma. (Thor-
La - 50 turns No. 24 tinned, 13/4 inches long on 34. darson 22R36).
inch diam. ceramic form; tapped 5, 8, 13 and TS- Variable autotransformer, 0-132 volts, 1.75 amp.
25 turns from grid end. (
CI, LS and S1 make (Superior 108).
200 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

Hg. 6-70—Top view of the

control unit. The voltmeter
multiplier resistors are
housed in a cane- metal pro-
tective shield ( upper left).
Resistors 12, and R are
mounted under the sets of
ventilation holes ( center
near panel).

plate coil is tapped at 4 turns ( 0.4 µh.) for 10 band- switch terminals do not progress in con-
meters; 7.5 turns ( 1µh.) for 15 meters; 10.5 turns secutive order, but are arranged to provide the
(2.33 µh.) for 20 meters, 14 turns ( 5.2 mh.) for 40 shortest possible lead lengths.
meters, and 24 turns ( 16.4 µh.) for 80 meters. Be sure no iron or steel hardware is used in the
(All the figures include the 4- turn coil made of band- switch assembly, or for that matter, any-
;4- inch strap.) The lugs provided with the tank where in the plate tank circuitry of the amplifier.
coil assembly should be securely soldered to the Each piece of hardware should be checked first
coil at these points. Strapping should then be with amagnet to insure that it is neither iron nor
run from these taps to the appropriate band- steel before being used in the plate circuit.
switch terminals. It should be noted that the In order to get to the band switch and capacitor

Fig. 6-71—Most of the en-

closure has been removed
to show the low- and high-
frequency plate tuning ca-
pacitors, the coil and band-
switch assembly ( center)
and the 4-400A in its glass
chimney ( Eimac SK- 406). The
neutralizing capacitor is be-
hind the tube in this view.
A cork gasket is used be-
tween chimney and chassis.
Across the rear apron: out-
put jack, filament a.c. plug,
cathode and ground termi-
nals, high- voltage connector,
ground post and blower.
The blower hides another
terminal strip ( for bias and
screen connections) and the
input jack. The band switch
is made from a 41/
8 X 8-

inch strip of /
14-
inch thick
Lucite and Johnson 108-760
jacks and 108-770 plugs.
The plugs are mounted on
two 31/
8-inch utility handles
(Bud UH-71A) strengthened
by straps of aluminum.
Fig. 6-72—Bottom view of the amplifier. The
Minibox shield has been removed from the grid
circuit ( lower right). Loading capacitors, switch
and "safety" choke are at the left. The filament
transformer is in the center. Amplifier tube
socket is mounted on four tabs spaced evenly
around the circular cutout.

switch, a trap door is provided in the top of the deenergize ho, and the plate pilot bulb should
enclosure. Microswitch S5 is installed so that it is extinguish.
actuated by the trap door. The leads from S5 are Next, connect a d.c. voltmeter to the output
brought out to a jack, /3, located on the back of the screen supply. By adjusting T5 it should
wall of the enclosure, and from there to 16 on be possible to vary the output from 0to approxi-
the control unit. The trap door measures 6, /t mately 850 volts. Finally, adjust R7 so that Kg
by 7inches and the rectangular cutout in the top trips when 40 ma. is drawn from the screen sup-
of the enclosure is 49¡ by We inches. This pro- ply. This can be checked by connecting aresistor
vides adequate overlap to prevent any leakage (620 ohms or less, 1 watt) across the supply
of r.f. output and running the voltage up from zero
until the drain is 40 ma. This completes the
Adjustment and Operation testing of the control unit.
First, determine that the control unit is oper- The amplifier must now be neutralized. Set the
ating correctly. Apply 115 volts to J5, insert the grid and plate band switches for 28 Mc., and
tubes, and turn on the key switch, Sg. The green disconnect the screen and plate leads at the
filament pilot light should go on immediately. amplifier terminals. Couple asensitive indicating
There should also be power at receptacles 17, Jg wavemeter to the output end of the plate tank
and 17 and .18 are for the amplifier and plate circuit and apply the required —225 volts of
supply filament transformers; ./8, an accessory bias. Apply drive, resonate the grid circuit and
socket, is provided so that external equipment adjust the output of the exciter for rated 4-400A
such as the station receiver can be controlled by grid current. Neutralizing capacitor C2 should
Sg. There should be no power at ho, the plate then be adjusted for minimum r.f. in the plate
transformer control socket. tank circuit. The plate tuning capacitor should
Next, adjust Rg until the VR tubes just begin be retuned for maximum wavemeter reading
to glow. Be sure the standby terminal jumper after each change of C2. After rated plate and
from Pin 5of V3 to ground is in place. Turning screen voltages have been applied and the ampli-
S5 should change the bias from — 150 volts in the fier loaded, the neutralizing capacitor should be
Class-All i position to —225 volts for Class C touched up so that minimum plate current and
in the other. With S8 in the linear position ( AB), maximum grid and screen currents occur simul-
and leaving avoltmeter on the output of the bias taneously as the plate tank is tuned through
supply, temporarily lift the standby jumper from resonance.
ground. The output voltage should rise from If the amplifier is to be used for s.s.b., the h.v.
—150 to approximately —300 volts. The standby power supply should have a minimum output
terminals provide a convenient way to bias the capacitance of 8 id. For best voltage regulation
4-400A beyond cutoff during standby and re- the plate transformer should have a 220- volt
ceiving periods. This will prevent any annoying primary. The output of the h.v. power supply
diode noise generation. should include a V2-ampere fuse to protect the
Open Sg and again connect an a.c. voltmeter to supply from excessive overloads.
ho. Put a temporary jumper between the two If the amplifier is to be plate modulated, a
contacts of 16. Close Sg and S7, and after 60 choke, approximately 10 hy. at 50 or 100 ma.,
seconds there should be power at ho and the should be inserted in series with the screen lead
red plate pilot lamp should light. Replace the of the 4-400A. An external switch can be used
jumper across . 16 with the leads from the micro- to short out the choke when using the amplifier
switch interlock. Lifting the trap door should for c.w. or s.s.b.
 202 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

ONE- BAND KILOWATT AMPLIFIERS

Separate kilowatt amplifiers on each of the ampllfier control unit contains the filament, bias
bands 80 through 10 meters has always been the and screen supplies. A 3- position mode switch,
ne plus ultra of transmitter construction. How- S2,selects the bias for either Class-AB I or - C
ever, space limitations and cost are the two key operation, and in the third position grounds the
factors that have prevented many from realizing screen grids, to limit the plate current during
this goal. The amplifiers to be described are com- initial tuning. Another 3- position switch, Si,
pact and are constructed economically; the allows the total or individual screen currents to
builder may wish to construct one amplifier for be read. The latter position is useful in matching
his favorite band or the group of five for versa- tubes. The high-voltage supply should furnish
tile all-band operation. Advantages of the sep- from 1750 to 2250 volts.
arate-amplifier philosophy include optimum cir-
cuit Q for every band, simplified construction Construction
and band switching, less chance for tube failure Each amplifier is assembled on a13 X 17- inch
because each amplifier is pretuned, and fast band aluminum bottom plate. Two 5 X 13 X 3- inch
changing for the contest- minded. The supply aluminum chassis are used as the sides of the
voltages remain on all the amplifiers; only the enclosure. The paint is removed from the back
filament and excitation power are switched to the of a 7- inch aluminum rack panel, and apiece of
desired final amplifier. Reynolds cane metal is sandwiched between the
The availability and proven dependability of panel and the two chassis. A rectangular window
the 813 make apair of them the logical choice for in the panel provides additional ventilation and
the kilowatt amplifier. A shrewd amateur should a means for inspecting the color of the tube
have no trouble procuring the tubes through plates. The top and back of the enclosure are
surplus channels or by bartering with local hams. formed from asingle piece of cane metal, bent to
Referring to the circuit diagram, Fig. 6-74, the fit the chassis rear and top. Three lengths of
1 X 1 X g-inch aluminum angle stock are used
in the corners of the enclosure, as can be seen
in Figs. 6-76 and 6-77.
The variable tank capacitors, C4, are mounted
on 1- inch stand-off insulators, to bring the shafts
to the proper panel height. In the 10- meter am-
plifier the capacitor shaft must remain above
r.f. ground, and a suitable insulated shaft cou-
pling is used. On the other bands, the rotors of
the capacitors are grounded to the chassis
through metal straps.
On 20, 15 and 10 meters the tank coils are
wound self-supporting of - inch diameter sof t-
drawn copper tubing, and they are supported by
their leads. On 80 and 40 the coils are lengths of
Air- Dux stock, and they are supported by small
ceramic insulators.
The special plate r.f. chokes, RFC2, are con-
sti ucted by close- winding No. 24 enameled wire
on 34.- inch diameter ceramic insulators. Four- inch
long insulators ( National GS-4) are used on the
80- and 4O-niter bands, and 2-inch long insula-
tors ( National GS-3) are used on the other
bands. In each case the original base uf the in-
sulator is removed and the insulator is mounted
on a stand-off (Johnson 135-20). The high-
voltage lead and the "cold" end of the choke
are connected to a soldering lug mounted be-
tween the two insulators.
Bridge neutralization is included in the 20-,
Fig. 6-73--- Individual kilowatt amplifiers for two bands 15- and 10-meter amplifiers. The neutralizing ca-
plus complete metering and all control circuits and pacitors are made from two - inch wide alumi-
power supplies (except plate) fit handily into a table num strips 5inches long. One strip is connected
rock. Amplifiers for five bands plus the plate supply directly to the plate lead at C3 and the other is
will mount in floor rack. Band switch at lower left supported by a ceramic feed- through insulator
(S s in Fig. 6-74) switches filament supply, excitation that connects to the rotor of C1. The amplifiers
and output connections to all amplifiers in use; are neutralized by adjusting the spacing between
screen and plate supplies are connected to all the aluminum strips.
amplifiers at all times. The metal ring surrounding the base of the 813
232 POWER SUPPLIES
voltages for the rectifier and other tubes in the Table 7- II also shows approximate output
receiver or low- power transmitter. Transformers voltages and ripple percentages for choke- input
of this type may be obtained in ratings up to 1200 filters ( first filter capacitor omitted), for Point
volts center- tapped, 200 d.c. ma. output. B ( last capacitor and choke omitted), and Point
Fig. 7-14 shows a two- section filter with ca- C ( complete two- section filter, first capacitor
pacitor input. However, depending upon the omitted).
maximum hum level that may be allowable for a Actual full- load output voltages may be some-
particular application, the last capacitor and what lower than those shown in the table, since
choke may not he needed. In some low- current the voltage drop through the resistance of the
applications, the first capacitor alone may pro- transformer secondary has not been included.
vide adequate filtering. Table 7- II shows the Fig. 7-15 shows the conventional circuit of a
approximate full- load and bleeder- load output transmitter plate supply for higher powers. A
voltages and a.c. ripple percentages for several full- wave rectifier circuit, half-wave rectifier
representative sets of components. Voltage and tubes, and separate transformers for high voltage,
ripple values are given for three points in the rectifier filaments and transmitter filaments are
circuit—Point A ( first capacitor only used), used. The high- voltage transformers used in this
Point B ( last capacitor and choke omitted), and circuit are usually rated directly in terms of d.c.
Point C ( complete two- section filter in use). output voltage, assuming rectifiers and filters of
In each case, the bleeder resistor R should be the type shown in Fig. 7-15. Table 7- III shows
used across the output. typical values for representative supplies, based

Fig. 7- 15—Conventional power.

supply circuit for higher-power
transmitters.
CI, C2-4 µf. for approximately
0.5% output ripple; 2 µf. for
approximately 1.5% output rip-
ple. Cs should be 4 µf. if supply
is for modulator.
R-25,000 ohms.
Ls—Swinging choke: 5/25 h.,
current rating same as
T2.
L
s— Smoothing choke: current
rating some as T2.
71-2.5 volts, 4 amp., 2500-v.
ins, for type 816; 2.5
volts, 10 amp., 10,000-v.
ins. for 866A.
Ts—D.c. voltage rating same as output voltage. VI— Type 816 for 400/500- volt supply; 866A for others
7s— Voltage and current rating to suit transmitter -
tube shown in Table 7-111.
requirements. See Table 7-111 for other values.

on commonly available
TABLE 7-III components. Trans-
former voltages shown
Approx D.C. T Approx. are representative for
Output Rating Voltage R Bleeder-
La
Rating W atts units with dual-volt-
Load
Approx. X ' Ci., Cs Output age secondaries. The
Volts Ma.° V . R.M.S. Ma. Volts bleeder- load voltages
shown may be some-
400/500 230 520/615 250 4 700 20 440/540 what lower than actu-
600/750 260 750/950 300 8 1000 50 650/800 ally found in practice.
Ripple at the output of
1250/1500 240 1500/1750 300 8 2000 150 1300/1600
the first filter section
1250/1500 440 1500/1750 500 6 2000 150 1315/1615 will be approximately
5per cent with a 4-µf.
2000/2500 200 2400/2900 300 4 8 3000 320 3 2050/2550
capacitor, or 10 per
2000/2500 400 2400/2900 500 6 3000 320 2 2065/2565 cent with a2-p.f. capac-
2500/3000 380 2900/3450 500 s 6 4000 500 s 2565/3065
itor. Transformers
made for amateur serv-
1 Balance of transformer current rating consumed by bleeder resistor. ice are designed for
3 Use two 160 watt, 12.500-ohm units in series. choke- input. If acapac-
3 Use five 100-watt, 5000-ohm units in series.
sRegulation will be somewhat better with a 400- or 500-ma. choke. itor- input is used rat-
5 Regulation will be somewhat better with a 550- ma, choke. ing should be reduced
about 30%.
204 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

Fig. 6-75—View of the 80- meter amplifier with its cane- metal covering removed. As in each
amplifier, the chassis is made from two 5 X 13 X 3- inch chassis and a 13 X 17- inch base
plate. Input and low- voltage leads make up to terminals and jack in center foreground.

should be grounded to the chassis. A piece of Class- C position of S2, +400 volts is applied to
Eimac Finger Stock or ahomemade contact can the screens and — 150 is connected to the grids.
be used for the purpose. In the•Class-AB i position, the screen voltage is
All power wiring is done with shielded wire increased to 700 and the grid bias is dropped to a
and bypassed as described in Chapter Twenty. value determined by the setting of R2. This latter
three. The filament leads should be made from setting should be one that gives best linearity
No. 14 ( or heavier) shielded wire. without exceeding ano- signal plate input of 150
The screen and bias supplies plus station con- watts for the two 813s; it depends on the plate
trol circuits are built on arack-mounting chassis voltage available. A heavy bleed on the screen
(Bud CB- 1373) behind a 7- inch panel. In the supply helps the regulation.

Coil and Capacitor Table

Band 80 40 20 15 10

100 µµf. 100 µµf. 50 µµf. 50 ;Id. 50 M.

Cs
(Johnson 100L15) (Johnson 100L15) (Johnson SOLIS) (Johnson SOLIS) (Johnson SOLIS)

150 µµf• 35 µµf. 35 µµ f. 50 inif.

Ci 150 ¡if.
(Johnson 150E45) (Hammarlund
(Johnson 150E45) (Johnson 35E45) (Johnson 35E45)
MC- 50- MX)

325 µid. 325 Isisf. 325 /se 325 pd.

Cs 710 µµf.
(Hammarlund (H amm ar lun d (Ham m arl
un d (H ammar l
un d
(2-gang 365 µFf.)
MC- 325-M) MC- 325-M) MC- 325-M) MC- 325-M)

Cs 500 µµf. 100 Ise.

— _
(Centralab TV-207) (CRL 850S- 100N)—

Ls 4 t. No. 22* 3t. No. 22* 2 t. No. 22* 1t. No. 22* 1t. No. 22*
32 t.p.i. No. 24, 16 t.p.i. No. 20 8 t.p.i No. 18 8 t.p.i. No. 18 8 t.p.i. No. 18
Ls 1inch long, 1inch 1% inc h long, 1 inch 1h inch long, 1 inch
X inch long 1inch *4 inch long, 1 inch
diam. ( B&W 3016) diam. ( B&W 3015) diam. ( B&W 3014) diam. ( B&W 3014) diam. ( B&W 3014)
6 t.p.i. No. 12, 4 t.p.i. No. 12, 2 t.p.i. 4-
' inch
2 t.p.i. g-inch 2 t.p.i. 4-inch
'
L . 3 inch long, 3 inch 334, inch long, 2,4 copper tubing, 2 inch
copper tubing, 4g Copper tubing, 3
diam. ( Air Dux inch diam. ( Air long, 2g i.d. C. tal)
inch long, 27, id. inch long, 254 i.d.
2406) Dux 2004) 2 turns.
•Insulated hookup wire, wound over C, end of 4.
One- Band Kilowatts 205
The unit shown in Fig. 6-74 uses an Ohmite when the plate supply is turned on; when the re-
Model Ill switch at 58.This is ganged with an- lay is open a high bias is applied to the 813s to
tenna and excitation switches to permit one- reduce the plate current to 0 ma. and eliminate
control bandswitching. The relay K1 is actuated receiver noise caused by static plate current.

Fig. 6-76—Top view of the 15- meter amplifier. The neutralizing capacitor consists of
two strips of aluminum, supported by the plate- blocking capacitor and a feedthrough
insulator. It is mounted over the r.f. choke between the two 813 tubes.

Fig. 6-77—As in the other amplifiers, the 10- meter final uses shielded wires in the filament,
screen, and grid- return circuits. For tuning this amplifier uses a small variable capacitor
connected across half of the plate coil, to maintain a favorable L/C ratio.
206 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

A HIGH- POWER GROUNDED-GRID AMPLIFIER

AND POWER SUPPLY
The grounded-grid linear amplifier and power tering the r.f. voltage at the output. D.c. for the
supply shown in Fig. 6-78 are designed for the meter is derived from a germanium-diode recti-
amateur power limit in single-sideband operation. fier connected to a resistive r.f. voltage divider.
The amplifier uses a 3-1000Z triode to handle a Panel switches and associated neon indicators
p.e.p. input of 2kw. on peaks. The amplifier and are provided for control of the filament ( and
supply each occupy just over 1cubic foot and are blower) and high-voltage power.
made from readily available components. The
Construction
3-1000Z requires adriver capable of supplying at
least 65 watts p.e.p. Two identical pieces of Vs- inch thick aluminum,
Referring to the amplifier circuit diagram in 114 inches high and 12 1 % inches wide, are used
Fig. 6-79, the grid of the triode is grounded for for the front panel and the rear plate. These may
both r.f. and d.c. The cathode is maintained above be cut from 12%-inch rack- panel material ( Bud
r.f. ground by feeding it through a homemade SFA-1837) if no other source is available. The
filament choke wound on aferrite rod. Although major chassis that supports the tube socket and
the input impedance of the grounded-grid 3-1000Z the filament transformer is astandard one meas-
is close to 50 ohms and would provide a good uring 7 X 12 X 3 inches ( Premier ACH-433).
match for adriver with fixed- impedance output, It is held to the front panel by the two toggle
a pi network input circuit, CiC2Li is used to switches and the two indicator lamp housings
supply some Q to the circuit, for better linearity. (Dialco 951308X) and to the rear panel by the
The Q is low, however, and once adjusted an 25,000- ohm variable resistor in the output- me-
input circuit requires no further attention for tering circuit and various screws that hold Ji,
operation anywhere within its band. For sim- .1 4 and .15 in place ( see Fig. 6-81). The plate
plicity in the circuit diagram, only one set of choke, RFC 3,is mounted on this chassis, with a
capacitors and inductor is shown in Fig. 6-79. 1000- pf. 5-kv, ceramic capacitor ( Centralab
The plate tank circuit uses a commercial coil 858-S) near its base; the high-voltage lead is
assembly ( Air Dux 195-2) that has been re-
arranged to conserve space and fit better into the
compact package. The bandswitch is made from
the products of two different companies, ganged L1 COIL TABLE
together to provide an input-circuit 2- pole switch Band CI, Ca Li
and a plate- circuit single- pole switch. 80 1600 pf. ( Arco VCM- 16 t., closewound
An antenna changeover relay, K1,is included 35B162K)
in the amplifier package. During the " receive" 40 910 pf. ( Arco VCM- 8 t., closewound
20B911R)
condition a 50,000-ohm resistor in the filament- 20 430 pf. ( Arco VCM- 6 t., closewound
transformer center tap provides self-bias that 20B431K)
practically cuts off the plate current; during 15 300 pf. ( Arco VCM- 4 t., closewound
20B301K)
"transmit" this resistor is short-circuited by one
10 220 pf. ( Arco VCM- 4 t., spaced to
set of contacts on the relay. 20B221K) fill form.
Three meters are used in the amplifier. The Capacitors are 1000-v. silver mica. Inductors
grid and plate currents are read separately by wound with No. 16 Formvar or Nylclad on 54-
a 0-500 milliammeter and a 0-1 ammeter. The inch diam. slug- tuned form ( National XR-50).
third meter is a relative-output indicator me-

Fig. 6-78—The 3-1000Z

grounded-grid linear is
mounted on short legs to
allow air to be drawn in at
the bottom and blown up

• past the tube. The meters in-

• • dicate grid ( left) and plate
current and relative output
(below). Knobs at right ( B &
W 901) control plate (top),
band switching and loading.
Two layers of the heat- rad-
• iating plate cap have been
removed to allow clearance
of the perforated-metal cover.
The companion power
supply uses silicon diodes in a
voltage-doubling circuit.
(Built by Bob Smith, W1LLF.)
 Grounded-Grid Amplifier 207
AMPLIFIER
RFC 2

3-1000Z RCVR

ANT
eo
-58/ JO

Si,
10

0% .
01

RG-8/U
INPUT <

_n-rn Jit,K, VOX

.001
VOX

.001
PWR.
CONTROL

Fl L.
3
.00
NE- SI NE- 51
COMMON
A.C.

Fig. 6-79— Circuit diagram of the 3-1000Z amplifier. Unless specified otherwise, capacitances are in picotarads
(pf. or µO.). For simplicity, only one set of components is shown at SI., B.

13,-100 c.f.m. fan ( Rotron 1503). L2,La and L. are parts of commercial kilowatt coil
C., C,— See LIcoil table. assembly ( Air- Dux 195-2).
Ca- 150 -
pf. variable, 0.075-inch spacing (Johnson 12—Two 35-ohm " Thermistors" in series ( GC 25-918).
154-8). RFC.-28 double turns No. 10 Formvar or Nylclad,
C.- 1500 -
pf. variable, 0.030- inch spacing ( Cardwell closewound on /
2 -
1 inch diam., 71
2 -
/ inch long ferrite
PL- 8013, Allied Radio 75 L047). rod ( Lafayette Radio, N.Y.C., MS-333).
CR.-1N34A or equivalent. RFC-2 turns No. 10, 11
4 -
/ inch diam., 2 t.p.i., mounted
J.— Coaxial receptacle, SO- 239. on RI.
Ji —Coaxial receptacle ( Dow- Key DK-60P). RFC.- 90-µh. 500- ma. r.f. choke ( B & W 800).
.1,— Coaxial receptacle, UG-560/U ( Amphenol 82-805). 6- position ( 5 used) ceramic rotary switch
.1— Octal male connector ( Amphenol 86-CP8 in Am- (Centralab PA- 2003) ganged to 1- pole 6- posi-
phenol 61-61 shell). tion ( 5 used) heavy-duty ceramic switch (Com-
K,.—D.p.d.t. antenna relay, 115-v.a.c. coil (Advance munications Products 86-B). See text.
AH2C115VA). S2, Sa — S. p . s.t . toggle.
Li— See L. coil table. T1-71 /-
2 volt 21-ampere filament transformer ( Stancor
La- 4 t. 5/16-inch strap, 11
2 -
/ inch diam., 2 t.p.i. P-6457). Meters are Simpson Model 127; 1000-
L-4 turns /
4 -
1 inch tubing, 3- inch diam., 2 t.p.i. Tapped pf. 5-
kv. capacitors are Centralab 858-S; 1500-
13
4 turns from 1.2 end.
/ pf. feedthrough capacitors are Centralab FT-
L-16 turns No. 8, 31
4 -
/ inch diam., 4 t.p.i. Tapped 7 1500.
turns from L3 end.

brought from the base of the r.f. choke ( and from X 1%- inch " Minibox" ( Bud CU-3000-A).
the capacitor) through the chassis in a ceramic The input circuitry and S 1A and S IBare housed
feedthrough insulator. The output- indicator in a 4 x 4 x 2- inch aluminum case ( Premier
circuitry, consisting of the 22,000- and 470- ohm AC- 442) held to the main chassis by two /
1 4-inch
resistors, the 11\:34A rectifier and the 0.001-gf. panel bearings; the RG-58/U leads to the switches
capacitor, is also mounted on the chassis ( see are run through the holes in the bearings. The
Fig. 6-84). These are mounted on a multiple tie- switch section is mounted on one removable
point strip fastened to the top edge of the chassis plate of the case; the other plate is not used.
near C4.The assembly is shielded by a 24 To conserve space and to provide a shaft
 Fig. 6-80— Rear view of the 3-1000Z amplifier
with the back wall and SK-516 chimney removed.
The 4 X 4 X 2-inch box in the foreground
houses the pi- network input circuits and band.
switch sections. SIA-D. The antenna changeover
relay is mounted directly below.
To conserve space and provide a shaft exten-
sion for ganging, the plate-circuit switch, Sic,
has been modified slightly, as described in the
text.
Normally the three meters on the front panel
are backed up by a 7 X 7 X 2-inch aluminum
chassis that serves as a shield.

from the polystyrene strip that supports

them. Then saw a 3- inch long strip from
one end and mount it at right angles to the
original strip with cement or brass screws
(see Fig. 6-80). Coil 1. 4,the wire coil, is
supported by the polystyrene strip, which
rests on the bottom plate at the outside
extension for ganging, switch Sw must be modi- and on the basic chassis on the inside. The in-
fied slightly. This is done by removing the rear side end of L4 is bent up and a loop formed in
shaft bearing and replacing the two ceramic the end. Coil L3 is bolted to this loop with abrass
insulators with shorter ( 5/8-inch long) ones. If 8-32 machine screw, and the tap running to the
suitable insulators cannot be found in surplus 20- meter pin on the switch is taken off at the same
(8-32 tapped holes are required), they can be junction. All coil taps were made of 5/ 16 -
inch
machined from suitable insulating material. wide straps cut from copper flashing. The coil
When the rear bearing is replaced, it should first L2 is supported at one end by an end of L3 and
be reversed. The combination of reversing the at the other by a copper strap fastened to the
rear bearing and using ashorter pair of insulators stator of C3 (see Fig. 6-80).
leaves enough shaft extending to take a flexible Two 100Ó- pf. 5-
kv, capacitors and the parasitic
shaft coupling ( Millen 39005). This coupling is suppressor, RFC.,R i.are supported by the top
connected to asimilar coupling on SiA -B through of RFC,, and aflexible strap runs from the other
alength of Vi- inch diameter insulating rod. The end of the parasitic suppressor to the plate cap.
switch is supported on the panel by four 1- inch To avoid contact between the cap and the am-
high ceramic cone insulators ( Johnson 135-501) plifier cover, two layers must be cut off the top of
mounted base- to- base. On the panel, shaft bear- the plate connector ( Eimac H R-8).
ings are used for the switch shaft and the two The chimney ( Eimac SK- 516) is held in place
capacitor shafts. around the 3-1000Z by four metal clips, and the
The tank coil assembly is modified by first re- socket ( Eimac SK- 510) is modified slightly as
moving the strap coil and the copper tubing coil mentioned in the caption for Fig. 6-81. The blower

Fig. 6-81—A view under the sub chassis of the

amplifier. The filament choke can be seen sup-
ported off the side wall by ceramic stand-off
insulators and plastic cable clamps. A lip on the
tube socket ( right foreground) has been removed
to provide more space and better air flow; the
three grid pins of the socket are grounded to
the chassis by short straps. Don't try to bend the
terminals out of the way before sowing off the
lip; remove them entirely.
The resistor mounted on a tie- point strip and
visible under the left end of the filament choke Is
the 50,000-ohm cathode resistor used for
stand-by bias; leads from it run in shielded wire
over to the chassis wall near the relay. Wires
and plug dangling over the side r.n to the
blower ( see Fig. 6-83).
The jack on the rear wall closest to the near
edge of the panel is .11, the high-voltage cable
jack. A 1000- pf. 5-
kv. capacitor is mounted on
the chassis just inside this point.
 240 POWER SUPPLIES

VR

FROM BIAS
S
SUPPLY

VR

(D)

- BIAS 1
(E)
BIAS 2
R2
- BIAS 3
VR

FROM BIAS
FROM BIAS
BIAS SUPPLY V
SUPPLY VR

(E)
(C)

Fig. 7-29-11Iustrating the use of VR tubes in stabilizing BIAS 1

protective-bias supplies. RI is a resistor whose value is
adjusted to limit the current through each VR tube to
5 ma. before amplifier excitation is applied. R and R2 FROM BIAS
BIAS 2
SUPPLY
are current-equalizing resistors of .50 to 1000 ohms.

(F)
This soaring can be reduced to a considerable
extent by the use of a voltage divider across
the transformer secondary, as shown at B. Such Each VR tube will handle 40 ma. of grid cur-
a system can be used when the transformer volt- rent. If the grid current exceeds this value under
age is higher than the operating- bias value. The
any condition, similar VR tubes should be added
tap on R 2 should be adjusted to give amplifier in parallel, as shown in Fig. 7-29B, for each 40
cut-off bias at the output terminals. The lower ma., or less, of additional grid current. The re-
the total value of R. >,the less the soaring will be sistors R 2 are for the purpose of helping to main-
when grid current flows. tain equal currents through each VR tube, and
A full- wave circuit is shown in Fig. 7-28C.R 3 should have avalue of 50 to 1000 ohms or more.
and R4 should have the same total resistance and If the voltage rating of a single VR tube is
the taps should be adjusted symmetrically. In not sufficiently high for the purpose, other VR
all cases, the transformer must be designed to tubes may be used in series ( or series- parallel if
furnish the current drawn by these resistors plus required to satisfy grid-current requirements) as
the current drawn by R1. shown in the diagrams of Fig. 7-29C and D.
Regulated Bias Supplies If a single value of fixed bias will serve for
more than one stage, the biasing terminal of each
The inconvenience of the circuits shown in such stage may be connected to a single supply
Fig. 7-28 and the difficulty of predicting values of this type, provided only that the total grid
in practical application can be avoided in most current of all stages so connected does not ex-
cases by the use of gaseous voltage- regulator ceed the current rating of the VR tube or tubes.
tubes across the output of the bias supply, as Alternatively, other separate VR-tube branches
shown in Fig. 7-29A. A VR tube with avoltage may be added in any desired combination to the
rating anywhere between the biasing- voltage same supply, as in Fig. 7-29E, to adapt them to
value which will reduce the input to the amplifier the needs of each stage.
to a safe level when excitation is removed, and Providing the VR-tube current rating is not
the operating value of bias, should be chosen. R1 exceeded, a series arrangement may be tapped
is adjusted, without amplifier excitation, until for lower voltage, as shown at F.
the VR tube ignites and draws about 5ma. Addi- The circuit diagram of an electronically
tional voltage to bring the bias up to the operating regulated bias- supply is shown in Fig. 7-30. The
value when excitation is applied can be obtained output voltage may be adjusted to any value be-
from a grid leak resistor, as discussed in the tween 40 volts and 80 volts and the unit will
transmitter chapter. handle grid currents up to 35 ma. over the range
210 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
chassis ground. Wires to the a.c. line should be (for the band in use) for apeak in grid current.
No. 14 or heavier ( a cable marked " 14-3 Type Do this in turn for each of the bands. The adjust.
SJ 300 V" was used in this unit), and No. 16 wire ment is a relatively broad one. It may be found
will suffice for the control wiring. that alittle reflected power is indicated, but that
If desired, a precision resistor can be used for is not important at this time.
Ra,the voltmeter multiplier. However, selected Plate voltage can now be applied, but it is
standard 20-percent resistors will serve as well. recommended that early tests be carried out at
half operating voltage, until it has been estab-
Safety Precautions
lished that it is possible to tune to the various
A 3000-volt power supply with a 30-12f. filter bands. Never apply plate voltage to the amplifier
capacitor is a lethal device. There is no such without a load ( dummy or antenna) being con-
thing as a "slight electrical shock" from apower nected, because there is danger of burning out
supply like this one. Make absolutely certain that CR 1 under these circumstances. Having estab-
the voltmeter indication has coasted down to zero lished that the circuits can be tuned, the ampli-
before removing the protective cover or touching fier can be tested at full voltage. The loading
anything remotely connected to the high-voltage and excitation ( single tone, same as steady
lead. Even then it is agood idea to use a " short- carrier or c.w.) should be adjusted to give the
ing stick" across the output as a double check. readings shown below, with the understanding
that these are only general guides and are not
Adjustment of the Amplifier
strict limits. Notice that these conditions repre-
An amplifier of this quality and power level sçnt tuning to asteady 1kilowatt input, the only
deserves the best of treatment, and to that end possible legal procedure ( without pulsing, which
it is recommended that the operator familiarize is illegal except into adummy load). When a set
himself with its operation by using adummy load, of these conditions has been met, adjust the out-
an oscilloscope and some method of "pulsing" put of the exciter to drive the amplifier just to an
the -drive ( see Goodman, " Linear Amplifiers and indicated 1kilowatt plate input on peaks.
Power Ratings," QST, August, 1957). This will
Plate Voltage 2500 3000
enable the operator to work the amplifier at its
maximum legal capability with a minimum of No- Signal Plate Current 160 ma. 180 ma.
spurious radiation.
Single-Tone 100 ma. 75 ma.
Lacking the equipment mentioned above, it is Grid Current
possible to approach proper operating conditions
Single-Tone 400 ma. 330 ma.
by the following rules of thumb. They are in- Plate Current
tended, however, to serve only as rough guides.
With a sideband exciter set for c.w. operation, As a final touch, adjust the input circuits for
feed its output to the amplifier through a length minimum reflected power.
of RG-58/U or RG-8/U. If an s.w.r. indicator Although the amplifier should have no v.h.f.
(for 50-ohm cable) is available, insert it in the parasitic with the suppressor as shown (RFC,R,
line and switch it to read reflected power. With in Fig. 6-79), the amplifier should be tested for
the filament of the amplifier turned on, adjust L, one. Disconnect the exciter, connect a dummy

Fig. 6-83—Another
view of the
grounded-grid am-
plifier, showing
the output volt-
meter ( shield cover
removed) compo-
nents mounted on
amultiple tie point
strip. The cone in.
between
the meters receives
the screw that
holds down the
meter shield (chas-
sis).
 242 POWER SUPPLIES

(C) (D)
Fig. 7-32— Three-wire power- line circuits. A— Normal 3-wire- line termination. No fuse should be used in the gounded
(neutral) line. B— Showing that a switch in the neutral does not remove voltage from either side of the line. C—
Connections for both 115- and 230-volt transformers. D— Operating a 115-volt plate transformer from the 230.
volt line to avoid light blinking. Ts is a 2-to- 1 step-down transformer.

wires and neutral, as indicated in Fig. 7-32A. In spondingly small. When the currents in the two
systems of this type, usually it will be found that circuits are balanced, no current flows in the
the 115- volt household load is divided as evenly neutral wire and the system is operating at maxi-
as possible between the two sides of the circuit, mum efficiency.
half of the load being connected between one Light blinking can be minimized by using
wire and the neutral, while the other half of transformers with 230- volt primaries in the power
the load is connected between the other wire and supplies for the keyed or intermittent part of the
neutral. Heavy appliances, such as electric stoves load, connecting them across the two ungrounded
and heaters, normally are designed for 230-volt wires with no connection to the neutral, as shown
operation and therefore are connected across the in Fig. 7-32C. The same can be accomplished by
two ungrounded wires. While both ungrounded the insertion of a step-down transformer whose
wires should be fused, afuse should never be used primary operates at 230 volts and whose sec-
in the wire to the neutral, nor should a switch ondary delivers 115 volts. Conventional 115- volt
be used in this side of the line. The reason for transformers may be operated from the secondary
this is that opening the neutral wire does not of the step-down transformer ( see Fig. 7-32D).
disconnect the equipment. It simply leaves the When a special heavy-duty line is to be in-
equipment on one side of the 230-volt circuit in stalled, the local power company should be con-
series with whatever load may be across the sulted as to local requirements. In some local-
other side of the circuit, as shown in Fig. 7-32B. ities it is necessary to have such ajob done by a
Furthermore, with the neutral open, the volt- licensed electrician, and there may be special
age will then be divided between the two sides requirements to be met in regard to fittings and
in inverse proportion to the load resistance, the manner of installation. Some amateurs termi-
the voltage on one side dropping below normal, nate the special line to the station at aswitch box,
while it soars on the other side, unless the loads while others may use electric- stove receptacles
happen to be equal. as the termination. The power is then distributed
The usual line running to baseboard outlets around the station by means of conventional out-
is rated at 15 amperes. Considering the power ets at convenient points. All circuits should be
consumed by filaments, lamps, modulator, re- properly fused.
ceiver and other auxiliary equipment, it is not
unusual to find this 15- ampere rating exceeded Fusing
by the requirements of a station of only mod- All transformer primary circuits should be
erate power. It must also be kept in mind that properly fused. To determine the approximate
the same branch may be in use for other house- current rating of the fuse to be used, multiply
hold purposes through another outlet. For this each current being drawn from the supply in
reason, and to minimize light blinking when key- amperes by the voltage at which the current is
ing or modulating the transmitter, a separate being drawn. Include the current taken by
heavier line should be run from the distribution bleeder resistances and voltage dividers. In the
board to the station whenever possible. ( A three- case of series resistors, use the source voltage,
volt drop in line voltage will cause noticeable not the voltage at the equipment end of the
light blinking.) resistor. Include filament power if the transformer
If the system is of the three-wire type, the is supplying filaments. After multiplying the
three wires should be brought into the station various voltages and currents, add the individual
so that the load can be distributed to keep the products. Then divide by the line voltage and
line balanced. The voltage across a fixed load add 10 or 20 per cent. Use afuse with the nearest
on one side of the circuit will increase as the larger current rating.
load current on the other side is increased. The
rate of increase will depend upon the resistance LINE-VOLTAGE ADJUSTMENT
introduced by the neutral wire. If the resistance In certain communities trouble is sometimes
of the neutral is low, the increase will be corre- experienced from fluctuations in line voltage.
 CR,› RG-8/U

+HV

INTERLOC K

CONTROL
K S I

230V COMMON AC
115 V.
FILAMENT

(A) SIMPLIFIED SCHEMATIC

01/u1 Olpf

(B) CR CR B DETAIL

(C) CA ,CA DETAIL VOLTMETER ON CA ONLY.

Fig. 6- 86— Schematic diagram of the 3000 volt power supply.

C1-C4-2404. 450-volt electrolytic (Mallory S,—S.p.s.t. miniature switch (Acro BRD2-5L).

CG241T450D1). TI- 1100-v. 1200 v.a. transformer, dual primary ( BTC-
Ki—D.p.s.t. relay, 25-ampere contacts ( Potter & Brum- 4905B, Berkshire Transformer Corp., Kent,
field PR7AY, 115-v.a.c. coil). Conn.)
Pi—Coaxial plug, UG-59B/U (Amphenol 82-804). 25K, 20-watt resistors are Ohmite Brown Devil 1845,
RI, Ro - 50- ohm 25-watt wireground ( Ohmite 0200D). 470K resistors are /
2 -
1 watt, 0.01-µf, capacitors are 1000-
R.—Selected 0.47- and 0.68-megohm, /
2 watt, in series.
1 volt disk ceramic.

load to the output, switch to 21 or 28 Mc. and and receiver are used. The change involves the
apply filament and then plate power. With one addition of a coaxial antenna- changeover relay
hand on the plate power supply switch, swing the and, in the amplifier, the use of a relay with one
plate capacitor, C3, through its range, starting more pole. If this system is used, it should be con-
at maximum capacitance. If a parasitic is pos- nected as shown at (B). The coaxial switch, S4,
sible, it will probably show up as Cs approaches need be only a rotary ceramic switch mounted
minimum capacitance; it will be indicated by a in a small aluminum case with three SO- 239
sudden increase in plate current and the appear- coaxial receptacles mounted on the side ( or
ance of grid current. If a parasitic does appear, sides). The switch S5 can be ad.p.d.t. toggle or,
it will be necessary to increase the inductance of for more convenience, a two-pole rotary switch
RFC., (after turning off the plate power!) by ganged to S4.The two- wire circuit from the VOX
pushing the turns together or adding another turn. (voice-operated) circuit in the exciter should be
one that closes on "transmit."
Variations in Design If the exciter is a transceiver, the coaxial
Depending upon the type of operation and the changeover relay will be already built-in, and the
exciter in use, it may be desirable to modify the amplifier modifications simplify to those shown
amplifier design. For example, using an amplifier in ( C), the substitution of athree-pole relay. In
of this power in an area or on a band where use, the connections will be as those shown in
local contacts are often made, it is selfish and (D), and S5 can become the S2 (but a d.p.s.t.)
uneconomical to run at full power all of the time. of Fig. 6-79.
By using a different changeover relay than that In either case, the fact that the input impedance
specified in Fig. 6-79, it is relatively easy to pro- of the amplifier is close to 50 ohms ( the required
vide for full- power or exciter-only operation at load for the exciter or transceiver and the as-
the flick of a switch. sumed impedance presented by the antenna feed
Referring to Fig. 6-84, the diagram at ( A) line) makes for great convenience, since no re-
shows the revised circuit when aseparate exciter tuning is required.
A Two-Band V.F.O. 213
A TWO- BAND V.F.O.
The v.f.o. shown in Figs. 6-87 and 6-88 delivers of ad.p.d.t. relay. One arm of the relay keys the
20 volts or more on 80 or 40 meters, sufficient following transmitter in the normal manner, and
to excite the usual crystal-oscillator or input no changes are required in the transmitter. The
stage of amultiband transmitter. It provides dif- other arm is connected to a0.1-d. capacitor that
ferential keying of the transmitter, for break-in is charged to about — 200 volts through the
operation and chirp-free keying. 47,000-ohm resistor. The normally-closed contact
Referring to the circuit diagram in Fig. 6-89, of the relay runs to a10,000-ohm resistor through
a6CW4 triode is used in the oscillator stage. Two a 0C2 voltage- regulator tube ( which requires
tuning ranges are provided, for amore favorable about 90 volts across it before it will conduct).
tuning rate at the higher frequencies. When all The voltage drop across the 10,000-ohm resistor,
of the capacitances are in the circuit, the oscilla- about — 60, cuts off the oscillator. When the relay
tor tunes 1.75 to 1.875 Mc., and when C 3 and its is energized, opening the circuit to the 0C2 re-
accompanying capacitor are switched out, the moves the cut-off voltage from the oscillator and
oscillator tunes 1.85 to 2.0 Mc. These oscillator the oscillator turns on immediately, ahead of the
ranges provide harmonic outputs of 3.5 to 3.75 keyed amplifier in the transmitter. The 0.1-d.
Mc. and 3.7 to 4.0 Mc., respectively. A 6AH6 capacitor is discharged through the 10- ohm re-
multiplier stage doubles to the 80- meter band; sistor. When the relay is de-energized, the oscil-
fixed tuning is used in the plate circuit, where lator is not turned off immediately because it
L 2 is resonated with the circuit capacitances. sakes a little time for the capacitor to charge,
The triode section of a 6CX8 serves as a cath- through the 10,000-ohm resistor, to a potential
ode follower to furnish still more isolation where the 0C2 becomes conductive. By this time
from the oscillator, and the pentode section of the keyed amplifier has been turned off.
the 6CX8 furnishes output in the 80-meter band; Silicon and selenium rectifiers are used in the
the output is peaked by C4,which has a panel power supply, to conserve space and reduce heat.
control. When 40-meter output is desired, a
12AT7 multiplier is switched into the circuit; Construction
it has afixed- tune output circuit. The v.f.o. is built on an 8x 12 X 3- inch alum-
Differential keying is obtained through the use inum chassis. The 8- inch square panel is cut from

Fig. 6-87—The two-band v.f.o. uses a 6CW4 Nuvistor triode ( left front) in the oscillator circuit. In this view the
tube shields have been removed from the r.f. tubes (tubes in front of transformer are voltage regulators), and
the Minibox cover has been lifted to show the tuning capacitor. The front half of the chassis is reinforced with a
plate of 1
4-
/ inch thick aluminum, to eliminate microphonics.
214 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS

Fig. 6-88— In this view underneath the chassis of the two- band v.f.o., the oscillator coil can be seen at the upper
left, clamped between two strips of polystyrene that are supported at the ends by ceramic standoff insulators.
The bandswitch ( center) is supported at the index- head end and at the center by aluminum brackets. Power
supply and filter components are grouped together at the lower left, and the relay, mounted on a sponge- rubber-
supported platform, is at the lower right, just above the key and transmitter jacks mounted on the rear apron.
The output jack is at the center of the some apron.

an 834- inch aluminum relay-rack panel ( Bud stator are passed through the chassis by the use
SFA-1835), as is the 8 X 51 ,4- inch chassis rein- of bushings ( National TPB).
forcing strip. The use of the 1
A- inch thick panel Underneath the chassis, the bandswitch is sup-
material adds considerably to the strength of the ported by two aluminum brackets, one at the
chassis and consequently the stability of the index head end and another 31 /2 inches away.
oscillator. Both panel and reinforcing strip are The PA- 19 section, SiA ,is mounted 2inches from
held to the chassis by 4-40 hardware. the index head, and the other section, SIB ,S10
The dial for the tuning capacitor is an Eddy- and Sm ,is located 334 inches farther along. A
stone 598. The Minibox housing for the capacitor small bracket is required for the support of C4.
is mounted et- inch behind the panel, and the Inductor L1 is supported by two strips of poly-
capacitor shaft is coupled to the drive shaft styrene that clamp the coil; the strips in turn are
through aflexible coupling ( Millen 39016). Care mounted on 1-inch ceramic standoff insulators.
taken in aligning the dial and capacitor for The tap on L1 is made by pushing in the turns
minimum torque requirements will repay in ease on either side of the 8th turn, leaving room for a
of tuning. Leads from the capacitor rotor and tap to be soldered to the 8th turn. Leads from the
 'Crd'A Puri -oml V
OSC . MU LT. BUFFER MULTIPLIER
6CW4 64H6 6C 58 I2AT?
3 7Mc 3.5-4.0 MC
•700

1.75- I.875M .
1.85 - 2.0 Mc. 10
4

1000 00K
S ID

8H./50 MA,

270 ...2 .
150V. 220K
T,
240-0-240
CR 2 CR 3 400V.

1AMP
lw CR. CR, TRANSMITTER

el
115 V. 6CW4 6AH6 6C28 12 AT 7

1KEY
12 4
K.
IAMP

6.3 V. + .?13.2e!

—
Fig. 6-89—Circuit diagram of the two-band v.f.o. Unless otherwise specified, all capacitances are in picofarads ( pf. or resistances are in ohms, re-
sistors are 1/2-watt. Capacitors marked with polarity are electrolytic, those marked with asterisk are silver mica.

C1- 100-
pf. variable (Joh6son 167-11). CR.-50-mo. selenium rectifier ( Int. Rect. C1H).
CA,CA- 50 -pf. variable ( Hammarlund APC-50). d.p.d.t. relay ( Potter & Brumfield KA11D). Pi—Fused line plug.
Ca-75-
pf. variable ( Hammarlund APC-75-B). L1-43 turns No. 20, 16 t.p.i., 1-inch diameter, tapped SI— Four- pole 3- position rotary switch (Centralab PA- 19
Cs— See text. 8turns from plate end. ( B&W 3015 Miniductor). and PA-5 sections on PA-302 index assembly).
CR,-500-p.i.v. 350-ma. silicon diode ( Int. Rect. 5E5). 1.2-68-13012h. adjustable (Miller 4409). 82-5.p.s.t. toggle.
CR2—CR5-400-p.i.v. 200- ma. silicon diode ( Int. Rect. 14-6.7-15-µh. adjustable (Miller 4406). T1-480 v.c.t. at 70 ma., 6.3 v. at 3 amp. ( Knight 61 G
2E4). L4-3.1-6.8-p.h. adjustable (Miller 4-405). 463).
216 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
coil run to amultiple tie point strip near the coil. For example, if 3 feet of RG-59/U ( 21 pf. per
The relay is bolted to a2-inch square of sheet foot) were used, a68- pf. capacitor would be used
aluminum that is cemented ( epoxy cement, avail- at C 5 . Obviously the fixed capacitor need be
able in hardware stores) to ablock of 1- inch thick within about 10 per cent of the capacitance of the
foam rubber ( scrap begged from a local uphol- line; the rest can be made up by readjustment
sterer). The block of foam rubber is in turn of C 4 .
cemented to a2X 3- inch plate that is held to the A v.f.o. of this type is sometimes called a
chassis with 4-40 hardware. The use of the rubber "crystal substitute" and, as such, is used in place
reduces considerably the sound of the relay, and of the crystal of a crystal oscillator. There are
it also eliminates the possibility of mechanical several examples in this chapter of 6AG7 crystal
shock from the relay being transmitted to the oscillators where provision has been included
tuned circuit of the oscillator. for v.f.o. use, and the circuitry is applicable to
Tie points are used wherever necessary to sup- any crystal-oscillator stage of the same general
port components. Particular attention should be design. When used with a former crystal-
paid to all components associated with the 6CW4 oscillator stage of the same general design, the
oscillator circuit, to insure that both ends of a former oscillator stage is used as a straight-
resistor or capacitor are securely anchored. No. through or frequency- multiplying stage, depend-
16 or heavier wire should be used for tuned-circuit ing upon the band ( s) in use.
connections, as between capacitors and to Si,, With the v.f.o. connected to the transmitter, set
and any run of N% ire of more than an inch or so the v.f.o. on 3.75 Mc. and C., at half capacitance.
should be supported at the midpoint by atie point. Adjust the slug in L 3 for maximum output, as
All componente in the oscillator must be mounted indicated by grid current or output in the trans-
on the chassis section that is reinforced by the mitter. Switch to 40 meters, set the frequency to
a- inch-thick plate ( not on the side or front 7.15 Mc., and peak L 4 for maximum output.
wall) to insure that they do not move with respect As with all differential-keying circuits, the
to each other. This care in solid construction is of keying of the transmitter proper determines the
primary importance in the oscillator section, and final result. The only function of the differential
one can relax abit in the other wiring. The band- keying is to turn on the oscillator ahead of the
switch, SI,should be solidly mounted, however, amplifier and turn it off after the amplifier has
as should anything else that might be within a stopped conducting. Shaping of the keying ( see
diameter or two of L1. Chapter Eight) can only be done in the trans-
In the power-supply section, the filter capaci- mitter circuit ( s) ; tests on the shaping should be
tors and silicon diodes are supported by tie made with S2 open, which permits the oscillator
points; the selenium rectifier is mounted on the to run all the time. When the shaping is satis-
side wall of the chassis. factory ( clicks at asatisfactorily low level), clos-
ing S 2 should make no difference in the sound
Adjustment
of the transmitted signal, but it will allow break-
Adjustment of the v.f.o. consists of setting the in operation.
160-meter circuits to their ranges and aligning The v.f.o. can be checked for mechanical sta-
the other tuned circuits. To set the oscillator, bility by the time-honored test of listening to its
turn p1 so that it is about 10 per cent meshed, output while pounding on the table. If the beat
turn S1 to the " 75" range, and set C 2 to give an note changes appreciably, it indicates a mechan-
output of 4.0 Mc. ( The oscillator is actually on ical instability of some kind. Usually an insta-
2.0 Mc.) Then turn C1 to 95 per cent fully bility of this type can be traced by using a lead
meshed, switch S1 to "80", and set C 3 to give pencil ( eraser end) to push against the chassis
3.5- Mc. output. at various points. When asensitive point is found,
With the oscillator set for the correct tuning it is then aproblem of studying the configuration
range, L3 can be set with the v.f.o. connected to to determine how pressure at this point is mov-
the transmitter it is to be used with. The setting ing some oscillator component with respect to the
of L3 will vary with the length and type of coaxial others, or how it is deforming the inductor L1.
line used between the v.f.o. and the transmitter; If care has been taken with the construction, how-
a3- foot or shorter length of line is recommended. ever, the unit should be insensitive to any normal
The value of C,1 should be approximately equal shock.
to the capacitance of the line coupling the v.f.o. No detrimental temperature instabilities ( drift)
to the transmitter; values for the capacitance per should be encountered with this unit because the
foot of common lines can be found in Table 13-1. oscillator stage is running at low input.
250 KEYING AND BREAK-IN

TESTING YOUR KEYING

The choice of a keying circuit is not as im- terminals with a short piece of wire. Tune in
portant as its testing. Any of the circuits shown your own signal and reduce the r.f. gain to the
in this chapter can be made to give satisfactory point where your receiver doesn't overload. De-
keying, but must be adjusted properly. tune any antenna trimmer the receiver may have.
The easiest way to find out what your keyed If you can't avoid overload within the r.f. gain-
signal sounds like on the air is to trade stations control range, pull out the r.f. amplifier tube and
with a near-by ham friend some evening for a try again. If you still can't avoid overload, listen
short QS0. If he is a half mile or so away, to the second harmonic as alast resort. An over-
that's fine, but any distance where the signals are loaded receiver can generate clicks.
still S9 will be satisfactory. Describing the volume level at which you
After you have found out how to work his should set your receiver for these " shack" tests
rig, make contact and then have him send slow is a little difficult. The r.f. filter should be effec-
dashes, with dash spacing. ( The letter "T" at tive with the receiver running wide open and
about 5 w.p.m.) With minimum selectivity, cut with an antenna connected. When you turn on
the r.f. gain back just enough to avoid receiver the transmitter and take the other steps men-
overloading ( the condition where you get crisp tioned to reduce the signal in the receiver, run
signals instead of mushy ones) and tune slowly the audio up and the r.f. down to the point where
from out of beat-note range on one side of the you can just hear alittle "rushing" sound with the
signal through to zero and out the other side. b.f.o. off and the receiver tuned to the signal. This
Knowing the tempo of the dashes, you can is with the selectivity in. At this level, aproperly
readily identify any clicks in the vicinity as yours adjusted keying circuit will show no clicks off the
or someone else's. A good signal will have a rushing-sound range. With the b.f.o. on the same
thump on "make" that is perceptible only where gain setting, there should be no clicks outside the
you can also hear the beat note, and the click on beat-note range. When observing clicks, make the
"break" should be practically negligible at any slow-dash and fast dot tests outlined previously.
point. If your signal is like that, it will sound Now you know how your signal sounds on the
good, provided there are no chirps. Then have him air, with one possible exception. If keying your
run off a string of fast dots with the bug — if transmitter makes the lights blink, you may not
they are easy to copy, your signal has no "tails" be able to tell too accurately abOut the chirp
worth worrying about and is agood one for any on your signal. However, if you are satisfied with
speed up to the limit of manual keying. Make one the absence of chirp when tuning either side of
last check with the selectivity in, to see that the zero beat, it is safe to assume that your receiver
clicks off the signal are negligible even at high isn't chirping with the light flicker and that the
signal level. observed signal is atrue representation. No chirp
If you don't have any convenient friends with either side of zero beat is fine. Don't try to make
whom to trade stations, you can still check your these tests without first getting rid of the r.f.
keying, although you have to be a little more click at the key, because clicks can mask achirp.
careful. The first step is to get rid of the r.f. The least satisfactory way to check your key-
click at the key, as described earlier. ing is to ask another ham on the air how your
So far you haven't done a thing for your keying sounds. It is the least satisfactory because
signal on the air and you still don't know what most hams are reluctant to be highly critical of
it sounds like, but you may have cleaned up some another amateur's signal. In agreat many cases
clicks in the broadcast set. Now disconnect the they don't actually know what to look for or how
antenna from your receiver and short the antenna to describe any aberrations they may observe.

MONITORING OF KEYING
In general, there are two common methods for
monitoring one's " fist" and signal. The first, and BREAK-IN OPERATION
perhaps less common, type involves the use of an Smooth c.w. break-in operation involves pro-
audio oscillator that is keyed simultaneously with tecting the receiver from permanent damage by
the transmitter. the transmitter power and insurance that the re-
The second method is one that permits receiv- ceiver will " recover" fast enough to be sensitive
ing the signal through one's receiver, and this between dots and dashes, or at least between
generally requires that the receiver be tuned to letters and words. None of the available an-
the transmitter ( not always convenient unless tenna transfer relays is fast enough to follow
working on the same frequency) and that some keying, so the simplest break-in system is the
method be provided for preventing overloading use of a separate receiving antenna. If the
of the receiver, so that agood replica of the trans- transmitter power is low ( 25 or 50 watts) and
mitted signal will be received. Except where the isolation between transmitting and receiving
quite low power is used, this usually involves a antennas is good, this method can be satis-
relay for simultaneously shorting the receiver factory. Best isolation is obtained by mounting
input terminals and reducing the receiver gain. the antennas as far apart as possible and at right
218 HIGH- FREQUENCY TRANSMITTERS
of the calibration crystal socket. There is also a use. A tuned plate circuit is not required in the
lead on Pin 4 that was connected to the keying oscillator; it was found that more than adequate
relay; connect this lead to the nearest chassis grid drive could be obtained with the setup as
ground point. shown.
7) Mount an octal socket ( Amphenol 78-RS8) Output from the oscillator is fed to the trans-
in the hole formerly occupied by the power mitter through an 8-inch length of RG-58 coax
socket. Install asolder lug under one of the nuts cable. The cable is terminated in an octal plug,
holding the socket mounting. PI which is plugged into the oscillator tube
8) Wire the octal socket as shown in Fig. 6-91. socket in the transmitter. Power for the external
One of the leads unsoldered from the original oscillator is obtained through this socket.
power socket is red with awhite tracer. This is The crystal-controlled oscillator is built in and
the B+ lead for the 1625s. The yellow lead is the on a4 X 2 X 234- inch aluminum box. The tube
screen lead for the 1625s and the white lead is and crystal sockets are mounted on top of the
the heater lead. Although the manuals covering box and the remaining components inside. Lay-
this equipment specify these colors, it's safer out of parts is not particularly critical but the
not to take them for granted; check where each general arrangement shown in Figs. 6-90 and 6-93
lead actually goes before connecting it to the new should be followed to insure good results.
power socket. The lead from Pin 1on the power In the completed setup, oscillator and ampli-
socket to Pin 6 on the calibration-crystal socket fier, the cathodes of the 1625s are keyed and the
is the oscillator plate-voltage lead. The leads crystal oscillator runs continuously during trans-
from Pins 7and 8on the power plug to Pins 1 missions. It is thus necessary to turn the oscilla-
and 6 on the oscillator socket are new leads to tor off during standby periods, and this is accom-
carry power to the external crystal-controlled plished by opening the B- plus switch on the
oscillator. The lead from Pin 4 of the power power supply. This method is used in preference
socket to Pin 2on the 1629 ( resonance indicator) to keying the oscillator and amplifier simultane-
socket is the 12-volt heater lead. ously because keying the oscillator is likely to
9) Mount a closed-circuit phone jack at the make the signal chirpy. With amplifier keying
lower left-hand corner of the front panel. Con- the signal is areal T9X.
nect alead from the ungrounded phone jack ter-
Power Supply
minal to Pin 6 (cathode) of either of the 1625
sockets. This completes the modification. Fig. 6-91 shows the circuit of the power sup-
ply, which uses a5U4G rectifier and acapacitor-
Crystal- Controlled Oscillator Details input filter. The power transformer, Tj, is atype
The external crystal- controlled oscillator cir- made by several manufacturers. To obtain the
cuit, shown in Fig. 6-92, uses a6AG7 in the grid- necessary 12.6 volts for the heaters, a 6.3-volt
plate oscillator circuit. Either 80- or 40-meter filament transformer is connected in series with
crystals are required, depending on the band in the 6.3-volt winding on T1. This setup also will

LI INSERT METER
T, HERE -y
3
5
+ C, Get__ R,
2
temf. 25K
600 k 25w
4
8 7
51./40 5
EX1 S

12 eV.

8.3 V

13_3v.

PIN 6, CRYSTAL SOCKET ( OSC.6+).

Fig. 6-91—Circuit diagram of power socket and PINS 1625 SOCKET ( SCREEN).
power supply. 3 PLATE LEAD OF 16254
C1, 600- volt electrolytic ( Sprague TVA- 4 PIN 2 1629 SOCKET ( 12.6 v.A.c.)
1965, Aerovox PRS). 5 CHASSIS GROUND.
6 NO CONNECTION.
.4— Octal socket ( Amphenol 78-RS8).
7 PIN 6 1626 SOCKET ( 6.3 V. A.C.).
1,-1- to 2-hy., 200- ma. filter choke, TV replacement e PIN 1 1626 SOCKET ( XTALOSC.6 4).
type ( Stancor C2325 or C2327, or equivalent).
Pi— Octal cable plug ( Amphenol 86-PM8). CONNECTIONS TO
POWER SOCKET ON TRANSMITTER.
R,-25,000 ohms, 25 watts, with slider.
S1, 51—Single- pole, single- throw toggle switch.
Ti— Power transformer, 800 volts center- tapped, 200
ma.; 5 volts, 3 amp.; 6.3 volts, 6 amp. ( Knight Ti— Filament transformer, 6.3 volts, 3 amp. ( Triad
61G414, Triad R- 21A, or equivalent). F- 16X, Knight 62-G-031, or equivalent).
Speed Keys 253
operator's individual preference. R 2 may be ad- Because the pitch of the audio tone is to some
justed to compensate for the changes in the d.c. degree dependent upon the d.c. voltage obtained
current from the rectifier or Monimatch caused from the source, the pitch gives a reasonably
by a change in transmitter frequency band or accurate indication of correct final amplifier plate
power. Using either a 2N109 or a CK722 tran- circuit tuning ( maximum power output) and, if
sistor, the circuit should oscillate with usable an antenna tuner is used, will also indicate res-
audio level with as little as 0.1 ma. d.c. flowing to onance of the tuner to the transmitter output
ground through the monitor. Other low-cost frequency. This characteristic of the Matchtone
transistors such as the 2N107 and the 2N170 should be of considerable aid to sightless ama-
should work equally well. teurs. ( From QST, January, 1958.)

SPEED KEYS
The average operator finds that a speed of 20 when used by an operator who knows what good
to 25 words per minute is the limit of his ability code sounds like; however, one will not com-
with a straight hand key. However, he can in- pensate for an operator's poor code ability.
crease his speed to 30 to 40 w.p.m. by the use of a An electronic speed key will not compensate
"speed key." The mechanical speed keys, avail- for an operator's poor sending ability, either.
able in most radio stores, give additional speed by However, the electronic speed key has the fea-
making strings of dots when the key lever is ture that it makes strings of both dots and of
pushed to the right; dashes are made manually dashes, by proper manipulation of the key lever,
by closing the key to the left. After practicing and in current designs the dashes are self- com-
with the speed key, the operator obtains the cor- pleting. This means that it is impossible to send
rect "feel" for the key, which allows him to re- anything but the correct length of dash when the
lease the dot lever at exactly the right time to key lever is closed on the dash side. It is, of
make the required number of dots. A speed key course, possible to send an incorrect number of
can deliver practically perfect code characters dashes through poor operator timing.

KEYING SPEEDS
In radio telegraphy the basic code element is the proper dot, space and dash values mentioned
the dot, or unit pulse. A dot and space is two unit above, the code speed can be found from
pulses, and adash is three unit pulses long. The
dots/min.
space between letters is three unit pulses, and the Speed (
w.p.m.)
25
space between words is seven unit pulses. A
E.g.: A properly adjusted electronic key gives a string
speed of one baud is one pulse per second. of dots that counts to 10 dots per second. Speed = ( 60 X
Assuming that a speed key is adjusted to give 10) ÷ 25 = 24 w.p.m.

AN ELECTRONIC SPEED KEY

The unit shown in Figs. 8-12 and 8-14 repre-
sents one of the simpler designs of an electronic
key. The total cost of the key, in dollars and
construction time, is quite low. The keying lever
is made from parts taken from two straight tele-
graph keys; these are available at less than a
dollar each in the war- surplus version (J-38). A
more elegant keying lever can be built from a
(more-expensive) war-surplus mechanical speed
key.
Referring to Fig. 8-13, the timing of the key is
provided by the oscillator V iA .When the key is
closed, a sawtooth wave is generated by the fast
charge and slow discharge of the .25- pf. capaci-
tor in the cathode circuit. The rate of discharge
is set by the total resistance across the capacitor,
and the voltage to which the capacitor is charged
is determined by the setting of R1.The sawtooth Fig. 8- 12— This electrronic speed key has a range of
wave, applied to the grid of V 2A ,cannot drive the approximately 8 to 35 w.p.m., set by the speed control
grid very positive because the 3.3-megohm re- at top center. It has relay output and can be used with
sistor limits the current; the effect is to "clip any transmitter that can be keyed by a hand key. The
the tops" of the sawtooth cycles. The voltage key ( left) is made from two telegraph keys and a pair
at which V2A passes enough current to close of 1
/8-
inch thick sheet plastic paddles.
254 KEYING AND BREAK-IN
RI
I P,
0 TO TRANSMITTER

200K Fig. 8- 13—Circuit diagram of the electronic

KEY 1
¿
RATIO
4
1MEG .
speed key. Unless otherwise specified, resis-
tors are 1/2 watt. Polarity-marked capacitors
6 OSCILLATOR are electrolytic, others are tubular paper.
VIA 470 K'
- - 12 AU 7 Ks-50004Am 3-ma. relay (Sigma 41F-
V2A
WEIGHT 5000S-
SIL).
100K
R3 Pz— Phone plug.
Pz—A.c. line plug.
47E R3 - 100,000-ohm potentiometer, linear
taper.
R_-1-megohm potentiometer, linear taper.
S,—S.p.s.t. toggle.
RECTIFIER Ti- 5-watt 25,000-to-4-ohm output trans-
2200 former, secondary not used ( Stancor
_
A-3857).

250V1.
2
Ts- 125-v. 15-ma. and 6.3-v. 0.6-amp. trans-
former ( Stancor PS-8415 or similar).

the relay is set by the position of the arm of R 3. the same. It is easy to determine whether dots or
Except for the tubes, the keyer circuit is housed dashes are too heavy or too light. Connect an
in agrey Hammertone 6 X 5 X 4-inch Minibox ohmmeter to P1 ;holding the dot lever closed
(Bud CU-2107), as shown in Fig. 8-14. The tube should make the ohmmeter needle hover around
sockets are mounted so that the two tubes pro- half scale, and holding the dash lever closed
ject outside at the rear of the unit. The power should make the ohmmeter hover around 75 per
transformer is mounted on the rear wall, and the cent of the short-circuit reading. Lacking an
toggle switch and the three controls are mounted ohmmeter, the transmitter plate milliammeter can
on the "front" panel. The power line to P 2,the be used; dots and dashes should give 50 per cent
two-wire cable to P1,and the three- wire cable to and 75 per cent of the key-down value when the
the key leave the cabinet at the rear through keyer controls have been properly adjusted.
individual rubber grommets. Use multiple tie QST articles describing other types of elec-
points generously for the support of the fixed re- tronic speed keys include:
sistors and capacitors. Bartlett, " Compact Automatic Key Design," Dec., 1951.
To make the key, first remove the keys from Old "Transistorized Electronic Key and Monitor," May,
1959.
their bases and strip the bases of their remaining Kanda, " The ' Ultimatie—Transistorized," Sept., Oct.,
hardware. The four support legs for the key are 1960.
formed from the original tie strips and shorting
switch arms. At the front they bolt to the key
frame at the countérsunk holes; at the rear they
make up to the binding posts. The three-wire
cable connects to two binding posts and a sup-
porting leg. A heavy base of -inch thich steel
adds weight to the structure, and rubber or cork
feet glued to the steel prevent its scratching the
table.

Adjustment of Electronic Speed Key

In operation, the three controls will serve as

their labels indicate. There is a unique ( but not
highly critical) combination of settings of the
weight and ratio controls that will give automatic
dots and dashes at the same speed; this setting
can only be determined by ear and will be de- Fig. 8- 14— Components for the electronic speed key are
pendent on how well the operator can recognize mounted on the three walls of a Minibox section, with
good code. If the operator taps his foot to count the tubes projecting out the back. Keep wires away from
groups of four dots or two dashes, the dots and screw holes, to prevent short circuits when the box is
dashes will have the same speed when the beat is assembled.

ELECTRONIC TRANSMIT- RECEIVE SWITCHES

No antenna relay is fast enough to switch an at normal keying speeds. As aconsequence, when
antenna from transmitter to receiver and back it is desired to use the same antenna for trans-
 Chapter 7

Power Supplies

The electrical power required to operate ama- When the prime power source is d.c. ( battery),
teur radio equipment is usually taken from the the d.c. is first changed to a.c. and is then fol-
a.c. lines when the equipment is operated where lowed by the transformer-rectifier- filter system.
this power is available; in mobile operation the The cathode-heating power can be a.c. or d.c.
prime source of power is usually the storage bat- in the case of indirectly-heated cathode tubes,
tery. and a.c. or d.c. for filament- type tubes if the tubes
The high- voltage d.c. for the plates of vacuum are operated at ahigh power level ( high-powered
tubes used in receivers and transmitters is de- audio and r.f. applications). Low-level operation
rived from the commercial a.c. by the use of a of filament- type tubes generally requires d.c. on
transformer- rectifier- filter system. The trans- the filaments if undue hum is to be avoided.
former changes the voltage of the a.c. to a suit- Power- supply filters are low-pass devices using
able value, the rectifier ( s) converts it to pul- series inductors and shunt capacitors. A config-
sating d.c., and the filter reduces the pulsations uration in which the first element folio \\ Mg the
to a suitably low level. Essentially pure direct rectifier is an inductor is called a "choke- input
current is required to prevent hum in the output filter," to distinguish it from a "capacitor-input
of receivers, speech amplifiers, modulators and filter." The type of filter ( choke or capacitor in-
transmitters. In the case of transmitters, pure put) has a large effect on the peak current
d.c. plate supply is also dictated by government through the rectifiers and upon the output volt-
regulations. age.

RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
pacitor load drawing little or no current it can
Half-Wove Rectifier rise to 2.8 E R „ s .
Fig. 7-1 shows three rectifier circuits covering Another dis-advantage of the half- wave rectifier
most of the common applications in amateur circuit is that the transformer must have a con-
equipment. Fig. 7-1A is the circuit of ahalf-wave siderably higher primary volt-ampere rating ( ap-
rectifier. The rectifier is adevice that will conduct proximately 40 per cent greater), for the same
current in one direction but not in the other. Dur- d.c. power output, than in other rectifier circuits.
ing one half of the a.c. cycle the rectifier will con-
Full- Wave Center-Tap Rectifier
duct and current will flow through the rectifier to
the load. During the other half of the cycle the The most universally used rectifier circuit is
rectifier does not conduct and no current flows to shown in Fig. 7-1B. Essentially an arrangement
the load. The shape of the output wave is shown in which the outputs of two half- wave rectifiers
in ( A) at the right. It shows that the current al- are combined, it makes use of both halves of the
ways flows in the same direction but that the flow a.c. cycle. A transformer with a center- tapped
of current is not continuous and is pulsating in secondary is required with the circuit.
amplitude. The average output voltage is 0.9 times the
The average output voltage—the voltage read r.m.s. voltage of half the transformer secondary;
by the usual d.c. voltmeter—with this circuit ( no this is the maximum voltage that can be obtained
filter connected) is 0.45 times the r.m.s. value of with a suitable choke- input filter. The peak out-
the a.c. voltage delivered by the transformer sec- put voltage is 1.4 times the r.m.s. voltage of half
ondary. Because the frequency of the pulses is the transformer secondary; this is the maximum
relatively low ( one pulsation per cycle), consid- voltage that can be obtained from a capacitor-
erable filtering is required to provide adequately input filter ( at little or no load).
smooth d.c. output, and for this reason this circuit The peak reverse voltage across arectifier unit
is usually limited to applications where the cur- is 2.8 times the r.m.s. voltage of half the trans-
rent involved is small, such as supplies for former secondary.
cathode-ray tubes and for protective bias in a As can be seen from the sketches of the output
transmitter. wave form in ( B) to the right, the frequency of
The peak reverse voltage, the voltage the the output pulses is twice that of the half- wave
rectifier must withstand when it isn't conducting, rectifier. Therefore much less filtering is required.
varies with the load. With a resistive load it is Since the rectifiers work alternately, each handles
the peak a.c. voltage ( 1.4 ERms )but with a ca- half of the load current, and the load-current rat-

221
 222 POWER SUPPLIES

AC.
LINE ER NS
TO
FILTER
A A A
EPEAR • I
.4 BRIAS

EA , • 0.45 E4MS

(A) HALF -WAVE Epoly • 1.4-2.8 ER MS

RIPPLE . 121%

Fig. 7- 1— Fundamental rectifier cir-

cuits. A— Half-wave ( EpRv = 1.4 ERM8
A.C.
with resistive load, = 2.8 ERMS with LINE
capacitor-input filter). 8— Full-wave. EpEAK ERMS

C—Full-wave bridge. Output voltage EA,/ 0 .

9 Epms

values do not include rectifier voltage (B) FULL - WAVE EpRv = 2 .8 ERmS
drops. RIPPLE = 48 Ve

A. 0
LINE
EpEA« 1.
4 ERMS
EA , 0.9 ERms

EpRv • I. 4 ERms
(C) BRIDG E
RIPPLE • 48%

ing of each rectifier need be only half the total ness, low internal voltage drop, low operating
load current drawn from the supply. temperature and high current-handling capability.
Two separate transformers, with their pri- Also, no filament transformers are required.
maries connected in parallel and secondaries con- In general, selenium rectifiers find their pri-
nected in series ( with the proper polarity) may mary application at relatively low voltages ( 130
be used in this circuit. However, if this substitu- r.m.s. or less) and for load currents up to about
tion is made, the primary volt-ampere rating must one ampere.
be reduced to about 40 per cent less than twice Silicon rectifiers are available in a wide range
the rating of one transformer. of voltage and current ratings. In peak inverse
Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier voltage ( p.i.v.) ratings of 600 and less, silicon
rectifiers carry current ratings as high as 40 am-
Another ttill-%%ave rectifier circuit is shown in peres, and at 800 p.i.v. the current ratings may be
Fig. 7-1C. In this arrangement, two rectifiers 500 ma. or so. The extreme compactness of silicon
operate in series on each half of the cycle, one types makes feasible the stacking of several units
rectifier being in the lead to the load, the other in series for higher voltages. Standard stacks are
being in the return lead. The current flows available that will handle up to 10,000 p.i.v. at a
through two rectifiers during one half of the d.c. load current of 500 ma., although they are
cycle and through the other two rectifiers during comparatively expensive and the amateur can do
the other half of the cycle. The output wave shape much better by stacking the rectifiers himself.
(C), to the right, is the same as that from the To equalize the p.i.v. drops and to guard against
simple center-tap rectifier circuit. The maximum transient voltage spikes, it is good practice to
output voltage into aresistive load or aproperly- shunt each rectifier with a half-megohm resistor
designed choke-input filter is 0.9 times the r.m.s. and a 0.01-pi. capacitor, as shown in Fig. 7-2.
voltage delivered by the transformer secondary; Silicon rectifiers carry surge-current ratings, and
with acapacitor- input filter and avery light load
the output voltage is 1.4 times the secondary r.m.s.
voltage. The peak reverse voltage per rectifier is
1.4 times the secondary r.m.s. voltage. Each recti-
fier in a bridge circuit should have a minimum
load- current rating of one-half the total load cur-
rent to be drawn from the supply.

Other Rectifier Circuits

The basic rectifier circuits shown in Fig. 7-1 Fig. 7-2—When silicon rectifiers are connected in series
are the ones generally encountered. Variations for high-voltage operation, the reverse voltage drops
of these, and a family of "voltage-multiplying" can be equalized by using equalizing resistors of about
circuits, will he treated later in this chapter. one-half megohm. To protect against voltage "spikes"
that may injure an individual rectifier, each rectifier
Semiconductor Rectifiers
should be bypassed by a0.01-af. capacitor. Connected
Selenium and silicon rectifiers are finding in- as shown, two 400-p.i.v. silicon rectifiers can be used
creasing application in power supplies for ama- as an 800-p.i.v. rectifier, although it is preferable to
teur equipment, and they will eventually supplant include a safety factor and call it a "750-p.i.v." recti-
high-vacuum and mercury-vapor rectifiers. The fier. The rectifiers, CR, and CR,, should be the same
semiconductors have the advantages of compact- type (same type number and ratings).
 Rectifiers 223
series limiting resistors are required if the trans- the tube terminals. Low filament voltage can
former winding resistance and reactance are too cause excessive voltage drop in high- vacuum rec-
low to limit the current to a quitable value. tifiers and aconsiderable reduction in the inverse
peak-voltage rating of a mercury-vapor tube.
High-Vacuum Rectifiers Filament connections to the rectifier socket should
High-vacuum rectifiers depend entirely upon be firmly soldered, particularly in the case of the
the thermionic emission from a heated filament larger mercury-vapor tubes whose filaments op-
and are characterized by a relatively high erate at low voltage and high current. The socket
internal resistance. For this reason, their applica- should be selected with care, not only as to con-
tion usually is limited to low power, although tact surface but also as to insulation, since the
there are a few types designed for medium and filament usually is at full output voltage to
high power in cases where the relatively high ground. Bakelite sockets will serve at voltages up
internal voltage drop may be tolerated. This high to 500 or so, but ceramic sockets, well spaced
internal resistance make them less susceptible to from the chassis, always should be used at the
damage from temporary overload and they are
free from the bothersome electrical noise some-
times associated with other types of rectifiers.
Some rectifiers of the high- vacuum full-wave
type in the so-called receiver-tube class will han-
LI NE
dle up to 275 ma. at 400 to 500 volts d.c. output.
Those in the higher- power class can be used to C/
ACC

handle up to 500 ma. at 2000 volts d.c. in full-

wave circuits. Most low- power high- vacuum rec-
tifiers are produced in the full- wave type, while (A)
those for greater power are invariably of the half-
wave type, two tubes being required for a full-
wave rectifier circuit. A few of the lower- voltage
types have indirectly heated cathodes, but are
limited in heater- to-cathode voltage rating.

Mercury-Vapor Rectifiers
The voltage drop through a mercury-vapor
rectifier is practically constant at approximately
15 volts regardless of the load current. For high
(B)
power they have the advantage of cheapness.
Rectifiers of this type, however, have atendency
toward atype of oscillation which produces noise
in nearby receivers, sometimes difficult to elimi-
nate. R.f. filtering in the primary circuit and at
the rectifier plates as well as shielding may be
required. As with high- vacuum rectifiers, full-
wave types are available in the lower- power rat-
ings only. For higher power, two tubes are
required in afull- wave circuit.

Rectifier Ratings
All rectifiers are subject to limitations as to
breakdown voltage and current- handling capa-
bility. Some tube types are rated in terms of the
maximum r.m.s. voltage that should be applied to
the rectifier plate. This is sometimes dependent
on whether a choke- or capacitive- input filter is
used. Others, particularly mercury-vapor and
semiconductor types, are rated according to max-
imum peak inverse voltage (p.i.v.)—the peak (CI
voltage between anode and cathode while the Fig. 7-3—The fundamental rectifier circuits of Fig. 7-1
rectifier is not conducting. redrawn for use with hot-cathode rectifiers. In many
Rectifiers are rated also as to maximum d.c. applications the filament transformer would be sepa-
load current, and some may carry peak-current rate from the high-voltage transformer, and in many
ratings in addition. To assure normal life, all applications the full-wave rectifier in asingle envelope
ratings should be carefully observed. would be replaced by two half-wave rectifiers. Low-
voltage bridge circuits sometimes use rectifiers with
Operation of Hot-Cathode Rectifiers indirectly-heated cathodes that have high heater-to-
In operating rectifiers requiring filament or cathode voltage ratings; this reduces the number of
cathode heating, as shown in Fig. 7-3, care should cathode-heating windings required for the power
be taken to provide the correct filament voltage at supply.
224 POWER SUPPLIES
higher voltages. Special filament transformers Fig. 7.4—Connecting mer-
with high-voltage insulation between primary and cury-vapor rectifiers in
secondary are required for rectifiers operating at parallel for heavier cur-
potentials in excess of 1000 volts inverse peak. rents. R1 and 12, should
In a supply furnishing a 4- voltage with respect have the same value, be-
to ground, the insulation must at least be able to tween 50 and 100 ohms,
withstand any possible voltage, plus 1000 or 2000 and corresponding fila-
volts safety factor. Most rectifier filament trans- ment terminals should be
formers intended for high- voltage service carry connected together.
5000- or 10,000- volt insulation ratings.
The rectifier tubes should be placed in the
equipment with adequate space surrounding them parallel for current higher than the rated current
to provide for ventilation. When mercury-vapor of a single unit. This includes the use of the sec-
tubes are first placed in service, and each time tions of a double diode for this purpose. With
after the mercury has been disturbed, as by re- mercury-vapor types, equalizing resistors of 50
moval from the socket to a horizontal position, to 100 ohms should be connected in series with
they should be run with filament voltage only for each plate, as shown in Fig. 7-4, to maintain an
30 minutes before applying high voltage. After equal division of current between the two recti-
that, adelay of 30 seconds is recommended each fiers. If one tube tends to "hog" the current, the
time the filament is turned on. increased voltage drop across its resistor will de-
Hot-cathode rectifiers may be connected in crease the voltage applied to the tube.

FILTERS
The pulsating d.c. waves from the rectifiers obtained with a capacitor- input filter from the
shown in Fig. 7-1 are not sufficiently constant in same transformer.
amplitude to prevent hum corresponding to the
pulsations. Filters consisting of capacitances and Voltage Regulation
inductances are required between the rectifier and The output voltage of a power supply always
the load to smooth out the pulsations to an es- decreases as more current is drawn, not only be-
sentially constant d.c. voltage. Also, upon the de- cause of increased voltage drops on the trans-
sign of the filter depends to a large extent the former, filter chokes and the rectifier ( if high-
d.c. voltage output, the voltage regulation of the vacuum rectifiers are used) but also because the
power supply and the maximum load current that output voltage at light loads tends to soar to the
can be drawn from the supply without exceeding peak value of the transformer voltage as a result
the peak-current rating of the rectifier. of charging the first capacitor. By proper filter
design the latter effect can be eliminated. The
Load Resistance change in output voltage with load is called volt-
In discussing the performance of power- supply age regulation and is 'expressed as a percentage.
filters, it is sometimes convenient to express the 100 ( E1 — E2)
load connected to the output terminals of the Per cent regulation —
E2
supply in terms of resistance. The load resistance
is equal to the output voltage divided by the Example: No-load voltage = El = 1550 volts.
Full- load voltage = E: = 1230 volts.
total current drawn, including the current drawn 100 ( 1550 — 1230)
Percentage regulation =
by the bleeder resistor. 1230
32,000
Type of Filter 1230 26 per cent.

Power- supply filters fall into two classifica- A steady load, such as that represented by a
tions, capacitor input and choke input. Capacitor- receiver, speech amplifier or unkeyed stages of a
input filters are characterized by relatively high transmitter, does not require good ( low) reg-
output voltage in respect to the transformer volt- ulation so long as the proper voltage is obtained
age. Advantage of this can be taken when silicon under load conditions. However, the filter capaci-
rectifiers are used or with any rectifier when the tors must have avoltage rating safe for the high-
load resistance is high. Silicon rectifiers have a est value to which the voltage will soar when
higher allowable peak-to-d.c. ratio than do therm- the external load is removed.
ionic rectifiers. This permits the use of capacitor- A power supply will show more ( higher) regu-
input filters at ratios of input capacitor to load lation with long-term changes in load resistance
resistance that would seriously shorten the life than with short temporary changes. The regula-
of athermionic rectifier system. When the series tion with long-term changes is often called the
resistance through arectifier and filter system is static regulation, to distinguish it from the
appreciable, as when high-vacuum rectifiers are dynamic regulation (short temporary load
used, the voltage regulation ( see subsequent sec- changes). A load that varies at asyllabic or keyed
tion) of a capacitor-input power supply is poor. rate, as represented by some audio and r.f. am-
The output voltage of a properly-designed plifiers, usually requires good dynamic regulation
choke-input power supply is less than would be (15 per cent or less) if distortion products are
Filters 225
bleeder resistor is more dangerous than none at
all

Ripple Frequency and Voltage

The pulsations in the output of the rectifier
can be considered to be the resultant of an alter-
nating current superimposed upon asteady direct
current. From this viewpoint, the filter may be
considered to consist of shunting capacitors
which short-circuit the a.c. component while not
interfering with the flow of the d.c. component,
and series chokes which pass d.c. readily but
which impede the flow of the a.c. component.
The alternating component is called the ripple.
The effectiveness of the filter can be expressed in
terms of per cent ripple, which is the ratio of the
r.m.s. value of the ripple to the d.c. value in terms
of percentage. For c.w. transmitters, the output
ripple from the power supply should not exceed
5 per cent. The ripple in the ouput of supplies
for voice transmitters should not exceed 1 per
cent. Class B modulators require a ripple reduc-
tion to about 0.25%, while v.f.o.'s, high-gain
speech amplifiers, and receivers may require a
Fig. 7- 5— Capacitive- input filter circuits. A— Simple ca- reduction in ripple to 0.01%.
pacitive. B— Single-section. C— Double- section. Ripple frequency is the frequency of the pulsa-
tions in the rectifier output wave—the number of
to be held to alow level. The dynamic regulation pulsations per second. The frequency of the rip-
of a power supply is improved by increasing the ple with half- wave rectifiers is the same as the
value of the output capacitor. frequency of the line supply-60 cycles with 60-
When essentially constant voltage, regardless cycle supply. Since the output pulses are doubled
of current variation is required ( for stabilizing with afull-wave rectifier, the ripple frequency is
an oscillator, for example), special voltage- regu- doubled—to 120 cycles with 60-cycle supply.
lating circuits described elsewhere in this chapter The amount of filtering ( values of inductance
are used. and capacitance) required to give adequate
smoothing depends upon the ripple frequency,
Bleeder more filtering being required as the ripple fre-
A bleeder resistor is a resistance connected quency is lowered.
across the output terminals of the power supply.
Input Resistance
Its functions are to discharge the filter capacitors
as asafety measure when the power is turned off The sum of the transformer impedance and the
and to improve voltage regulation by providing rectifier resistance is called the input resistance.
aminimum load resistance. When voltage regula- The approximate transformer impedance is
tion is not of importance, the resistance may be given by
as high as 100 ohms per volt. The resistance value ZTZ = 1\r 2RP111 RSE0
to be used for voltage-regulating purposes is dis-
cussed in later sections. From the consideration where N is the transformer turns ratio, primary
of safety, the power rating of the resistor should to secondary ( primary to secondary in the case
be as conservative as possible, since aburned-out of afull-wave rectifier), and Rpm and R BEG are

Uululill
1
7 Rs
Epc .." • OW
_I_ R '
R Fig. 7- 6-- Dc. output voltages
Eac 0.04
60 from a full-wave rectifier cir-
lu
Rs
cuit as a function of the filter
0.1 II capacitance and load resist-

o ance. R, includes transformer

winding resistance and recti-
0.2
o fier forward resistance. For
o
the ratio R,/R, both resist-
ances are in ohms; for the RC
product, R is in thousands of
o .111111
ohms.

.3 . 5 LO 3 I 30 50 00 300 SOO le

RC ( R in thousands of ohms, C in ,uf.)

 226 POWER SUPPLIES

Maximum Rectifier Current

The maximum current that can be drawn from
RATIO OF PEAK RECTIFIER CURRENT TO 0CLOAD CURRENT

7
a supply with a capacitive- input filter without
exceeding the peak- current rating of the rectifier
may be estimated from the graph of Fig. 7-7.
NPUT C - 4_je Using values from the preceding example, the
OR GREATER
6
ratio of peak rectifier current to d.c. load current
for 2000 ohms, as shown in Fig. 7-7 is 3. There-
fore, the maximum load current that can be
13
0
drawn without exceeding the rectifier rating is 1,¡
,.,0 e
,
1 I the peak rating of the rectifier. For a load cur-
5 te+ rent of 185 ma., as above, the rectifier peak cur-
te el/
rent rating should be at least 3x 185 = 555 ma.
With bleeder current only, Fig. 7-7 shows that
INPUT RESISTANCE the ratio will increase to 7. But since the bleeder
4
draws 23.5 ma. d.c., the rectifier peak current will
be only 176 ma.

Ripple Filtering
3 The approximate ripple percentage after the
simple capacitive filter of Fig. 7-5A may be deter-
mined from Fig. 7-8. With a load resistance of
2000 ohms, for instance, the ripple will be ap-
proximately 10% with an 8-µf. capacitor or
000 2000 3000 5000 10,000 20,000 54000
20% with a 4-4 capacitor. For other capaci-
LOAD RESISTANCE - .AvMOLPTs (0117-Pu r)
tances, the ripple will be in inverse proportion to
Fig. 7- 7- Graph showing the relationship between the the capacitance, e.g., 5% with 16 ¡of., 40% with
d.c. load current and the rectifier peak plate current 2tuf., and so forth.
with capacitive input for various values of load and The ripple can be reduced further by the addi-
input resistance. tion of LC sections as shown in Figs. 7-5B and C.
Fig. 7-9 shows the factor by which the ripple
the primary and secondary resistances respec- from any preceding section is reduced depending
tively. R 51 e will be the resistance of half of the on the product of the capacitance and inductance
secondary in the case of afull- wave circuit. added. For instance, if a section composed of a
choke of 5h. and acapacitor of 4id were to be
CAPACITIVE- INPUT FILTERS added to the simple capacitor of Fig. 7-5A, the
Capacitive- input filter systems are shown in product is 4 X 5 = 20. Fig. 7-9 shows that the
Fig. 7-5. Disregarding voltage drops in the original ripple ( 10% as above with 8 AL for ex-
chokes, all have the same characteristics except ample) will be reduced by afactor of about 0.09.
in respect to ripple. Better ripple reduction will Therefore the ripple percentage after the new
be obtained when LC sections are added, as section will be approximately 0.09 X 10 = 0.9%.
shown in Figs. 7-5B and C. If another section is added to the filter, its reduc-

Output Voltage
To determine the approximate d.c. voltage out- IC T
put when a capacitive- input filter is used, refer-
c,.
---i--
ence should be made to the graph of Fig. 7-6.
Example:
n
REC TIFIER Tc' ourour
Is 0 o
Transformer r.m.s. voltage- 350
Peak a.c. voltage = 1.4 X 350 = 495
lo
Load resistance-2000 ohms 9
Series resistance-200 ohms 8
200 ± 2000 = 0.1 7 C- 4pF
Input capacitor C= 20 µf. 6 I
L
R (thousands) X C = 2 X 20 = 40 5
From curve 0.1 and RC = 40, d.c. voltage
=495 X 0.75 = 370
4

3
C6opF 6 66. L
Regulation
If a bleeder resistance of 20,000 ohms is used 2 II
in the example above, when the load is removed 15
and R becomes 20,000, the d.c. voltage will rise
to 470. For best regulation with acapacitor- input
1000 1500 2000 3000 5000 10.000 20,000 50.000
filter, the bleeder resistor should be as low as pos- Dc
LOAD RESISTANCE - OHMS ( vOLrS OurPur)
sible, or the series resistance should be low and 0 C Amo

the filter capacitance high, without exceeding the Fig. 7- 8- Showing approximate 120-cycle percentage
transformer or rectifier ratings. ripple across filter input capacitor for various loads.
 262 SPEECH AMPLIFIERS AND MODULATORS
the transmitter and select the modulator. In the tubes whose gains, when multiplied together,
case of plate modulation, aClass B amplifier may give approximately the figure arrived at in ( 9).
be required. Select a suitable tube type and de- These amplifiers will be used in cascade. If high
termine from the tube tables at the end of this gain is required, a pentode may be used for the
book the grid driving power required, if any. first speech- amplifier stage, but it is not advis-
2) As a safety factor, multiply the required able to use a second pentode because of the
driver power by at least 1.5. possibility of feedback and self-oscillation. In
3) Select a tube, or pair of tubes, that will most cases a triode will give enough gain, as a
deliver the power determined in the second step. second stage, to make up the total gain required.
This is the last or output stage of the speech- If not, amedium-µ triode may be used as athird
amplifier. Receiver- type power tubes can be used stage.
(beam tubes such as the 6L6 may be needed in A high-µ double triode with the sections in
some cases) as determined from the receiving- cascade makes a good low-level amplifier, and
tube tables. If the speech amplifier is to drive a will give somewhat greater gain than a pentode
Class B modulator, use a Class A or AB I am- followed by amedium-µ triode. With resistance-
plifier. coupled input to the first section the cathode of
4) If the speech- amplifier output stage is also that section may be grounded ( contact potential
the modulator and must operate Class AB2 to bias), which is helpful in reducing hum.
'
develop the required power output, use a low-
or medium-µ triode to drive it. If more power is SPEECH- AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION
needed than can be obtained from one tube, use Once a suitable circuit lias been selected for
two in push-pull, in the driver. In either case a speech amplifier, the construction problem
transformer coupling will have to be used, and resolves itself into avoiding two difficulties —
transformer manufacturers' catalogs should be excessive hum, and unwanted feedback. For
consulted for asuitable type. reasonably humless operation, the hum voltage
5) If the speech- amplifier output stage oper- should not exceed about 1per cent of the maxi-
ates Class A or AB', it may be driven by avolt- mum audio output voltage— that is, the hum
age amplifier. If the output stage is push-pull, the and noise should be at least 40 db. below the
driver may be a single tube coupled through a output level.
transformer with a balanced secondary, or may Unwanted feedback, if negative, will reduce
be a dual-triode phase inverter. Determine the thc gain below the calculated value; if positive, is
signal voltage required for full output from the likely to cause self-oscillation or "howls." Feed-
last stage. If the last stage is a single- tube Class back can be minimized by isolating each stage
A amplifier, the peak signal is equal to the grid- with decoupling resistors and capacitors, by
bias voltage; if push-pull Class A, the peak-to- avoiding layouts that bring the first and last
peak signal voltage is equal to twice the grid stages near each other, and by shielding of " hot"
bias; if Class ABi, twice the bias voltage when points in the circuit, such as grid leads in low-
fixed bias is used; if cathode bias is used, twice level stages.
the bias figured from the cathode resistance and Speech- amplifier equipment, especially voltage
the maximum- signal cathode current. amplifiers, should be constructed on steel chassis,
6) From Table 9-1, select a tube capable of with all wiring kept below the chassis to take ad-
giving the required output voltage an Inote its vantage of the shielding afforded. Exposed leads,
rated voltage gain. A double- triode phase in- particularly to the grids of low-level high- gain
verter ( Fig. 9-4A) will have approximately tubes, are likely to pick up hum from the electric
twice the output voltage and twice the gain of field that usually exists in the vicinity of house
one triode operating as an ordinary amplifier. If wiring. Even with the chassis, additional shield-
the driver is to be transformer-coupled to the ing of the input circuit of the first tube in ahigh-
last stage, select amedium-µ triode and calculate gain amplifier usually is necessary. In addition,
the gain and output voltage as described earlier such circuits should be separated as much as
in this chapter. possible from power- supply transformers and
7) Divide the voltage required to drive the chokes and also from any audio transformers
output stage by the gain of the preceding stage. that operate at fairly high power levels; this will
This gives the peak voltage required at the grid minimize magnetic coupling to the grid circuit
of the next- to- the- last stage. and thus reduce hum or audio- frequency feed-
8) Find the output voltage, under ordinary back. It is always safe, although not absolutely
conditions, of the microphone to be used. This necessary, to separate the speech amplifier and
information should be obtained from the manu- its power supply, building them on separate
facturer's catalog. If not available, the figures chassis.
given in the section on microphones in this If a low-level microphone such as the crystal
chapter will serve. type is used, the microphone, its connecting cable,
9) Divide the voltage found in ( 7) by the out- and the plug or connector by which it is attached
put voltage of the microphone. The result is the to the speech amplifier, all should be shielded.
over-all gain required from the microphone to The microphone and cable usually are con-
the grid of the next- to- the- last stage. To be on structed with suitable shielding; this should be
the safe side, double or triple this figure. connected to the speech-amplifier chassis, and it
10) From Table 9-1, select a combination of is advisable — as well as necessary — to connect
 228 POWER SUPPLIES
E, -4- E2
Fig. 7- 11— Diagram showing various
voltage drops that must be taken into
consideration in determining the re-
PR'
quired transformer voltage to deliver
the desired output voltage.

will drop to 5h. The critical inductance for 200

ma. at 1000 volts is 1000/200 = 5 h. Therefore Output Voltage
the 5/25-h. choke maintains the critical induct- Provided the input- choke inductance is at least
ance at the full current rating of 200 ma. At all the critical value, the output voltage may be cal-
load currents between 40 ma. and 200 ma., the culated quite closely by the following equation:
choke will adjust its inductance to the approxi- E.= 0.9E,— ( I
B IL ) ( R,± R2) —
mate critical value.
Table 7-I shows the maximum supply output where E. is the output voltage; Et is the r.m.s.
voltage that can be used with commonly-avail- voltage applied to the rectifier ( r.m.s. voltage
able swinging chokes to maintain critical induct- between center- tap and one end of the second-
ance at the maximum current rating of the ary in the case of the center-tap rectifier) ; /13
choke. These chokes will also maintain critical and 4, are the bleeder and load currents, respec-
inductance for any lower values of voltage, or tively, in amperes; R, and R 2 are the resistances
current down to the required minimum drawn by of the first and second filter chokes; and Er is the
aproper bleeder as discussed above. voltage drop across the rectifier. The various
In the case of supplies for higher voltages in voltage drops are shown in Fig. 7-11. At no
particular, the limitation on maximum load re- load 4, is zero, hence the no-load voltage may
be calculated on the basis of bleeder current only.
The voltage regulation may be determined from
TABLE 7-1 the no-load and full- load voltages using the
Max. Max. Max. Min. formula previously given.
Li ma. volts .12 , ma. 2
Ripple with Choke Input
3.5/13.5 150 525 13.5K 39
2/12 200 400 12K 33 The percentage ripple output from a single-
section filter may be determined to a close ap-
5/25 200 1000 25K 40
proximation from Fig. 7-12.
2/12 250 500 12K 42
Example: L = 5h., C = 4µf., LC = 20.
4/20 300 1200 20K 60 From Fig. 7-12, percentage ripple = 7 per cent.
5/25 300 1500 25K 60 Example: L = 5 h. What capacitance is
needed to reduce the ripple to 1per cent? Fol-
4/20 400 1600 20K 80 lowing the I- per- cent line to its intersection
5/25 500 2500 25K 100 with the diagonal, thence down to the LC scale,
read LC = 120. 120/5 24af.
1 Maximum bleeder resistance for ctitical in-
ductance.

11-H ,
20
2 Minimum current ( bleeder) for critical in-
IS
ductance.
PERCENT OUTPUT RIPPLE ( là01. INPUT )

1 7 TO —
sistance may result in the wasting of an appreci- —,
—
I- RECTIFIER
C
T OUTPUT
o
able portion of the transformer power capacity in
the bleeder resistance. Two input chokes in series
will permit the use of a bleeder of twice the
3
resistance, cutting the wasted current in half.
Another alternative that can be used in ac.w.
, 1 1
2
transmitter is to use a very high- resistance I

bleeder for protective purposes and only suf-

ficient fixed bias on the tubes operating from the
supply to bring the total current drawn from the
E
supply, when the key is open, to the value of
current that the required bleeder resistance .5
should draw from the supply. Operating bias is
brought back up to normal by increasing the .3
grid- leak resistance. Thus the entire current ca-
1 1
pacity of the supply ( with the exception of the 15 20 30 50 70 WO ISO 200 300 SOO
small drain of the protective bleeder) can be
h.) It
used in operating the transmitter stages. With
this system, it is advisable to operate the tubes Fig. 7- 12—Graph showing combinations of inductance
at phone, rather than c.w., ratings, since the av- and capacitance that may be used to reduce 120-cycle
erage dissipation is increased. ripple with a single-section choke-input filter.
Filters 229
In selecting values for the first filter section, the as high, and preferably somewhat higher, than
inductance of the choke should be determined by the peak- voltage rating of the transformer.
the considerations discussed previously. Then the Thus, in the case of acenter-tap rectifier having
capacitor should be selected that when combined a transformer delivering 550 volts each side of
with the choke inductance ( minimum inductance the center- tap, the minimum safe capacitor
in the case of a swinging choke) will bring the voltage rating will be 550 x 1.41 or 775 volts.
ripple down to the desired value. If it is found An 800- volt capacitor should be used, or pref-
impossible to bring the ripple down to the de- erably a1000- volt unit.
sired figure with practical values in a single sec-
Filter Capacitors in Series
tion, a second section can be added, as shown
in Fig. 7-10B and the reduction factor from Fig. Filter capacitors are made in several different
7-9 applied as discussed under capacitive- input types. Electrolytic capacitors, which are avail-
filters. The second choke should not be of the able for peak voltages up to about 800, combine
swinging type, but one having a more or less high capacitance with small size, since the dielec-
constant inductance with changes in current tric is an extremely thin film of oxide on alumi-
(smoothing choke). num foil. Capacitors of this type may be con-
nected in series for higher voltages, although the
OUTPUT CAPACITOR filtering capacitance will be reduced to the re-
If the supply is intended for use with aClass- A sultant of the two capacitances in series. If this
a.f. amplifier, the reactance of the output capacitor arrangement is used, it is important that each of
should be low for the lowest audio frequency; the capacitors be shunted with aresistor of about
8 pf. or more is usually adequate. When the 100 ohms per volt of supply voltage, with apower
supply is used with aClass- B amplifier ( for mod- rating adequate for the total resistor current at
ulation or for s.s.b. amplification) or ac.w. trans- that voltage. These resistors may serve as all or
mitter, increasing the output capacitance will re- part of the bleeder resistance ( see choke- input
sult in improved dynamic regulation of the supply. filters). Capacitors with higher- voltage ratings
However, aregion of diminishing returns can be usually are made with a dielectric of thin paper
reached, and 10 to 20 d. will usually suffice for impregnated with oil. The working voltage of a
any supply subjected to large changes at asyllabic capacitor is the voltage that it will withstand
(or keying) rate. continuously.

RESONANCE Filter Chokes

Resonance effects in the series circuit across The input choke may be of the swinging type,
the output of the rectifier which is formed by the required minimum no-load and full- load in-
the first choke and first filter capacitor must be ductance values being calculated as described
avodied, since the ripple voltage would build up above. For the second choke ( smoothing
to large values. This not only is the opposite ac- choke) values of 4 to 20 henrys ordinarily are
tion to that for which the filter is intended, but used. When filter chokes are placed in the posi-
also may cause excessive rectifier peak currents tive leads, the negative being grounded, the wind-
and abnormally high inverse peak voltages. For ings should be insulated from the core to with-
full- wave rectification the ripple frequency will stand the full d.c. output voltage of the supply
be 120 cycles for a60-cycle supply, and resonance and be capable of handling the required load cur-
will occur when the product of choke inductance rent.
in henrys time capacitor capacitance in micro- Filter chokes or inductances are wound on
farads ie equal to 1.77. The corresponding figure iron cores, with a small gap in the core to pre-
for 50-cycle supply ( 100- cycle ripple frequency) vent magnetic saturation of the iron at high cur-
is 2.53, and for 25-cycle supply ( 50-cycle ripple rents. When the iron becomes saturated its per-
frequency) 13.5. At least twice these products of meability decreases, consequently the inductance
inductance and capacitance should be used to en- also decreases. Despite the air gap, the induct-
sure against resonance effects. With a swinging ance of a choke usualy varies to some extent
choke, the minimum rated inductance of the choke with the direct current flowing in the winding;
should he used. hence it is necessary to specify the inductance at
the current which the choke is intended to carry.
RATINGS OF FILTER COMPONENTS Its inductance with little or no direct current
In a power supply using a choke-input filter flowing in the winding will usually be consider-
and properly-designed choke and bleeder resistor, ably higher than the value when full load current
the no-load voltage across the filter capacitors is flowing.
will be about nine- tenths of the a.c. r.m.s. volt-
age. Nevertheless, it is advisable to use capaci- NEGATIVE- LEAD FILTERING
tors rated for the peak transformer voltage. This For many years it has been almost universal
large safety factor is suggested because the volt- practice to place filter chokes in the positive leads
age across the capacitors can reach this peak of plate power supplies. This means that the
value if the bleeder should burn out and there is insulation between the choke winding and its core
no load on the supply. (which should be grounded to chassis as asafety
In a capacitive- input filter, the capacitors measure) must be adequate to withstand the out-
should have a working- voltage rating at least put voltage of the supply. This voltage require-
230 POWER SUPPLIES
secondary to ground appears in parallel with the
filter chokes tending to bypass the chokes. How-
ever, this effect will be negligible in practical
application except in cases where the output rip-
ple must be reduced to a very low figure. Such
applications are usually limited to low- voltage
devices such as receivers, speech amplifiers and
v.f.o.'s where insulation is no problem and the
chokes may be placed in the positive side in the
conventional manner. In higher-voltage applica-
Fig. 7- 13— In most applications, the filter chokes may tions, there is no reason why the filter chokes
be placed in the negative instead of the positive side of should not be placed in the negative lead to reduce
the circuit. This reduces the danger of avoltage break- insulation requirements. Choke terminals, nega-
down between the choke winding and core. tive capacitor terminals and the transformer
center- tap terminal should be well protected
ment is removed if the chokes are placed in the against accidental contact, since these will assume
negative lead as shown in Fig. 7-13. With this full supply voltage to chassis should achoke burn
connection, the capacitance of the transformer out or the chassis connection fail.

PLATE AND FILAMENT TRANSFORMERS

Output Voltage Volt- Ampere Rating

The output voltage which the plate trans- The volt-ampere rating of the transformer
former must deliver depends upon the required depends upon the type of filter ( capacitive or
d.c. load voltage and the type of filter circuit. choke input). With a capacitive- input filter the
With a choke- input filter, the required r.m.s. heating effect in the secondary is higher because
secondary voltage ( each side of center- tap for a of the high ratio of peak to average current, con-
center- tap rectifier) can be calculated by the sequently the volt-amperes handled by the trans-
equation: former may be several times the watts delivered
to the load. With a choke- input filter, provided
Et = 1.1[E. /( Ri -F Rs)] the input choke has at least the critical induct-
ance, the secondary volt-amperes can be calcu-
where E. is the required d.c. output voltage, / lated quite closely by the equation :
is the load current ( including bleeder current) Sec. V.A. = 0.00075E/
in amperes. R1 and R., are the d.c. resistances of where E is the total r.m.s. voltage of the sec-
the chokes, and Rs is the series resistance ( trans- ondary ( between the outside ends in the case of a
former and rectifier) rectifier. Er is the open- center- tapped winding) and I is the d.c. output
circuit r.m.s. voltage. current in milliamperes ( load current plus bleeder
The approximate transformer output voltage current). The primary volt-amperes will be 10
required to give adesired d.c. output voltage with to 20 per cent higher because of transformer
agiven load with acapacitive- input filter system losses.
can be calculated with Fig. 7-11.
Broadcast & Television Replacement Trans-
Example: formers in Amateur Transmitter Service
Required d.c. output volts — 500
Load current to be drawn — 100 ma. ( 0.1
Small power transformers of the type sold for
amp) replacement in broadcast and television receivers
500
are usually designed for service in terms of use
Load resistance = — = 5000 ohms. for several hours continuously with capacitor-
0.1
input filters. In the usual type of amateur trans-
Input capacitor — 10 µf.
mitter service, where most of the power is drawn
If the series resistance is 200 ohms, Fig.
7-6 shows that the ratio of d.c. volts to the intermittently for periods of several minutes with
required transformer peak voltage is 0.85. equivalent intervals in between, the published
The ratio to the r.m.s. voltage is 0.85 X 1.414 ratings can be exceeded without excessive trans-
= 1.2.
The required transformer terminal voltage former heating.
under load with chokes of 200 and 300 ohms is With capacitor input, it should be safe to draw
20 to 30 per cent more current than the rated
value. With a choke- input filter, an increase in
1(R, ± R: -I- R.)
current of about 50 per cent is permissible. If a
E,
1.2 bridge rectifier is used ( with achoke- input filter)
500 + 0.1 ( 200 -1- 300 + 200)
the output voltage will be approximately doubled.
In this case, it should be possible in amateur
1.2 transmitter service to draw the rated current,
570 thus obtaining about twice the rated output
= = 473 volts.
power from the transformer.
Transformers 231
This does not apply, of course, to amateur nected in parallel across it. The filament or heater
transmitter plate transformers which are usually transformer generally is center-tapped, to provide
already rated for intermittent service. abalanced circuit for eliminating hum.
For medium- and high- power r.f. stages of
Filament Supply transmitters, and for high-power audio stages,
Except for tubes designed for battery opera- it is desirable to use a separate filament trans-
tion, the filaments or heaters of vacuum tubes former for each section of the transmitter, in-
used in both transmitters and receivers are uni- stalled near the tube sockets. This avoids the
versally operated on alternating current obtained necessity for abnormally large wires to carry
from the power line through a step-down trans- the total filament current for all stages without
former delivering a secondary voltage equal to appreciable voltage drop. Maintenance of rated
the rated voltage of the tubes used. The trans- filament voltage is highly important, especially
former should be designed to carry the current with thoriated-filament tubes, since under- or
taken by the number of tubes which may be con- over-voltage may reduce filament life.

Fig. 7- 14—Typical a.c. power-

supply circuit for receivers, ex-
citen, or low-power transmit-
ters. Representative values
will be found in Table 7-11.
The 5-volt winding of T 1should

have o current rating of at

least 2amp. for types 5Y3-GT
and 5V4-GA, and 3amp. for
5U4-GB.

TYPICAL POWER SUPPLIES

Figs. 7-14 and 7-15 show typical power- supply placement power transformers. In addition to the
circuits. Fig. 7-14 is for use with transformers high-voltage winding for plate supply, these
commonly listed as broadcast or television re- transformers have windings that supply filament

TABLE 7-11

Capacitor- Input Power Supplies

Approximate Approximate
Ti Rating Ful -load d.c. Ripple % APP Y"'
Vi C L R Volts at at Output Useful
Tube Volts Output
Total
Bleeder Ma.*
Volts Ma ' Type

R.M.S. D• C
• ¡if. Volts H. Ohms Ohms Watts ABC A B C Load

650 40 5Y3-GT 8 600 8 400 90K 5 375 360 345 2.5 0.08 0.002 450 36

650 40 5V4-GA 8 600 8 400 90K 5 410 395. 375 2.5 0.08 0.002 450 36

700 90 5Y3.GT 8 600 10 225 46K 10 370 350 330 6 0.1 0.002 460 82

700 90 5V4- GA 8 600 10 225 46K 10 410 390 370 6 0.1 0.002 460 82

750 150 5U4- GB 8 700 8 145 25K 10 375 350 330 9 0.2 0.006 500 136

750 150 5V4-GA 8 700 8 145 25K 10 425 400 380 9 0.2 0.006 500 136

800 200 5U4-GB 8 700 8 120 22K 20 375 350 325 12 0.3 0.008 550 184

Choke -Input Powe Supplies

40 5Y3-GT 8 450 15 420 18K 10 — 240 225 — 0.8 0.01 265 25
650

40 5V4-GA 8 450 15 420 18K 10 — 255 240 — 0.8 0.01 280 25

650

5Y3-GT 8 450 10 225 11K 10 — 240 220 — 1.25 0.02 250 68

700 90

90 5V4-GA 8 450 10 225 11K 10 — 270 250 — 1.25 0.02 280 68

700

150 5Y3-GT 8 450 12 150 13K 20 — 265 245 — 1 0.015 325 125
750

150 5V4-GA 8 450 12 150 13K 20 — 280 260 — 1 0.015 340 125
750

200 5U4- GB 8 450 12 140 14K 20 — 275 250 — 1 0.015 350 175
800

• Balance of transformer current capacity consumed by bleeder resistor.

232 POWER SUPPLIES
voltages for the rectifier and other tubes in the Table 7- II also shows approximate output
receiver or low- power transmitter. Transformers voltages and ripple percentages for choke- input
of this type may be obtained in ratings up to 1200 filters ( first filter capacitor omitted), for Point
volts center- tapped, 200 d.c. ma. output. B ( last capacitor and choke omitted), and Point
Fig. 7-14 shows a two- section filter with ca- C ( complete two- section filter, first capacitor
pacitor input. However, depending upon the omitted).
maximum hum level that may be allowable for a Actual full- load output voltages may be some-
particular application, the last capacitor and what lower than those shown in the table, since
choke may not he needed. In some low- current the voltage drop through the resistance of the
applications, the first capacitor alone may pro- transformer secondary has not been included.
vide adequate filtering. Table 7- II shows the Fig. 7-15 shows the conventional circuit of a
approximate full- load and bleeder- load output transmitter plate supply for higher powers. A
voltages and a.c. ripple percentages for several full- wave rectifier circuit, half-wave rectifier
representative sets of components. Voltage and tubes, and separate transformers for high voltage,
ripple values are given for three points in the rectifier filaments and transmitter filaments are
circuit—Point A ( first capacitor only used), used. The high- voltage transformers used in this
Point B ( last capacitor and choke omitted), and circuit are usually rated directly in terms of d.c.
Point C ( complete two- section filter in use). output voltage, assuming rectifiers and filters of
In each case, the bleeder resistor R should be the type shown in Fig. 7-15. Table 7- III shows
used across the output. typical values for representative supplies, based

Fig. 7- 15—Conventional power.

supply circuit for higher-power
transmitters.
CI, C2-4 µf. for approximately
0.5% output ripple; 2 µf. for
approximately 1.5% output rip-
ple. Cs should be 4 µf. if supply
is for modulator.
R-25,000 ohms.
Ls—Swinging choke: 5/25 h.,
current rating same as
T2.
L
s— Smoothing choke: current
rating some as T2.
71-2.5 volts, 4 amp., 2500-v.
ins, for type 816; 2.5
volts, 10 amp., 10,000-v.
ins. for 866A.
Ts—D.c. voltage rating same as output voltage. VI— Type 816 for 400/500- volt supply; 866A for others
7s— Voltage and current rating to suit transmitter -
tube shown in Table 7-111.
requirements. See Table 7-111 for other values.

on commonly available
TABLE 7-III components. Trans-
former voltages shown
Approx D.C. T Approx. are representative for
Output Rating Voltage R Bleeder-
La
Rating W atts units with dual-volt-
Load
Approx. X ' Ci., Cs Output age secondaries. The
Volts Ma.° V . R.M.S. Ma. Volts bleeder- load voltages
shown may be some-
400/500 230 520/615 250 4 700 20 440/540 what lower than actu-
600/750 260 750/950 300 8 1000 50 650/800 ally found in practice.
Ripple at the output of
1250/1500 240 1500/1750 300 8 2000 150 1300/1600
the first filter section
1250/1500 440 1500/1750 500 6 2000 150 1315/1615 will be approximately
5per cent with a 4-µf.
2000/2500 200 2400/2900 300 4 8 3000 320 3 2050/2550
capacitor, or 10 per
2000/2500 400 2400/2900 500 6 3000 320 2 2065/2565 cent with a2-p.f. capac-
2500/3000 380 2900/3450 500 s 6 4000 500 s 2565/3065
itor. Transformers
made for amateur serv-
1 Balance of transformer current rating consumed by bleeder resistor. ice are designed for
3 Use two 160 watt, 12.500-ohm units in series. choke- input. If acapac-
3 Use five 100-watt, 5000-ohm units in series.
sRegulation will be somewhat better with a 400- or 500-ma. choke. itor- input is used rat-
5 Regulation will be somewhat better with a 550- ma, choke. ing should be reduced
about 30%.
Voltage Changing 233

+ 0 0+ + +E
R1
FROM FROM
POWER TO LOAD POWER TO
SUPPLY LOAD
SUPPLY

o o

(A) (B)
Fig. 7-16— A--- A series voltage- dropping resistor.

E— Simple voltage divider.

E, E— FROM
Rs — RI POWER
Is —F-es • SUPPLY
la must be assumed.

C—Multiple divider circuit.

Es Et— Es E — Et
"=---e Rs Ri= 11+ 12+ 13

is must be assumed.

VOLTAGE CHANGING
stant load for the first, RI,so that any variation
Series Voltage- Dropping Resistor in current from the tap becomes a smaller per-
Certain plates and screens of the various centage of the total current through R1.The heav-
tubes in a transmitter or receiver often require ier the current drawn by the resistors when they
a variety of operating voltages differing from alone are connected across the supply, the better
the output voltage of an available power supply. will be the voltage regulation at the tap.
Such a voltage divider may have more than a
In most cases, it is not economically feasible to
single tap for the purpose of obtaining more than
provide a separate power supply for each of the
required voltages. If the current drawn by an one value of voltage. A typical arrangement is
electrode, or combination of electrodes operating shown in Fig. 7-16C. The terminal voltage is E,
and two taps are provided to give lower voltages,
at the same voltage, is reasonably constant under
normal operating conditions, the required voltage E1 and E2,at currents / 1 and 12 respectively. The
may be obtained from a supply of higher voltage smaller the resistance between taps in proportion
by means of avoltage-dropping resistor in series, to the total resistance, the lower the voltage
as shown in Fig. 7-16A. The value of the series, between the taps. For convenience, the voltage
resistor, RI,may be obtained from Ohm's Law, divider in the figure is considered to be made up
of separate resistances R1,R2,R3,between taps.
E
R = --ti,where Ed is the voltage drop required R3 carries only the bleeder current, /3 ;R2 carries
/2 in addition to /3 ;R1 carries / 1,/2 and /3.To
from the supply voltage to the desired voltage
calculate the resistances required, a bleeder cur-
and Iis the total rated current of the load.
rent, /3,must be assumed; generally it is low
Example: The plate of the tube in one stage compared with the total load current (10 per
and the screens of the tubes in two other stages
cent or so). Then the required values can be
require an operating voltage of 250. The near-
est available supply voltage is 400 and the calculated as shown in the caption of Fig. 7-16C,
total of the rated plate and screen currents Ibeing in decimal parts of an ampere.
is 75 ma. The required resistance is The method may be extended to any desired
R.. 400-250 150 =2000 ohms. number of taps, each resistance section being
0.075 0.075
calculated by Ohm's Law using the needed volt-
The power rating of the resistor is obtained
from P ( watts) = /OR = ( 0.075) , ( 2000) =
11.2 watts. A 20- watt resistor is the nearest
safe rating to he used.

Voltage Dividers
1.4 Erm s
The regulation of the voltage obtained in this
manner obviously is poor, since any change in
current through the resistor will cause a di-
rectly proportional change in the voltage drop
across the resistor. The regulation can be im- Fig. 7- 17-- If the current demand is low, a simple half.

proved somewhat by connecting asecond resistor wave rectifier will deliver a voltage increase. Typical
from the low-voltage end of the first to the nega- values, for E, m .= 117 and a load current of 1 ma.:
tive power- supply terminal, as shown in Fig. 7- C1-50-µf., 250-v. electrolytic.
16B. Such an arrangement constitutes a voltage E05, 55 — 160 volts.
divider. The second resistor, R2,acts as a con- R1-22 ohms.
 234 POWER SUPPLIES
Epc
Fig. 7- 18— Full-wave voltage-
doubling circuit. Values of
limiting resistors, RI, depend EpEPN 2.
8 CRUS
upon allowable surge currents
Epriv • 2.8 Elms
of rectifiers.
(A)

age drop across it and the total current through ground potential, the voltage-doubling circuit of
it. The power dissipated by each section may be Fig. 7-18 is used. This circuit has several ad-
calculated either by multiplying I and E or I' vantages over the voltage-doubling circuit to be
and R. described later. For agiven output voltage, com-
pared to the full- wave rectifier circuit ( Fig. 7-
VOLTAGE -
MULTIPLYING CIRCUITS
111), this full- wave doubler circuit requires only
Although vacuum-tilbe rectifiers can be used in half the p.i.v. rating. Again for a given output
voltage- multiplying circuits, semiconductor rec- voltage, compared to a full- wave bridge circuit
tifiers are usually more convenient. Selenium can (Fig. 7-1C) only half as many rectifiers ( of the
be used in the low-voltage ranges; silicon recti- same p.i.v. rating) are required.
fiers singly or in series are used at the higher Resistors 12 1 in Fig. 7-18 are used to limit the
voltages. surge currents through the rectifiers. Their values
A simple half- wave rectifier circuit is shown are based on the transformer voltage and the
in Fig. 7-17. Strictly speaking this is not a rectifier surge-current rating, since at the instant
voltage- multiplying circuit. However, if the cur- the power supply is turned on the filter capacitors
rent demand is low ( a milliampere or less), the look like a short-circuited load. Provided the
d.c. output voltage will be close to the peak volt- limiting resistors can withstand the surge cur-
age of the source, or 1.4E.. A typical applica- rent, their current-handling capacity is based on
tion of the circuit would be to obtain alow bias the maximum load current from the supply.
voltage from aheater winding; the -I- side of the Output voltages approaching twice the peak
output can be grounded by reversing the polarity voltage of the transformer can be obtained with
of the rectifier and capacitor. As with all half- the voltage-doubling circuit of Fig. 7-18. Fig.
wave rectifiers, the output voltage drops quickly 7-19 shows how the voltage depends upon the
with increased current demand. ratio of the series resistance to the load resistance,
The resistor R1 in Fig. 7-17 is included to and the product of the load resistance times the
limit the current through the rectifier, in accord- filter capacitance.
ance with the manufacturer's rating for the diode. When one side of the transformer secondary
If the resistance of the transformer winding is must be at ground potential, as when the a.c. is
sufficient, R1 can be omitted. derived from a heater winding, the voltage-
Several types of voltage-doubling circuits are multiplying circuits of Fig. 7-20 can be used. In
in common use. Where it is not necessary that the voltage-doubling circuit at A, C1 charges
one side of the transformer secondary be at through the left-hand rectifier during one half

I l II
R I I I Rs I
R
i.8 6° Dll I Rs R
0 0.0
EA
1.5

L.1 0.03
Fig. 7-19—D.c. out- C.9

put voltages from a vI 1.4

full- wave voltage- -J

doubling circuit as a
function of the filter 1.2
capacitances and
load resistance. For
the ratio R,,/R, both — ...
0.1
1.0
resistances are in
ohms; for the RC
product, R is in thou-
sands of ohms.
/

.6 -
30 50 100 300 500 1000

RC ( R in thousands of ohms,C in pf.

Voltage Stabilization 235
roc Fig. 7-20—Voltage-multiplying circuits with one side of
transformer secondary grounded. (A) Voltage doubler
(B) Voltage tripler (C) Voltage quadrupler.
Capacitances are typically 20 to 50 µf., depending
upon output current demand. D.c. ratings of capacitors
are related to Epeak ( 1.4
(A)
Ci—Greater than Epeek
Co—Greater than
roc
CO, Cd—Greater than 4E ve.k

A voltage-tripling circuit is shown in Fig. 7-

20B. On one half of the a.c. cycle C1 is charged
to the source voltage through the left-hand recti-
fier. On the opposite half of the cycle the middle
rectifier conducts and C 2 is charged to twice the
source voltage, because it sees the transformer
EDC plus the charge in C1 as the source. At the same
time the right-hand rectifier conducts and, with
the transformer and the charge in C 2 as the
source, Cs is charged to three times the trans-
former voltage. The — side of the output can be
grounded if the polarities of all of the capacitors
(C)
and rectifiers are reversed.
of the a.c. cycle; the other rectifier is nonconduc- The voltage-quadrupling circuit of Fig. 7-20C
tive during this time. During the other half of the works in substantially similar fashion.
cycle the right-hand rectifier conducts and C2 be- In any of the circuits of Fig. 7-20, the
comes charged; they see as the source the trans- output voltage will approach an exact multiple ( 2,
former plus the voltage in CI.By reversing the 3or 4, depending upon the circuit) of the peak a.c.
polarities of the capacitors and rectifiers, the — voltage when the output current drain is low and
side of the output can be grounded. the capacitance values are high.

VOLTAGE STABILIZATION
with the tube. For stable operation, a minimum
Gaseous Regulator Tubes tube current of 5 to 10 ma. is required. The
There is frequent need for maintaining the maximum permissible current with most types
voltage applied to alow-voltage low-current cir- is 40 ma. ; consequently, the load current cannot
cuit at a practically constant value, regardless exceed 30 to 35 ma. if the .voltage is to be stabi-
of the voltage regulation of the power supply or lized over a range from zero to maximum load
variations in load current. In such applications, current.
gaseous regulator tubes ( 0C3/VR105, OD3/ The value of the limiting resistor must lie
VR150, etc.) can be used to good advantage. The between that which just permits minimum tube
voltage drop across such tubes is constant over a current to flow and that which just passes the
moderately wide current range. Tubes are avail- maximum permissible tube current when there is
able for regulated voltages near 150, 105, 90 and no load current. (The latter value is generally
75 volts. used. It is given by the equation:
The fundamental circuit for a gaseous regu-
lator is shown in Fig. 7-21A. The tube is con- R— 8 r
nected in series with a limiting resistor, R1,
across asource of voltage that must be higher
where R is the limiting resistance in ohms, Es
than the starting voltage. The starting voltage
is the voltage of the source across which the tube
is about 30 to 40 per cent higher than the oper-
and resistor are connected, Er is the rated voltage
ating voltage. The load is connected in parallel
drop across the regulator tube, and / is the maxi-
UNREG UNREG mum tube current in amperes, ( usually 40 ma.,
or 0.04 amp.).
REG +( HIGH) Fig. 7-21B shows how two tubes may be used
FROM POWER-
FROM in series to give a higher regulated voltage than
SUP PLY OU TPUT
POWER- VR is obtainable with one, and also to give two values
SUPPLY REG +(LO
OUT PUT of regulated voltage. The limiting resistor may
be calculated as above, using the sum of the volt-
VR
age drops across the two tubes for Er.Since the
upper tube must carry more current than the
(A) (B)
lower, the load connected to the low- voltage tap
Fig. 7-21—Voltage-stabilizing circuits using VR tubes. must take small current. The total current taken
236 POWER SUPPLIES
5ma. Under constant load, effects of line- voltage
400V
FILTERED 2MEC. 470 changes may be eliminated by basing the resist-
ance on load current plus 15 ma.

Electronic Voltage Regulation

Several circuits have been developed for regu-
OUTPUT lating the voltage output of a power supply elec-
6AU6
807 6AU6 o- tronically. While more complicated than the VR-
e
tube circuits, they will handle higher voltages
50K
currents and the output voltage may be varied
6.3 V.
continuously over awide range. In the circuit of
ses
Fig. 7-22, the 0C3 regulator tube supplies arefer-
ence of approximately + 105 volts for the 6AU6
003 control tube. When the load connected across the
output terminals increases, the output voltage
tends to decrease. This makes the voltage on the
Fig. 7-22— Electronic voltage- regulator circuit. Resis ors control grid of the 6AU6 less positive, causing
are /2
1 watt unless specified otherwise. the tube to draw less current through the 2-
megohm plate resistor. As aconsequence the grid
by the loads on both taps should not exceed 30 to voltage on the 807 series regulator becomes more
35 ma. Regulation of the order of 1per cent can positive and the voltage drop across the 807 de-
be obtained with these regulator circuits. creases, compensating for the reduction in out-
The capacitance in shunt with a VR tube put voltage. With the values shown, adjustment
should be limited to 0.1 µf. or less. Larger values of R1 will give a regulated output from 150 to
may cause the tube drop to oscillate between the 250 volts, at up to 60 or 70 ma. A 6L6- GB can be
operating and starting voltages. substituted for the type 807; the available out-
A single VR tube may also be used to regulate put current can be increased by adding tubes in
the voltage to aload current of almost any value parallel with the series regulator tube. When this
so long as the variation in the current does not is done, 100- ohm resistors should be wired to
exceed 30 to 35 ma. If, for example, the average each control grid and plate terminal, to reduce
load current is 100 ma., a VR tube may be used the chances for parasitic oscillations.
to hold the voltage constant provided the cur- Another similar regulator circuit is shown in
rent does not fall below 85 ma. or rise above 115 Fig. 7-23. The principal difference is that screen-
ma. In this case, the resistance should be calcu- grid regulator tubes are used. The fact that a
lated to drop the voltage to the VR-tube rating screen- grid tube is relatively insensitive to
at the maximum load current to be expected plus changes in plate voltage makes it possible to ob-

Li
115 VA.C.

Fig. 7-23—Circuit diagram of

an electronically-
reg ulated
power supply rated at 300
volts max., 150 ma. max.

Cs, C2, C2-16-0. 600-volt electrolytic.

C8-0.0151.d. paper. R6-9100 ohms, 1 watt.
C.-0.114f. paper. Ri. -0.1 -
megohm potentiometer.
R1-0.3 megohm, /
2
1 watt. R11-43,000 ohms, /
2 watt.
1

R2, R3'-100 Ohms, lh watt 14-8-hy., 40-ma, filter choke.

R.-510 ohms, /
2 watt.
1 toggle.
R5, R2-30,000 ohms, 2 watts. TI— Power transformer: 375-375 volts r.m.s., 160 ma.;
R6-0.24 megohm, /
2
1 watt. 6.3 volts, 3 amps.; 5 volts, 3 amps.
R7-0.15 megohm, Va watt. (Thor. 22R33).
Voltage Stabilization 237
tain a reduction in ripple voltage adequate for
Table of Performance for Circuit of Fig. 7-23
many purposes simply by supplying filtered d.c.
I II III Output voltage — 300
to the screens with aconsequent saving in weight
and cost. The accompanying table shows the 450 v. 22 ma. 3mv. 150 ma. 2.3 mv.
425 v. 45 ma. 4mv. 125 ma. 2.8 mv.
performance of the circuit of Fig. 7-23. Column I 400 v. 72 ma. 6mv. 100 ma. 2.6 mv.
shows various output voltages, while Column II 375 v. 97 ma. 8mv. 75 ma. 2.5 mv.
shows the maximum current that can be drawn at 350 v. 122 ma. 9.5 mv. 50 ma. 3.0 mv.
325 v. 150 ma. 3mv. 25 ma. 3.0 mv.
that voltage with negligible variation in output 300 v. 150 ma. 2.3 mv. 10 ma. 2.5 mv.
voltage. Column III shows the measured ripple
at the maximum current. The second part of the
table shows the variation in ripple with load cur- 1000 - 250 = 750 volts. In this case, five VR-150s
rent at 300 volts output. would be used in series.
The maximum voltage output that can be ob-
High- Voltage Regulators tained is approximately equal to 0.7 times the
Regulated screen voltage is required for screen- r.m.s. voltage of the transformer T1.The current
grid tubes used as linear amplifiers in single- side- rating of the transformer must be somewhat
band operation. Figs. 7-24 through 7-27 show above the load current to take care of the voltage
various different circuits for supplying regulated dividers and bleeder resistances.
voltages up to 1200 volts or more. A single 6L6 will handle 90 ma. For larger
In the circuit of Fig. 7-24, gas- filled regulator currents, 6L6s may be added in parallel.
tubes are used to establish afixed reference volt- The heater circuit supplying the 6L6 and
age to which is added an electronically regulated 6S J7 should not be grounded. The shaft of R,
variable voltage. The design can be modified to should be grounded. When the output voltage is
give any voltage from 225 volts to 1200 volts, above 300 or 400, the potentiometer should be
with each design- center voltage 'variable by plus provided with an insulating mounting, and should
or minus 60 volts. be controlled from the panel by an extension shaft
The output voltage will depend upon the num- with an insulated coupling and grounded control.
ber and voltage ratings of the VR tubes in the In some cases where the plate transformer has
string between the 991 and ground. The total sufficient current-handling capacity, it may be
VR-tube voltage rating needed can be determined desirable to operate a screen regulator from the
by subtracting 250 volts from the desired output plate supply, rather than from a separate supply.
voltage. As examples, if the desired output volt- This can be done if a regulator tube is used that
age is 350, the total VR-tube voltage rating can take the required voltage drop. In Fig. 7-25,
should be 350 - 250 = 100 volts. In this case, a a type 211 or 812A is used, the control tube
VR-105 would be used. For an output voltage of being a 6AQ5. With an input voltage of 1800 to
1000, the VR-tube voltage rating should be 2000, an output voltage of 500 to 700 can be

Fig. 7-24— High-voltage regulator circuit by W4PRM. Resistors are 1watt unless indicated otherwise.
CI, C2-4-12f. paper, voltage rating above peak-voltage R1-50,000-ohm, 4-watt potentiometer.
output of 1 .1. 112— Bleeder resistor, 50,000 to 100,000 ohms, 25 watts
C3-0.1-0. paper, 600 volts. ( not needed if equalizing resistors mentioned
electroyltic, 450 volts, above are used).
C1- 40 µf., voltage rating above d.c. output voltage. Ti —See text.
Can be made up of a combination of electro- T2—Filament transformer; 5volts, 2amp.
lytics in series, with equalizing resistor. ( See sec'—13 Filament transformer; 6.3 volts, 1.2 amp.

tion on ratings of filter components.) V1,V3, V3— See text.

C3-4-af. paper, voltage rating above voltage rating of
VR string.
 238 POWER SUPPLIES

211 or

+1800
TO 2000 V.D
Fig. 7-25—Screen regulator circuit de-
signed by W9OKA. Resistances are in
ohms ( K = 1000).
R1-6000 ohms for 211; 2300 ohms
for 812A, 20 watts.
R2-25,000 ohms, 10 watts.
Ra — Outputvoltage control, 0.1-meg-
ohm, 2-watt potentiometer.
Ti— Filament transformer: 10 volts,
3.25 amp. for 211; 6.3 volts,
4 amp. for 812A.
Ti— Filament transformer: 6.3 volts,
1amp.

obtained with a regulation better than 1per cent ing the value of R4 will raise the maximum output
over acurrent range of 0to 100 ma. voltage. However, if these values are made too
In the circuit of Fig. 7-26, a V- 70D ( or 8005) small, the 807 will lose control.
is used as the regulator, and the control tube is At 850 volts output, the variation over a cur-
an 807 which can take the full output voltage, rent change of 20 to 80 ma. should be negligible.
making it unnecessary to raise it above ground
At 1500 volts output with the same current
with VR tubes. If taps are switched on RI,the change, the variation in output voltage should be
output voltage can be varied over a wide range.
less than three per cent. Up to 88 volts of grid
Increasing the screen voltage decreases the out- bias for a Class A or Class AB I amplifier may
put voltage. For each position of the tap on RI,
be taken from the potentiometer across the refer-
decreasing the value of R3 will lower the mini- ence-voltage source. This bias cannot, of course,
mum output voltage as R2 is varied, and decreas- be used for biasing a stage that is drawing grid
current.
Fig. 7-26—This regulator circuit used by W1SUN oper-
A somewhat different type of regulator is the
ates from the plate supply and requires no VR string.
shunt regulator shown in Fig. 7-27. The VR tubes
A small supply provides screen voltage and reference
and R., in series are across the output. Since the
bias for the control tube.
voltage drop across the VR tubes is constant,
Unless otherwise marked, resistances are in ohms.
any change in output voltage appears across R2.
(K = 1000). Capacitors are electrolytic.
This causes a change in grid bias on the 811-A
111-50,000-ohm, 50-watt adjustable resistor.
grid, causing it to draw more or less current in
12::-0.1-megohm 2-watt potentiometer.
inverse proportion to the current being drawn by
R3-4.7 megohms, 2 watts.

R4-0.1 megohm, /
2 watt.
1

Ti— Power transformer: 470 volts center

tapped, 40 ma.; 5 volts, 2 amps.; + 3000 V. D. C.
V700
6.3 volts, 2 amps. 1500 V. REG.

Ta— Filament transformer: 7.5 volts, 3.25 1

amp. (for V-70D).

TO T2 o
100K 0-88V.
2vc BIAS
Bias Supplies 239
,.1500 V.
''TO PLATES

Fig. 7-27— Shunt screen regulator used by

.750 V. W2AZW.
O REG. TO
SCREENS
vRI50 µf., 400 volts if needed to suppress
oscillation.
M,— See text.
VRI50
RI—Adjustable wire-wound resistor, resist-
ance and wattage as required.
FROM NIGH
VOLTAGE vRI50
POWER
SUPPLY .0V,I

VRI50
made by placing a milliammeter in the filament
center- tap lead, as shown, and adjusting R1 for
0RI50 areading of 15 to 20 ma. higher than the mormal
81I- A
peak screen current. This adjustment should be
made with the amplifier connected but with no
excitation, so that the amplifier draws idling cur-
I
C
rent. After the adjustment is complete, the meter
8 may be removed from the circuit and the fila-
ment center tap connected directly to ground.
Adjustment of the tap on R1 should, of course,
be made with the high voltage turned off.
Any number of VR tubes may be used to pro-
vide a regulated voltage near the desired value.
the amplifier screen. This provides a constant The maximum current through the 811-A should
load for the series resistor R1. be limited to the maximum plate-current rating
of the tube. If larger currents are necessary, two
The output voltage is equal to the sum of the
VR drops plus the grid- to-ground voltage of the 811- As may be connected in parallel. Over a
811-A. This varies from 5 to 20 volts between current range of 5to 60 ma., the regulator holds
full load and no load. The initial adjustment is the output voltage constant within 10 or 15 volts.

BIAS SUPPLIES
As discussed in Chapter 6 on high- frequency
transmitters, the chief function of a bias supply
for the r.f. stages of atransmitter is that of pro-
viding protective bias, although under certain
circumstances, a bias supply, or pack, as it is
PRI
sometimes called, can provide the operating bias
if desired.
(A) Simple Bias Packs
Fig. 7-28A shows the diagram of a simple bias
supply. R1 should be the recommended grid leak
- for the amplifier tube. No grid leak should be
PRI used in the transmitter with this type of supply.
BIAS
The output voltage of the supply, when amplifier
+ grid current is not flowing, should be some value
between the bias required for plate-current cut-
off and the recommended operating bias for the
(B)
amplifier tube. The transformer peak voltage (1.4
times the r.m.s. value) should not exceed the rec-
ommended operating-bias value, otherwise the
output voltage of the pack will soar above the
operating-bias value with rated grid current.

Fig. 7- 28— Simple bias- supply circuits. In A, the peak

transformer voltage must not exceed the operating value
of bias. The circuits of B ( half-wave) and C ( full-wave)
may be used to reduce transformer voltage to the recti-
(G) fier. R1 is the recommended grid- leak resistance.
 240 POWER SUPPLIES

VR

FROM BIAS
S
SUPPLY

VR

(D)

- BIAS 1
(E)
BIAS 2
R2
- BIAS 3
VR

FROM BIAS
FROM BIAS
BIAS SUPPLY V
SUPPLY VR

(E)
(C)

Fig. 7-29-11Iustrating the use of VR tubes in stabilizing BIAS 1

protective-bias supplies. RI is a resistor whose value is
adjusted to limit the current through each VR tube to
5 ma. before amplifier excitation is applied. R and R2 FROM BIAS
BIAS 2
SUPPLY
are current-equalizing resistors of .50 to 1000 ohms.

(F)
This soaring can be reduced to a considerable
extent by the use of a voltage divider across
the transformer secondary, as shown at B. Such Each VR tube will handle 40 ma. of grid cur-
a system can be used when the transformer volt- rent. If the grid current exceeds this value under
age is higher than the operating- bias value. The
any condition, similar VR tubes should be added
tap on R 2 should be adjusted to give amplifier in parallel, as shown in Fig. 7-29B, for each 40
cut-off bias at the output terminals. The lower ma., or less, of additional grid current. The re-
the total value of R. >,the less the soaring will be sistors R 2 are for the purpose of helping to main-
when grid current flows. tain equal currents through each VR tube, and
A full- wave circuit is shown in Fig. 7-28C.R 3 should have avalue of 50 to 1000 ohms or more.
and R4 should have the same total resistance and If the voltage rating of a single VR tube is
the taps should be adjusted symmetrically. In not sufficiently high for the purpose, other VR
all cases, the transformer must be designed to tubes may be used in series ( or series- parallel if
furnish the current drawn by these resistors plus required to satisfy grid-current requirements) as
the current drawn by R1. shown in the diagrams of Fig. 7-29C and D.
Regulated Bias Supplies If a single value of fixed bias will serve for
more than one stage, the biasing terminal of each
The inconvenience of the circuits shown in such stage may be connected to a single supply
Fig. 7-28 and the difficulty of predicting values of this type, provided only that the total grid
in practical application can be avoided in most current of all stages so connected does not ex-
cases by the use of gaseous voltage- regulator ceed the current rating of the VR tube or tubes.
tubes across the output of the bias supply, as Alternatively, other separate VR-tube branches
shown in Fig. 7-29A. A VR tube with avoltage may be added in any desired combination to the
rating anywhere between the biasing- voltage same supply, as in Fig. 7-29E, to adapt them to
value which will reduce the input to the amplifier the needs of each stage.
to a safe level when excitation is removed, and Providing the VR-tube current rating is not
the operating value of bias, should be chosen. R1 exceeded, a series arrangement may be tapped
is adjusted, without amplifier excitation, until for lower voltage, as shown at F.
the VR tube ignites and draws about 5ma. Addi- The circuit diagram of an electronically
tional voltage to bring the bias up to the operating regulated bias- supply is shown in Fig. 7-30. The
value when excitation is applied can be obtained output voltage may be adjusted to any value be-
from a grid leak resistor, as discussed in the tween 40 volts and 80 volts and the unit will
transmitter chapter. handle grid currents up to 35 ma. over the range
Bias Supplies 241

Fig. 7-30—Circuit diagram of an electronically regulated bias supply.

Ci-20-µf. 450-volt electrolytic. R6-0.12 megohm, 1 /2 watt.

C2-20-I.d. 150-volt electrolytic. R7-0.1-megohm potentiometer.

R1-5000 ohms, 25 watts. R8-27,000 ohms, Y2 watt.
R2-22,000 ohms, 1 / watt.
2 1
4-20-hy. 50-ma, filter choke.

R3-68,000 ohms, 1 / watt.

2 71— Power transformer: 350 volts r.m.s.
R4-0.27 megohm, ½ watt each side of center 50 ma.; 5volts,
R5-3000 ohms, 5watts. 2amp.; 6.3 volts, 3amp.

of 50 to 80 volts, and 25 ma. over the remainder drop across V3 and V4 is in parallel with the
of the range. If higher current handling capacity voltage drop across V1 and R5,any change in
is required, more 6080s can be connected in par- voltage across V3 will appear across R5 because
allel with V,. The regulation will hold to about the voltage drops across both VR tubes remain
0.01 volt per milliampere of grid current. The constant. R, is acathode biasing resistor for V2,
regulator operates as follows: Since the voltage so any voltage change across it appears as agrid-
voltage change on V2. This change in grid voltage
is amplified by V, and appears across R4 which
is connected to the plate of V2 and the grids of
HV
V3.This change in voltage swings the grids of Vs
more positive or negative, and thus varies the
VR internal resistance of V3,maintaining the voltage
BIAS drop across V3 practically constant.

Other Sources of Biasing Voltage

In some cases, it may be convenient to ob-
(A) tain the biasing voltage from asource other than
a separate supply. A half- wave rectifier may be
connected with reversed polarization to obtain
biasing voltage from a low-voltage plate supply,
as shown in Fig. 7-31A. In another arrangement,
shown at B, aspare filament winding can be used
to operate afilament transformer of similar volt-
age rating in reverse to obtain avoltage of about
130 from the winding that is customarily the
primary. This will be sufficient to operate aVR75
(B) or VR90 regulator tube.
Fig. 7-31—Convenient means of obtaining biasing volt- A bias supply of any of the types discussed
age. A— From a low-voltage plate supply. B— From requires relatively little filtering, if the output-
spare filament winding. 7, is afilament transformer, of terminal peak voltage does not approach the oper-
a voltage output similar to that of the spare filament ating-bias value, because the effect of the supply
winding, connected in reverse to give 115 volts r.m.s. is entirely or largely "washed out" when grid
output. current flows.

POWER- LINE CONSIDERATIONS

from the outside to the distribution board, while
POWER LINE CONNECTIONS in other systems there are only two wires. In the
If the transmitter is rated at much more than three- wire system, the third wire is the neutral
100 watts, special consideration should be given which is grounded. The voltage between the
to the a.c. line running into the station. In some other two wires normally is 230, while half of
residential systems, three wires are brought in this voltage ( 115) appears between each of these
 242 POWER SUPPLIES

(C) (D)
Fig. 7-32— Three-wire power- line circuits. A— Normal 3-wire- line termination. No fuse should be used in the gounded
(neutral) line. B— Showing that a switch in the neutral does not remove voltage from either side of the line. C—
Connections for both 115- and 230-volt transformers. D— Operating a 115-volt plate transformer from the 230.
volt line to avoid light blinking. Ts is a 2-to- 1 step-down transformer.

wires and neutral, as indicated in Fig. 7-32A. In spondingly small. When the currents in the two
systems of this type, usually it will be found that circuits are balanced, no current flows in the
the 115- volt household load is divided as evenly neutral wire and the system is operating at maxi-
as possible between the two sides of the circuit, mum efficiency.
half of the load being connected between one Light blinking can be minimized by using
wire and the neutral, while the other half of transformers with 230- volt primaries in the power
the load is connected between the other wire and supplies for the keyed or intermittent part of the
neutral. Heavy appliances, such as electric stoves load, connecting them across the two ungrounded
and heaters, normally are designed for 230-volt wires with no connection to the neutral, as shown
operation and therefore are connected across the in Fig. 7-32C. The same can be accomplished by
two ungrounded wires. While both ungrounded the insertion of a step-down transformer whose
wires should be fused, afuse should never be used primary operates at 230 volts and whose sec-
in the wire to the neutral, nor should a switch ondary delivers 115 volts. Conventional 115- volt
be used in this side of the line. The reason for transformers may be operated from the secondary
this is that opening the neutral wire does not of the step-down transformer ( see Fig. 7-32D).
disconnect the equipment. It simply leaves the When a special heavy-duty line is to be in-
equipment on one side of the 230-volt circuit in stalled, the local power company should be con-
series with whatever load may be across the sulted as to local requirements. In some local-
other side of the circuit, as shown in Fig. 7-32B. ities it is necessary to have such ajob done by a
Furthermore, with the neutral open, the volt- licensed electrician, and there may be special
age will then be divided between the two sides requirements to be met in regard to fittings and
in inverse proportion to the load resistance, the manner of installation. Some amateurs termi-
the voltage on one side dropping below normal, nate the special line to the station at aswitch box,
while it soars on the other side, unless the loads while others may use electric- stove receptacles
happen to be equal. as the termination. The power is then distributed
The usual line running to baseboard outlets around the station by means of conventional out-
is rated at 15 amperes. Considering the power ets at convenient points. All circuits should be
consumed by filaments, lamps, modulator, re- properly fused.
ceiver and other auxiliary equipment, it is not
unusual to find this 15- ampere rating exceeded Fusing
by the requirements of a station of only mod- All transformer primary circuits should be
erate power. It must also be kept in mind that properly fused. To determine the approximate
the same branch may be in use for other house- current rating of the fuse to be used, multiply
hold purposes through another outlet. For this each current being drawn from the supply in
reason, and to minimize light blinking when key- amperes by the voltage at which the current is
ing or modulating the transmitter, a separate being drawn. Include the current taken by
heavier line should be run from the distribution bleeder resistances and voltage dividers. In the
board to the station whenever possible. ( A three- case of series resistors, use the source voltage,
volt drop in line voltage will cause noticeable not the voltage at the equipment end of the
light blinking.) resistor. Include filament power if the transformer
If the system is of the three-wire type, the is supplying filaments. After multiplying the
three wires should be brought into the station various voltages and currents, add the individual
so that the load can be distributed to keep the products. Then divide by the line voltage and
line balanced. The voltage across a fixed load add 10 or 20 per cent. Use afuse with the nearest
on one side of the circuit will increase as the larger current rating.
load current on the other side is increased. The
rate of increase will depend upon the resistance LINE-VOLTAGE ADJUSTMENT
introduced by the neutral wire. If the resistance In certain communities trouble is sometimes
of the neutral is low, the increase will be corre- experienced from fluctuations in line voltage.
Construction 243
Another scheme by which the primary volt-
age of each transformer in the transmitter may
be adjusted to give a desired secondary voltage,
with a master control for compensating for
changes in line voltage, is shown in the auto-
transformer circuit of Fig. 7-34.
This arrangement has the following features:
1) Adjustment of the switch Si to make the
voltmeter read 105 volts adjusts all transformer
primaries to the predetermined correct voltages.
2) The necessity for having all primaries
work at the same voltage is eliminated. Thus,
110 volts can be applied to the primary of one
transformer, 115 to another, etc.
3) Independent control of the plate trans-
(A) (B) former is afforded by the tap switch S 2 . This
Fig. 7-33—Two methods of transformer primary control.
permits power-input control and does not re-
At A is a tapped toy transformer which may be con-
quire an extra autotransformer.
nected so as to boost or buck the line voltage as re- Constant-Voltage Transformers
quired. At B is indicated a variable transformer or auto-
transformer (Variac) which feeds the transformer Although comparatl ( I y expensive, special
primaries.
transformers called constant-voltage trans-
formers are available for use in cases where it
is necessary to hold line voltage and/or filament
Usually these fluctuations are caused by a vari- voltage constant with fluctuating supply-line
ation in the load on the line and, since most voltage. They are rated over a range of 17 v.a.
of the variation comes at certain fixed times of at 6.3 volts output up to several thousand v.a. at
the day or night, such as the times when lights 115 or 230 volts. On the average they will hold
are turned on at evening, they may be taken their output voltages within one per cent under
care of by the use of a manually operated com- an input-voltage variation of 30 per cent.
pensating device. A simple arrangement is shown
in Fig. 7-33A. A toy transformer is used to
boost or buck the line voltage as required. The s,
105V I25V
transformer should have a tapped secondary
varying between 6 and 20 volts in steps of 2 PLATE TRAW
or 3 volts and its secondary should be capable
of carrying the full load current. s, c7"
The secondary is connected in series with the e
line voltage and, if the phasing of the windings usv AC

is correct, the voltage applied to the primaries

of the transmitter transformers can be brought
up to the rated 115 volts by setting the toy-trans-
former tap switch on the right tap. If the phas-
ing of the two windings of the toy transformer
happens to be reversed, the voltage will be re-
duced instead of increased. This connection may
be used in cases where the line voltage may be
Th
above 115 volts. This method is preferable to
using aresistor in the primary of apower trans- FIL FIL
FIL
former since it does not affect the voltage regu-
lation as seriously. The circuit of 7-33B illus- Fig. 7- 34— With this circuit, a single adjustment
trates the use of a variable autotransformer of the tap switch S places the correct primary
(Variac) for adjusting line voltage. voltage on all transformers in the transmitter.

CONSTRUCTION OF POWER SUPPLIES

The length of most leads in a power supply voltage terminals or wiring which might be
is unimportant, so that the arrangement of com- bumped into accidentally should not be per-
ponents from this consideration is not a factor mitted to exist. They should be covered with
in construction. More important are the points adequate insulation or placed inaccessible to con-
of good high- voltage insulation, adequate con- tact during normal operation and adjustment of
ductor size for filament wiring, proper ventila- the transmitter. Power-supply units should be
tion for rectifier tubes and — most important of fused individually. All negative terminals of
all — safety to the operator. Exposed high- plate supplies and positive terminals of bias Sup-
 244 POWER SUPPLIES
plies should be securely grounded to the chassis, The outlet J should be placed in some gorner
and the chassis connected to awaterpipe or radia- out of sight where it %al not be atemptation for
tor ground. All transformer, choke, and capacitor children or others to play with. The shorting plug
cases should also be grounded to the chassis. A.c. can be removed to open the power circuit if there
power cords and chassis connectors should be are others around who might inadvertently throw
arranged so that exposed contacts are never the switch while the operator is working on the
"live." Starting at the conventional a.c. wall out- rig. If the operator takes the plug with him, it
let which is female, one end of the cord should will prevent someone from turning on the power
be fitted with a male plug. The other end of the in his absence and either injuring themselves or
cord should have a female receptacle. The input the equipment or perhaps starting a fire. Of ut-
connector of the power supply should have amale most importance is the fact that the outlet J mast
receptacle to fit the female receptacle of the be placed in the ungrounded side of the line.
cord. The power- output connector on the power Those who are operating low power and feel
supply should be a female socket. A male plug that the expense or complication of the switch
to fit this socket should be connected to the cable isn't warranted can use the shorted- plug idea as
going to the equipment. The opposite end of the the main power switch. In this case, the outlet
cable should be fitted with a female connector, should be located prominently and identified by
and the series should terminate with amale con- a signal light, as shown in Fig. 7-35C.
nector on the equipment. There should be no The test bench ought to be fed through the
"live" exposed contacts at any point, regardless main power switch, or a similar arrangement at
of where adisconnection may be made. the bench, if the bench is located remote from
Rectifier filament leads should be kept short the transmitter.
to assure proper voltage at the rectifier socket. A bleeder resistor with a power rating giving
Through a metal chassis, grommet- lined clear- a considerable margin of safety should be used
ance holes will serve for voltages up to 500 or across the output of all transmitter power sup-
750, .but ceramic feed-through insulators should plies so that the filter capacitors will be dis-
be used for higher voltages. Bleeder and voltage- charged when the high-voltage transformer is
dropping resistors should be placed where they turned off.
are open to air circulation. Placing them in con-
fined space reduces the rating.
For operating convenience it is desirable to
have separate filament transformers for the recti-
fier tubes, rather than to use combination filament
POWER
and plate transformers. If a combination power
transformer is used, the high voltage may be LINE EQUIP
turned off by using a switch between the trans-
former center tap and chassis. The switch should
be of the rotary type with good insulation between (A)
contacts. The shaft of the switch must be
grounded.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
All power supplies in an installation should
be fed through a single main power- line switch
so that all power may be cut off quickly, either
before working on the equipment, or in case of
an accident. Spring-operated switches or relays
are not sufficiently reliable for this important
service. Foolproof devices for cutting off all
power to the transmitter and other equipment are
shown in Fig. 7-35. The arrangements shown in
Fig. 7-35A and B are similar circuits for two-
wire ( 115-volt) and three- wire ( 230- volt) sys-
tems. S is an enclosed double- throw knife switch
POWER
of the sort usually used as the entrance switch in
LI NE
house installations. Jis astandard a.c. outlet and
P a shorted plug to fit the outlet. The switch
should be located prominently in plain sight and
(C)
members of the household should be instructed Fig. 7-35— Reliable arrangements for cutting off all
in its location and use. is a red lamp located power to the transmitter. S is an enclosed double- pole
alongside the switch. Its purpose is not so much knife-type switch, 1 o standard a.c. outlet. P ashorted
to serve as awarning that the power is on as it is plug to fit the outlet and Ia red lamp.
to help in identifying and quickly locating the A is for a two-wire 115-volt line, B for athree-wire
switch should it become necessary for someone 230-volt system, and C a simplified arrangement for
else to cut the power off in an emergency. low-power stations.
 Chapter 8

Keying and Break- In

Section 12.133 of the FCC regulations says R.F. Clicks

"...The frequency of the emitted...wave shall When any circuit carrying d.c. or a.c. is closed
be as constant as the state of the art permits." or broken, the small or large spark ( depending
It also says ". . . spurious radiation shall not be upon the voltage and current) generates r.f. dur-
of sufficient intensity to cause interference in ing the instant of make or break. This r.f. covers
receiving equipment of good engineering design a frequency range of many megacycles. When a
including adequate selectivity characteristics, transmitter is keyed, the spark at the key ( and
which is tuned to a frequency or frequencies relay, if used) causes aclick in the receiver. This
outside the frequency band of emission normally click has no effect on the transmitted signal.
required for the type of emission being employed Since it occurs at the same time that a click ( if
by the amateur station." any) appears on the transmitter output, it must be
There are four factors that have to be consid- removed if one is to listen critically to his own
ered in the keying of a transmitter. They are en- signal within the shack. A small r.f. filter is re-
velope shape, r.f. clicks, chirp and backwave. quired at the contacts of the key ( and relay) ;
typical circuits and values are shown in Fig. 8-2.
Envelope Shape
The key clicks that go out on the air with the
signal are controlled by the shape of the envelope To Key Jack or
A Keyed Stage
of the signal. The envelope is the outline of the
oscilloscope pattern of your transmitter output,
but an oscilloscope isn't needed to observe the grounded Side
effects. Fig. 8-1 shows representative scope pat-

RISE DECAY

7 77
A RFC,
To Key Jack or
TC, Keyed Stage

grounded Side

Fig. 8-2—Typical filter circuits to apply at the key ( and

relay, if used) to minimize r.f. clicks. The simplest cir-
cuit ( A) is a small capacitor mounted at the key. If this
proves insufficient, an r.f. choke can be added to the un-
grounded lead (
B). The value of C, is .001 to . 01 µf.,
Fig. 8- 1—Typical oscilloscope displays of a code trans- RFC., can be 0.5 to 2.5 mh., with a current-carrying
mitter. The rectangular- shaped dots or dashes ( A) have ability sufficient for the current in the keyed circuit. In
serious key clicks extending many kc. either side of the difficult cases another small capacitor may be required
transmitter frequency. Using proper shaping circuits in- on the other side of the r.f. choke. In all cases the r.f.
creases the rise and decay times to give signals with the filter should be mounted right at the key or relay term-
envelope form of B. This signal would have practically inals; sometimes the filter can be concealed under the
no key clicks. Carrying the shaping process too far, as in key. When cathode or center-top keying is used, the
C, results in a signal that is too " soft" and is not easy resistance of the r.f. choke or chokes will add cathode
to copy. bias to the keyed stage, and in this case a high-
Oscilloscope displays of this type are obtained by current low- resistance choke may be required, or com-
coupling the transmitter r.f. to the vertical plates ( Chap- pensating reduction of the grid- leak bias ( if it is used)
ter 21) and using a slow sweep speed synchronized to may be needed. Shielded wire or coaxial cable makes a
the dot or dash speed of an automatic key. good keying lead.
A visible spark on " make" can often be reduced by
terns that might be obtained with a given trans- the addition of a small ( 10 to 100 ohms) resistor in
mitter under various conditions. series with C, ( inserted at point "x"). Too high a value
It must be emphasized that the on- the- air of resistor reduces the arc-suppressing effect on " break."
clicks are determined by the shaping, while the
r.f. clicks caused by the spark at the key can only To check the effectiveness of the r.f. filter, listen
be heard in the station receiver arid possibly a on a lower- frequency band than the transmitter
broadcast receiver in the saine house or apart- is tuned to, with a short antenna and the receiver
ment. gain backed off.

245
 246 KEYING AND BREAK-IN
Fig. 8-3—The basic cathode ( A) and center-tap ( B) key-
ing circuits. In either case CI is the r.f. return to ground,
shunted by a larger capacitor, C1, for shaping. Voltage
ratings at least equal to the cut-off voltage of the tube
are required. T, is the normal filament transformer.
and Ca can be about 0.01 µf.
The shaping of the signal is controlled by the values
of L, and C.. Increased capacitance at C., will make the
A signal softer on break; increased inductance at L, will
make the signal softer on make. In many cases the make
will be satisfactory without any inductance.
Values at C., will range from 0.5 to 4 µf., depending
upon the tube type and operating conditions. The value
of L, will also vary with tube type and conditions, and
may range from a fraction of a henry to several henrys.
When tetrodes or pentodes are keyed in this manner, a
smaller value can sometimes be used at C., if the screen-
voltage supply is fixed and not obtained from the plate
supply through a dropping resistor.
Oscillators keyed in the cathode circuit cannot be soft-
ened on break indefinitely by increasing the value of
because the grid-circuit time constant enters into the
action.
Chirp
Chirp is an easy thing to detect if you know how
The frequency- stability reference in the open- to listen for it, although it is amazing how some
ing paragraph refers to the " chirp - observed on operators will listen to a signal and say it has
many signals. This is caused by a change in fre- no chirp when it actually has. The easiest way
quency of the signal during a single dot or dash. to detect chirp is to tune in the code signal at
a low beat note and listen for any
To Cathode change in frequency during adash. The
of keyed stele
lower the beat note, the easier it is to
detect the frequency change. Listening
to aharmonic of the signal will accentu-
Th InvennIter ate the frequency change.
chassis The main reason for minimizing'
A chirp, aside from complying with the
ro key letter of the regulations, is one of pride,
since a properly shaped chirp- free sig-
nal is a pleasure to copy and is likely
to attract attention by its rarity. Chirps
cannot be observed on an oscilloscope
-
BLOCKING VOLTAGE pattern of the envelope.
BLOCKING VOLTAGE
Backwaye
Fig. 8-4—The basic circuit for blocked-grid keying is shown at A.
The last factor is " backwave," a sig-
is the normal grid leak, and the blocking voltage must be at
nal during key- up conditions from some
least several times the normal grid bias. The click on make can be
amplifier- keyed transmitters. Some op-
reduced by making C, larger, and the click on break can be re-
erators listening in the shack to their
duced by making R,larger. Usually the value of R.. will be 5 to 20
iwn signals and hearing a backwave
times the resistance of le,. The power supply current requirement
think that the backwave can be heard
depends upon the value of R,, since closing the key circuit places
on the air. It isn't necessarily so, and
R,across the blocking voltage supply.
the best way to check is with an amateur
An allied circuit is the vacuum-tube keyer of B. The tube V, is
amile or more away. If he can't hear a
connected in the cathode circuit of the stage to be keyed. The
backwave on the S9 + signal, you can
values of Cli R,and R,determine the keying envelope in the same be sure that it isn't there when the sig-
way that they do for blocked- grid keying. Values to start with
nal is weaker. Backwave is undesirable
might be 0.47 megohm for R,, 4.7 megohm for R, and 0.0047 µf.
because it makes asignal harder to copy,
for CI.
even with acceptable shaping and no
The blocking voltage supply must deliver several hundred volts, chirp.
but the current drain is very low. The 2A3 or other low plate.
resistance triode is suitable for V,. To increase the current-carrying Amplifier Keying
ability of a tube keyer, several tubes can be connected in parallel. Many two-, three- and even four-
A vacuum-tube keyer adds cathode bias and drops the supply
stage transmitters are utterly incapable
voltages to the keyed stage and will reduce the output of the stage. of completely chirp- free amplifier key-
In oscillator keying it may be impossible to use a v.t. keyer without
ing because keying the output stage has
changing the oscillator d.c. grid return from ground to cathode.
an effect on the oscillator frequency
The Modulation Envelope 287
in the drawing, the modulating amplitude is ad- downward swing becomes too great, there will
justed so that the peak downward modulation be a period of time during which the r.f. output
is just 100 per cent (Z 0) the peak upward is éntirely cut off. This is shown in Fig. 10-3. The
modulation is 300 per cent ( Y = 4X). The car- shape of the downward half of the modulating
rier amplitude is represented by X, as in Fig. wave is no longer accurately reproduced by the
10-1. The modulation envelope reproduces the modulation envelope, consequently the modula-
wave form of the modulating signal accurately, tion is distorted. Operation of this type is called
hence there is no distortion. In such amodulated overmodulation. The distortion of the modula-
signal the increase in power output with modu- tion envelope causes new frequencies ( harmonics
lation is considerably greater than it is when the of the modulating frequency) to be generated.
modulation is symmetrical and therefore has to These combine with the carrier to form new side
be limited to 100 per cent both up and down. frequencies that widen the channel occupied by
the modulated signal. These spurious frequencies
lervekrot of are commonly called " splatter."
Noduktutf VoMae
It is important to realize that the channel
occupied by an amplitude- modulated signal is
dependent on the shape of the modulation en-
velope. If this wave shape is complex and can be
resolved into a wide band of audio frequencies,
then the channel occupied will be correspond-
ingly large. An overmodulated signal splatters
and occupies amuch wider channel than is neces-
sary because the "clipping" of the modulating
wave that occurs at the zero axis changes the
envelope wave shape to one that contains high-
order harmonics of the original modulating fre-
quency. These harmonics appear as side frequen-
cies separated by, in some cases, many kilocycles
from the carrier frequency.
Fig. 10- 2— Modulation by an unsymmetrical wave Because of this clipping action at the zero axis,
form. This drawing shows 100% downward modula- it is important that care be taken to prevent
tion along with 300% upward modulation. There applying too large a modulating signal in the
is no distortion, since the modulation envelope is an downward direction. Overmodulation downward
accurate reproduction of the wave form of the results in more splatter than is caused by most
modulating voltage. other types of distortion in a phone transmitter.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
In Fig. 10-2 the peak envelope amplitude, Y, is
four times the carrier amplitude, X, so the peak- For proper operation of an amplitude-modu-
envelope power is 16 times the carrier power. lated transmitter there are afew general require-
When the upward modulation is more than 100 ments that must be met no matter what particular
per cent the power capacity of the modulating method of modulation may be used. Failure to
system obviously must be increased sufficiently meet these requirements is accompanied by dis-
to take care of the much larger peak amplitudes. tortion of the modulation envelope. This in turn
increases the channel width as compared with
Overmodulation that required by the legitimate frequencies con-
If the amplitude of the modulation on the tained in the original modulating wave.

f\
Frequency Stability
Vabeshape of
*dufatal
j Weld For satisfactory amplitude modulation, the car-
rier frequency must be entirely unaffected by
modulation. If the application of modulation
causes achange in the carrier frequency, the fre-
quency will wobble back and forth with the mod-
ulation. This causes distortion and widens the
channel taken by the signal. Thus unnecessary
interference is caused to other transmissions.
In practice, this undesirable frequency modu-
lation is prevented by applying the modulation
to an r.f. amplifier stage that is isolated from
the frequency-controlling oscillator by a buffer
amplifier. Amplitude modulation applied di-
Fig. 10-3— An overmodulated signal. The modulation rectly to an oscillator always is accompanied by
envelope is not an accurate reproduction of the wave frequency modulation. Under existing FCC reg-
form of the modulating voltage. This or any type of ulations amplitude modulation of an oscillator is
distortion occurring during the modulation process permitted only on frequencies above 144 Mc.
generates spurious sidebands or " splatter." Below that frequency the regulations require that
248 KEYING AND BREAK-IN
RECT.
IMEG. 1MEG. IMEG.

."EYER
oKEYED
CIRCUIT

Fig. 8-6— Wiring diagram of a practical vacuum-tube keyer.

stage is keyed, the keyer should be connected in associated resistors and capacitors, since they are
the negative lead, not the cathode. incorporated only to allow the operator to select
The negative- voltage supply can be eliminated the combination he prefers. But once the values
if anegative voltage is available from some other have been selected, they can be soldered perman-
source, such as abias supply. A simplified version ently in place. Adjustment of the keying char-
of this circuit could eliminate the switches and acteristic is the same as with blocked-grid keying.

OSCILLATOR KEYING
One may wonder why oscillator keying hasn't sible is the objective, then keying an amplifier
been mentioned earlier, since it is widely used. or two by the methods outlined earlier is the
A sad fact of life is that excellent oscillator key- solution. For operating convenience, an auto-
ing is infinitely more difficult to obtain than is matic transmitter "turner-onner" ( see Campbell,
excellent amplifier keying. If the objective is no QST, Aug., 1956), which will turn on the power
detectable chirp, it is probably impossible to ob- supplies and switch antenna relays and receiver
tain with oscillator keying, particularly on the muting devices, can be used. The station switches
higher frequencies. The reasons are simple. Any over to the complete "transmit" condition where
keyed-oscillator transmitter requires shaping at the first dot is sent, and it holds in for alength of
the oscillator, which involves changing the oper- time dependent upon the setting of the delay. It
ating conditions of the oscillator over a signifi- is equivalent to voice-operated phone of the type
cant period of time. The output of the oscillator commonly used by s.s.b. stations. It does not per-
doesn't rise to full value immediately so the drive mit hearing the other station whenever the key
on the following stage is changing, which in turn is up, as does full break-in.
may reflect a variable load on the oscillator. No Full break-in with excellent keying is not easy
oscillator has been devised that has no change to come by, but it is easier than many amateurs
in frequency over its entire operating voltage think. Many use oscillator keying and put up
range and with a changing load. Furthermore, with a second-best signal.
the shaping of the keyed-oscillator envelope
usually has to be exaggerated, becaine the follow- Differential Keying
ing stages will tend to sharpen up the keying and The principle behind " differential" keying is to
introduce clicks unless they are operated as linear turn the oscillator on fast before a keyed ampli-
amplifiers. fier stage can pass any signal and turn off the
Acceptable oscillator keying can be obtained oscillator fast after the keyed amplifier stage has
on the lower- frequency bands, and the methods cut off. A number of circuits have been devised
used to key amplifiers can be used, but chirp- for accomplishing the action. One of the simplest
free clickless oscillator keying is probably not can be applied to any grid-block keyed amplifier
possible at the higher frequencies. Often some or tube- keyed stage by the addition of a triode
additional shaping of the signal will be intro- and aVR tube, as in Fig: 8-7. Using this keying
duced on "make" through the use of aclamp tube system for break-in, the keying will be chirp-
in the output amplifier stage, because the time f ree if it is chirp- free with the VR tube removed
constant of the screen bypass capacitor plus from its socket, to permit the oscillator to run all
screen dropping resistor increases the screen- of the time. If the transmitter can't pass this test,
voltage rise time, but it is of no help on the it indicates that more isolation is required be-
"break" portion of the signal. tween keyed stage and oscillator.
Another VR-tube differential keying circuit,
Break -
in Keying
useful when the screen-grid circuit of an amplifier
The usual argument for oscillator keying is is keyed, is shown in Fig. 8-8. The normal screen
that it permits break-in operation ( see below, keying circuit is made up of the shaping capacitor
also Chapter 22). If break-in operation is not C1,the keying relay ( to remove dangerous volt-
contemplated and as near perfect keying as pos- ages from the key), and the resistors R1 and R2.
Testing Your Keying 249
OS CILLATO R AMPLIFIER OR TUBE KEYER when the amplifier unit is added. There are two
possible causes for the clicks: low-frequency
•—) parasitic oscillations and amplifier "clipping."
GR,D LAN Under some conditions an amplifier will be
OR R.P.
CHOKE momentarily triggered into low- frequency para-
+100
sitic oscillations, and clicks will be generated
6J5 3 FIXED SCREEN when the amplifier is driven by akeyed exciter.
VOLTAGE
If these clicks are the result of low-frequency
VR -I
50
parasitic oscillations, they will be found in
.47 meg
SPOT, "groups" of clicks occurring at 50- to 150-kc.
471V5 VI intervals either side of the transmitter frequency.
— 400
Of course low- frequency , parasitic oscillations
can be generated in a keyed stage, and the op-
Fig. 8-7—When satisfactory blocked-grid or tube key- erator should listen carefully to make sure that
ing of an amplifier stage has been obtained, this VR. the output of the exciter is clean before he blames
tube break-in circuit can be applied to the transmitter alater amplifier. Low-frequency parasitic oscilla-
to furnish differential keying. The constants shown here tions are usually caused by poor choice in r.f.
are suitable for blocked-grid keying of a6146 amplifier; choke values, and the use of more inductance in
with a tube keyer the 615 and VR tube circuitry would the plate choke than in the grid choke for the
be the same. same stage is recommended.
With the key up, sufficient current flows through Rs When the clicks introduced by the addition of
to give a voltage that will cut off the oscillator tube. an amplifier stage are found only near the trans-
When the key is closed, the cathode voltage of the 615 mitter frequency, amplifier "clipping" is indi-
becomes close to ground potential, extinguishing the cated. It is quite common when fixed bias is used
VR tube and permitting the oscillator to operate. Too on the amplifier and the bias is well past the
much shunt capacity on the leads to the VR tube, and "cut-off" value. The effect can usually be mini-
too large a value of grid capacitor in the oscillator, may mized by using acombination of fixed and grid-
slow down this action, and best performance will be leak bias for the amplifier stage. The fixed bias
obtained when the oscillator (turned on and off this should be sufficient to hold the key- up plate cur-
way) sounds "clicky." The output envelope shaping is rent only to alow level and not to zero.
obtained in the amplifier, and it can be made softer by A linear amplifier ( Class AB i,AB 2 or B) will
increasing the value of CI. If the keyed amplifier is a amplify the excitation without adding any clicks,
tetrode or pentode, the screen voltage should be ob- and if clicks show up a low- frequency parasitic
tained from a fixed voltage source or stiff voltage di- oscillation is probably the reason.
vider, not from the plate supply through a dropping
resistor.

OSCILLATOR KEYED STAGE

The supply should be 50 to 100 volts higher

than the normal screen voltage, and the — voltage
GRID LEAK
should be sufficient to ignite the VR tube, V , 2
OR R. F. Rz
CHOKE
through the drop in R and R . Current through
2 3

R 2 wilt be determined by voltage required to cut

off oscillator; if 10 volts will do it the current
will be 1ma. For a desirable keying character- KEYING RELAY
istic, R will usually have ahigher value than R1.
2

Increasing the value of C1 will soften both " make"

and " break." Fig. 8-8—VR-tube differential keying in an amplifier
The tube used at V will depend upon the
2 screen circuit.
available negative supply voltage. If it is between With key up and current flowing through Vs and Vs,
120 and 150, a 0A3/VR75 is recommended. the oscillator is cut off by the drop through Rs. The
Above this a0C3/VR105 can be used. The diode, keyed stage draws no current because its screen grid is
VI,can be any diode operated within ratings. A negative. C, is charged negatively to the value of the —
6AL5 will suffice with screen voltages under 250 source. When the relay is energized, C, charges through
and bleeder currents under 5ma. For maximum R, to a value. Before reaching zero (on its way -I-)
life a separate heater transformer should be used there is insufficient voltage to maintain ionization in Vs,
for the diode, with the cathode connected to one and the current is broken in Rg, turning on the oscillator
side of the heater winding. stage. As the screen voltage goes positive, the VR tube,
VII, cannot reignite because the diode, VI,will not con-
Clicks in Later Stages duct in that direction. The oscillator and keyed stage
It was mentioned earlier that key clicks can be remain on as long as the relay is closed. When the relay
generated in amplifier stages following the keyed opens, the voltage across C, must be sufficiently negative
stage or stages. This can be a puzzling problem for Vg to ionize before any bleeder current will pass
to an operator who has spent considerable time through Rg. By this time the screen of the keyed stage is
adjusting the keying in his exciter unit for click- so far negative that the tube has stopped conducting.
less keying, only to find that the clicks are bad (See Fig. 8-5 for suitable relay.)
250 KEYING AND BREAK-IN

TESTING YOUR KEYING

The choice of a keying circuit is not as im- terminals with a short piece of wire. Tune in
portant as its testing. Any of the circuits shown your own signal and reduce the r.f. gain to the
in this chapter can be made to give satisfactory point where your receiver doesn't overload. De-
keying, but must be adjusted properly. tune any antenna trimmer the receiver may have.
The easiest way to find out what your keyed If you can't avoid overload within the r.f. gain-
signal sounds like on the air is to trade stations control range, pull out the r.f. amplifier tube and
with a near-by ham friend some evening for a try again. If you still can't avoid overload, listen
short QS0. If he is a half mile or so away, to the second harmonic as alast resort. An over-
that's fine, but any distance where the signals are loaded receiver can generate clicks.
still S9 will be satisfactory. Describing the volume level at which you
After you have found out how to work his should set your receiver for these " shack" tests
rig, make contact and then have him send slow is a little difficult. The r.f. filter should be effec-
dashes, with dash spacing. ( The letter "T" at tive with the receiver running wide open and
about 5 w.p.m.) With minimum selectivity, cut with an antenna connected. When you turn on
the r.f. gain back just enough to avoid receiver the transmitter and take the other steps men-
overloading ( the condition where you get crisp tioned to reduce the signal in the receiver, run
signals instead of mushy ones) and tune slowly the audio up and the r.f. down to the point where
from out of beat-note range on one side of the you can just hear alittle "rushing" sound with the
signal through to zero and out the other side. b.f.o. off and the receiver tuned to the signal. This
Knowing the tempo of the dashes, you can is with the selectivity in. At this level, aproperly
readily identify any clicks in the vicinity as yours adjusted keying circuit will show no clicks off the
or someone else's. A good signal will have a rushing-sound range. With the b.f.o. on the same
thump on "make" that is perceptible only where gain setting, there should be no clicks outside the
you can also hear the beat note, and the click on beat-note range. When observing clicks, make the
"break" should be practically negligible at any slow-dash and fast dot tests outlined previously.
point. If your signal is like that, it will sound Now you know how your signal sounds on the
good, provided there are no chirps. Then have him air, with one possible exception. If keying your
run off a string of fast dots with the bug — if transmitter makes the lights blink, you may not
they are easy to copy, your signal has no "tails" be able to tell too accurately abOut the chirp
worth worrying about and is agood one for any on your signal. However, if you are satisfied with
speed up to the limit of manual keying. Make one the absence of chirp when tuning either side of
last check with the selectivity in, to see that the zero beat, it is safe to assume that your receiver
clicks off the signal are negligible even at high isn't chirping with the light flicker and that the
signal level. observed signal is atrue representation. No chirp
If you don't have any convenient friends with either side of zero beat is fine. Don't try to make
whom to trade stations, you can still check your these tests without first getting rid of the r.f.
keying, although you have to be a little more click at the key, because clicks can mask achirp.
careful. The first step is to get rid of the r.f. The least satisfactory way to check your key-
click at the key, as described earlier. ing is to ask another ham on the air how your
So far you haven't done a thing for your keying sounds. It is the least satisfactory because
signal on the air and you still don't know what most hams are reluctant to be highly critical of
it sounds like, but you may have cleaned up some another amateur's signal. In agreat many cases
clicks in the broadcast set. Now disconnect the they don't actually know what to look for or how
antenna from your receiver and short the antenna to describe any aberrations they may observe.

MONITORING OF KEYING
In general, there are two common methods for
monitoring one's " fist" and signal. The first, and BREAK-IN OPERATION
perhaps less common, type involves the use of an Smooth c.w. break-in operation involves pro-
audio oscillator that is keyed simultaneously with tecting the receiver from permanent damage by
the transmitter. the transmitter power and insurance that the re-
The second method is one that permits receiv- ceiver will " recover" fast enough to be sensitive
ing the signal through one's receiver, and this between dots and dashes, or at least between
generally requires that the receiver be tuned to letters and words. None of the available an-
the transmitter ( not always convenient unless tenna transfer relays is fast enough to follow
working on the same frequency) and that some keying, so the simplest break-in system is the
method be provided for preventing overloading use of a separate receiving antenna. If the
of the receiver, so that agood replica of the trans- transmitter power is low ( 25 or 50 watts) and
mitted signal will be received. Except where the isolation between transmitting and receiving
quite low power is used, this usually involves a antennas is good, this method can be satis-
relay for simultaneously shorting the receiver factory. Best isolation is obtained by mounting
input terminals and reducing the receiver gain. the antennas as far apart as possible and at right
Monitoring and Keying 251
angles to each other. Feedline pick-up should provide the connection and require no internal
be minimized, through the use of coaxial cable modification. The circuit for use with a separate
or 300-ohm Twin- Lead. If the receiver recovers receiving antenna is shown in Fig. 8-9A; the
fast enough but the transmitter clicks are both- slight change for use with a TR switch and a
ersome ( they may be caused by the receiver single antenna is shown in B. R1 is the regular
overload and so exist only in the receiver) their receiver r.f. and i.f. gain control. The ground
effect on the operator can be minimized through lead is run to chassis ground through a rheostat,
the use of an output limiter ( see Chapter Five). R2.A wire from the junction runs to the key-
When powers above 25 or 50 watts are used, ing relay, IC 1.When the key is up, the ground
or where two antennas are not available, special side of R1 is connected to ground through the
treatment is required for quiet break-in on the relay arm, and the receiver is in its normal
transmitter frequency. A means must be pro- operating condition. When the key is closed the
vided for limiting the power that reaches the relay closes, which breaks the ground connec-
receiver input; this can be either a direct short- tion from R1 and applies additional bias to the
circuit or alimiting device like an electronic TR tubes in the receiver. This bias is controlled by
switch ( see Figs. 8-15 through 8-18). Further, R2.When the relay closes, it also closes the
a means must be provided for momentarily re- circuit to the transmitter keying circuit. A
ducing the gain through the receiver, which en- simple r.f. filter at the key suppresses the local
ables thè receiver to " recover" faster. clicks caused by the relay current. This circuit
The system shown in Fig. 8-9 permits quiet is superior to any working on the a.g.c. line of
break-in operation of high-powered stations. It the receiver because the cathode circuit ( s) have
may require a simple operation on the receiver, shorter time constants than the a.g.c. circuits
although many commercial receivers already and will recover faster.

RFC. RECEIVER

TO KEYING
CIRCUIT IN Fig. 8-9—Two variations of a circuit for
TRANS.
smooth break-in operation, using ( A)
separate receiving antenna or ( B) an
RFC 2
electronic TR switch. The leads shown as
R, heavy lines should be kept as short as
possible, to minimize direct transmitter
pick-up.
Ri— Receiver manual gain control.
R2-5000- or 10,000-ohm wire - wound
potentiometer.
RFC1, RFC. - 1-to 21
2 -mh. r.f. choke, cur-
/
ROC EIV ER

2
FROM I ANT
TR o
rent rating adequate for appli-
SWITCH cation.
RFC,

Ki—S.p.d.t. keying relay ( Sigma 41FZ-

TO KEYING 35-ACS-SIL or equiv.). Although
CIRCUIT IN
TRANS. ONO battery and d.c. relay are shown,
any suitable a.c. or d.c. relay and
RFC,
Al power source can be used.
.01p1

R2

(B)

RECEIVER MUTING AND GRID- BLOCK KEYING

The muting system shown in Fig. 8-10 can be When the key is closed, there is insufficient
used with any grid-block, or tube-keyed trans- voltage across the 0A2 to maintain conduction,
mitter, and it is particularly applicable to the and consequently there is no current flow through
VR-tube differential keying circuit of Fig. 8-7. R3.With zero voltage between grid and cathode,
Referring to Fig. 8-10,1? 1,R 2 and C1have the same the 6C4 passes current. The drop across R4,and
values and functions that the similarly designated thus the negative voltage applied to the a.g.c. line
components in Figs. 8-4 and 8-7 have. When the in the receiver, is determined by the value of R4.
key is open, asmall current will flow through R3, Thus the key-down gain of the receiver can be
the 0A2 and R2,and the voltage drop across R3 adjusted to permit listening to one's own signal,
will be sufficient to cut off the 6C4. With the 6C4 by increasing the value of R, until the receiver
cut off, there is no current through R4 and con- output level is a comfortable one. To utilize the
sequently no voltage appearing across R . The
4 same antenna for transmitting and receiving, and
voltage of the receiver a.g.c. bus is zero with thus benefit during receiving from any directional
respect to ground. properties of the antenna, an electronic transmit-
Types of Modulation 293
tank circuit tuned to resonance. Next, apply the r.f. output current, and then reduce the d.c.
modulation and increase the modulating voltage screen voltage until the plate current is one-half
until the modulation characteristic shows curva- its previous value. The r.f. output current should
ture ( see later in this chapter for use of the os- also be one-half its previous value at this screen
cilloscope). If curvature occurs well below 100 voltage. The amplifier is then ready for modula-
per cent modulation, the • plate efficiency is too tion, and the modulating voltage may be in-
high at the carrier level. Increase the plate creased until the plate current just starts to shift
loading slightly and readjust the r.f, grid excita- upward, which indicates that the amplifier is
tion to maintain the same plate current; then modulated 100 per cent. With voice modulation
apply modulation and check the characteristic the plate current should remain steady, or show
again. Continue until the characteristic is as just an occasional small upward kick on intermit-
linear as possible from zero to twice the carrier tent peaks
amplitude.
In general, the amplifier should be heavily "Clamp-Tube" Modulation
loaded. Under proper operating conditions the A method of screen- grid modulation that is
plate-current dip as the amplifier plate circuit is convenient in transmitters provided with ascreen
tuned through resonance will be little more than protective tube ("clamp" tube) is shown in Fig.
just discernible. Operate with the grid current as 10-11. An audio- frequency signal is applied to the
low as possible, since this reduces the screen cur- grid of the clamp tube, which then becomes a
rent and thus reduces the amount of power re- modulator. The simplicity of the circuit is some-
quired from the modulator. what deceptive, since it is considerably more
With proper adjustment the linearity is good difficult from adesign standpoint than the trans-
up to about 90 per cent modulation. When the former- coupled arrangement of Fig. 10-10.
screen is driven negative for 100 per cent modu- For proper modulation the clamp tube must be
lation there is a kink in the modulation charac- operated as a triode Class A amplifier; the
teristic at the zero- voltage point. This introduces method is essentially identical with the choke-
a small amount of envelope distortion. The kink coupled Class A plate modulator of Fig. 10-8 ex-
can be removed and the over-all linearity im- cept that a resistance, R2, is substituted for the
proved by applying a small amount of modulat- choke. 12.„, in the usual case, is the screen drop-
ing voltage to the control grid simultaneously ping resistor normally used for c.w. operation.
with screen modulation. Its value should be at least two or three times
In an alternative adjustment method not re- the load resistance required by the Class A mod-
quiring an oscilloscope the r.f. amplifier is first ulator tube for optimum audio-frequency output.
tuned up for maximum output without modula- Like the choke-coupled modulator, the clamp-
tion and the rated d.c. screen voltage ( from a tube modulator is incapable of modulating the r.f.
fixed- voltage supply) for c.w. operation applied. stage 100 per cent unless the dropping resistor,
Use heavy loading and reduce the grid excitation RI, and audio bypass, C1, are incorporated in the
until the output just starts to fall off, at which circuit. The same design considerations hold,
point the resonance dip in plate current should with the addition of the fact that the screen must
be small. Note the plate current and, if possible, be driven negative, not just to zero voltage, for
100 per cent modulation. The modulator tube
must thus be operated at avoltage ranging from
20 to 40 per cent higher than the modulated
screen.
Adjustment with this system, once the design
voltages have been determined, is carried out in
the same way as with transformer- coupled screen
modulation, preferably with the oscilloscope.
Without the oscilloscope, the amplifier may first
be adjusted for c.w. operation as described ear-
lier, but with the modulator tube removed from
its socket. The modulator is then replaced, and
the cathode resistance, R3, adjusted to reduce the
amplifier plate current to one-half its c.w. value.
The amplifier plate current should remain con-
A.F
INPUT stant with modulation, or show just a small up-
ward flicker on occasional voice peaks.
o
Controlled Carrier
Fig. 10- 11— Screen modulation by a " clamp" tube. As explained earlier, a limit is placed on the
The grid leak is the normal value for c.w. operation output obtainable from agrid- modulation system
and C3 should be 0.002 Af. or less. See text for dis- by the low r.f. amplifier plate efficiency ( approxi-
cussion of C,, R., R2 and R3. R3 should have the proper mately 33 per cent) under unmodulated carrier
value for Class A operation of the modulator tube, conditions. The plate efficiency increases with
but cannot be calculated unless triode curves for modulation, since the output increases while the
the tube are available. d.c. input remains constant, and reaches amaxi-
Speed Keys 253
operator's individual preference. R 2 may be ad- Because the pitch of the audio tone is to some
justed to compensate for the changes in the d.c. degree dependent upon the d.c. voltage obtained
current from the rectifier or Monimatch caused from the source, the pitch gives a reasonably
by a change in transmitter frequency band or accurate indication of correct final amplifier plate
power. Using either a 2N109 or a CK722 tran- circuit tuning ( maximum power output) and, if
sistor, the circuit should oscillate with usable an antenna tuner is used, will also indicate res-
audio level with as little as 0.1 ma. d.c. flowing to onance of the tuner to the transmitter output
ground through the monitor. Other low-cost frequency. This characteristic of the Matchtone
transistors such as the 2N107 and the 2N170 should be of considerable aid to sightless ama-
should work equally well. teurs. ( From QST, January, 1958.)

SPEED KEYS
The average operator finds that a speed of 20 when used by an operator who knows what good
to 25 words per minute is the limit of his ability code sounds like; however, one will not com-
with a straight hand key. However, he can in- pensate for an operator's poor code ability.
crease his speed to 30 to 40 w.p.m. by the use of a An electronic speed key will not compensate
"speed key." The mechanical speed keys, avail- for an operator's poor sending ability, either.
able in most radio stores, give additional speed by However, the electronic speed key has the fea-
making strings of dots when the key lever is ture that it makes strings of both dots and of
pushed to the right; dashes are made manually dashes, by proper manipulation of the key lever,
by closing the key to the left. After practicing and in current designs the dashes are self- com-
with the speed key, the operator obtains the cor- pleting. This means that it is impossible to send
rect "feel" for the key, which allows him to re- anything but the correct length of dash when the
lease the dot lever at exactly the right time to key lever is closed on the dash side. It is, of
make the required number of dots. A speed key course, possible to send an incorrect number of
can deliver practically perfect code characters dashes through poor operator timing.

KEYING SPEEDS
In radio telegraphy the basic code element is the proper dot, space and dash values mentioned
the dot, or unit pulse. A dot and space is two unit above, the code speed can be found from
pulses, and adash is three unit pulses long. The
dots/min.
space between letters is three unit pulses, and the Speed (
w.p.m.)
25
space between words is seven unit pulses. A
E.g.: A properly adjusted electronic key gives a string
speed of one baud is one pulse per second. of dots that counts to 10 dots per second. Speed = ( 60 X
Assuming that a speed key is adjusted to give 10) ÷ 25 = 24 w.p.m.

AN ELECTRONIC SPEED KEY

The unit shown in Figs. 8-12 and 8-14 repre-
sents one of the simpler designs of an electronic
key. The total cost of the key, in dollars and
construction time, is quite low. The keying lever
is made from parts taken from two straight tele-
graph keys; these are available at less than a
dollar each in the war- surplus version (J-38). A
more elegant keying lever can be built from a
(more-expensive) war-surplus mechanical speed
key.
Referring to Fig. 8-13, the timing of the key is
provided by the oscillator V iA .When the key is
closed, a sawtooth wave is generated by the fast
charge and slow discharge of the .25- pf. capaci-
tor in the cathode circuit. The rate of discharge
is set by the total resistance across the capacitor,
and the voltage to which the capacitor is charged
is determined by the setting of R1.The sawtooth Fig. 8- 12— This electrronic speed key has a range of
wave, applied to the grid of V 2A ,cannot drive the approximately 8 to 35 w.p.m., set by the speed control
grid very positive because the 3.3-megohm re- at top center. It has relay output and can be used with
sistor limits the current; the effect is to "clip any transmitter that can be keyed by a hand key. The
the tops" of the sawtooth cycles. The voltage key ( left) is made from two telegraph keys and a pair
at which V2A passes enough current to close of 1
/8-
inch thick sheet plastic paddles.
254 KEYING AND BREAK-IN
RI
I P,
0 TO TRANSMITTER

200K Fig. 8- 13—Circuit diagram of the electronic

KEY 1
¿
RATIO
4
1MEG .
speed key. Unless otherwise specified, resis-
tors are 1/2 watt. Polarity-marked capacitors
6 OSCILLATOR are electrolytic, others are tubular paper.
VIA 470 K'
- - 12 AU 7 Ks-50004Am 3-ma. relay (Sigma 41F-
V2A
WEIGHT 5000S-
SIL).
100K
R3 Pz— Phone plug.
Pz—A.c. line plug.
47E R3 - 100,000-ohm potentiometer, linear
taper.
R_-1-megohm potentiometer, linear taper.
S,—S.p.s.t. toggle.
RECTIFIER Ti- 5-watt 25,000-to-4-ohm output trans-
2200 former, secondary not used ( Stancor
_
A-3857).

250V1.
2
Ts- 125-v. 15-ma. and 6.3-v. 0.6-amp. trans-
former ( Stancor PS-8415 or similar).

the relay is set by the position of the arm of R 3. the same. It is easy to determine whether dots or
Except for the tubes, the keyer circuit is housed dashes are too heavy or too light. Connect an
in agrey Hammertone 6 X 5 X 4-inch Minibox ohmmeter to P1 ;holding the dot lever closed
(Bud CU-2107), as shown in Fig. 8-14. The tube should make the ohmmeter needle hover around
sockets are mounted so that the two tubes pro- half scale, and holding the dash lever closed
ject outside at the rear of the unit. The power should make the ohmmeter hover around 75 per
transformer is mounted on the rear wall, and the cent of the short-circuit reading. Lacking an
toggle switch and the three controls are mounted ohmmeter, the transmitter plate milliammeter can
on the "front" panel. The power line to P 2,the be used; dots and dashes should give 50 per cent
two-wire cable to P1,and the three- wire cable to and 75 per cent of the key-down value when the
the key leave the cabinet at the rear through keyer controls have been properly adjusted.
individual rubber grommets. Use multiple tie QST articles describing other types of elec-
points generously for the support of the fixed re- tronic speed keys include:
sistors and capacitors. Bartlett, " Compact Automatic Key Design," Dec., 1951.
To make the key, first remove the keys from Old "Transistorized Electronic Key and Monitor," May,
1959.
their bases and strip the bases of their remaining Kanda, " The ' Ultimatie—Transistorized," Sept., Oct.,
hardware. The four support legs for the key are 1960.
formed from the original tie strips and shorting
switch arms. At the front they bolt to the key
frame at the countérsunk holes; at the rear they
make up to the binding posts. The three-wire
cable connects to two binding posts and a sup-
porting leg. A heavy base of -inch thich steel
adds weight to the structure, and rubber or cork
feet glued to the steel prevent its scratching the
table.

Adjustment of Electronic Speed Key

In operation, the three controls will serve as

their labels indicate. There is a unique ( but not
highly critical) combination of settings of the
weight and ratio controls that will give automatic
dots and dashes at the same speed; this setting
can only be determined by ear and will be de- Fig. 8- 14— Components for the electronic speed key are
pendent on how well the operator can recognize mounted on the three walls of a Minibox section, with
good code. If the operator taps his foot to count the tubes projecting out the back. Keep wires away from
groups of four dots or two dashes, the dots and screw holes, to prevent short circuits when the box is
dashes will have the same speed when the beat is assembled.

ELECTRONIC TRANSMIT- RECEIVE SWITCHES

No antenna relay is fast enough to switch an at normal keying speeds. As aconsequence, when
antenna from transmitter to receiver and back it is desired to use the same antenna for trans-
T.R. Switches 255
miffing and receiving ( a "must" when directional tor and the voltage that may be safely applied
antennas are used) and to operate c.w. break-in between the grid and cathode of the tube.
or voice-controlled sideband, and electronic switch To avoid stray pick-up on the lead between
is used in the antenna. The word " switch" is a the cathode and the antenna terminal of the re-
misnomer in this case; the transmitter is con- ceiver, this lead should be well-shielded. Fur-
nected to the antenna at all times and the t.r. ther, the entire unit should be shielded and
"switch" is a device for preventing burn-out of mounted at the transmitter antenna terminals.
the receiver by the transmitter. In wiring the tube socket, input and output cir-
One of the simplest approaches is the circuit cuit components should be separated to reduce
shown in Fig. 8-15. The 6C4 cathode follower feed-through by stray coupling.
couples the incoming signal on the line to the The cable run to the receiver can be any con-
receiver input with only a slight reduction in venient length, but if the t.r. switch is not lo-
gain. When the transmitter is "on," the grid of cated at or quite near to the transmitter there
the 6C4 is driven positive and the rectified cur- may be conditions where aloss of received signal
rent biases the 6C4 so that it can pass very little will be noticed, caused by resonant conditions
power on to the receiver. The factors that limit in the cable and the transmitter output circuit.
the r.f voltage the circuit can handle are the This effect is more likely to be observed as one
voltage break-down rating of the 47-µ4. capaci- moves higher in frequency ( to 21 and 28 Mc.).

+150 TO 250 V.

Fig. 8- 15— Schematic diagram of cathode-follower t.r.

RECEIVER
switch. Resistors are ' 2- watt. The unit should be as- TRANS r ------,
LINE
sembled in a small chassis or shield can and mounted on
0 ANT.
1
or very close to the receiver antenna terminals. The
transmitter transmission line can be connected at the
coaxial jack with an M-358 Tee adapter.
The heater and plate power can be " borrowed" from
the receiver in most cases.

SELF-CONTAINED ALL- BAND ELECTRONIC T.R. SWITCH

The t.r. switch shown in Fig. 8-16 differs in
several ways from the preceding example. It con-
tains its own power supply and consequently can
be used with any transmitter/receiver combina-
tion without "borrowing" power. It will add gain
and front-end selectivity to the receiver. A com-
mercial switch-coil-capacitor combination is
shown in the unit, although the constructor could
build his own if desired.
Referring to the circuit diagram in Fig. 8-17,
one triode of a 12AU7 is used as an amplifier
stage, followed by the other triode as acathode-
follower stage to couple between the tuned cir-
cuit and the receiver. As in the simpler switch,
the triodes are biased during transmission periods
by rectified grid current, and insufficient power is
passed along to the receiver to injure its input
circuit.
The t.r. switch is intended to mount behind the
transmitter near its output terminal, so that the
connecting cable is short. The lead from the t.r.
switch to the receiver can be any reasonable
length. Components are mounted on the sides and
walls of the chassis, although asmall bracket will
be needed to support the tube socket and another
is required to hold the far end of the coil L1.The
single coil bracket, aided by panel bushings for

Fig. 8- 16—The electronic t.r. switch is built in a .5 X 9

X 23/2-inch chassis; the bottom plate has been removed
to show the placement of parts. Although two receiver
outlets are shown on the near face ( a phono jack and
a coaxial receptacle), only one is required, depending
upon one's choice of cable termination.
256 KEYING AND BREAK-IN
AM P
. FOLLOWE R
too,u/J 47,um.f.
1K

VIA,
V, 12AU 7

TO ANT.
AND 1MEG
TRANSMITTER .01
220
220
RO - 58/u

J2

12AU7 TO
RCV

115v.

Fig. 8- 17— Circuit diagram of the electronic t.r. switch.

Unless otherwise specified, resistances are in ohms, re
sistors are /
12 watt, capacitances are in AC
Cs- 14014d. variable ( part of Harrington GP- 20 tuner). 1,-52 turns No. 24 on 4-inch
3 diam. form, 28 t.p.i.
CR2-200-ma. 360-p.i.v. silicon rectifier ( Sarkes Tarzian Tapped at 46 1
2 , 43 1
/ 2 , 39 and 28 turns from
/
K-200). grounded end. ( Part of Harrington GP-20 killer).
is—Coaxial receptacle and tee fitting (
S0-239 and T2- 125-v. 15-ma., 6-v. 0.6-amp. transformer (Stancor
M-358). PS-8415) ( GP-20 tuner available from Harring-
is—Coaxial receptacle or phono jack. ton Electronics, Box 189, Topsfield, Moss.).

the switch and capacitor C1 shafts, is sufficient vides a broad-band low-impedance t.r. switch
support for the coil-and-capacitor assembly. In suitable for use with coaxial cable. The unit has
wiring the switch, a length of RG-58/U should some gain but, if needed, more gain can be
be used between the cathode-follower load ( re- had by increasing the plate load resistance of
sistor and r.f. choke) and the output jack .1 2,to the first stage to 6800 ohms or more.
minimize " feedthrough" around the tube. A pair The switch can be built as aseparate unit with
of 0.01 ¿if. capacitors across the a.c. line where its own booster-type transformer, selenium rec-
it enters the chassis helps to hold down the r.f. tifier and other components built on a 31 / X 5-
2

that might otherwise ride in on the a.c. line. inch aluminum sheet chassis and housed in a
In operation, it is only necessary to switch the 4X 4X 5-inch sheet metal can. A phono jack
unit to the band in use and peak capacitor C1 for in the transmitter end of the low-pass filter will
maximum signal or background noise. A signifi- provide a convenient point for connection to the
cant increase in signal or background noise r.f. line.
should be observed on any band within the range
of the coil/capacitor combination. TV' and T.R. Switches
A simple t.r. switch that has been used success-
fully for fast break-in operation with a 100-watt The preceding t.r. switches generate harmonics
transmitter was described by Quick, W8EUJ, when their grid circuits are driven positive, and
in QST (September, 1958). The circuit, shown these harmonics can cause TVI if steps are not
in Fig. 8-18, uses adual triode. A grounded-grid taken to prevent it. Either switch should be well-
input stage ( switched by grid rectification) R-C shielded and used in the antenna transmission
coupled to a cathode- follower output stage, pro- line between transmitter and low-pass filter.

6BK7—A

Fig. 8- 18— Circuit diagram of

W8EUJ's t.r. switch. Unless
otherwise indicated, capaci-
tances are in ,tt,uf. Resistances 2000

are in ohms, resistors are /

2
1
INPUT
watt. 1.1 and L, are each
wound with 30 turns No. 24 47
wire to a diameter of inch.
6.3V.
 Chapter 9

Speech Amplifiers
and Modulators
The audio amplifiers used in radiotelephone such as the reproduction of music or other pro-
transmitters operate on the principles outlined gram material. In other words, "naturalness" in
earlier in this book in the chapter on vacuum reproduction is distinctly secondary to intelli-
tubes. The design requirements are determined gibility.
principally by the type of modulation system to The fact that satisfactory intelligibility can be
be used and by the type of microphone to be maintained .in a relatively narrow band of fre-
employed. It is necessary to have aclear under- quencies is particularly fortunate, because the
standing of modulation principles before the width of the channel occupied by aphone trans-
problem of laying out a speech system can be mitter is directly proportional to the width of the
approached successfully. Those principles are audio- frequency band. If the channel width is
discussed under appropriate chapter headings. reduced, more stations can occupy a given band
The present chapter deals with the design of of frequencies without mutual interference.
audio amplifier systems for communication pur- In speech transmission, amplitude distortion of
poses. In voice communication the primary ob- the voice wave has very little effect on intelligi-
jective is to obtain the most effective transmis- bility. The importance of such distortion in cotn-
sion ; i.e., to make the message be understood at münication lies almost wholly in the fact that
the receiving point in spite of adverse conditions many of the audio- frequency harmonics caused
created by noise and interference. The methods by it lie outside the channel needed for intelli-
used to accomplish this do not necessarily coin- gible speech, and thus will create unnecessary
cide with the methods used for other purposes, interference to other stations.

SPEECH EQUIPMENT
In designing speech equipment it is necessary gurney limits, the microphone is said to be flat
to know ( 1) the amount of audio power the between those limits.
modulation system must furnish and ( 2) the out- In general, microphones are designed either to
put voltage developed by the microphone when respond equally well in most directions or to have
it is spoken into from normal distance ( a few poor response in one direction. This latter type is
inches) with ordinary loudness. It then becomes called uni -directional and is useful in solving
possible to choose the number and type of ampli- acoustic-feedback problems.
fier stages needed to generate the required audio
power without overloading or undue distortion Carbon Microphones
anywhere in the system. The carbon microphone consists of a metal
diaphragm placed against an insulating cup con-
MICROPHONES taining loosely-packed carbon granules (micro-
The level of amicrophone is its electrical out- phone button). When used with avacuum- tube
put for a given sound intensity. Level varies amplifier, the microphone is connected in the
greatly with microphones of different types, and cathode circuit of atriode, as shown in Fig. 9-1A.
depends on the distance of the speaker's lips Sound waves striking the diaphragm cause it
from the microphone. Only approximate values to vibrate in accordance with the sound, and the
based on averages of "normal" speaking voices pressure on the granules alternately increases
can be given. The values given later are based on and decreases, causing a corresponding decrease
close talking; that is, with the microphone about and increase in the electrical resistance of the
an inch from the speaker's lips. microphone. The instantaneous value of this re-
The frequency response or fidelity of a mi- sistance determines the instantaneous value of
crophone is its relative ability to convert sounds plate current through the tube, and as a conse-
of different frequencies into alternating current. quence the voltage drop across the plate load re-
For understandable speech transmission only a sistor increases and decreases with the increases
limited frequency range is necessary, and intelli- and decreases in granule pressure.
gible speech can be obtained if the output of the The carbon microphone finds its major ama-
microphone does not vary more than a few deci- teur application in mobile and portable work; a
bels at any frequency within a range of about good microphone in the circuit of Fig. 9-1A will
200 to 2500 cycles. When the variation expressed deliver 20 to 30 volts peak output at the trans-
in terms of decibels is small between two fre- former secondary.

257
258 SPEECH AMPLIFIERS AND MODULATORS
In aribbon microphone, the element acted upon
Crysta lMicrophones
by the sound waves is athin corrugated metallic
The crystal microphone makes use of the ribbon suspended between the poles of amagnet.
piezoelectric properties of Rochelle- salt crystals. The microphone has a bi-directional ( figure-8)
This type of microphone requires no battery or pattern and good frequency response.
transformer and can be connected directly to the
grid of an amplifier tube. It is a popular type THE SPEECH AMPLIFIER
of microphone among amateurs; it has good fre- The a.f. amplifier stage that causes the r.f.
quency response and is available in inexpensive output to be varied is called the modulator, and
models. The input circuit is shown in Fig. 9-1B. all the amplifier stages preceding it comprise
Although the level of crystal microphones the speech amplifier. Depending on the modu-
varies with different models, an output of 0.03 lator used, the speech amplifier may be called
volt or so is representative for communication upon to deliver power ranging from zero (only
types. The level is affected by the length of the voltage required) to 20 or 30 watts.
cable connecting the microphone to the first am-
plifier stage; the above figure is for lengths of
6or 7feet. The frequency characteristic is unaf-
fected by the cable, but the load resistance
(amplifier grid resistor) does affect it; the lower
frequencies are attenuated as the value of load
resistance is lowered. A grid-resistor value of at
least 1 megohm should be used.
The ceramic microphone utilizes the pieza-
electric effect in certain types of ceramic ma-
terials to achieve performance very similar to (A) CARBON
that of the crystal microphone. It is less affected
by temperature and humidity. Output levels are
similar to those of crystal microphones for the
same type of frequency response.
Dynamic Microphones
The dynamic microphone somewhat resem-
bles adynamic loud- speaker. A lightweight voice
coil is rigidly attached to a diaphram, the coil
being suspended between the poles of a perma-
nent magnet. Sound causes the diaphram to
vibrate, thus moving the coil between the magnet
poles and generating an aternating voltage.
Dynamic microphones are inherently low-
impedance devices, but they are supplied as
straight low-impedance microphones or with a hlIGH-Z
built-in transformer to raise the impedance level. (C) DYNAMIC
Used with the high-impedance output the micro-
phone is suitable for working directly into the
grid of the input amplifier stage. If the connecting
cable must be unusually long, a low-impedance

DcE
microphone should be used, with astep-up trans-
former at the end of the cable.
In general, the dynamic microphones have the
smoothest peak-free response and widest fre-
(D) LOW - Z DYNAMIC
quency range, and they are also the least sus-
ceptible to damage from shock and extremes of Fig. 9-1 — Speech input circuits used with various types
temperature and humidity. of microphones.
Miscellaneous Microphones
Two other types of microphones, now rarely Before starting the design of a speech ampli-
used in amateur radio, are the condenser and the fier, therefore, it is necessary to have selected a
ribbon ( or velocity) microphone. The con- suitable modulator for the transmitter. This se-
denser microphone uses atightly-stretched metal lection must be based on the power required to
diaphram as one plate of a capacitor, and the modulate the transmitter, and this power in turn
sound vibrations move the diaphram and change depends on the type of modulation system se-
the capacitance. The condenser microphone re- lected, as described in Chapter 10. With the
quires a polarizing voltage of several hundred modulator picked out, its driving-power require-
volts, and a one- or two-stage pre-amplifier is ments ( audio power required to excite the mod-
usually included in the microphone housing. The ulator to full output) can be determined from the
condenser microphone is noted for its low dis- tube tables in a later chapter. Generally speak-
tortion and excellent frequency response. ing, it is advisable to choose a tube or tubes for
 300 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Modulation over 100 per cent.

Fig.
Improper screen- circuit time constant.
oo)
Insufficient audio power.
10- 21— Improper operation or design. These pictures are to the same scale as those in Fig. 20-20, on
the same transmitter and with the same test setup.

unmodulated carrier. If there is even- harmonic tetina or by a decrease in the d.c. screen voltage.
distortion the trapezoid will extend farther to Fig. 10-20 shows patterns indicating proper
one side of the unmodulated-carrier position than operation of a plate- and- screen modulated tet-
to the other. This is shown in Fig. 10-19. The rode r.f. amplifier. The slight " tailing off" at the
probable cause is inadequate power output from modulation down peak ( point of the wedge) can
the modulator, or incorrect load on the modu- be minimized by careful adjustment of excitation
lator. and plate loading.
An audio oscillator having reasonably good Several types of improper operation are shown
sine- wave output is highly desirable for testing in Fig. 10-21. In the photos at the left the linear-
both speech equipment and the phone transmit- ity of the r.f. stage is good but the amplifier is
ter as a whole. With an oscillator and the scope, being modulated over 100 per cent. This is
the pattern is steady and can lœ studied closely shown by the maximum height of the pattern
to determine the effects of adjustments. (compare with the untnodulated carrier of Fig.
In the case of the wave-envelope pattern, dis- 10-20) and by the bright line extending from the
tortion in the audio system will show up in the point of the wedge ( or between sections of the
modulation envelope ( with a sine - wave input envelope).
signal) as adeparture from the sine- wave form, The patterns in the center, Fig. 10-21, show
and may be checked by comparing the envelope the effect of a too- long time constant in the
with a drawing of a sine-wave. Attributing any screen circuit, in an amplifier getting its screen
such distortion to the audio system assumes, of voltage through a dropping resistor, both plate
course, that acheck has been made on the linear- and screen being modulated. The "double-edged"
ity of the modulated r.f, amplifier, preferably by pattern is the result of audio phase shift in the
use of the trapezoidal pattern. screen circuit combined with varying screen- to-
cathode resistance during modulation. The over-
Typical Patterns
all effect is to delay the rise in output amplitude
Figs. 10-19, 10-20 and 10-21 show some typical during the up- sweep of the modulation cycle,
scope patterns of modulated signals for different slightly distorting the modulation envelope as
conditions of operation. The screen-modulation shown in the wave- envelope pattern. This effect,
patterns, Fig. 10-19, also show how the presence which becomes more pronounced as the audio
of even- harmonic audio distortion can be de- modulating frequency is increased, is usually ab-
tected in the trapezoidal pattern. The pattern to sent at low modulation percentages but develops
be sought in adjusting the transmitter is the rapidly as the modulation approaches 100 per
one at the top in Fig. 10-20, where the top and cent. It can be reduced by reducing the screen
bottom edges of the pattern continue in straight bypass capacitance, and also by connecting re-
lines up to the point representing 100 per cent sistance ( to be determined experimentally, but
modulation. If these edges tend to bend over of the same order as the screen dropping resist-
toward the horizontal at the maximum height of ance) between screen and cathode.
the wedge the amplifier is " flattening" on the The right-hand pictures in Fig. 10-21 show the
modulation up-peaks. This is usually caused by effect of insufficient audio power. Although the
attempting to get too large acarrier output, and trapezoidal pattern shows good linearity in the
can be corrected by tighter coupling to the an- r.f. amplifier, the wave-envelope pattern shows
260 SPEECH AMPLIFIERS AND MODULATORS
TABLE 9- I- RESISTANCE- COUPLED VOLTAGE -AMPLIFIER DATA
Data are given for a plate supply of 300 volts. Departures of as much as 50 Per cent from this surely voltage will not
materially change the operating conditions or the voltage gain, but the output voltage will be in proportion to the ratio of
the new voltage to 300 volts. Voltage gain is measured at 400 cycles. Capacitor values given are based on 100- cycle
cutoff. For increased low-frequency response, all capacitors may be made larger than specified ( cut-off frequency in
inverse proportion to capacitor values provided all are changed in the same proportion). A variation of 10 per cent in the
values given has negligible effect on the performance.

Next-Stage
Plate Grid Screen Cathode Screen Cathode Blocking Output
Resistor Resistor Resistor Resistor BYPoss Bypass Capacitor Volts Voltage
Megohms Megohms Megohms Ohms ici. /if. Pf. ( Peak) 1 Gain 2

0.1 0.35 500 0.10 11.6 0.019 72 67

0.1 0.25 0.37 530 0.09 10.9 0.016 96 98
0.5 0.47 590 0.09 9.9 0.007 101 104
0.25 0.89 850 0.07 8.5 0.01 I 79 139
6S17, 12517 0.25 0.5 1.10 860 0.06 7.4 0.004 88 167
1.0 1.18 910 0.06 6.9 0.003 98 185
0.5 2.0 1300 0.06 6.0 0.004 64 200
0.5 1.0 2.2 1410 0.05 5.8 0.002 79 238
2.0 2.5 1530 0.04 5.2 0.0015 89 263
0.1 0.44 500 0.07 8.5 0.02 55 61
0.1 0.25 0.5 450 0.07 8.3 0.01 81 82
0.5 0.53 600 0.06 8.0 0.006 96 94
617, 7C7 0.25 1.18 1100 0.0 4 5.5 0.008 81 104
,
0.25 0.5 1.18 1200 0.04 5.4 0.005 104 140
1217-GT 1.0 1.45 1300 0.05 5.8 0.005 110 185
0.5 2.45 1700 0.04 4.2 0.005 75 161
0.5 1.0 2.9 2200 0.04 4.1 0.003 97 200
2.0 2.95 2300 0.04 4.0 0.0025 100 230
0.1 0.2 500 0.13 18.0 0.019 76 109
0.1 0.22 0.24 600 0.11 16.4 0.011 103 145
0.47 0.26 700 0.11 15.3 0.006 129 168
0.22 0.42 1000 0.1 12.4 0.009 92 164
6AU6, 65117, 0.22 0.47 0.5 1000 0.098 12.0 0.007 108 230
12AU6, 125117 1.0 0.55 1100 0.09 11.0 0.003 122 262
0.47 1.0 1800 0.075 8.0 0.0045 94 248
0.47 1.0 1.1 1900 0.065 7.6 0.0028 105 318
2.2 1.2 2100 0.06 7.3 0.0018 122 371
0.1 - 1500 - 4.4 0.027 40 34
0.1 0.22 1800 3.6 0.014 54 38
6AQ6, ifiA16, 0.47 2100 3.0 0.0065 63 41
6SL7-GT 0.22 2600 2.5 0.013 51 42
6T8-A, 12AT6, 0.22 0.47 3200 1.9 0.0065 65 46
12SL7-GT 1.0 3700 1.6 0.0035 77 48
(one triode) 0.47 5200 1.2 0.006 61 48
0.47 1.0 6300 1.0 0.0035 74 50
2.2 7200 0.9 0.002 85 51
0.1 1300 4.6 0.027 43 45
01 0.22 1500 4.0 0.013 57 52
0.47 1700 3.6 0.006 66 57
6AV6, 12AV6, 0.22 2200 3.0 0.013 54 59
12AX7 0.22 0.47 2800 2.3 0.006 69 65
(one trlode) 1.0 3100 2.1 0.003 79 68
0.47 4300 1.6 0.006 62 69
0.47 1.0 5200 1.3 0.003 77 73
2.2 5900 1.1 0.002 92 75
0.1 750 - 0.033 35 29
0.1 0.25 930 0.014 50 34
0.5 1040 0.007 54 36
0.25 1400 0.012 45 39
6SC7, 3 12SC7s 0.25 0.5 1680 0.006 55 42
(one triode) 1.0 1840 0.003 64 45
0.5 2330 0.006 50 45
0.5 1.0 2980 - 0.003 62 48
2.0 3280 - 0.002 72 49
0.047 1300 3.6 0.061 59 14
0.047 0.1 1580 3.0 0.032 73 15
6CG7, 615, 0.22 1800 2.5 0.015 83 16
7A4, 7N7,
6SN7-GTB, 0.1 2500 1.9 0.031 68 16
0.1 0.22 3130 1.4 0.014 82 16
1215.GT, 0.47 3900 1.2 0.0065 96 16
12SN7-GT
(one triode) 0.22 4800 0.95 0.015 68 16
0.22 0.47 6500 0.69 0.0065 85 16
1.0 7800 0.58 0.0035 96 16
0.047 870 4.1 0.065 38 12
0.047 0.1 1200 3.0 0.034 52 12
0.22 1500 2.4 0.016 68 12
6C4, 0.1 1900 1.9 0.032 44 12
12AU7-A 0.1 0.22 3000 1.3 0.016 68 12
(one triode) 0.47 4000 1.1 0.007 80 12
022 5300 0.9 0.015 57 12
0.22 0.47 8800 0.52 0.007 82 12
1.0 11000 0.46 0.0035 92 12

1 Voltage across next-stage grid resistor at grid-current point.

2 At 5 volts r.m.s. output.

3Cathode- resistor values are for phase-inverter service.
Designing the Speech Amplifier 261
The circuit at A combines resistance and trans- (within the capabilities of the tube) to afollow-
former coupling, and may be used for exciting ing Class AB2 or Class B stage.
the grids of a Class A or AB, following stage.
The resistance coupling is used to keep the d.c. Phase Inversion
plate current from flowing through the trans- Push-pull output may be secured with resist-
former primary, thereby preventing areduction in ance coupling by using phase-inverter or phase-
primary inductance below its no-current value; splitter circuits as shown in Fig. 9-4.
this improves the low- frequency response. With The circuits shown in Fig. 9-4 are of the " self-
medium- g triodes ( 6C5, 6J5, etc.), the gain is balancing" type. In A, the amplified voltage
equal to that with resistance coupling multiplied from 1/1 appears across R5 and R7 in series. The
by the secondary-to- primary turns ratio of the drop across R7 is applied to the grid of V2, and
transformer. the amplified voltage from V2 appears across R8
In B the transformer primary is in series with and R7 in series. This voltage is 180 degrees out
the plate of the tube, and thus must carry the of phase with the voltage from 1 7 1, thus giving
tube plate current. When the following amplifier push-pull output. The part that appears across
operates without grid current, the voltage gain R7 from 12 opposes the voltage from 1/ 1 across
of the stage is practically equal to the g of the R7, thus reducing the signal applied to the grid
tube multiplied by the transformer ratio. This of V2. The negative feedback so obtained tends
circuit also is suitable for transferring power to regulate the voltage applied to the phase-
inverter tube so that the output voltages from
both tubes are substantially equal. The gain is
slightly less than twice the gain of a single- tube
amplifier using the same operating conditions.
In the single- tube circuit shown in Fig. 9-4B
the plate load resistor is divided into two equal
parts, R9 and R10, one being connected to the
plate in the normal way and the other between
cathode and ground. Since the voltages at the
plate and cathode are 180 degrees out of phase,
the grids of the following tubes are fed equal a.f.
voltages in push-pull. The grid return of V3 is
made to the junction of Rs and R10 so normal
bias will be applied to the grid. This circuit is
highly degenerative because of the way R10 is
connected. The voltage gain is less than 2 even
when ahigh-gtriode is used at Vs.

Gain Control
A means for varying the over-all gain of the
amplifier is necessary for keeping the final output
at the proper level for modulating the transmit-
ter. The common method of gain control is to
adjust the value of a.c. voltage applied to the
grid of one of the amplifiers by means of avolt-
age divider or potentiometer.
The gain- control potentiometer should be near
the input end of the amplifier, at a point where
the signal voltage level is so low there is no
danger that the stages ahead of the gain control
Fig. 9- 4— Self- balancing phase- inverter circuits. V, will be overloaded by the full microphone out-
and V.: may be a double triode such as the 12AU7 put. With carbon microphones the gain control
or 12AX7. /3
1 may be any of the triodes listed in may be placed directly across the microphone-
Table 9-1, or one section of a double triode. transformer secondary. With other types of
R,— Grid resistor ( 1 megohm or less). microphones, however, the gain control usually
R2— Cathode resistor; use one-half value given in will affect the frequency response of the micro-
Table 9-1 for tube and operating conditions phone when connected directly across it. Also, in
chosen. a high- gain amplifier it is better to operate the
123, 12,— Plate resistor; select from Table 9-1. first tube at maximum gain, since this gives the
R5, R,,— Following- stage grid resistor (0.22 to 0.47 best signal- to- hum ratio. The control therefore
megohm). is usually placed in the grid circuit of the second
megohm. stage.
R,,— Cathode resistor; select from Table 9-1.
R, R.— Each one-half of plate load resistor given in DESIGNING THE SPEECH AMPLIFIER
Table 9-1. The steps in designing a speech amplifier are
C,- 10-µf. electrolytic. as follows:
C Ca —0.01 - to 0. 1 -Af. paper. 1) Determine the power needed to modulate
 262 SPEECH AMPLIFIERS AND MODULATORS
the transmitter and select the modulator. In the tubes whose gains, when multiplied together,
case of plate modulation, aClass B amplifier may give approximately the figure arrived at in ( 9).
be required. Select a suitable tube type and de- These amplifiers will be used in cascade. If high
termine from the tube tables at the end of this gain is required, a pentode may be used for the
book the grid driving power required, if any. first speech- amplifier stage, but it is not advis-
2) As a safety factor, multiply the required able to use a second pentode because of the
driver power by at least 1.5. possibility of feedback and self-oscillation. In
3) Select a tube, or pair of tubes, that will most cases a triode will give enough gain, as a
deliver the power determined in the second step. second stage, to make up the total gain required.
This is the last or output stage of the speech- If not, amedium-µ triode may be used as athird
amplifier. Receiver- type power tubes can be used stage.
(beam tubes such as the 6L6 may be needed in A high-µ double triode with the sections in
some cases) as determined from the receiving- cascade makes a good low-level amplifier, and
tube tables. If the speech amplifier is to drive a will give somewhat greater gain than a pentode
Class B modulator, use a Class A or AB I am- followed by amedium-µ triode. With resistance-
plifier. coupled input to the first section the cathode of
4) If the speech- amplifier output stage is also that section may be grounded ( contact potential
the modulator and must operate Class AB2 to bias), which is helpful in reducing hum.
'
develop the required power output, use a low-
or medium-µ triode to drive it. If more power is SPEECH- AMPLIFIER CONSTRUCTION
needed than can be obtained from one tube, use Once a suitable circuit lias been selected for
two in push-pull, in the driver. In either case a speech amplifier, the construction problem
transformer coupling will have to be used, and resolves itself into avoiding two difficulties —
transformer manufacturers' catalogs should be excessive hum, and unwanted feedback. For
consulted for asuitable type. reasonably humless operation, the hum voltage
5) If the speech- amplifier output stage oper- should not exceed about 1per cent of the maxi-
ates Class A or AB', it may be driven by avolt- mum audio output voltage— that is, the hum
age amplifier. If the output stage is push-pull, the and noise should be at least 40 db. below the
driver may be a single tube coupled through a output level.
transformer with a balanced secondary, or may Unwanted feedback, if negative, will reduce
be a dual-triode phase inverter. Determine the thc gain below the calculated value; if positive, is
signal voltage required for full output from the likely to cause self-oscillation or "howls." Feed-
last stage. If the last stage is a single- tube Class back can be minimized by isolating each stage
A amplifier, the peak signal is equal to the grid- with decoupling resistors and capacitors, by
bias voltage; if push-pull Class A, the peak-to- avoiding layouts that bring the first and last
peak signal voltage is equal to twice the grid stages near each other, and by shielding of " hot"
bias; if Class ABi, twice the bias voltage when points in the circuit, such as grid leads in low-
fixed bias is used; if cathode bias is used, twice level stages.
the bias figured from the cathode resistance and Speech- amplifier equipment, especially voltage
the maximum- signal cathode current. amplifiers, should be constructed on steel chassis,
6) From Table 9-1, select a tube capable of with all wiring kept below the chassis to take ad-
giving the required output voltage an Inote its vantage of the shielding afforded. Exposed leads,
rated voltage gain. A double- triode phase in- particularly to the grids of low-level high- gain
verter ( Fig. 9-4A) will have approximately tubes, are likely to pick up hum from the electric
twice the output voltage and twice the gain of field that usually exists in the vicinity of house
one triode operating as an ordinary amplifier. If wiring. Even with the chassis, additional shield-
the driver is to be transformer-coupled to the ing of the input circuit of the first tube in ahigh-
last stage, select amedium-µ triode and calculate gain amplifier usually is necessary. In addition,
the gain and output voltage as described earlier such circuits should be separated as much as
in this chapter. possible from power- supply transformers and
7) Divide the voltage required to drive the chokes and also from any audio transformers
output stage by the gain of the preceding stage. that operate at fairly high power levels; this will
This gives the peak voltage required at the grid minimize magnetic coupling to the grid circuit
of the next- to- the- last stage. and thus reduce hum or audio- frequency feed-
8) Find the output voltage, under ordinary back. It is always safe, although not absolutely
conditions, of the microphone to be used. This necessary, to separate the speech amplifier and
information should be obtained from the manu- its power supply, building them on separate
facturer's catalog. If not available, the figures chassis.
given in the section on microphones in this If a low-level microphone such as the crystal
chapter will serve. type is used, the microphone, its connecting cable,
9) Divide the voltage found in ( 7) by the out- and the plug or connector by which it is attached
put voltage of the microphone. The result is the to the speech amplifier, all should be shielded.
over-all gain required from the microphone to The microphone and cable usually are con-
the grid of the next- to- the- last stage. To be on structed with suitable shielding; this should be
the safe side, double or triple this figure. connected to the speech-amplifier chassis, and it
10) From Table 9-1, select a combination of is advisable — as well as necessary — to connect
Modulators and Drivers 263
the chassis to a ground such as a water pipe. must be shielded; tube shields are obtainable for
With the top- cap tubes, complete shielding of the that purpose. It is agood plan to enclose the en-
grid lead and grid cap is a necessity. tire amplifier in ametal box, or at least provide
Heater wiring should be kept as far as possi- it with a cane- metal cover, to avoid feedback
ble from grid leads, and either the center- tap or difficulties caused by the r.f. field of the trans-
one side of the heater-transformer secondary mitter. R.f. picked up on exposed wiring, leads
winding should be connected to the chassis. If or tube elements causes overloading, distortion,
the center-tap is grounded, the heater leads to and self-oscillation of the amplifier.
each tube should be twisted together to reduce When using paper capacitors as bypasses, be
the magnetic field from the heater current. With sure that the terminal marked "outside foil" is
either type of connection; it is advisable to connected to ground. This utilizes the outside foil
lay heater leads in the corner formed by a fold of the capacitor as a shield around the "hot"
in the chassis, bringing them out from the cor- foil. When paper capacitors are used for cou-
ner to the tube socket by the shortest possible pling between stages, always connect the outside
path. foil terminal to the side of the circuit having
When metal tubes are used, always ground the the lowest impedance to ground. Usually, this
shell connection to the chassis. Glass tubes used will be the plate side rather than the following-
in the low-level stages of high- gain amplifiers grid side.

MODULATORS AND DRIVERS

odes are used, the cathodes should be connected
CLASS AB AND B MODULATORS to ground.
Class AB or B modulator circuits arc basically
Modulator Tubes
identical no matter what the power output of the
modulator. The diagrams of Fig. 9-5 therefore The audio ratings of various types of trans-
will serve for any modulator of this type that the mitting tubes are given in the chapter containing
amateur may elect to build. The triode circuit is the tube tables. Choose a pair of tubes that is
given at A and the circuit for tetrodes at B. capable of delivering sine-wave audio power
When small tubes with indirectly heated cath- equal to somewhat more than half the d.c. input
to the modulated Class C amplifier. It is
sometimes convenient to use tubes that
will operate at the same plate voltage
as that applied to the Class C stage,
because one power supply of adequate
DRIVER PLATES
current capacity may then suffice for
OR LINE both stages.
In estimating the output of the modu-
lator, remember that the figures given
in the tables are for the tube output
only, and do not include output-trans-
(A) former losses. To be adequate for modu-
lating the transmitter, the modulator
should have a theoretical power capa-
bility 15 to 25 per cent greater than the
actual power needed for modulation.

Matching to Load
irer In giving audio ratings on power
tubes, manufacturers specify the plate-
to- plate load impedance into which the
tubes must operate to deliver the rated
DRIVER PLATES —L- audio power output. This load imped-
, r•C2
OR LINE
ance seldom is the same as the modu-
lating impedance of the Class C r.f.
stage, so a match must be brought
ea FOR
about by adjusting the turns ratio of
(B) the coupling transformer. The required
FIL
turns ratio, primary to secondary, is
TRANS

N Ni_
ZP
Z.
II5VAC - HV + SG MOO+HV
where N = Turns ratio, primary to
Fig. 9- 5— Modulator circuit diagrams. Tubes and cir- secondary
cuit considerations are discussed in the text. Z. = Modulating impedance of
264 SPEECH AMPLIFIERS AND MODULATORS
Class C r.f. amplifier

= Plate- to- plate load imped-

ance for Class B tubes
0.7
Example: The modulated r.f. amplifier is
to operate at 1250 volts and 300 ma. The power
input is o. e
P=E1 = 1250 X 0.3 = 375 watts
o.
so the modulating power required is 375/2 =
188 watts. Increasing this by 25% to allow for
losses and a reasonable operating margin gives 4-0.•
188 X 1.25 = 236 watts. The modulating im-
pedance of the Class C stage is
j
z:
E 1250
zm = = — = 4167 ohms.
7 0.3
.25
From the RCA Transmitting Tube Manual a
pair of 811As at 1250 plate volts will deliver 1K
K L5K 2K 25K 36 4K 5K 6K 7K IN 151( 201C
235 watts to a load of 12,400 ohms, plate-to-
plate. The primary-to- secondary turns ratio of Modulating Impedance of R.F Amplifier
the modulation transformer therefore should be
Fig. 9- 6— Transformer ratios for matching a Class C
modulating impedance to the required plate- to- plate
N
v2.97 = 1.72:1. load for the Class B modulator. The ratios given on
1/ Z. 4170
the curves are from total primary to secondary. Re-

The required transformer ratios for the ordinary sistance values ore in kilohms.

range of impedances are shown graphically in

Fig. 9-6. high- frequency- components existing in the mod-
Many modulation transformers are provided ulation. The capacitors act with the leakage
with primary and secondary taps, so that various inductance of the transformer winding to form
turns ratios can be obtained to meet the require- a rudimentary low-pass filter. The values of
ments of particular tube combinations. How- capacitance required will depend on the load
ever, it may be that the exact turns ratio re- resistance ( modulating impedance of the Class
quired cannot be secured, .even with a tapped C amplifier) and the leakage inductance of the
modulation transformer. Small departures from particular transformer used. In general, capaci-
the proper turns ratio will have no serious effect tances between about 0.001 and 0.01 pf. will be
if the modulator is operating well within its capa- required; the larger values are necessary with
bilities; if the actual turns ratio is within 10 per the lower values of load resistance. The voltage
cent of the ideal value, the system will operate rating of each capacitor should at least be equal
satisfactorily. Where the discrepancy is larger, to the d.c. voltage at the transformer winding
it is usually possible to choose a new set of with which it is associated. In the case of C2,
operating conditions for the Class C stage to part of the total capacitance required will be
give a modulating impedance that can be supplied by the plate bypass or blocking capacitor
matched by the turns ratio of the available in the modulated amplifier.
transformer. This may require operating the A still better arrangement is to use alow-pass
Class C amplifier at higher voltage and less plate filter as shown later, even though clipping is not
current, if the modulating impedance must be deliberately employed.
increased, or at lower voltage and higher current
Grid Bias
if the modulating impedance must be decreased.
However, this process cannot be carried very far Certain triodes designed for Class B audio
without exceeding the ratings of the Class C work can be operated without grid bias. Besides
tubes for either plate voltage or plate current, eliminating the grid-bias supply, the fact that
even though the power input is kept at the same grid current flows over the whole audio cycle
figure. means that the load resistance for the driver is
fairly constant. With these tubes the grid- return
Suppressing Audio Harmonics lead from the center- tap of the input trans-
Distortion in either the driver or Class B mod- former secondary is simply connected to the fila-
ulator will cause a.f. harmonics that may lie out- ment center- tap or cathode.
side the frequency band needed for intelligible When the modulator tubes require bias, it
speech transmission. While it is almost impossi- should always be supplied from a fixed voltage
ble to avoid some distortion, it is possible to cut source. Cathode bias or grid- leak bias cannot be
down the amplitude of the higher- frequency used with aClass- B amplifier. When only asmall
harmonics. amount uf bias is required it can be obtained
The purpose of capacitors C1 and C2 across conveniently from a few dry cells. The battery
the primary and secondary, respectively, of the is charged by the grid current rather than dis-
Class B output transformer in Fig. 9-5 is to re- charged, but nevertheless it will deteriorate with
duce the strength of harmonics and unnecessary time. It should be replaced if the voltage meas-
Modulators and Drivers 265
ured across it varies with the signal by more than clipping. But whether it happens by accident or
10 per cent or so. intention, the splatter and spurious sidebands can
As an alternative to batteries, aregulated bias be eliminated by inserting alow-pass filter ( Fig.
supply may be used. This type of supply is de- 9-13) between the modulator and the modulated
scribed in the power supply chapter. amplifier, and then taking care to see that the
actual modulation of the r.f. amplifier does not
Plate Supply exceed 100 per cent.
In addition to adequate filtering, the voltage
Operation Without Load
regulation of the plate supply should be as good
as it can be made. If the d.c. output voltage of Excitation should never be applied to a Class
the supply varies with the load current, the volt- B modulator until after the Class C amplifier is
age at maximum current determines the amount turned on and is drawing the value of plate cur-
of power that can be taken from the modulator rent required to present the rated load to the
without distortion. A supply whose voltage drops modulator. With no load to absorb the power,
from 1500 at no load to 1250 at the full modulator the primary impedance of the transformer rises
plate current is a 1250-volt supply, so far as the to ahigh value and excessive audio voltages may
modulator is concerned, and any estimate of the be developed in the primary — frequently high
power output available should be based on the enough to break down the transformer insulation.
lower figure.
Good dynamic regulation—i.e., with suddenly DRIVERS FOR CLASS- B
applied loads—is equally as important as good MODULATORS
regulation under steady loads, since an instanta- Class AB2 and Class B amplifiers are driven
neous drop in voltage on voice peaks also will limit into the grid- current region, so power is con-
the output and cause distortion. The output ca- sumed in the grid circuit. The preceding stage or
pacitor of the supply should have as much capaci- driver must be capable of supplying this power at
tance as conditions permit. A value of at least the required peak audio- frequency grid- to-grid
10 tuf. should be used, and still larger values are voltage. Both of these quantities are given in the
desirable. It is better to use all the available manufacturer's tube ratings. The grids of the
capacitance in a single- section
filter rather than to distribute it
between two sections.
It is particularly important,
in the case of a tetrode Class B
stage, that the screen-voltage CLASS- B
GRIDS
power- supply source have excel-
BiAs

lent regulation, to prevent dis-

tortion. The screen voltage
should be set as exactly as pos-
sible to the recommended value
for the tube. The audio imped-
ance between screen and cath- +B
ode also must be low.

Overexcitation
When a Class B amplifier is
overdriven in an attempt to se-
cure more than the rated power,
CLASS- 8
distortion increases rapidly. The s GRIDS

high-frequency harmonics which

result from the distortion modu-
late the transmitter, producing
spurious sidebands which can
cause serious interference over a
band of frequencies several times
+B ( B) +8
the channel width required for
speech. ( This can happen even Fig. 9- 7-- Triode driver circuits for Class B modulators. A, resistance

though the modulation percent- coupling to grids; B, transformer coupling. R, in A is the plate
resistor for the preceding stage, value determined by the type of
age, as defined in the chapter on
tube and operating conditions as given in Table 9-1. C and R,
amplitude modulation, is less than
are the coupling capacitor and grid resistor, respectively; values
100 per cent, if the modulator is
incapable of delivering the audio also may be taken from Table 9-1.

power required to modulate the In both circuits the output transformer, ( T:T.,) should have the proper
transmitter.) turns ratio to couple between the driver tubes and the Class B
As shown later, such a condi- grids. T, in B is usually a 2:1 transformer, secondary to primary. R,
tion may be reached by delib- the cathode resistor, should be calculated for the particular tubes
erate design, in case the modu- used. The value of C, the cathode bypass, is determined as de-
lator is to be adjusted for peak scribed in the text.
266 SPEECH AMPLIFIERS AND MODULATORS

SPEECH AMPLIFER POWER AMP.

Fig. 9-
8— Typical speech -
amplifier driver for 10-15 watts output. Capacitances are in P4. Resistors are lh watt un-
less specified otherwise. Capacitors with polarity indicated are electrolytic.
CR — Selenium rectifier, 20 ma. Class-B tubes used; 15-watt rating.
R,- 50,000- ohm potentiometer, preferably wire wound. Is— Power transformer, 700 volts c.t., 110 ma.; 5 volts,
Ts—Interstage audio transformer, single plate to push- 3 amp.; 6.3 volts, 4 amp.
pull grids, turns ratio 2 to 1 or 3 to 1, total T4— Power transformer, 125 volts, 20 ma.; 6.3 volts,
secondary to primary. 0.6 amp.
Ts— Class- 8 driver transformer, 3000 ohms plate- to- Ts- 2.5-volt 5-ampere filament transformer (Thordar-
plate; secondary impedance as required by son 21 F00).

Class B tubes represent avarying load resistance tube tables should be reduced by about 20 per
over the audio- frequency cycle, because the grid cent to allow for losses in the Class B input
current does not increase directly with the grid transformer.
voltage. To prevent distortion, therefore, it is Low-es triodes such as the 2A3 have low plate
necessary to have adriving source that will main- resistance and are therefore good tubes to use
tain the wave form of the signal without distor- as drivers for Class AB2 or Class B modulators.
tion even though the load varies. That is, the Tetrodes such as the 6V6 and 6L6 make very
driver stage must have' good regulation. To this poor drivers in this respect when used without
end, it should be capable of delivering somewhat negative feedback, but with such feedback the
more power than is consumed by the Class B effective plate resistance can be reduced to a
grids, as previously described in the discussion value comparable with low-es triodes.
on speech amplifiers. Fig. 9-7 shows representative circuits for a
push-pull triode driver using cathode bias. If the
Driver Tubes
amplifier operates Class A the cathode resistor
To secure good voltage regulation the internal need not be bypassed, because the a.f. currents
impedance of the driver, as seen by the modula- from each tube flowing in the cathode resistor
tor grids, must be low. The principal component are out of phase and cancel each other. However,
of this impedance is the plate resistance of the in Class AB operation . this is not true; consider-
driver tube or tubes as reflected through the able distortion will be generated at high signal
driver transformer. Hence for low driving- levels if the cathode resistor is not bypassed.
source impedance the effective plate resistance of The bypass capacitance required can be calcu-
the driver tubes should be low and the turns ratio lated by a simple rule: the cathode resistance in
of the driver transformer, primary to secondary, ohms multiplied by the bypass capacitance in
should be as large as possible. The maximum microfarads should equal at least 25,000. The
turns ratio that can be used is that value which voltage rating of the capacitor should be equal
just permits developing the modulator grid-to- to the maximum bias voltage. This can be found
grid a.f. voltage required for the desired power from the maximum- signal plate current and the
output. The rated tube output as shown by the cathode resistance.
Modulators and Drivers 267
Example: A pair of 2A3s is to be used in primary) or higher; it is not critical since the
Class A131 self-biased. From the tube tables,
gain is sufficient without ahigh step-up ratio.
the cathode resistance should be 780 ohms
and the maximum-signal plate current 100 The turns ratio of transformer T2,for the pri-
ma. From Ohm's Law, mary to one-half secondary, is approximated by
E = RI = 780 X 0.10 = 78.6 volts
N _‘I Pz
From the rule mentioned previously, the by- '0.35 E.
pass capacitance required is
C =-. 25,000/R = 25,000/780 = 32 gf. where P= driving power required by modu-
A 40- or 5O- f. 100-volt electrolytic capacitor
lator tubes
would be satisfactory. Z = plate load impedance of driver
tube(s)
Fig. 9-8 is atypical circuit for aspeech ampli- E.= peak grid-to-grid voltage for driven
fier suitable for use as adriver for a Class AB2 tubes
or Class B modulator. An output of about 13 (This approximation is useful for any driver
watts can be realized with the power supply tube, or tubes, driving Class AB 2 or Class B
circuit shown ( or any similar well-filtered supply modulators. Select driver tube ( s ) capable of de-
delivering 300 volts under load). This is sufficient livering 1 times the grid-driving power re-
for driving any of the power triodes commonly quired.)
used as modulators. The 2A3s in the output In the case of AB i 2A3s with fixed bias and
stage are operated Class ABi. The circuit pro- 300 plate volts, Z = 3000 ohms.
vides several times the voltage gain needed for Grid bias for the 2A3s is furnished by a sep-
crystal or ceramic microphones. arate supply using a small selenium rectifier
The two sections of a 12AX7 tube are used in and a TV "booster" transformer, Tg. The bias
the first two stages of the amplifier. These are should be set to — 62 volts or to obtain a total
resistance coupled, the gain control being in the plate current of 80 ma.
grid circuit of the second stage. Although the In building an amplifier of this type the con-
cathode of the first stage is grounded and there structional precautions outlined earlier should
is no separate bias supply for the grid, the grid be observed. The Class AB I modulators de-
bias actually is about one volt because of "con- scribed subsequently in this chapter are repre-
tact potential." sentative of good constructional practice.
The third stage uses amedium-it triode which
is coupled to the 2A3 grids through a trans- Negative Feedback
former having a push-pull secondary. The ratio Whenever tetrodes or pentodes are used as
may be of the order of 2to 1 ( total secondary to drivers for Class B modulators,
negative feedback should be used in
the driver stage, for the reason al-
ready discussed.
Suitable circuits for single-ended
and push-pull tetrodes are shown in
Fig. 9-9. Fig. 9-9A shows resistance
coupling between the preceding
stage and a single tetrode, such as
the 6V6, that operates at the same
plate voltage as the preceding stage.
Part of the a.f. voltage across the
primary of the output transformer
is fed back to the grid of the tet-
rode, V2, through the plate resistor
of the preceding tube, VI. The total
resistance of R4 and R5 in series
should be ten or more times the
rated load resistance of V2. Instead
of the voltage divider, a tap on the
transformer primary can be used to
supply the feedback voltage, if
such a tap is available.
The amount of feedback voltage
that appears at the grid of tube V2
Fig. 9-9— Negative-feedback circuits for drivers or Class B is determined by RI, R2 and the
modulators. A— Single-ended beam-tetrode driver. If Vs and V3 plate resistance of V1, as well as by
are a 6.15 and 6V6, respectively, or one section of a 6CG7 and the relationship between 14 and R5.
a 6AQ5, the following values are suggested: Rs, 47,000 ohms; Circuit values for typical tube
Rs, 0.47 megohm; fts, 250 ohms; R4, R4, 22,000 ohms; Cs, 0.01 combinations are given in detail in
Pf.; Cs, 50 Pf. Fig. 9-9.
B— Push-pull beam-tetrode driver. If V1 is o 6.15 or 6CG7 and The push-pull circuit in Fig. 9-9B
V2 and Vs 61.6s, the following values are suggested: Its, 0.1 requires an audio transformer with
megohm; Rf, 22,000 ohms; Rs, 250 ohms; Cs, 0.1 Pf.; Cs, 100 10- a split secondary. The feedback
268 SPEECH AMPLIFIERS AND MODULATORS
voltage is obtained from the plate of each out- R2 are connected as shown in the diagram. The
put tube by means of the voltage divider, RI,R 2. higher the feedback percentage, the lower the
The blocking capacitor, Ci, prevents the d.c. effective plate resistance. However, if the per-
plate voltage from being applied to R1,R 2 ;the centage is made too high the preceding tube, VI,
reactance of this capacitor should be low, com- may not be able to develop enough voltage,
pared with the sum of Ri and R2, at the lowest through Tj ,to drive the push-pull stage to maxi-
audio frequency to be amplified. Also, the sum mum output without itself generating harmonic
of Ri and R2 should be high ( ten times or distortion. Distortion in Vi is not compensated
more) compared with the rated load resistance for by the feedback circuit.
for V2 and VI If V2 and V3 are 6L6s operated self-biased in
In this circuit the feedback voltage that is Class AB' with aload resistance of 9000 ohms,
developed across R2 appears at the grid of V2 Vi is a6J5 or similar triode, and T1 has aturns
(or V3) through the transformer secondary and ratio of 2- to- 1, total secondary to primary, it is
grid- cathode circuit of the tube, provided the possible to use over 30 per cent feedback without
tubes are not driven to grid current. The per cent going beyond the output-voltage capabilities of
feedback is the triode. Twenty per cent feedback will reduce
the effective plate resistance to the point where
R2
n X 100 the output voltage regulation is better than that
-i-
R2

of 2A3s without feedback. The power output

where n is the feedback percentage, and R1 and under these conditions is about 20 watts.

INCREASING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE PHONE TRANSMITTER

The effectiveness of an amateur phone trans- or five times the load resistance. The control can
mitter can be increased to a considerable extent be adjusted while listening to the amplifier, the
by taking advantage of speech characteristics. object being to cut the high- frequency response
Measures that may be taken to make the modula- without unduly sacrificing intelligibility.
tion more effective include band compression Restricting the frequency response not only
(filtering), volume compression, and speech puts more modulation power in the optimum fre-
clipping. quency band but also reduces hum, because the
low- frequency response is reduced, and helps re-
Compressing the Frequency Band duce the width of the channel occupied by the
Most of the intelligibility in speech is con- transmission, because of the reduction in the
tained in the medium band of frequencies; that amplitude of the high audio frequencies.
is, between about 500 and 2500 cycles. On the
other hand, a large portion of speech power is Volume Compression
normally found below 500 cycles. If these low Although it is obviously desirable to modulate
frequencies are attenuated, the frequencies that the transmitter as completely as possible, it is
carry most of the actual communication can be
increased in amplitude without exceeding 100-
per cent modulation, and the effectiveness of the
transmitter is correspondingly increased.
One simple way to reduce low- frequency re-
sponse is to use small values of coupling capaci-
tance between resistance- coupled stages, as
shown in Fig. 9-10A. A time constant of 0.0005
second for the coupling capacitor and following-
stage grid resistor will have little effect on the
amplification at 500 cycles, but will practically
halve it at 100 cycles. In two cascaded stages the
gain will be down about 5 db. at 200 cycles and
10 db. at 100 cycles. When the grid resistor is V2
megohm a coupling capacitor of 0.001 elf. will
give the required time constant.
The high- frequency response can be reduced
by using "tone control" methods, utilizing a ca-
pacitor in series with a variable resistor con-
nected across an audio impedance at some point
in the speech amplifier. The best spot for the tone
control is across the primary of the output trans-
former of the speech amplifier, as in Fig. 9-10B. Fig. 9-10—A, use of a small coupling capacitor to re-
The capacitor should have a reactance at 1000 duce low- frequency response; B, tone- control circuits
cycles about equal to the load resistance required for reducing high- frequency response. Values for C
by the amplifier tube or tubes, while the variable and R are discussed in the text; 0.01 µf. and 25,000
resistor in series may have avalue equal to four ohms are typical.
Increasing Phone Transmitter Effectiveness 269
difficult to maintain constant voice intensity when centage is based on peak values, the modulation
speaking into the microphone. To overcome this or sideband power in a transmitter modulated
variable output level, it is possible to use auto- 100 per cent by an ordinary voice wave form will
matic gain control that follows the average (not be considerably less than the sideband power in
instantaneous) variations in speech amplitude. the same transmitter modulated 100 per cent by
This can be done by rectifying and filtering some asine wave. In other words, the modulation per-
of the audio output and applying the rectified centage with voice wave forms is determined by
and filtered d.c. to a control electrode in an peaks having relatively low average power con-
early stage in the amplifier. tent.
A practical circuit for this purpose is shown If the low-energy peaks are clipped off, the
in Fig. 9-11. VI,amedium-µ triode, has its grid remaining wave form will have a considerably
connected in parallel with the grid of the last higher ratio of average power to peak amplitude.
speech amplifier tube ( the stage preceding the More sideband power will result, therefore, when
power stage) through the gain control RI. The such a clipped wave is used to modulate the
amplified output is coupled to a full- wave recti- transmitter 100 per cent. Although clipping dis-
fier, V2. The rectified audio output develops a torts the wave form and the result therefore does
negative d.c. voltage across CiR3, which has a not sound exactly like the original, it is possible
sufficiently long time constant to hold the voltage to secure a worth-while increase in modulation
at a reasonably steady value between syllables power without sacrificing intelligibility. Once
and words. The negative d.c. voltage is applied as the system is properly adjusted it will be impos-
control bias to the suppressor grid of the first sible to overmodulate the transmitter because the
tube in the speech amplifier ( this circuit requires a maximum output amplitude is fixed.
pentode first stage), effecting areduction in gain. By itself, clipping generates the same high-
The gain reduction is substantially proportional order harmonics that overmodulation does, and
to the average microphone output and thus tends therefore will cause splatter. To prevent this,
to hold the amplifier output at a constant level. the audio frequencies above those needed for
intelligible speech must be filtered out, after clip-
VI V
2 ping and before modulation. The filter required
p 0
(
for this purpose should have relatively little at-
tenuation at frequencies below about 2500 cycles,
but high attenuation for all frequencies above
GRID OF 3000 cycles.
LAST
SP AMP 1.5 10
100K
It is possible to use as much as 25 db. of clip-
It 25V
4 ping before intelligibility suffers; that is, if the
R3 c2
original peak amplitude is 10 volts, the signal can
MEG ' 01
be clipped to such an extent that the resulting
maximum amplitude is less than one volt. If the
original 10-volt signal represented the amplitude
2K
that caused 100- per-cent modulation on peaks,
+250 • 1v, 25K
the clipped and filtered signal can then be ampli-
Fig. 9- 11— Speech-amplifier output compression cir- fied up to the same 10-volt peak level for modu-
cuit. lating the transmitter.
6C5, 6CG7, 6J5, 12AU7, etc. There is aloss in naturalness with "deep" clip-
V2-6H6, 6AL5, etc. ping, even though the voice is highly intelligible.
Ti—Interstage audio, single plate to p.p. grids. With moderate clipping levels ( 6to 12 db.) there
An adjustable bias is applied to the cathodes of is almost no change in "quality" but the voice
V2 to cut off the tube at low levels and thus power is increased considerably.
prevent rectification until a desired output level Before drastic clipping can be used, the speech
is reached. R2 is the "threshold control" which signal must be amplified several times more than
sets this level. RI, the gain control, determines is necessary for normal modulation. Also, the
the rate at which the gain is reduced with in- hum and noise must be much lower than the
creasing signal level. tolerable level in ordinary amplification, because
The hold- in time can be increased by increas- the noise in the output of the amplifier increases
ing the resistance of R3. C2 and R4 may not be in proportion to the gain.
necessary in all cases; their function is to prevent One type of clipper- filter system is shown in
too- rapid gain reduction on asudden voice peak. Fig. 9-12. The clipper is apeak- limiting rectifier
The " rise time" of this circuit can be increased of the same general type that is used in receiver
by increasing C2 or R4, or both. noise limiters. It must clip both positive and
The over-all gain of the system must be high negative peaks. The gain or clipping control sets
enough so that full output can be secured at a the amplitude at which clipping starts. Follow-
moderately low voice level. ing the low-pass filter for eliminating the har-
monic distortion frequencies is a second gain
Speech Clipping and Filtering control, the "level" or modulation control. This
In speech wave forms the average power con- control is set initially so that the amplitude-
tent is considerably less than in a sine wave of limited output of the clipper- filter cannot cause
the same peak amplitude. Since modulation per- more than 100 per cent modulation.
270 SPEECH AMPLIFIERS AND MODULATORS

Fig. 9- 12—Practical speech clipper circuit

with low-pass filter. Capacitances below
0.001 ed. are in Resistors are 1 2 watt.
1.1-20 henrys, 900 ohms (
Stancor C-1515).
SI—D.p.d.t. toggle or rotary.

It should be noted that the peak amplitude of modulator tubes so that they saturate or clip
the audio wave form actually applied to the mod- peaks at the amplitude level that represents 100
ulated stage in the transmitter is not necessarily per cent modulation. The load adjustment can be
held at the same relative level as the peak am- made by choice of output transformer ratio or by
plitude of the signal coming out of the clipper adjusting the plate-voltage/plate-current ratio of
stage. When the clipped signal goes through the the modulated r.f. amplifier. It is best done by
filter, the relative phases of the various fre- examining the output wave form with an oscillo-
quency components that pass through the filter scope.
are shifted, particularly those components near The filter for such asystem consists of achoke
the cut-off frequency. This may cause the peak coil and capacitors as shown in Fig. 9-13. The
amplitude out of the filter to exceed the peak values of L and C should be chosen to form a
amplitude of the clipped signal applied to the low-pass filter section having acut-off frequency
filter input terminals. Similar phase shifts can of about 2500 cycles, using the modulating im-
occur in amplifiers following the filter, especially pedance of the r.f. amplifier as the load resistance.
if these amplifiers, including the modulator, do For this cut-off frequency the formulas are
not have good low- frequency response. With
63.6
poor low- frequency response the more-or-less — and C1 —
7850 R
"square" waves resulting from clipping tend to
be changed into triangular waves having higher where R is in ohms, L1 in henrys, and C1 and C2
peak amplitude. Best practice is to cut the low- in microfarads. For example, with aplate-modu-
frequency response before clipping and to make lated amplifier operating at 1500 volts and 200
all amplifiers following the clipper- filter as flat ma. ( modulating impedance 7500 ohms) L1
and distortion- free as possible. would be 7500/7850 = 0.96 henry and C1 or
The best way to set the modulation control C2 would be 63.6/7500 = 0.0085 Bypass ca-
in such a system is to check the actual modula- pacitors in the plate circuit of the r.f. amplifier
tion percentage with an oscilloscope connected should be included in C2. Voltage ratings for C1
as described in the section on modulation. With and C2 when connected as shown must be the
the gain control set to give a desired clipping same as for the plate blocking capacitor — i.e., at
level with normal voice intensity, the level con- least twice the d.c. voltage applied to the plate of
trol should be adjusted so that the maximum the modulated amplifier. L and C values can vary
modulation does not exceed 100 per cent no mat- 10 per cent or so without seriously affecting the
ter how much sound is applied to the microphone. operation of the filter.
The practical clipper-filter circuit shown in Besides simplicity, the high-level system has
Fig. 9-12 may be inserted between two speech- the advantage that high- frequency components
amplifier stages ( but after the one having the
gain control) where the level is normally a few
volts. The cathode- coupled clipper circuit gives
some over-all voltage gain in addition to perform-
To
ing the clipping function. The filter constants Plate of
are such as to give a cut-off characteristic that Modulated
Amplifier
combines reasonably good fidelity with adequate
high-frequency suppression.

High-Level Clipping and Filtering

Clipping and filtering also can be done at high
level— that is, at the point where the modulation
is applied to the r.f. amplifier — instead of in the
lowlevel stages of the speech amplifier. In one
rather simple but effective arrangement of this Fig. 9- 13— Splatter- suppression filter for use at high
type the clipping takes place in the Class- B modu- level, shown here connected between a Class B mod-
lator itself. This is accomplished by carefully ad- ulator and plate- modulated r.f. amplifier. Values for
justing the plate- to-plate load resistance for the C, and C. are determined as described in the text.
A Low- Power Modulator 271
of the audio signal fed to the modulator grids, section, are avoided. Phase shifts can still occur
whether present legitimately or as a result of in the high-level filter, however, so adjustments
amplitude distortion in lower-level stages, are preferably should be made by using an oscillo-
suppressed along with the distortion components scope to check the actual modulation percentage
that arise in clipping. Also, the undesirable effects under all conditions of speech intensity. ( For
of poor low- frequency response following clip- further discussion see Bruene, " High-Level Clip-
ping and filtering, mentioned in the preceding ping and Filtering," QST, November, 1951.)

A LOW- POWER MODULATOR

A modulator suitable for plate modulation of ratio of R2 to RI approximately, and with the
low-power transmitters or for screen or control- constants given is sufficient to result in a con-
grid modulation of high-power amplifiers is pic- siderable reduction in distortion along with im-
tured in Figs. 9-14 and 9-16. As shown in Fig. proved regulation of the audio output voltage.
9-15, it uses a pair of Class A1 6AQ5's in push- The latter is important when the unit is used for
pull in the output stage. These are driven by a modulating ascreen or control grid, as described
6C4 phase inverter. A two- stage preamplifier us- in the chapter on amplitude modulation.
ing a 12AX7 brings the output voltage of a The phase inverter is of the split-load type
crystal or ceramic microphone up to the proper described earlier in this chapter. It drives the
level for the 6C4 grid. A power supply is in- push-pull 6AQ5's in the power amplifier. The
cluded on the same chassis. output transformer used in the power stage is a
The undistorted audio output of the amplifier multitap modulatioù transformer suitable for
is 7-8 watts. This is sufficient for modulating the any of the types of modulation mentioned above.
plate of an r.f. amplifier running 10 to 15 watts Capacitor Ci across the secondary of the out-
input, or for modulating the control grids or put transformer, T3,is used to reduce the high-
screens of r.f. amplifiers using tubes having frequency response of the amplifier. Without it,
plate-dissipation ratings up to 250 watts. When self-oscillation is likely to occur at ahigh audio
screen modulation is used the screen power for frequency ( usually above audibility) because
the modulated amplifier ( up to 250 volts) can be phase shift in the output transformer at the end
taken from the modulator power supply. The of its useful frequency range causes the feedback
wiring shown in Fig. 9-15 provides for this, to become positive.
through an adjustable tap on the 25,000-ohm The power supply uses a replacement-type
bleeder resistor, R5, in the power supply. If a transformer and choke with a capacitor- input
separate screen supply is used, or if the modu- filter. Voltage under the modulator and speech-
lator is used for grid-bias or plate modulation of amplifier load is 250. The decoupling resistance-
an r.f. amplifier, the d.c. circuit should be opened capacitance networks in the plate circuits of Vie
at point " X" in Fig. 9-15. and Vis contribute additional smoothing of the
The amplifier uses resistance coupling up to d.c. for these low-level stages.
the output-stage grids. The first section, ViA, of The unit includes provision for send-receive
the 12AX7 has "contact-potential" bias. The gain switching, Si being used for that purpose. SiB
control, Ri, is in the grid circuit of the second can be used to control the r.f. section — for ex-
section, V18, of the ' 12AX7. Negative feedback ample, by being connected in parallel with the
from the secondary of the output transformer, key used for c.w. operation. Simultaneously Sis
is introduced at the cathode of this tube sec- short-circuits the secondary of T1 so the trans-
tion. The feedback voltage is dependent on the former will not be damaged by being left without

Fig. 9- 14— Speech amplifier and low- power modulator

suitable for screen or control- grid modulation of
high- power amplifiers, or for plate modulation of
an r.f. stage with up to 15 watts plate input. It is
assembled on a 7 X 9 X 2- inch steel chassis, with
the power supply occupying the left-hand section and
the audio circuits the right. The 12AX7 preamplifier
is at the lower right-hand corner, the 6C4 phase
inverter ;3 to its left, and the 6AQ5 power amplifiers
are behind the two. Controls along the chassis edge
are, left to right, the power switch, send- receive
switch, gain control, and microphone jack.
272 SPEECH AMPLIFIERS AND MODULATORS
PHASE INV MODULATOR

PREAMPLIFIER
12Axi
01
Vo,
0.01
J, 0.01
2

MI Rs
220K
O
OUTPUT

o
R 5

471(
+200v REmOTE
• 1601-14A

1450
7. '° X

115V.

17.4X7 6C4 6405i X

T
4-_/- 1+ e

-450V 25A _ —
25W
63V

Fig. 9.-15— Circuit of the speech amplifier and modulator. All capacitances are in
Pf.; capacitors with polarities marked are electrolytic, others are ceramic. Resistors
are V2 watt except as noted below. Voltages measured to chassis with v.t. voltmeter.
1,— Microphone connector ( Amphenol 75-PC1M). son 21M68).
1,-10 henrys, 90 ma. (Triad C- 7X). T— Power transformer, 525 v.c.t., 90 ma.; 6.3 v., 5
5,—D.p.d.t. toggle. amp.; 5 v., 2 amp. ( Triad R- 10A).
5,-5.p.s.t. toggle. R,-1500 ohms, 1/
2 watt.

T,— Modulation transformer, tapped secondary, pri- R.— App. 200 ohms, 2 watts ( two 390- ohm 1
-watt re-
mary 10,000 ohms plate to plate ( Thordar- sistors in parallel).

load. If Si.is connected across the transmitter switch. In that case S1 should be left in the
key, S1 also can be used as a phone-c.w. switch, "send" position for phone operation.
being left in the "R" position for c.w. operation.
The proper secondary taps to use on T1 will
The terminals marked " B Switch" should be
short circuited ( indicated by the dashed line) if depend on the impedance of the load to which
S1 is used as a send- receive switch. If a switch the amplifier is connected. Methods for deter-
on the transmitter is used for send- receive, these mining the modulating impedance with various
terminals may be used for turning the plate volt- types of modulation are given in the section on
age in the modulator on and off through an extra amplitude modulation, together with information
pair of contacts on the transmitter send- receive on connecting the modulator to the r.f. stage.

Fig. 9- 16— Below-chassis

view of the modulator.
The rectifier tube socket
and electrolytic filter ca-
pacitors are at the right
in this view. The 12AX7
socket is at the lower left.
Bleeder resistor R... is at
the upper left, near the
6-terminal connection strip
on the rear edge of the
chassis. Placement of com-
ponents is not critical, but
the leads in the first two
stages should be kept
short and close to the
chassis to minimize hum
troubles.

nrutiquiplengere
A 25-Watt Modulator 273

A 25-WATT MODULATOR USING PUSH-PULL 61306GTs

The speech amplifier- modulator shown in Figs. mitter plate voltage, usually by being connected
9-17 to 9-19, inclusive, can be used for plate in the 115-volt circuit to the plate- supply trans-
modulation of low- power transmitters running former.
25 to 50 watts input to the final stage. The circuit The " phone-c.w." switch, S3,short-circuits the
as shown is capable of an audio output of 25 secondary of the modulation transformer, T3,
watts, but this can be increased to 30 watts by a when the transmitter is to be keyed, and also
simple modification. The 6BQ6s in the output opens the center- tap of T1 so plate voltage can-
stage are operated in Class ABi. Inexpensive not be applied to the modulator.
receiver- type replacement components are used The power supply uses areceiver replacement-
throughout, except for the modulation trans- type transformer with a capacitor- input filter.
former. Additional filtering for the speech-amplifier
Circuit stages is provided by the 10-µf. capacitors and
The speech amplifier uses apentode first stage the series resistors in the plate circuits. Hum is
resistance- coupled to a triode second stage. This also reduced by the VR-150 used to regulate the
combination gives sufficient gain for a crystal modulator screen voltage. Note that the regula-
microphone. The pentode and triode are the two tor tube is connected between the screens and
sections of adual tube, the 6AN8. Transformer cathodes so that the actual screen voltage is 150
coupling is used between the triode and the mod- and is not reduced by the drop in the cathode
ulator tubes, in order to get push-pull voltage bias resistor. Maintaining full screen voltage is
for the 6BQ6GT grids. Cathode bias is used on important if the rated output is to be secured.
the final stage.
Operating
The coupling capacitance between the first and
second stages is purposely made small to reduce The 6BQ6GT amplifier requires a plate- to-
the low- frequency response, and the primary of plate load of 4000 ohms, and the output trans-
the output transformer is shunted by C2 to re- former ratio must be chosen to reflect this load
duce the amplification at the high- frequency end. to the plates ( see later section on matching a
on the first stage, also tends to reduce high- modulator to its load). For most small trans-
frequency response in addition to bypassing any mitters running 30 to 50 watts input to the final
rd..that might be picked up on the microphone stage a 1- to- 1transformer ratio will be satisfac-
cord. These measures confine the frequency re- tory, since the modulating impedance of such
sponse to the most useful portion of the voice transmitters usually is in the neighborhood of
range. 4000 ohms. The secondary of T3 is connected in
S2 is the "send- receive" switch. One section series with the d.c. lead to the plate ( and screen,
opens the power transformer center tap, thus if ascreen- grid tube) of the Class C amplifier to
cutting off the plate voltage during receiving be modulated. For further details, see the chapter
periods. The other section can be connected to on amplitude modulation.
the key terminals on the transmitter, as indicated For checking the modulator operation amilli-
in the circuit diagram, to turn the transmitter ammeter ( 0-200 range satisfactory) may be
on and off along with the modulator. If the connected in the lead to the center-tap of the
transmitter is one in which the oscillator is not primary of T3. Without voice input to the micro-
keyed, S2B may be used to control the trans- phone the plate current should be approximately

Fig. 9-17—A modulator for transmitters

operating at plate inputs up to 50
watts. The speech amplifier and mod-
ulator are at the left in this view;
power supply components are at the
right. The chassis is 7 X 11 X 2
inches.
274 SPEECH AMPLIFIERS AND MODULATORS
MODULATOR

61306GT
SPEECH AMPLIFIER

.001
4
,26AN8 V2e.AN8 70
6
TO
OI T
C2-1 CLASS C
AMR

PHONE
4

10/450 v.

POWER SUPPLY
t
i
iTSTO 7
<EY
-4)
0

S2 JACK ON
TRANS.
+300V

PILOT
LAMP
Fig. 9- 18— Circuit diagram of the 25-watt modulator.
6AN8 6806s Capacitances below 0.001 µf. are in µµf. Capacitors up
4/15 2 to 0.01 µf. are ceramic. Resistors are /
2
1 watt unless
6.3v. otherwise specified.

1,-8 henrys, 150 ma. T3— Power transformer, 650 volts c.t., 150 ma. 5 volts
S—S.p.s.t. toggle. 3 amp.; 6.3 volts, 5 amp.
S.,—D.p.s.t. toggle. 1.2—Interstoge audio, single plate to p.p. grids, pri,
53 -2- pole 2- position rotary ( Centralab PA- 2003). to total sec. ratio 1to 3.
T.—Modulation transformer, multimatch type ( UTC S-19).

50 ma. When modulating the transmitter, the at its full phone rating, if the 6BQ6GT cathodes
current should "kick" to 60 or 70 ma.; this will are grounded and bias of about 30 volts from a
usually represent 100 per cent modulation. If the fixed source such as asmall battery is applied to
amplifier can be tested with a single- tone signal the grids. The battery may be substituted for the
replacing the microphone, the plate current will cathode resistor if the ground connection is
be about 165 ma. at full output. moved from the center tap of the secondary of
The audio power output can be increased to T2 to the cathodes of the 6BQ6GTs.
about 30 watts, sufficient for modulating an 807 (From QST, December, 1955.)

Fig. 9- 19— Under-

chassis view of the
6BQ6GT modulator.
The two large ca-
pacitors at the right
are the filter capaci-
tors in the power
supply. The modula-
tor bias resistor and
bypass capacitor
(R,C 3) are at lower
left. Leads from the
modulation trans-
former go through
the three holes in
the chassis. Shielded
wire is used for
heater, microphone
input, and gain-
control leads.
A 50-Watt Modulator 275

A 50-WATT CLASS ABI MODULATOR

Four type 1625 tubes were used in the output 74. Since connecting four tetrodes in push-pull
stage of the modulator shown in Figs. 9-20 and parallel can often yield parasitic oscillations, re-
9-22 for several good reasons. These tubes, 12- sistors are connected in both control and screen
volt heater versions of the popular 807, are grid circuits of the modulator tubes. With these
widely available on the surplus market at attrac- resistors present, there should be no instabilities
tive prices. With the economical power supply of any kind. The low- and high- frequency re-
shown here, four 1625s will deliver up to 50 sponses are restricted to good communications
watts of audio, sufficient to modulate a 100- watt levels by proper proportioning of the coupling
transmitter. At higher plate voltages, four 1625s capacitors and the shunt capacitors. The 0.004-ed.
in Class ABi will furnish up to 140 watts ( at 750 capacitor across the secondary of T2 will have a
plate volts), sufficient to modulate a 280- watt greater effect on restricting high- frequency re-
transmitter. sponse if ahigh-voltage low-current amplifier is
Referring to the circuit diagram, the speech being modulated than if a low- voltage high-
amplifier consists of a 6AV6 triode and the two current r.f. stage is used. The 0.004-µf, value was
triodes of a 6CG7. Transformer coupling be- selected for use with a400- volt 200-ma. amplifier.
tween 1 715 and the modulator tubes gives ade- Provision for connecting an external modula-
quate signal for the 1625s at any rated plate volt- tion monitor ( see Chapter 10) is included, as
age. A built-in bias supply, using a voltage- well as a power outlet, . 15, for the monitor or
tripling circuit and selenium rectifiers CR1, CR2 other auxiliary equipment.
and CR3, furnishes operating bias that can be set
to the proper value by R2. During standby condi- Construction
tions, the modulator is turned off by opening the The modulator is built on a 17 X 10 X 3- inch
circuit at .
13 or by adding additional bias through steel chassis, although an aluminum chassis would

Fig. 9-20—A 50- watt modulator, using four 1625- type tubes in Class AB,. With higher plate voltage and a
larger modulation transformer, the tubes can deliver up to 140 watts of audio power.
Speech amplifier tubes and coupling transformer are at the right, in front of the four 1625s. The two
voltage- regulator tubes in the center, in front of the modulation transformer, stabilize the screen voltage
on the 1625s.
Power- supply filter choke is at the upper left-hand corner, and the small choke to the immediate right
is connected in the screen circuit if a screen- grid r.f. amplifier is used. If desired, a cane- metal housing can
be used over the modulator, but the use of high- voltage wire and insulated plate caps practically eliminates
the danger of electrical shock when the unit is in its normal position.
276 SPEECH AMPLIFIERS AND MODULATORS
MODULATOR
1625 16H
gTpzi„
SPEECH AMPLIFIER DRIVER
47K
01
.01
6AV6 6C G7
6CG 7
MIC. V,

"
MOD.
MON
/17
E,
20
450V. E,
47K
E

8.5H
RECTIFIER , 200MA
.504-G8

T3

115V
4000
400V.
200 MA

EXT.
SWITCH
,r7
ACCESSORY 50
SOY. 47x

I2.6V 1625 2
S:V CR, EXT
SOY
BIAS
10K

I4 CR3 T
Fig. 9- 21— Circuit diagram of the 50- watt modulator. Unless specified otherwise, capacitances are in µf., re-
sistances are in ohms, resistors are 1/
2 watt.

C,-0.004 µf., but subject to modification. See text. L2- 8.5- henry 200- ma, filter choke (Knight 61 G 409
CR,, CR2, CR, -20- ma. 130-v. selenium rectifier. or equiv.).
83, E, E— Nylon tip jacks ( Johnson 105-601, 105-602 P,—A.c. line plug.
105-603). - R,— Volume control, audio taper.
1,- 6.3- volt pilot lamp. 12,- 2-watt wire-wound control, linear taper.
J,— Microphone connector (Amphenol 75-PC1M). S,—S.p.s.t. toggle switch.
J2- 4- prong tube socket. T1-1,3 ratio interstage transformer (Triad A- 31X).
J3, J5- 2- pin chassis- mounting a.c. receptacle (Am- T:- 60- watt modulation transformer ( Stancor A-3893).

phenol 61-F1). 13-400-0-400 v, at 200 ma., 5 v. at 3 a., 6.3 v. at

1. — Phono jack. 5 a. ( Knight 61 G 414 or equiv.).
Li—Screen choke, used when modulating tetrode am- 14-12.6 v. at 2 a. ( Knight 61 G 420 or equiv.).
plifier.

probably be almost as strong and would be modulated stage. With the power supply shown,
definitely easier to drill and punch. The com- the modulator is well suited to work with the
ponents were arranged to keep a.c. leads a rea- 75- watt 6DQ5 transmitter and the 90- watt all-
sonable distance away from the speech- amplifier purpose amplifier described in Chapter Six. The
circuits, and the heater leads to the 6AV6 and proper load for the four 1625s, with 450 volts
6CG7 were run in shielded wire. These shielded on the plates, is 3800 ohms, rising to 6000 ohms
leads, and the shielded leads carrying 115 v. a. c., with 750 volts on the plates. An instruction sheet
were run along the folded corners of the chassis. is furnished with the transformer ; to determine
Another precaution in wiring the modulatz:r is to the trzmsformer taps to be usyd, first measure the
keep the leads to and from T2 away from the plate voltage and current of the modulated stage.
speech-amplifier portion of the modulator, to Divide the voltage by the current in amperes, to
reduce the chances for feedback. and consequent determine the secondary load, and from the in-
audio oscillation. The leads to and from T2 struction sheet select the connections that come
should be made with well- insulated wire, and closest to matching the secondary load to 3800
wherever they pass through the chassis rubber ohms. Although it is not likely that an exact
grommets should be used. match will be possible, it is of little or no con-
The connections to To will depend upon the sequence. The ratio of the impedance is the im-
voltage- to- current ratio of the d.c. input to the portant consideration.
A 50-Watt Modulator 277
To obtain more power from the four 1625s, it
Operation is necessary to use ahigher-powered modulation
When the modulator is completed, connect a transformer at T2and to raise the plate voltage
key or other external switch temporarily at 13, and grid bias. At 750 volts on the plates, the bias
and short-circuit 14. Plug P1 into an a.c. outlet, should be — 35 volts.
plug in the 5U4- GB and the OD3s, and turn on The modulator should be turned on and off
S1.The filament of the 5U4- GB should glow. with the transmitter, so that a load is always
Close the key or switch at 13 ;the OD3s should furnished for the transformer. The modulator
light. Open the external switch and plug in the can be placed on standby by opening the circuit
speech amplifier tubes. After allowing time for at J3,or by adding additional negative voltage
the 6AV6 and 6CG7 to warm up, as indicated at 14, depending upon the basic station control
by the heater glow, turn on the external switch circuitry.
and turn off SI.Allow ahalf minute for the filter If a number of 1625s are available, it is de-
capacitors to be discharged by the speech ampli- sirable to select four that have substantially the
fier tubes, and then check with a voltmeter that same plate current ( 28 ma.) for the — 32 volts
no charge is left in the filter. Open the external bias. The plate currents of the individual tubes
switch, plug in the 1625s, and close SI.After the can be measured between insulating plate cap
heaters warm up, set the arm of R2 to give a and the tube plate cap, connecting the + termi-
voltage of — 32 between arm and chassis. Con- nal of the milliammeter to the transformer lead.
nect the transmitter or a dummy load to the Turn off the equipment between measurements
modulator output ( never operate the modulator to avoid the possibility of adangerous electrical
without a load; the modulation transformer in- shock.
sulation may break down). Set the volume con- As with any modulator using an output trans-
trol at minimum ( arm of R1at chassis end) and former, the secondary winding should be short-
close 13. With a microphone connected at It, circuited ( or the modulator disconnected) when
speaking into the mike and slowly opening R1 the r.f. amplifier is used for c.w. or as a linear
should deliver audio output from the modulator. amplifier.

• 1111---- I IL

---111111111111•11111111111*911.11111111111111111111«ewe--

Fig. 9- 22— Under the chassis of the 50- watt modulator. Three selenium rectifiers in the bias supply are mount-
ed on the left-hand wall of the chassis. Associated components are grouped around the speech- amplifier
sockets ( upper right).
Components mounted on the rear apron of the chassis, from left to right, are bias potentiometer, audio
power socket J, external bias connection J, external switch connection is, modulation monitor terminals El,
E. and E, and the accessory socket iro.
Shielded wire is used on 60- cycle a.c. leads in the power transformer primaries and secondaries to reduce
the possibility of hum pick-up in the speech amplifier section.
278 SPEECH AMPLIFIERS AND MODULATORS

A 6146 MODULATOR AND SPEECH AMPLIFIER

The modulator shown in Figs. 9-23 to 9-25, frequency response. The optimum value of ca-
inclusive, uses a pair of 6146s in ABi, and is pacitance will depend on the particular type of
complete with power and bias supplies on a audio transformer selected, as well as on the
10 X 17 X 3- inch chassis. The modulator also is high- frequency characteristics of the micro-
equipped with an audio take-off for scope phone employed. Different values should be tried,
monitoring. to reduce the high- frequency response as much as
The audio power that can be obtained ( based possible, consistent with intelligibility.
on measurements) is as follows: The modulation transformer is of the multi-
match type, and the taps should be selected to
Nominal Plate-to- Plate
reflect the proper plate- to- plate load impedance,
Plate Voltage Power Output Load Resistance
as given earlier, for the desired power output.
500 volts 75 watts 4200 ohms
The impedance ratio, secondary to primary, will
600 volts 95 watts 5200 ohms
750 volts 120 watts 6700 ohms depend on the modulating impedance of the mod-
ulated r.f. amplifier, as described earlier in this
Suitable sets of components for all three of the chapter. The secondary of the modulation trans-
voltages listed above are readily available, so the former is shunted by C1 to reduce output at the
power level can be selected to suit the Class C higher audio frequencies, particularly for attenu-
amplifier to be modulated. The modulator shown ating high- frequency harmonics that might be
in the photographs is set up for 750-volt opera- generated in the modulator at high output levels.
tion, but aside from the power and modulation The value suggested ( 0.005 pf.) is an average
transformers all components are the same re- figure and should be modified according to the
gardless of the voltage level. modulating impedance of the Class- C stage as
discussed earlier in this chapter.
Audio Circuits
As shown in the circuit diagram, Fig. 9-24, Power Supply
the audio system consists of a 12A X7 preampli- Plate power for all tubes in the unit is supplied
fier with the two tube sections in cascade, fol- by a single power transformer. Mercury-vapor
lowed by a6C4 voltage amplifier which is trans- rectifiers are used because good voltage regula-
former-coupled to the grids of the Class ABI tion is desirable. The filter is a single section
modulator tubes. The combination provides am- with choke input and a large ( over 25 pf.) out-
ple gain for a communications- type crystal, put capacitance. The filter capacitor consists of
ceramic, or dynamic microphone. three 80- pf. 450- volt electrolytic capacitors in
The first stage of the amplifier is "contact- series for 750-volt d.c. output. If the output volt-
potential" biased, and is resistance- coupled to age is 600 or less only two capacitors in series
the second stage. The gain control, RI,is in the will be needed. These capacitors are shunted by
grid circuit of the second stage. Decoupling 0.1-megohm resistors to help equalize the d.c.
resistors and capacitors are included in the plate- voltages across them.
supply circuits of these two stages; these de- The 200- volt ( approximately) supply for the
coupling circuits also provide additional plate- 6146 screens and the plates of the speech- ampli-
supply hum filtering for the two low-level stages. fier tubes is taken from the main supply through
The secondary of T1,the transformer coupling adropping resistor, and is regulated by two OB2
the third speech stage to the modulator grids, is voltage- regulator tubes in series. A 20- pf. ca-
shunted by a470-pf. capacitor to reduce high- pacitor is connected across the VR tubes to im-

Fig. 9- 23— Class- AB modulator us-

ing 6146s, complete with speech
amplifier and power supply. The
relay- rack panel is 10 1
2 -
/ inches
high. Plate- and filament- supply
primary switches, each with its own
pilot lamp, ore near the lower edge
of the panel. The gain control is at
lower center. Along the front of
the chassis, just behind the panel,
are the plate power transformer,
filter choke, and modulation trans-
former, going from left to rIghl. The
tubes at the left are the 816 reeltlers,
with the 6146s at the right. Along the
rear edge are the two voltage-
regulator tubes, the 12AX7 and 6C4
speech amplifier tubes, and the inter.
stage audio transformer, T1.
 A 120-Watt Modulator 279
PREAKIP AMP. MODULATOR

.002 A02
6146

500K
AUDIO
R,
GAIN OUTPUT

.05
1600V.
47K 4700/1w.
1MEG.
1W.
-450
1MEG
1W.
BIAS SUP.
CR ,

61465

6C4 PLATE SU P.
04.
L. H. V. OUT
121)(7

5 082
X3 80
450V. I
2
lAMP. DO 082
4.50V.

Si 230

3 115V. j 115V.

Fig. 9- 24— Circuit diagram of the 6146 modulator and power supply. Capacitances are in pf. unless indicated
otherwise; capacitors marked with polarity are electrol ytic, others may be paper or ceramic as convenient.
Resistances are in ohms; resistors are 1/2 watt except as indicated.

C,— See text. Ti—Interstage audio, single plate to p.p. grids, 3- to-i
CR — Selenium rectifier, 20 ma. or higher, 130 volts. secondary- to- primary ratio (Stancor A- 63-C).
1,- 6.3- volt pilot lamp. Ts—Multimatch modulation transformer, 125 watts
I
s—Neon lamp, NE- 51. (Triad M-1 2A1).
11—Microphone connector (Amphenol 75- PC 1M). Ti —Filament transformer, 6.3 volts at 4 amp. (Triad
12 —Phono jack. F- 53X).
13, J.- 115- volt chassis- mounting plug (Amphenol 61- T4—Power transformer, 117 volts at 20 ma.; 6.3-volt
M1). winding unused (Thordarson 26R32).
IC— Antenna changeover relay, 115- volt coil (Advance Ts—Plate transformer. For 500 volts d.c.: 1235 volts
AH/2C/115VA; type AM also suitable). c.t., 310 ma. (Triad P-7A); for 600 volts d.c.:
Is—Filter choke, 10 henrys, 300 ma. ( Triad C- 19A). 1455 volts c.t., 310 ma (Triad P- 11A). Trans-
R,-0.5-megohm control, audio taper. former shown is for either 600 or 750 volts
12 2-50,000- ohm wire-wound control, 4 watts. d.c. output at 310 ma.; sec. voltage 1780 c.f.
R3- 15,000-ohm adjustable, 50 watts. for 750 volts ( Triad P- 14A).
S2—S.p.s.t. toggle. Ti— Filament transformer, 5 volts at 3 amp., 2500-volt
SS
—S.p.s.t. mounted on RI. insulation (Stancor P-4088).

prove the dynamic regulation in the 6146 screen adjustable by means of R2. The bias supply and
circuit, since the peak instantaneous screen cur- filament transformer are on the same a.c. circuit
rent exceeds the regulating capacity ( 30 ma.) of so that bias is applied to the modulator grids
the VR tubes when the modulator is driven to whenever the tube heaters are energized.
maximum output.
Control and Auxiliary Circuits
Fixed bias for the 6146 grids is taken from a
built-in bias supply using a TV " booster" trans- The modulator includes an oscilloscope take-
former with a selenium rectifier. This bias is off circuit consisting of the 0.05 -
pf. capacitor and
 280 SPEECH AMPLIFIERS AND MODULATORS

Fig. 9- 25— Below- chassis view of the 6146 modulator. The 816 sockets and filament transformer ( T6) are at
the lower left. The chassis wall at the bottom has on it, left to right, the 115-volt c.c. plugs, fuse holders,
bias control (R2), microphone input connector (.1,), scope take-off connector (J2) and a three- terminal strip
(Millen 37303) for audio output and positive high voltage connections. The high-voltage filter capacitor
bank is in the center, mounted on a plate of plastic insulation which is supported away from the chassis
on small pillars. The 6.3-volt transformer (73) is to the right of the capacitors. The antenna changeover relay
used for shorting the modulation-transformer secondary is on the right-hand chassis wall.

three 1-megohm resistors in series. This can be for amateur- type service is somewhat over 300
used for horizontal deflection of a c.r. tube to ma.) and may in some cases be sufficient for op-
give the trapezoidal modulation pattern ( see eration of the modulated r.f. amplifier as well.
chapter on amplitude modulation). Usually, it At least 200 ma. should be available for this pur-
will be necessary to use an external control for pose, since the average plate- supply current in
adjusting the amplitude of the sweep voltage so the modulator unit alone is less than 100 ma., in-
obtained. If desired, a 1-megohm control can be cluding the speech-amplifier and VR-tube drain.
substituted for the fixed resistor at the bottom
of the string, thus avoiding the necessity for an Operating Data
external control. The dropping resistor in the screen-supply cir-
The normally closed contacts of an antenna- cuit should be adjusted so that the current
type relay, IC I,are used to short-circuit the sec- through OB2s is 30 ma. with the bias on the
ondary of the modulation transformer when the 6146 grids adjusted so that the no- signal plate
transmitter is to be used for c.w. work. The current is approximately 50 ma. The current
switch, $3, that controls the relay is mounted on through the VR tubes may be measured by open-
the gain control, RI, so that when the gain is ing the lead to the upper OB2 at pin 5and insert-
turned all the way off, thus opening the switch, ing a milliammeter of appropriate range.
the relay contacts close. This insures that the If a sine-wave signal is used for testing the
modulator is inoperative and cannot be driven modulator, full output should be secured with
by accidental voice input ( which would result in a modulator plate current of approximately 240
excessive plate current) when the transformer ma. This value will be the same for all plate
secondary is short-circuited. voltages, provided the screen voltage is main-
Separate a.c. inputs are provided for the fila- tained at approximately 200 volts and the values
ment-bias and plate power circuits. The plate of plate- to- plate load resistance as specified
supply can thus be controlled by an external earlier are used. With voice input the plate cur-
switch without disturbing the operation of the rent will kick up to about 100 ma. on peaks, de-
filament circuits or requiring a modification of pending on the characteristics of the speaker's
the 115-volt wiring. voice and those of the microphone used. This
Terminals are provided for taking out high- peak value should be determined under actual
voltage d.c. for an external unit. The power- operating conditions with an oscilloscope, after
supply equipment has more capacity than is which the plate milliammeter can be used as a
needed by the modulator unit itself ( the rating modulation indicator.
A Class BModulator 281

CLASS B MODULATOR WITH FILTER

Representative Class B modulator construc- this unit, it being assumed that this transformer
tion is illustrated by the unit shown in Figs. 9-26 will be included in the driver assembly as is cus-
and 9-28. This modulator includes a splatter tomary. If the modulator and speech amplifier-
driver are mounted in the same rack or cabinet,
the length of leads from the driver to the modu-
lator grids presents no problem. The bias re-
quired by the modulator tubes at their higher
plate-voltage ratings should be fed through the
center tap on the secondary of the driver trans-
former. At aplate voltage of 1250 or less no bias
is needed and the center-tap connection on the
transformer can be grounded.
The values of C1, C2 and Li depend on the
modulating impedance of the Class C r.f. ampli-
fier. They can be determined from the formulas
given in this chapter in the section on high-level
clipping and filtering. The splatter filter will be
effective regardless of whether the modulator
operating conditions are chosen to give high-level
Fig. 9-26—A typical Class B modulator arrangement.
clipping, but it is worth while to design the sys-
This unit uses a pair of 811As, capable of an audio
tem for clipping at 100 per cent modulation if
power output of 340 watts, and includes a splatter
the tube curves are available for that purpose.
filter. The modulation transformer is at the left and
The voltage ratings for C1 and C2 should at
the splatter choke at the right. All high- voltage ter-
least equal the d.c. voltage applied to the modu-
minals are covered so they cannot be touched
lated r.f. amplifier.
accidentally.
A relay with high-voltage insulation is used
to short-circuit the secondary of T1 when the
filter, CiC2Li in the circuit diagram, Fig. 9-27,
and also has provision for short-circuiting the
modulation transformer secondary when c.w. is JIL «IL
to be used.
The audio input transformer is not built into

PLATC
DJ lee or J.

Fig. 9- 28— The relay and filament transformer are

mounted below the chassis. C2, C2 and KIore mounted
on small stand-off insulators.

relay coil is not energized. A normally closed

contact is used for this purpose. The other arm
115v. PROU is used to close the primary circuit of the modu-
118 V. corer*. toor
lator plate supply when the relay is energized.
Shorting the transformer secondary is necessary
115 v. TO MOD. when the r.f. amplifier is keyed, to prevent an
PLATE SUPPLY
inductive discharge from the transformer wind-
ing that would put "tails" on the keyed charac-
Fig. 9- 27— Circuit diagram of the Class B modulator. ters and, with cathode keying of the amplifier,
CI, C2, 12— See text. ( 1.1 is Chicago Transformer type would cause excessive sparking at the key con-
SR- 300). tacts. The control circuit should be arranged in
Ki—D.p.d.t. relay, high-voltage insulation (Advance such away that K1 is not energized during c.w.
type 400). operation but is energized by the send-receive
M-0-500 d.c. milliammeter, bakelite case. switch during phone operation.
T2— Variable- ratio modulation transformer (Chicago Careful attention should be paid to insulation
Transformer type CMS- 1). since the instantaneous voltages in the secondary
72—Filament transformer, 6.3 v., 8 amp. circuit of the transformer will be at least twice
l2- 6.3-volt pilot light. the d.c. voltage on the r.f. amplifier. If a "hi-fi"
X1, X2— Chassis- type 115-volt plugs, male. amplifier of 10 watts or more output is avail-
Xs— Chassis- type 115-volt receptacle, female. able, it can be used as the driver for the 811As
Ss—S.p.s.t. toggle. by coupling as shown in Fig. 9-29.
282 SPEECH AMPLIFIERS AND MODULATORS
811A
Fig. 9-29—A - hi-fi" audio amplifier will drive a
Class- 8 modulator; a suitable coupling transformer
is required. The connections shown here are for a
pair of 811 As. The amplifier should have an output
rating of at least 10 watts.

L- 10- watt line- to- voice- coil transformer ( Stancor

A-8104).

CHECKING AMPLIFIER OPERATION

An adequate job of checking speech equipment POWER AMPLIFIER

can be done with equipment that is neither

elaborate nor expensive. A typical setup is shown
in Fig. 9-30. The construction of a simple audio
oscillator is described in the chapter on measure-
ments. The audio- frequency voltmeter can be
either a vacuum-tube voltmeter or a multirange
volt-ohm-milliammeter that has a rectifier- type
a.c. range. The headset is included for aural
checking of the amplifier performance. Fig. 9-31— Circuit for measuring power and making
An audio oscillator usually will have an out- qualitative checks of the amplifier output. Values to
put control, but if the maximum output voltage be used for R; and R2 are discussed in the text. The
is in excess of avolt or so the output setting may secondary winding of the output transformer in the
be rather critical when ahigh-gain speech ampli- amplifier should be disconnected from any d.c.
fier is being tested. In such cases an attenuator source in the unit and one end connected to chassis
such as is shown in Fig. 9-30 is a convenience. as shown. An earth ground should be used on the
system.
ATTENUATOR
If an audio oscillator generating a good sine
wave is used as the signal source the output
AUDIO SPEECH
OSC AMP
power of the amplifier may be measured by an
o o audio- frequency voltmeter as indicated by V.
Either a vacuum- tube voltmeter on its a.c. scale
or a rectifier- type a.c. voltmeter will be satisfac-
Fig. 9-30—Simple oscillator-attenuator test setup for tory, the principal requirements being relatively
checking a speech amplifier. It is not necessary that high impedance ( 1000 ohms per volt or more)
the frequency range of the audio oscillator be con- and areasonably accurate calibration. The power
tinuously variable; one or more " spot frequencies" output will be equal to E2/R i,where E is the
will be satisfactory. Suitable resistor values are: R1 r.m.s. value of the voltage across the resistor
and Ra, 10,000 ohms; R2 and /24, 1000 ohms. (a.c. instruments usually are calibrated in r.m.s.
values). This assumes that the distortion gen-
Each of the two voltage dividers reduces the erated in the amplifier is small; if distortion is
voltage by afactor of roughly 10 to 1, so that the high, the voltmeter reading will be inaccurate.
over-all attenuation is about 100 to 1. The rela- If the amplifier is adriver for aClass B modu-
tively low value of resistance, R4, connected lator, the value of R1 should be calculated from
across the input terminals also will minimize R/N 2,where N is the turns fatio, primary to
stray hum pickup on the connecting leads. total secondary, of the class B input transformer,
The output of a power amplifier such as a and R is the rated plate- to- plate load for the
modulator or driver for a Class B stage may be driver tube or tubes. R1 should of course be con-
checked by using a resistance load of the rated nected across the total secondary in this case.
value for the amplifier. A useful circuit arrange- For a qualitative check on distortion, provi-
ment is shown in Fig. 9-31. The load resistance, sion is made in Fig. 9-31 for monitoring the out-
R1,may be a single adjustable unit of appropri- put of the amplifier. R2 should be awire-wound
ate power rating or may be made up of several potentiometer having a resistance of 10 or 20
resistors in series or parallel to give the required ohms. A headset may be connected to the
resistance. If measurement of the resistance is "Monitor" terminals. Using the audio oscillator
necessary an ohmmeter will be sufficiently accu- as a signal source, start with the gain control
rate. In the case of a multimatch output trans- at minimum and then advance it slowly while
former the taps should be those that will actually listening carefully to the tone signal in the head-
be used with the Class C amplifier with which set. When it begins to sound like amusical octave
the modulator is intended to work. R1 then instead of asingle tone, or when higher harmon-
should have avalue equal to the modulating im- ically related tones can be heard along with the
pedance of the r.f. amplifier. desired one, distortion is starting to become ap-
Checking Speech Equipment 283
preciable. This effect usually will be detectable, in which it is occurring can be located by work-
but not serious, at full output of the amplifier ing from the last stage toward the front end of
as indicated by the voltmeter reading. Keep the the amplifier, applying a signal to each grid in
signal in the headset at amoderate level by ad- turn from the audio oscillator and adjusting the
justing R2 when necessary. If the amplifier signal voltage for maximum output. In the case
passes the distortion test satisfactorily, reduce of push-pull stages, the signal may be applied to
the audio input to zero and note whether any hum the primary of the interstage transformer—after
is audible in the headset. There should be none, disconnecting it from the plate-voltage source
if the tone level in the headset at full sine-wave and the amplifier tube. Assuming that normal
output was no more than moderately high. design principles have been followed and that all
After completing these checks with satisfac- stages are theoretically working within their
tory results, substitute the microphone for the capabilities, the probable causes of distortion are
oscillator input to the amplifier and have some- wiring errors ( such as accidental short-circuit
one speak into it at amoderate level. The headset of a cathode resistor), defective components, or
will serve to indicate the speech quality at vari- use of wrong values of resistance in cathode and
ous output levels. A tape recorder, if available, plate circuits.
is useful at this stage since it can be substituted
Using the Oscilloscope
for the headset and will provide a means for
comparing the effect of changes and adjustments Speech-amplifier checking is facilitated con-
in the amplifier as well as giving abetter over-all siderably if an oscilloscope of the type having

o
o
AUDIO ATTENU- SPEECH
OSE. ATOR AMP

o
MONITOR
o

Fig. 9- 32— Test setup using the oscilloscope to check for distortion. These connections will result in the type
of pattern shown in Fig. 9-33, the horizontal sweep being provided by the audio input signal. For wave-
form patterns, omit the connection between the audio oscillator and the horizontal amplifier in the scope,
and use the horizontal linear sweep.

check on speech quality than the average head- amplifiers and alinear sweep circuit is available.
set. The effect of measures taken to attenuate A typical setup for using the oscilloscope is
high- or low- frequency response in the amplifier shown in Fig. 9-32. With the connections shown,
is readily observed by comparing recordings the sweep circuit is not required but horizontal
made before and after changes. The output qual- and vertical amplifiers are necessary. Audio volt-
ity of the amplifier also can be compared with age from the oscillator is fed directly to one
the original output of the microphone as regis- oscilloscope amplifier ( horizontal in this case)
tered on the recorder. In using a recorder care and the output of the speech amplifier is con-
must be taken to set R2so that the first stage in nected to the other. The scope amplifier gains
the recorder amplifier is not overloaded. Use the should be adjusted so that each signal gives the
normal gain setting of the recorder and adjust same line length with the other signal shut off.
R2 Y Ogive normal level indications. Under these conditions, when the input and
output signals are applied simultaneously they
Amplifier Troubles are compared directly. If the speech amplifier is
If the hum level is too high, the amplifier stage distortion- free and introduces no phase shift, the
that is causing the trouble can be located by resulting pattern is simply a straight line, as
temporarily short-circuiting the grid of each tube shown at the upper left in Fig. 9-33, making an
to ground, starting with the output amplifier. angle of about 45 degrees with the horizontal and
When shorting aparticular grid makes amarked vertical axes. If there is no distortion but there
decrease in hum, the hum presumably is coming is phase shift, the pattern will be a smooth
from a preceding stage, although it is possible ellipse, as shown at the upper right. The greater
that it is getting its start in that particular grid the phase shift the greater the tendency of the
circuit. If shorting a grid does not decrease the ellipse to grow into acircle. When there is even-
hum, the hum is originating either in the plate harmonic distortion in the amplifier one end of
circuit of that tube or the grid circuit of the next. the line or ellipse becomes curved, as shown in
Aside from wiring errors, a defective tube, or the second row in Fig. 9-33. With odd-harmonic
inadequate plate- supply filtering, objectionable distortion such as is characteristic of overdriven
hum usually originates in the first stage of the push-pull stages, the line or ellipse is curved at
amplifier. both ends.
If distortion occurs below the point at which Patterns such as these will be obtained when
the expected power output is secured the stage the input signal is a fairly good sine wave. They
284 SPEECH AMPLIFIERS AND MODULATORS
will tend to become complicated if the input NO PHASE- SHIFT SMALL PHASE-SHIFT

wave form is complex and the speech amplifier

introduces appreciable phase shifts. It is there-
fore advisable to test for distortion with an input NO
signal that is as nearly as possible a sine wave. AMPLITUDE
Also, it is best to use afrequency in the 500-1000 DISTORTION
cycle range, since improper phase shift in the
amplifier is usually least in this region. Phase
shift in itself is not of great importance in an
audio amplifier of ordinary design because it
does not change the character of speech so far as
the ear is concerned. However, if acomplex sig-
nal is used for testing, phase shift may make it EVEN-
HARMONIC
difficult to detect distortion in the oscilloscope DISTORTION
pattern.
Since the oscilloscope amplifiers themselves
may introduce phase shift and possibly distortion
as well, it is advisable to check the scope before
attempting to make checks on the speech ampli-
fier. Apply the signal from the audio oscillator
simultaneously to the horizontal and vertical am-
ODD-
plifier input terminals. If both amplifiers have HARMONIC
the same phase characteristics and negligible DISTORTION

distortion the pattern, after suitable adjustment

of the gains, will be a straight line as shown at
the upper left in Fig. 9-33. If distortion is visi-
ble, note whether it changes when the scope gain Fig. 9- 33—Typical patterns obtained with the connec-
controls are reduced; if not, the signal voltage tions shown in Fig. 9-32. Depending on the number
from the audio oscillator is too great and should of stages in the amplifier, the pattern may slope
be reduced to the point where the input ampli- upward to the right, as shown, or upward to the left.
fiers are not overloaded. After finding the proper Also, depending on where the distortion originates,
settings for signal input and scope gains, leave the curvature in the second row may appear either
the latter alone in making checks on the speech at the top or bottom of the line or ellipse.
equipment and adjust the input to the scope by
means of R2 and the output of the audio oscil- given by the output of the amplifier can then be
lator. Phase shift in the scope itself is not serious compared with the " standard" pattern by ad-
since the presence of distortion in the speech justing the oscilloscope gains to make the two
amplifier can be detected by the patterns shown patterns coincide as closely as possible. The pat-
at the right in Fig. 9-33. tern discrepancies are a measure of the distor-
In amplifiers having negative feedback, ex- tion.
cessive phase shift within the feed-back loop In using the oscilloscope care must be taken to
may cause" self-oscillation, since the signal fed avoid introducing hum voltages that will upset
back may arrive at the grid in phase with the the measurements. Hum pickup on the scope
applied signal voltage instead of out of phase leads or other exposed parts such as the ampli-
with it. Such a phase shift is most likely to be fier load resistor or the voltmeter can be detected
associated with the output transformer. Oscilla- by shutting off the audio oscillator and speech
tion usually occurs at some frequency above amplifier and connecting first one and then the
10,000 cycles, although occasionally it will occur other to the vertical plates of the scope, setting
at a very low frequency. If the pass band in the the internal horizontal sweep to an appropriate
stage in which the phase shift occurs is deliber- width. The trace should be a straight horizontal
ately restricted to the optimum voice range, as line when the vertical gain control is set at the
described earlier, the gain at both very high and position used in the actual measurements. Wavi-
very low frequencies will be so low that self- ness in the line indicates hum. If the hum is not
oscillation is unlikely, even with large amounts in the scope itself (check by disconnecting the
of feedback. leads at the instrument) make sure that there is
Generally speaking, it is easier to detect small a good ground connection on all the equipment
amounts of distortion with the type of pattern and, if necessary, shield the hot leads.
shown in Fig. 9-33 than it is with the wave- form The oscilloscope can be used to good advantage
pattern obtained by feeding the output signal to in stage-by- stage testing to check wave forms at
the vertical plates and making use of the linear the grid and plate of each stage and thus to de-
sweep in the scope. However, the wave- form termine rapidly where asource of trouble may be
pattern can be used satisfactorily if the signal located. When the scope is connected to circuits
from the audio oscillator is a reasonably good that are not at ground potential for d.c., a ca-
sine wave. One simple method is to examine the pacitor of about 0.1 pf. should be connected in
output of the oscillator alone and trace the pat- series with the hot oscilloscope lead. The probe
tern on asheet of transparent paper. The pattern lead should be shielded to prevent hum pickup.
 Chapter 10

Amplitude Modulation

As described in the chapter on circuit funda- channel if no provision is made for reducing its
mentals, the process of modulation sets up groups width. For communication purposes such achan-
of frequencies called sidebands, which appear nel width represents a waste of valuable spec-
symmetrically above and below the frequency of trum space, since a6-kc. channel is fully adequate
the unmodulated signal or carrier. If the instan- for intelligibility. Occupying more than the min-
taneous values of the amplitudes of all these sep- imum channel creates unnecessary interference.
arate frequencies are added together, the result Thus speech equipment design and transmitter
is called the modulation envelope. In ampli- adjustment and operation should be pointed
tude modulation (a.m.) the modulation enve- toward maintaining the channel width at the
lope follows the amplitude variations of the minimum.
audio- frequency signal that is being used to
modulate the wave. THE MODULATION ENVELOPE
For example, modulation by a 1000- cycle tone In Fig. 10-1 the drawing at A shows the un-
will result in a modulation envelope that varies modulated r.f. signal, assumed to be asine wave
in amplitude at a 1000-cycle rate. The actual r.f. of the desired radio frequency. The graph can
signal that produces such an envelope consists be taken to represent either voltage or current.
of three frequencies — the carrier, a side fre- In B, the signal is assumed to be modulated by
quency 1000 cycles higher, and a side frequency the audio frequency shown in the small drawing
1000 cycles lower than the carrier. These three above. This frequency is much lower than the
frequencies easily can be separated by areceiver carrier frequency, anecessary condition for good
having high selectivity. In order to reproduce modulation. When the modulating voltage is
the original modulation the receiver must have "positive" ( above its axis) the envelope ampli-
enough bandwidth to accept the carrier and the tude is increased above its unmodulated ampli-
sidebands simultaneously. This is because an a.m. tude ; when the modulating voltage is " negative"
detector responds to the modulation envelope the envelope amplitude is decreased. Thus the
rather than to the individual signal components, envelope grows larger and smaller with the po-
and the envelope will be distorted in the receiver larity and amplitude of the modulating voltage.
unless all the frequency components in the signal The drawings at C shows what happens with
go through without change in their relative am- stronger modulation. The envelope amplitude is
plitudes. doubled at the instant the modulating voltage
In the simple case of tone modulation the two reaches its positive peak. On the negative peak
side frequencies and the carrier are constant in of the modulating voltage the envelope amplitude
amplitude — it is only the envelope amplitude just reaches zero ; in other words, the signal is
that varies at the modulation rate. With more completely modulated.
complex modulation such as voice or music the
amplitudes and frequencies of the side frequen- Percentage of Modulation
cies vary from instant to instant. The amplitude When a modulated signal is detected in a re-
of the modulation envelope varies from instant ceiver, the detector output follows the modula-
to instant in the same way as the complex audio- tion envelope. The stronger the modulation,
frequency signal causing the modulation. Never- therefore, the greater is the useful receiver out-
theless, even in this case the carrier amplitude put. Obviously, it is desirable to make the modu-
is constant if the transmitter is properly modu- lation as strong or " heavy" as possible. A wave
lated. modulated as in Fig. 10-1C would produce con-
siderably more useful audio output than the one
A.M. Sidebands and Channel Width
shown at B.
Speech can be electrically reproduced, with The "depth" of the modulation is expressed
high intelligibility, in aband of frequencies lying as a percentage of the unmodulated carrier am-
between approximately 100 and 3000 cycles. plitude. In either B or C, Fig. 10-1, X represents
When these frequencies are combined with a the unmodulated carrier amplitude, Y is the max-
radio- frequency carrier, the sidebands occupy the imum envelope amplitude on the modulation up-
frequency spectrum from about 3000 cycles below peak, and Z is the minimum envelope amplitude
the carrier frequency to 3000 cycles above — on the modulation downpeak.
a total band or channel of about 6 kilocycles. In aproperly operating modulation system the
Actual speech frequencies extend up to 10,000 modulation envelope is an accurate reproduction
cycles or more, so it is possible to occupy a20-kc. of the modulating wave, as can be seen in Fig.

285
286 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
sine- wave modulation. Although this wave shape
is seldom actually used in practice ( voice wave
(A) shapes depart very considerably from the sine
form) it lends itself to simple calculations and
Wamiluzpe of its use as astandard permits comparison.between
Voitaye systems on a common basis. With sine-wave
modulation the average power in the modulated
signal over any number of full cycles of the
modulation frequency is found to be 1/2 times
the power in the unmodulated carrier. In other
words, the power output increases 50 per cent
with 100 per cent modulation by a sine wave.
This relationship is very useful in the design
Wover of
modaze
Voitage of modulation systems and modulators, because
any such system that is capable of increasing the
average power output by 50 per cent with sine-
wave modulation automatically fulfills the re-
quirement that the instantaneous power at the
modulation up- peak be four times the carrier
power. Consequently, systems in which the addi-
tional power is supplied from outside the modu-
lated r.f. stage ( e.g., plate modulation) usually
are designed on asine- wave basis as amatter of
Fig. 10- 1— Graphical representat on of ( A) r.f. Output convenience. Modulation systems in which the
unmodulated, ( B) modulated 50%, ( C) modulated additional power is secured from the modulated
100%. The modulation envelope is shown by the r.f. amplifier ( e.g., grid modulation) usually are
thin outline on the modulated wave. more conveniently designed on the basis of peak
envelope power rather than average power.
The extra power that is contained in amodu-
10-1 at B and C by comparing one side of the
lated signal goes entirely into the sidebands, half
outline with the shape of the modulating wave.
in the upper sideband and half into the lower. As
(The lower outline duplicates the upper, but
a numerical example, full modulation of a 100-
simply appears upside down in the drawing.)
watt carrier by asine wave will add 50 watts of
The percentage of modulation is
sideband power, 25 in the lower and 25 in the
% Mod.= Y— X X 100 ( upward modulation), or upper sideband. Supplying this additional power
X for the sidebands is the object of all of the vari-
% Mod.= X x— Z X 100 ( downward modulation) ous systems devised for amplitude modulation.
No such simple relationship exists with com-
If the wave shape of the modulation is such that plex wave forms. Complex wave forms such as
its peak positive and negative amplitudes are speech do not, as arule, contain as much average
equal, then the modulation percentage will be power as a sine wave. Ordinary speech wave
the same both up and down. If the two percent- forms have about half as much average power as
ages differ, the larger of the two is customarily a sine wave, for the same peak amplitude in
specified. both wave forms. Thus for the same modulation
percentage, the sideband power with ordinary
Power in Modulated Wave
speech will average only about half the power
The amplitude values shown in Fig. 10-1 cor- with sine- wave modulation, since it is the peak
respond to current or voltage, so the drawings envelope amplitude, not the average power, that
may be taken to represent instantaneous values determines the percentage of modulation.
of either. The power in the wave varies as the
square of either the current or voltage, so at the Unsymmetrical Modulation
peak of the modulation up- swing the instantane- In an ordinary electric circuit it is possible to
ous power in the envelope of Fig. 10-1C is four increase the amplitude of current flow indefi-
times the unmodulated carrier power ( because nitely, up to the limit of the power- handling
the current and voltage both are doubled). At capability of the components, but it cannot very
the peak of the down- swing the power is zero, well be decreased to less than zero. The same
since the amplitude is zero. These statements are thing is true of the amplitude of an r.f. signal; it
true of 100 per cent modulation no matter what can be modulated upward to any desired extent,
the wave form of the modulation. The instan- but it cannot be modulated downward more than
taneous envelope power in the modulated signal 100 per cent.
is proportional to the square of its envelope am- When the modulating wave form is unsymmet-
plitude at every instant. This fact is highly im- rical it is possible for the upward and down-
portant in the operation of eveiy method of am- ward modulation percentages to be different. A
plitude modulation. simple case is shown in Fig. 10-2. The positive
It is convenient, and customary, to describe peak of the modulating signal is about 3 times
the operation of modulation systems in terms of the amplitude of the negative peak. If, as shown
The Modulation Envelope 287
in the drawing, the modulating amplitude is ad- downward swing becomes too great, there will
justed so that the peak downward modulation be a period of time during which the r.f. output
is just 100 per cent (Z 0) the peak upward is éntirely cut off. This is shown in Fig. 10-3. The
modulation is 300 per cent ( Y = 4X). The car- shape of the downward half of the modulating
rier amplitude is represented by X, as in Fig. wave is no longer accurately reproduced by the
10-1. The modulation envelope reproduces the modulation envelope, consequently the modula-
wave form of the modulating signal accurately, tion is distorted. Operation of this type is called
hence there is no distortion. In such amodulated overmodulation. The distortion of the modula-
signal the increase in power output with modu- tion envelope causes new frequencies ( harmonics
lation is considerably greater than it is when the of the modulating frequency) to be generated.
modulation is symmetrical and therefore has to These combine with the carrier to form new side
be limited to 100 per cent both up and down. frequencies that widen the channel occupied by
the modulated signal. These spurious frequencies
lervekrot of are commonly called " splatter."
Noduktutf VoMae
It is important to realize that the channel
occupied by an amplitude- modulated signal is
dependent on the shape of the modulation en-
velope. If this wave shape is complex and can be
resolved into a wide band of audio frequencies,
then the channel occupied will be correspond-
ingly large. An overmodulated signal splatters
and occupies amuch wider channel than is neces-
sary because the "clipping" of the modulating
wave that occurs at the zero axis changes the
envelope wave shape to one that contains high-
order harmonics of the original modulating fre-
quency. These harmonics appear as side frequen-
cies separated by, in some cases, many kilocycles
from the carrier frequency.
Fig. 10- 2— Modulation by an unsymmetrical wave Because of this clipping action at the zero axis,
form. This drawing shows 100% downward modula- it is important that care be taken to prevent
tion along with 300% upward modulation. There applying too large a modulating signal in the
is no distortion, since the modulation envelope is an downward direction. Overmodulation downward
accurate reproduction of the wave form of the results in more splatter than is caused by most
modulating voltage. other types of distortion in a phone transmitter.

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
In Fig. 10-2 the peak envelope amplitude, Y, is
four times the carrier amplitude, X, so the peak- For proper operation of an amplitude-modu-
envelope power is 16 times the carrier power. lated transmitter there are afew general require-
When the upward modulation is more than 100 ments that must be met no matter what particular
per cent the power capacity of the modulating method of modulation may be used. Failure to
system obviously must be increased sufficiently meet these requirements is accompanied by dis-
to take care of the much larger peak amplitudes. tortion of the modulation envelope. This in turn
increases the channel width as compared with
Overmodulation that required by the legitimate frequencies con-
If the amplitude of the modulation on the tained in the original modulating wave.

f\
Frequency Stability
Vabeshape of
*dufatal
j Weld For satisfactory amplitude modulation, the car-
rier frequency must be entirely unaffected by
modulation. If the application of modulation
causes achange in the carrier frequency, the fre-
quency will wobble back and forth with the mod-
ulation. This causes distortion and widens the
channel taken by the signal. Thus unnecessary
interference is caused to other transmissions.
In practice, this undesirable frequency modu-
lation is prevented by applying the modulation
to an r.f. amplifier stage that is isolated from
the frequency-controlling oscillator by a buffer
amplifier. Amplitude modulation applied di-
Fig. 10-3— An overmodulated signal. The modulation rectly to an oscillator always is accompanied by
envelope is not an accurate reproduction of the wave frequency modulation. Under existing FCC reg-
form of the modulating voltage. This or any type of ulations amplitude modulation of an oscillator is
distortion occurring during the modulation process permitted only on frequencies above 144 Mc.
generates spurious sidebands or " splatter." Below that frequency the regulations require that
Adjustment of Amplifiers 327

Using the Linearity Tests

The photos ( Figs. 11-19, 11-22 and 11-23) have
been taken to show many of the typical patterns
that may be encountered with either of the test
arrangements described previously. They are
classified separately as to those representing
correct conditions ( Fig. 11-19), faulty operation
of the r.f. amplifier ( Fig. 11-22), and various
other patterns that look irregular but which
(12) (16)
really represent apeculiarity in the test set-up or
the exciter but not in the final ( Fig. 11-23).
Aside from the problem of parasitics, which
may or may not be a difficult one, it should be
possible without much difficulty to achieve the
correct linearity pattern by taking action as in- iº!•
dicated by the captions accompanying the
photos. It can then be assumed that the am-
plifier is not contributing any distortion to the
signal so long as the peak power level indicated
by the test is not exceeded. It is entirely pos- (13)
sible, however, that good linearity will be ob-
tained only by holding the power down to a
level considerably below what is expected, or
conversely that there will be signs of excessive
plate dissipation at alevel that the tubes should
handle quite easily. In such cases, some atten-
tion should be given to the plate loading, as
discussed below.
The several patterns of Fig. 11-24 show how
loading affects the output and efficiency of a (14) (18)
linear amplifier. In the first two, loading is rela-
tively light and limiting takes place in the final
plate circuit. Reserve power is still available in
the driver, evidenced by the fact that heavier
loading on the final allows the peak output to
increase up to the optimum level of the third
pattern. With still heavier loading the output
ceases to increase but in fact drops somewhat;
even though the input power goes up all the
time, the efficiency goes down rapidly. In the (19)
(15)
last two patterns, the driver is the limiting
element in the system, and the extra power- Fig. 11- 23— Improper Test Setup. 12— Two r.f. signals
handling capability of the final, due to heavier unequal. In Method A, caused by improper settings of
loading, is wasted by inability of the driver to either carrier or audio control. Method B, either carrier
do it justice. leakage through disabled modulator or unequal side.
1) For good efficiency, the final itself must be bands due to selective action of some high- Q circuit off
the limiting element in the power-handling ca- resonance. 13— Same as 12, double-trapezoid test
pability of the system. (Method B). 14— Distorted audio. A clue to this defect
2) If the final is not being driven to its limit, is that successive waves are not identical. 15— Same dis-
it should be loaded less heavily until such is the tortion as 14, but switched to double trapezoid test
case. pattern. Note that correct pattern prevails regardless of
3) If the power level obtained above is less poor audio signal. 16-- Carrier leakage through working
than should be expected, more driving power is modulator ( Method B only). 17—Same as 16, double
needed. trapezoid. 18—( Note tilt to left.) Caused by incomplete
There are several ways to tell whether or not suppression of unwanted sideband ( Method A) or by
the final is being driven to its limit. One way is r.f. leakage into horizontal circuits of scope. 19— Double
to advance the drive until peak limiting is ap- trapezoid with audio phase shift in test setup.
parent in the output, then move the oscilloscope
coupling link over to the driver plate tank and
see whether or not the same limiting appears method is to detune the final slightly while
there. Another way is to decrease or increase the limiting is apparent, and if proper drive condi-
final loading slightly and note whether the limit- tions prevail the pattern will improve when the
ing output level increases or decreases corre- amplifier plate is detuned.
spondingly. If it does not, the final is not con- The intermediate and driver stages will follow
trolling the system. Still another but similar the same laws, except that what is called "load-
Methods 289
and simplicity of operation are almost always
essential.
The method discussed in this section are the
RF
EXCITATION F7J"e
.1"
basic ones. Variants that from time to time attain
passing popularity can readily be appraised on
the basis of the preceding paragraphs. A simple
grid modulation system that claims high effi-
ciency should be looked upon with suspicion,
since it is almost certain that the high efficiency,
if actually achieved, is obtained by sacrificing
the linear relationship between modulating signal
and modulation envelope that is the first essential
of agood modulation method.

PLATE MODULATION
Fig. 10-5 shows the most widely used system
of plate modulation, in this case with atriode r.f.
tube. A balanced ( push-pull Class A, Class AB
or Class B) modulator is transformer-coupled
to the plate circuit of the modulated r.f. ampli-
fier. The audio- frequency power generated by
the modulator is combined with the d.c. power in
the modulated- amplifier plate circuit by transfer
+B +8
through the coupling transformer, T. For 100
per cent modulation the audio- frequency power
Fig. 10-5— Plate modulation of a Class C r.f. ampli- output of the modulator and the turns ratio of
fier. The r.f. plate bypass capacitor, C, in the am- the coupling transformer must be such that the
plifier stage should have reasonably high reactance voltage at the plate of the modulated amplifier
at audio frequencies. A value of the order of 0.001 varies between zero and twice the d.c. operating
pf. to 0.005 µf. is satisfactory in practically all cases. plate voltage, thus causing corresponding varia-
(See chapter on modulators.) tions in the amplitude of the r.f. output.

Audio Power
panying disadvantage that generating the audio- As stated earlier, the average power output
frequency power is rather expensive. of the modulated stage must increase during
An alternative that does not require relatively modulation. The modulator must be capable of
large amounts of audio- frequency power makes supplying to the modulated r.f. stage sine-wave
use of the fact that the power output of an am- audio power equal to 50 per cent of the d.c. plate
plifier can be controlled by varying the potential input. For example, if the d.c. plate power input
of a tube element — such as a control grid or a to the r.f. stage is 100 watts, the sine- wave audio
screen grid — that does not, in itself, consume power output of the modulator must be 50 watts.
appreciable power. In this case the additional
Modulating Impedance; Linearity
power during modulation is secured by sacrific-
ing carrier power; in other words, a tube is The modulating impedance, or load resist-
capable of delivering only so much total power ance presented to the modulator by the modulated
within its ratings, and if more must be delivered r.f. amplifier, is equal to
at full modulation, then less is available for the Eb
unmodulated carrier. Systems of this type must Zm —
Ip X 1000 ohms
of necessity work at rather low efficiency at the
unmodulated carrier level. As a practical work- where Es, = D.c. plate voltage
ing rule, the efficiency of the modulated r.f. am- = D.c. plate current ( ma.)
plifier is of the order of 30 to 35 per cent, and EDand Ip are measured without modulation.
the unmodulated carrier power output obtainable The power output of the r.f. amplifier must
with such a system is only about one-fourth to vary as the square of the instantaneous plate
one-third that obtainable from the same ampli- voltage ( the r.f. output voltage must be propor-
fier with plate modulation. tional to the plate voltage) for the modulation to
It is well to appreciate that no simple modula- be linear. This will be the case when the ampli-
tion scheme that purports to get around this fier operates under Class C conditions. The lin-
limitation of grid modulation ever has actually earity depends upon having sufficient grid excita-
done so. Methods have been devised that have tion and proper bias, and upon the adjustment of
resulted in modulation at high over-all efficiency, circuit constants to the proper values.
without requiring audio power, by obtaining the
Adjustment of Plate-Modulated Amplifiers
necessary additional power from an auxiliary r.f.
amplifier. This leads to circuit and operating The general operating conditions for Class C
complexities that make the systems unsuitable operation are described in the chapter on trans-
for amateur work, where rapid frequency change mitters. The grid bias and grid current required
290 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
CLASS- C under these conditions must be transformed to
AMP the proper value for the modulator by using the

R F FV,J°•.
T.
0 correct output- transformer turns ratio. This
EXCITATION point is considered in detail in the chapter on
modulator design.
•-st Neutralization, when triodes are used, should

GRID
LEAK
be as nearly perfect as possible, since regenera-
tion may cause nonlinearity. The amplifier also
must be completely free from parasitic oscilla-
tions.
-C
Although the total power input ( d.c. plus
audio- frequency a.c.) increases with modulation,
the d.c. plate current of a plate-modulated am-
Fig. 10- 6— Plate and screen modulation of a Class C plifier should not change when the stage is modu-
r.f. amplifier using a screen- grid tube. The plate r.f. lated. This is because each increase in plate volt-
bypass capacitor, C1, should have reasonably high age and plate current is balanced by an equiva-
reactance at all audio frequencies; a value of 0.001 lent decrease in voltage and current on the next
to 0.005 µf. is generally satisfactory. The screen half-cycle of the modulating wave. D.c. instru-
bypass, C2, should not exceed 0.002 µf. In the usual ments cannot follow the a.f. variations, and since
case. the average d.c. plate current and plate voltage
When the modulated amplifier is a beam tetrode of a properly operated amplifier do not change,
the suppressor connection shown in this diagram may neither do the meter readings. A change in plate
be ignored. If a base terminal is provided on the current with modulation indicates nonlinearity.
tube for the beam-forming plates, it should be con- On the other hand, a thermocouple r.f. ammeter
nected as recommended by the tube manufacturer. connected in the antenna or transmission line
will show an increase in r.f. current with modu-
for plate modulation usually are given in the lation, because instruments of this type respond
operating data supplied by the tube manufac- to power rather than to current or voltage.
turer; in general, the bias should be such as to
Screen-Grid Amplifiers
give an operating angle of about 120 degrees at
the d.c. plate voltage used, and the grid excita- Screen- grid tubes of the pentode or beam-
tion should be great enough so that the ampli- tetrode type can be used as Class C plate- modu-
fier's plate efficiency will stay constant when the lated amplifiers by applying the modulation to
plate voltage is varied over the range from zero both the plate and screen grid. The usual method
to twice the unmodulated value. For best linear- of feeding the screen grid with the necessary d.c.
ity, the grid bias should be obtained from afixed- and modulation voltages is shown in Fig. 10-6.
bias source of about the cut-off value, supple- The dropping resistor, R, should be of the proper
mented by enough grid-leak bias to bring the value to apply normal d.c. voltage to the screen
total up to the required operating bias. under steady carrier conditions. Its value can be
The maximum permissible d.c. plate power calculated by taking the difference between plate
input for 100 per cent modulation is twice the and screen voltages and dividing it by the rated
sine-wave audio- frequency power output avail- screen current.
able from the modulator. This input is obtained The modulating impedance is found by divid-
by varying the loading on the amplifier ( keeping ing the d.c. plate voltage by the sum of the plate
its tank circuit tuned to resonance) until the and screen currents. The plate voltage multiplied
product of d.c. plate voltage and plate current is by the sum of the two currents gives the power
the desired power. The modulating impedance input to be used as the basis for determining the
audio power required from the modulator.
CLASS- C
Modulation of the screen along with the plate
AMP
is necessary because the screen voltage has a
much greater effect on the plate current than the
EXCITATION RFC
R
e7 1

E
ANT plate voltage does. The modulation characteristic

_MOD
is nonlinear if the plate alone is modulated. How-
ever, some beam tetrodes can be modulated satis-

r
\
CRUD
LEAD
factorily by applying the modulating power to
the plate circuit alone, provided the screen is con-
nected to its d.c. supply through an audio im-
pedance. Under these conditions the screen be-
-C -B
C
comes self-modulating, because of the variations
in screen current that occur when the plate volt-
OC+SCREEN +B
SUPPLY
age is varied. The circuit is shown in Fig. 10-7.
The choke coil L1 is the audio impedance in the
Fig. 10-7— Plate modulation of a beam tetrode, using screen circuit; its inductance should be large
an audio impedance in the screen circuit. The value enough to have a reactance ( at the lowest de-
of L
1 discussed in the text. See Fig. 10-6 for data sired audio frequency) that is not less than the
on bypass capacitors CIand Cs. impedance of the screen. The screen impedance
Plate and Grid Modulation 291
can be taken to be approximately equal to the
d.c. screen voltage divided by the d.c. screen GRID MODULATION
current in amperes. The principal disadvantage of plate modula-
tion is that aconsiderable amount of audio power
Choke-Coupled Modulator
is necessary. This requirement can be avoided by
The choke- coupled Class A modulator is shown applying the modulation to a grid element in the
in Fig. 10-8. Because of the relatively low power modulated amplifier. However, serious disadvan-
output and plate efficiency of a Class A ampli- tages of grid modulation are the reduction in
fier, this method is seldom used except for a the carrier power output obtainable from agiven
few special applications. There is considerably r.f. amplifier tube and the more rigorous op-
less freedom in adjustment, since no transformer erating requirements and more complicated
is available for matching impedances. adj ustment.
The modulating impedance of the r.f. amplifier The term " grid modulation" as used here ap-
must be adjusted to the value of load impedance plies to all types — control grid, screen, or sup-
required by the particular modulator tube used, pressor — since the operating principles are ex-
and the power input to the r.f. stage should not actly the same no matter which grid is actually
exceed twice the rated a.f. power output of the modulated. With grid modulation the plate volt-
modulator for 100 per cent modulation. The age is constant, and the increase in power output
plate voltage on the modulator must be higher with modulation is obtained by making both the
than the plate voltage on the r.f. amplifier, for plate current and plate efficiency vary with the
modulating signal as shown in Fig. 10-9. For
CLASS-C 100 per cent modulation, both plate current and
AMP efficiency must, at the peak of the modulation
up- swing, be twice their carrier values. Thus at
ANT the modulation-envelope peak the power input
o is doubled, and since the plate efficiency also is
doubled at the same instant the peak envelope

100

so

K
70 P
CLASS- A
MODULATOR (> 9..
60
Carrier Valli', 9
\'
so
f"— )I

AF Li Carrier Value
-__-
INPUT 30

•B to
Fig. 10-8— Choke- coupled Class A modulator. The cath- o
ode resistor, 12, should have the normal value for o 41
operation of the modulator tube as a Class A power RELA77VE MODULATING VOLTAGE

amplifier. The modulation choke, I, should be 5 Fig. 10- 9— In a perfect grid- modulated amplifier both
henrys or more. A value of 0.001 to 0.005 id, is plate current and plate efficiency would vary with
satisfactory at C, the r.f. amplifier plate bypass ca- the instantaneous modulating voltage as shown.
pacitor. See text for discussion of C, and 12, When this is so the modulation characteristic is as
given by curve A in Fig. 10-4, and the peak envelope
100 per cent modulation, because the a.f. voltage output power is four times the unmodulated carrier
developed by the modulator cannot swing to zero power. The variations in plate current with modula-
without a great deal of distortion. R1 provides tion, indicated above, do not register on a d.c.
the necessary d.c. voltage drop between the mod- meter, so the plate meter shows no change when the
ulator and r.f. amplifier. The d.c. voltage drop signal is modulated.
through R1 must equal the minimum instantane-
ous plate voltage on the modulator tube under output power will be four times the carrier
normal operating conditions. C1,an audio- fre- power. The efficiency obtainable at the envelope
quency bypass across RI,should have a capaci- peak depends on how carefully the modulated
tance such that its reactance at 100 cycles is not amplifier is adjusted, and sometimes can be as
more than about one- tenth the resistance of high as 80 per cent. It is generally less when the
R1.Without RiCi the percentage of modulation amplifier is adjusted for good linearity, and un-
is limited to 70 to 80 per cent in the average case. der average conditions around figure of %, or 66
292 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
per cent, is representative. The efficiency without
modulation is only half the peak efficiency, or
about 33 per cent. This low average efficiency
reduces the permissible carrier output to about
one-fourth the power obtainable from the same
tube in c.w. operation, and to about one-third the
carrier output obtainable from the tube with
plate modulation.
The modulator is required to furnish only the
audio power dissipated in the modulated grid
under the operating conditions chosen. A speech
amplifier capable of delivering 3 to 10 watts is Fig. 10- 10— Screen- grid modulation of beam tetrode.
usually sufficient. Capacitor C is an r.f. bypass capacitor and should
Grid modulation does not give quite as linear a have high reactance at audio frequencies. A value
modulation characteristic as plate modulation, of 0.002 µf. is satisfactory. The grid leak can have
even under optimum operating conditions. When the same value that is used for c.w. operation of
misadjusted the nonlinearity may be severe, re- the tube.
sulting in bad distortion and splatter.
maximum ratings for radiotelegraph operation.
Plate-Circuit Operating Conditions The audio power required for 100 per cent
The d.c. plate power input to the grid- modu- modulation is approximately one-fourth the d.c.
lated amplifier, assuming around figure of 1 2 ( 33
/ power input to the screen in c.w. operation. but
per cent) for the plate efficiency, should not ex- varies somewhat with the operating conditions.
ceed l'/2 the plate dissipation rating of the A receiving- type audio power amplifier will suf-
tube or tubes used in the modulated stage. Use fice as the modulator for most transmitting tubes.
the maximum plate voltage permitted by the The relationship between screen voltage and
manufacturer's ratings, because the optimum screen current is not linear, which means that
operating conditions are more easily achieved the load on the modulator varies over the audio-
with high plate voltage and the linearity also frequency cycle. It is therefore highly advisable
is improved. to use negative feedback in the modulator circuit.
If excess audio power is available, it is also
Example: Two tubes having plate dissipation
ratings of 55 watts each are to be used with grid
advisable to load the modulator with aresistance
modulation. (R in Fig. 10-10) its value being adjusted to
The maximum permissible power input, at 33% dissipate the excess power. There is no simple
efficiency, is way to determine the proper resistance except
P = 1.5 X ( 2 X 55) = 1.5 X 110 = 165 watts
The maximum recommended plate voltage for experimentally, by observing its effect on the
these tubes is 1500 volts. Using this figure, the modulation envelope with the aid of an oscillo-
average plate current for the two tubes will be
scope.
I — P L-65 0.11 amp. 110 ma. On the assumption that the modulator will be
E 1500
fully loaded by the screen plus the additional
At 33% efficiency, the carrier output to be ex-
pected is 55 watts. load resistor R, the turns ratio required in the
The plate-voltage/plate-current ratio at twice carrier coupling transformer may be calculated as fol-
plate current is lows:
1500 68 Ed
220 ". N
2.5-VPRL
The tank-circuit L/C ratio should be chosen
on the basis of twice the average or carrier plate where N is the turns ratio, secondary to primary;
current. If the L/C ratio is based on the plate Ed is the rated screen voltage for c.w. operation;
voltage/plate current ratio under carrier condi- P is the rated audio power output of the modu-
tions the Q may be too low for good coupling to lator; and RLis the rated load resistance for the
the output circuit. modulator.

Screen Grid Modulation Adjustment

Screen modulation is probably the simpiest A screen-modulated amplifier should be ad-
form of grid modulation and the least critical of justed with the aid of an oscilloscope connected
adjustment. The most satisfactory way to apply to give atrapezoid pattern ( see later in chapter).
the modulating voltage to the screen is through A tone source for modulating the transmitter is
a transformer, as shown in Fig. 10-10. With a convenience, since a steady tone will give a
practical tubes it is necessary to drive the screen steady pattern on the oscilloscope. A steady pat-
somewhat negative with respect to the cathode tern is easier to study than one that flickers with
to get complete cut-off of r.f. output. For this voice modulation.
reason the peak modulating voltage required for Having' determined the permissible carrier
100 per cent modulation is usually 10 per cent or plate current as previously described, apply r.f.
so greater than the d.c. screen voltage. The latter, excitation and d.c. plate and screen voltages.
in turn, is approximately half the rated screen Without modulation, adjust the plate loading to
voltage recommended by the manufacturer under give the required plate current, keeping the plate
Types of Modulation 293
tank circuit tuned to resonance. Next, apply the r.f. output current, and then reduce the d.c.
modulation and increase the modulating voltage screen voltage until the plate current is one-half
until the modulation characteristic shows curva- its previous value. The r.f. output current should
ture ( see later in this chapter for use of the os- also be one-half its previous value at this screen
cilloscope). If curvature occurs well below 100 voltage. The amplifier is then ready for modula-
per cent modulation, the • plate efficiency is too tion, and the modulating voltage may be in-
high at the carrier level. Increase the plate creased until the plate current just starts to shift
loading slightly and readjust the r.f, grid excita- upward, which indicates that the amplifier is
tion to maintain the same plate current; then modulated 100 per cent. With voice modulation
apply modulation and check the characteristic the plate current should remain steady, or show
again. Continue until the characteristic is as just an occasional small upward kick on intermit-
linear as possible from zero to twice the carrier tent peaks
amplitude.
In general, the amplifier should be heavily "Clamp-Tube" Modulation
loaded. Under proper operating conditions the A method of screen- grid modulation that is
plate-current dip as the amplifier plate circuit is convenient in transmitters provided with ascreen
tuned through resonance will be little more than protective tube ("clamp" tube) is shown in Fig.
just discernible. Operate with the grid current as 10-11. An audio- frequency signal is applied to the
low as possible, since this reduces the screen cur- grid of the clamp tube, which then becomes a
rent and thus reduces the amount of power re- modulator. The simplicity of the circuit is some-
quired from the modulator. what deceptive, since it is considerably more
With proper adjustment the linearity is good difficult from adesign standpoint than the trans-
up to about 90 per cent modulation. When the former- coupled arrangement of Fig. 10-10.
screen is driven negative for 100 per cent modu- For proper modulation the clamp tube must be
lation there is a kink in the modulation charac- operated as a triode Class A amplifier; the
teristic at the zero- voltage point. This introduces method is essentially identical with the choke-
a small amount of envelope distortion. The kink coupled Class A plate modulator of Fig. 10-8 ex-
can be removed and the over-all linearity im- cept that a resistance, R2, is substituted for the
proved by applying a small amount of modulat- choke. 12.„, in the usual case, is the screen drop-
ing voltage to the control grid simultaneously ping resistor normally used for c.w. operation.
with screen modulation. Its value should be at least two or three times
In an alternative adjustment method not re- the load resistance required by the Class A mod-
quiring an oscilloscope the r.f. amplifier is first ulator tube for optimum audio-frequency output.
tuned up for maximum output without modula- Like the choke-coupled modulator, the clamp-
tion and the rated d.c. screen voltage ( from a tube modulator is incapable of modulating the r.f.
fixed- voltage supply) for c.w. operation applied. stage 100 per cent unless the dropping resistor,
Use heavy loading and reduce the grid excitation RI, and audio bypass, C1, are incorporated in the
until the output just starts to fall off, at which circuit. The same design considerations hold,
point the resonance dip in plate current should with the addition of the fact that the screen must
be small. Note the plate current and, if possible, be driven negative, not just to zero voltage, for
100 per cent modulation. The modulator tube
must thus be operated at avoltage ranging from
20 to 40 per cent higher than the modulated
screen.
Adjustment with this system, once the design
voltages have been determined, is carried out in
the same way as with transformer- coupled screen
modulation, preferably with the oscilloscope.
Without the oscilloscope, the amplifier may first
be adjusted for c.w. operation as described ear-
lier, but with the modulator tube removed from
its socket. The modulator is then replaced, and
the cathode resistance, R3, adjusted to reduce the
amplifier plate current to one-half its c.w. value.
The amplifier plate current should remain con-
A.F
INPUT stant with modulation, or show just a small up-
ward flicker on occasional voice peaks.
o
Controlled Carrier
Fig. 10- 11— Screen modulation by a " clamp" tube. As explained earlier, a limit is placed on the
The grid leak is the normal value for c.w. operation output obtainable from agrid- modulation system
and C3 should be 0.002 Af. or less. See text for dis- by the low r.f. amplifier plate efficiency ( approxi-
cussion of C,, R., R2 and R3. R3 should have the proper mately 33 per cent) under unmodulated carrier
value for Class A operation of the modulator tube, conditions. The plate efficiency increases with
but cannot be calculated unless triode curves for modulation, since the output increases while the
the tube are available. d.c. input remains constant, and reaches amaxi-
 MCDUL A
TOR CLASS—(,
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
TO GSCREEN
294

RID AMP
Ex:il ', ion RFC src
C
RT
GLEAKRID
—C .0
—S.C.
*SIPBIRAES OR
.8
Fig. 10- 13— Suppressor- grid modulation of an r.f.
amplifier using a pentode- type tube. The suppressor.
grid r.f. bypass capacitor, C, should be the some
Fig. 10- 12— Circuit for carrier control with screen as the grid bypass capacitor in control- grid
modulation. A small triode such as the 6C4 can be modulation.
used as the control amplifier and a 6Y6G is suitable
as a carrier- control tube. T
., is an interstage audio control tube grid is driven to cut-off, the voice
transformer having a 1- to- 1 or larger turns ratio. R.1 level at which this occurs being determined by
is a 0.5-megohm volume control and also serves as the setting of R4.The input without modulation
the grid resistor for the modulator. A germanium is set to the desired level ( usually about equal
crystal may be used as the rectifier. Other values to the plate dissipation rating of the modulated
are discussed in the text. stage) by adjusting R.. R3 may be the normal
screen- dropping resistor for the modulated beam
mum in the neighborhood of 50 per cent with 100 tetrode, but in case a separate screen supply is
per cent sine-wave modulation. If the power in- used the resistance need be just large enough to
put to the amplifier can be reduced during periods give sufficient voltage drop to reduce the no-
when there is little or no modulation, thus reduc- modulation power input to the desired value.
ing the plate loss, advantage can be taken of the CIRI and C2R3 should have a time constant
higher efficiency at full modulation to obtain of about 0.1 second. An oscilloscope is required
higher effective output. This can be done by for proper adjustment.
varying the d.c. power input to the modulated
Suppressor Modulation
stage in accordance with average variations in
voice intensity, in such away as to maintain just Pentode- type tubes do not, in general, modu-
sufficient carrier power to keep the modulation late well when the modulating voltage is applied
high, but not exceeding 100 per cent, under all to the screen grid. However, a satisfactory mod-
conditions. Thus the carrier amplitude is con- ulation characteristic can be obtained by apply-
trolled by the average voice intensity. Properly ing the modulation to the suppressor grid. The
utilized, controlled carrier permits increasing the circuit arrangement for suppressor-grid modula-
carrier output at maximum level to avalue about tion of apentode tube is shown in Fig. 10-13.
equal to the rated plate dissipation of the tube, The method of adjustment closely resembles
twice the output obtainable with constant carrier. that used with screen- grid modulation. If an
It is desirable to control the power input just oscilloscope is not available, the amplifier is first
enough so that the plate loss, without modula- adjusted for optimum c.w. output with zero bias
tion, is safely below the tube rating. Excessive on the suppressor grid. Sufficient negative bias is
control is disadvantageous because the distant then applied to the suppressor to drop the plate
receiver's a.v.c. system must continually follow current and r.f. output current to half their
the variations in average signal level. The circuit original values. The amplifier is then ready for
of Fig. 10-12 permits adjustment of both the modulation.
maximum and minimum power input, and al- Since the suppressor is always negatively
though somewhat more complicated than some biased, the modulator is not required to furnish
circuits that have been used is actually simpler to any power and a voltage amplifier can be used.
operate because it separates the functions of The suppressor bias will vary with the type of
modulation and carrier control. A portion of the pentode and the operating conditions, but usually
audio voltage at the modulator grid is applied to will be of the order of — 100 volts. The peak a.f.
a Class A " control amplifier" which drives a voltage required from the modulator is equal to
rectifier circuit to produce ad.c. voltage negative the suppressor bias.
with respect to ground. C1 filters out the audio
variations, leaving ad.c. voltage proportional to Control-Grid Modulation
the average voice level. This voltage is applied Although control- grid modulation may be
to the grid of a "clamp" tube to control the d.c. used with any type of r.f. amplifier tube, it is
screen voltage and thus the r.f. carrier level. seldom used with tetrodes and pentodes because
Maximum output is obtained when the carrier- screen or suppressor modulation is generally
Types of Modulation 295
CLASS- C
AMP

RF F
Excilot.on
ANT.
RFC

GRID RFC
LEAK

-c

FIL.
TRANS.

115 v. A

Fig. 10- 15— Circuit arrangement for cathode modula-

tion of a Class C r.f. amplifier. Values of bypass ca-
Fig. 10- 14— Control- grid modulation of a Class C
pacitors in the r.f. circuits should be the same as
amplifier. The r.f, grid bypass capacitor, C, should
for other modulation methods.
have high reactance at audio frequencies (0.005 µf.
or less). circuit that resistor R does in the audio circuit.
The d.c. bias source in this system should have
simpler to adjust. However, control- grid modu- low internal resistance. Batteries or a voltage-
lation is the only form of grid modulation that regulated supply are suitable. Grid-leak bias
is applicable to triode amplifiers. A typical triode should not be used.
circuit is given in Fig. 10-14. Satisfactory adjustment of acontrol-grid mod-
In control-grid modulation the d.c. grid bias is ulated amplifier requires an oscilloscope. The
the same as in normal Class C amplifier service, scope connections are similar to those for screen-
but the r.f. grid excitation is somewhat smaller. grid modulation, with audio from the modula-
The audio voltage superimposed on the d.c. bias tor's output transformer secondary applied to the
changes the instantaneous grid bias at an audio horizontal plates through a blocking capacitor
rate, thus varying the operating conditions in the and volume control, and with r.f. from the plate
grid circuit and controlling the output and effi- tank circuits coupled to the vertical plates. The
ciency of the amplifier. adjustment procedure follows that for screen
The change in instantaneous bias voltage with modulation as previously described.
modulation causes the rectified grid current of
100
the amplifier to vary, which places a variable A
load on the modulator. To reduce distortion, re-
sistor R in Fig. 10-14 is connected in the output 80
circuit of the modulator as a constant load, so
that the over-all load variations will be mini-
41.
Ne
mized. This resistor should be equal to or some-
what higher than the load into which the 'cm?

modulator tube is rated to work at normal audio

output. It is also recommended that the modu-
lator circuit incorporate as much negative feed-
back as possible, as a further aid in reducing the '446
internal resistance of the modulator and thus
improving the " regulation"—that is, reducing the \c
effect of load variations on the audio output volt-
age. The turns ratio of transformer T should be 20 40 60 60 100
about 1 to 1in most cases. 7.4 -PER CENT PLATE MODULATION

The load on the r.f. driving stage also varies Fig. 10- 16— Cathode- modulation performance curves,
with modulation. This in turn will cause the ex- in terms of percentage of plate modulation plotted
citation voltage to vary and may cause the against percentage of Class C telephony tube ratings.
modulation characteristic to be nonlinear. To W1. — D.c. plate input watts in terms of percentage of
overcome it, the driver should be capable of two plate- modulation rating.
or three times the r.f. power output actually re- W. — Carrier output watts in per cent of plate- mod-
quired to drive the amplifier. The excess power ulation rating ( based on plate efficiency of
may be dissipated in a dummy load ( such as an 77.5%).
incandescent lamp of appropriate power rating) W. — Audio power in per cent of d.c. watts input.
that then performs the same function in the r.f. Np — Plate efficiency of the amplifier in percentage.
296 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
of plate modulation is small and the amplifier is
CATHODE MODULATION operating more nearly like agrid- bias nuidulated
Circuit stage. At the higher percentages of plate modu-
The fundamental circuit for cathode modula- lation a combination of fixed and grid- leak bias
tion is shown in Fig. 10-15. It is acombination of can he used, since the variation in rectified grid
the plate and grid methods, and permits acarrier current is smaller. The grid leak should be by-
efficiency midway between the two. Audio power passed for audio frequencies. The percentage of
is introduced in the cathode circuit, and both grid modulation may be regulated by choice of a
grid bias and plate voltage are modulated. suitable tap on the modulation- transformer
Because part of the modulation is by the secondary.
control- grid method, the plate efficiency of the The cathode circuit of the modulated stage
modulated amplifier must vary during modu- must be independent of other stages in the trans-
lation. The carrier efficiency therefore must be mitter. When directly heated tubes are modu-
lower than the efficiency at the modulation peak. lated their filaments must be supplied from a
The required reduction in efficiency depends separate transformer. The filament bypass capac-
upon the proportion of grid modulation to itors should not be larger than about 0.002 pf.,
plate modulation; the higher the percentage of to avoid bypassing the a.f. modulation.
plate modulation, the higher the permissible
Adjustment of Cathode- Modulated
carrier efficiency, and vice versa. The audio
Amplifiers
power required from the modulator also varies
with the percentage of plate modulation, being In most respects, the adjustment procedure
greater as this percentage is increased. is similar to that for grid-bias modulation. The
The way in which the various quantities critical adjustments are antenna loading, grid
vary is illustrated by the curves of Fig. 10-16. bias, and excitation.
In these curves the performance of the cath- Adjustments should be made with the aid of
ode- modulated r.f. amplifier is plotted in terms an oscilloscope connected in the sanie way as for
of the tube ratings for plate- modulated telephony, grid- bias modulation. With proper antenna load-
with the percentage of plate modulation as abase. ing and excitation, the normal wedge-shaped pat-
As the percentage of plate modulation is de- tern will be obtained at 100 per cent modulation.
creased, it is assumed that the grid modulation is As in the case of grid-bias modulation, too light
increased to make the over-all modulation reach antenna loading will cause flattening of the up-
100 per cent. The limiting condition, 100 per cent ward peaks of modulation as also will too high
plate modulation and no grid modulation, is at excitation. The cathode current will be practi-
the right ( A) ; pure grid modulation is repre- cally constant with or without modulation when
sented by the left-hand ordinate (B and C). the proper operating conditions have been es-
tablished.
Modulating Impedance
The modulating impedance of a cathode- LINEAR AMPLIFIERS
modulated amplifier is approximately equal to If a signal is to be amplified after modulation
has taken place, the shape of the modulation
Eb envelope must be preserved if distortion is to be
tn— avoided. This requires the use of alinear ampli-
Ib
fier — that is, one that will reproduce, in its
where m = Percentage of plate modulation ( ex- output circuit, the exact form of the signal en-
pressed as a decimal) velope applied to its grid.
Eb = D.c. plate voltage on modulated The amplitude- modulated driving signal for a
amplifier linear amplifier can at no time be permitted to
Ib = D.c. plate current of modulated swing below cutoff on the modulation down-
amplifier peaks. To do so would mean that the part of the
modulation envelope near the zero axis ( see Fig.
The modulating impedance is the load into 10-1C) would be clipped, since there would be
which the modulator must work, just as in the times when the instantaneous signal voltage
case of pure plate modulation. This load must be would be below the minimum value that would
matched to the load required by the modulator cause plate- current flow ( see Fig. 10-3).
tubes by proper choice of the turns ratio of the However, the grid bias may be set at any value
modulation transformer. less than cutoff. Usually, such amplifiers are op-
erated at or near the Class B condition — that is,
Conditions for Linearity with the grid bias at or somewhat less than cut-
R.f. excitation requirements for the cathode- off. Although Class B operation results in con-
modulated amplifier are midway between those siderable distortion of the individual r.f. cycles
for plate modulation and control-grid modula- applied to the grid, the modulation envelope is
tion. More excitation is required as the per- not distorted if the operating conditions are
centage of plate modulation is increased. Grid chosen properly. The r.f. distortion produces
bias should be considerably beyond cut-off; fixed only r.f. harmonics, and these can be eliminated
bias from a supply having good voltage regula- by the selectivity of the output tank circuit.
tion is preferred, especially when the percentage A linear amplifier used for a.m. has the same
F.M. and P.M. 335
measuring devices either indicate amplitude 2000

variations only ( a d.c. milliammeter, for ex-

ample), or because their indications are most 2
g 1000
easily interpreted in terms of amplitude. There
is no simple measuring instrument that indi-
cates frequency deviation directly.
However, there is one favorable feature in
f.m. or p.m. checking. The modulation takes
place at avery low level and the stages follow-
ing the one that is modulated do not affect the
linearity of modulation so long as they are
2000
properly tuned. Therefore the modulation may -3 -2 -1 +2 +3

be checked without putting the transmitter on Grid— Voltage Deviate°

From Operating Bias
the air, or even on adummy antenna. The power
is simply cut off the amplifiers following the Fig. 12-5—A typical curve of frequency deviation vs.
.
modulated stage. This not only avoids unneces- modulator grid voltage.
sary interference to other stations during test-
ing periods, but also keeps the signal at such measured by comparison with a calibrated
alow level that it may be observed quite easily audio- frequency oscillator. Note that with the
on the station receiver. A good receiver with a battery polarity positive with respect to ground
crystal filter is an essential part of the check- the radio frequency will move in one direction
ing equipment of an f.m. or p.m. transmitter, when the voltage is increased, and in the other
particularly for narrow-band f.m. or p.m. direction when the battery terminals are re-
The quantities to be checked in an f.m. or versed. When several readings have been taken
p.m. transmitter are the linearity and frequency acurve may be plotted to demonstrate the rela-
deviation. Because of the essential difference tionship between grid voltage and frequency
between f.m. and p.m. the methods of checking deviation.
differ in detail. A sample curve is shown in Fig. 12-5. The
usable portion of the curve is the center part
Reactance-Tube F.M.
which is essentially a straight line. The bend-
It is possible to calibrate a reactance modu- ing at the ends indicates that the modulator is
lator by applying an adjustable d.c. voltage to no longer linear; this departure from linearity
the modulator grid and noting the change in will cause harmonic distortion and will broaden
oscillator frequency as the voltage is varied. A the channel occupied by the signal. In the ex-
suitable circuit for applying the adjustable ample, the characteristic is linear 1.5 kc. on
voltage is shown in Fig. 12-4. The battery either side of the center or carrier frequency.
A good modulation indicator is a "magic-
eye" tube such as the 6E5. This should be con-
TO MOD. GRID
nected across the grid resistor of the reactance
RESISTOR modulator as shown in Fig. 12-6. Note its de-
flection ( using the d.c. voltage method as in
Fig. 12-4) at the maximum deviation to be
used. For narrow-band f.m. the proper devia-
Fig. 12-4—D.c. method of checking frequency deviation tion is approximately 2000 cycles ( this maxi-
of a reactance-tube- modulated oscillator. A 500- or mum deviation is based on an upper a.f. limit
1000- ohm potentiometer may be used at I21. of 3000 cycles and a deviation ratio of 0.7) at
the output frequency. This deflection represents
should have a voltage of 3 tb 6 volts ( two or "100 per cent modulation" and with speech in-
more dry cells in series). The arrows indicate put the gain should be kept at the point where
clip connections so that the battery polarity can it is just reached on voice peaks. If the trans-
be reversed. mitter is used on more than one band, the gain
The oscillator frequency deviation should be
measured by using a receiver in conjunction TO GRID
with an accurately calibrated frequency meter,
or by any means that will permit accurate
measurement of frequency differences of a few
SPEECH —
hundred cycles. One simple method is to tune AMP
GAIN
in the oscillator on the receiver ( disconnecting CONTROL
the receiving antenna, if necessary, to keep the
signal strength well below the overload point)
+250V.
and then set the receiver b.f.o. to zero beat.
Then increase the d.c. voltage applied to the Fig. 12-6-6E5 modulation indicator for f.m. or p.m.
modulator grid from zero in steps of about V2 modulators. To insure sufficient grid voltage for a good
volt and note the beat frequency at each deflection, it may be necessary to connect the gain
change. Then reverse the battery terminals and control in the modulator grid circuit rather than in an
repeat. The frequency of the beat note may be earlier speech-amplifier stage.
298 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
adjustable so a suitable pattern width can be
obtained; a 0.25-megohm volume control can be
used at R2 for this purpose.
The resistance required at R1 will depend on
the d.c. voltage on the modulated element. The
(
A) (
F)
NO CARRIER
total resistance of R1 and R2 in series should
be about 0.25 megohm for each 100 volts. For
example, if a plate- modulated amplifier operates
at 1500 volts, the total resistance should be 3.75
megohms, 0.25 megohm tR2 and the remainder,
3.5 megohms, in RI.R1 should be composed of
individual resistors not larger than 0.5 megohm
(B) (
G) each, in which case 1-watt resistors will be satis-
CARRIER ONLY
factory.
For adequate coupling at 100 cycles the capaci-
tance, in microfarads, of the blocking capacitor,
C, should be at least 0.05/R, where R is the total
resistance ( R1 -I- R2) in megohms. In the ex-
ample above, where R is 3.75 megohms, the ca-
(
C) (
H) pacitance should be 0.05/3.75 = 0.013 ¿if. or
LESS THAN % MO , t
&-`, Lx100
;
100% MODULATION NO + YZ

(
D) (I)
100 `V.MODULATION

(
E) (J)
OVER MODULATION

Fig. 10- 18— Wave- envelope and trapezoidal patterns

representing different conditions of modulation.

maximum height of this pattern is just twice that

of the carrier alone, the wave is being modulated
100 per cent. This is illustrated by Fig. 18-18D,
where the point X represents the horizontal

EIJ
sweep line ( reference line) alone, YZ is the car-
rier height, and PQ is the maximum height of
the modulated wave.
If the height is greater than the distance PQ,
as illustrated in E, the wave is overmodulated in
the upward direction. Overmodulation in the
downward direction is indicated by a gap in the
pattern at the reference axis, where a single
bright line appears on the screen. Overtnodula-
tion in either direction may take place even
when the modulation in the other direction is Fig. 10- 19— Top— A typical trapezoidal pattern ob-
less than 100 per cent. tained with screen modulation adjusted for optimum
conditions. The sudden change in slope near the
The Trapezoidal Pattern
point of the wedge occurs when the screen voltage
Connections for the trapezoid or wedge pat- posses through zero. Center— It there is no audio
tern as used for checking a.m, are shown in Fig. distortion, the unmodulated carrier will have the
10-17B. The vertical plates of the c.r. tube are height and position shown by the white line super-
coupled to the transmitter tank through apick-up imposed on the sine-wave modulation pattern. Bot-
loop, preferably using a tuned circuit, as shown tom— Even- harmonic distortion in the audio system,
in the upper drawing, adjustable to the operat- when the audio signal applied to the speech ampli-
ing frequency. Audio voltage from the modu- fier is a sine wave, is indicated by the fact that the
lator is applied to the horizontal plates through modulation pattern does not extend equal horizontal
a voltage divider, RiR2. This voltage should be distances on both sides of the unmodulated carrier.
Checking Transmitter Performance 299
more. The voltage rating of the capacitor should sine-wave audio modulating signal, distortion in
be at least twice the d.c. voltage applied to the the modulation envelope is easily recognizable;
modulated element. however, it is difficult to determine whether the
Trapezoidal patterns for various conditions of distortion is caused by lack of linearity of the
modulation are shown in Fig. 10-18 at F to J, r.f. stage or by a.f. distortion in the modulator.
each alongside the corresponding wave- envelope If the trapezoidal pattern shows good linearity
pattern. With no signal, only the cathode-ray in such a case the trouble obviously is in the
spot appears on the screen. When the unmodu- audio system. It is possible, of course, for both
lated carrier is applied, a vertical line appears; defects to be present simultaneously. If they
the length of the line should be adjusted, by are, the r.f. amplifier should be made linear first;
means of the pick-up coil coupling, to a con- then any distortion in the modulation envelope
venient value. When the carrier is modulated, will be the result of improper operation in the
the wedge-shaped pattern appears; the higher speech amplifier or modulator, or in coupling
the modulation percentage, the wider and more the modulator to the modulated r.f. stage.
pointed the wedge becomes. At 100 per cent
R. F. Linearity
modulation it just makes a point on the axis, X,
at one end, and the height, PQ, at the other end The trapezoidal pattern is agraph of the mod-
is equal to twice the carrier height, YZ. Over- ulation characteristic of the modulated amplifier.
modulation in the upward direction is indicated The sloping sides of the wedge show the r.f.
by increased height over PQ, and downward by amplitude for every value of instantaneous mod-
an extension along the axis X at the pointed end. ulating voltage, exactly the type of curve plotted
in Fig. 10-4. If these sides are perfectly straight
CHECKING TRANSMITTER lines, as drawn in Fig. W-18 at H and I, the mod-
PERFORMANCE ulation characteristic is linear. If the sides show
The trapezoidal pattern is generally more use- curvature, the characteristic is nonlinear to an
ful than the wave- envelope pattern for check- extent shown by the degree to which the sides
ing the operation of a phone transmitter. How- depart from perfect straightness. This is true
ever, both types of patterns have their special regardless of the modulating wave form.
virtues, and the best test setup is one that makes
Audio Distortion
both available. The trapezoidal pattern is better
adapted to showing the performance of amodu- If the speech s) stem can be driven by a good
lated amplifier from the standpoint of inherent audio sine-wave signal instead of a microphone,
linearity, without regard to the wave form of the the trapezoidal pattern also will show the pres-
audio modulating signal, than is the wave-enve- ence of even- harmonic distortion ( the most com-
lope pattern. Distortion in the audio signal also mon type, especially when the modulator is over-
can be detected in the trapezoidal pattern, al- loaded) in the speech amplifier or modulator. If
though experience in analyzing scope patterns there is no distortion in the audio system, the
is required to recognize it. trapezoid will extend horizontally equal distances
If the wave- envelope pattern is used with a on each side of the vertical line representing the

Unmoduloted carrier.
xxx
Approximately 50 per cent modulation. 100 per cent modulation.
Fig. 10- 20— Oscilloscope patterns showing proper modulation of a plate- and- screen modulated tetrode r.f.
amplifier. Upper row, trapezoidal patterns; lower row, corresponding wave- envelope patterns. In the latter
a linear sweep having a frequency one-third that of the sine- wave audio modulating frequency was used,
so that three cycles of the modulation envelope show in the pattern.
 300 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Modulation over 100 per cent.

Fig.
Improper screen- circuit time constant.
oo)
Insufficient audio power.
10- 21— Improper operation or design. These pictures are to the same scale as those in Fig. 20-20, on
the same transmitter and with the same test setup.

unmodulated carrier. If there is even- harmonic tetina or by a decrease in the d.c. screen voltage.
distortion the trapezoid will extend farther to Fig. 10-20 shows patterns indicating proper
one side of the unmodulated-carrier position than operation of a plate- and- screen modulated tet-
to the other. This is shown in Fig. 10-19. The rode r.f. amplifier. The slight " tailing off" at the
probable cause is inadequate power output from modulation down peak ( point of the wedge) can
the modulator, or incorrect load on the modu- be minimized by careful adjustment of excitation
lator. and plate loading.
An audio oscillator having reasonably good Several types of improper operation are shown
sine- wave output is highly desirable for testing in Fig. 10-21. In the photos at the left the linear-
both speech equipment and the phone transmit- ity of the r.f. stage is good but the amplifier is
ter as a whole. With an oscillator and the scope, being modulated over 100 per cent. This is
the pattern is steady and can lœ studied closely shown by the maximum height of the pattern
to determine the effects of adjustments. (compare with the untnodulated carrier of Fig.
In the case of the wave-envelope pattern, dis- 10-20) and by the bright line extending from the
tortion in the audio system will show up in the point of the wedge ( or between sections of the
modulation envelope ( with a sine - wave input envelope).
signal) as adeparture from the sine- wave form, The patterns in the center, Fig. 10-21, show
and may be checked by comparing the envelope the effect of a too- long time constant in the
with a drawing of a sine-wave. Attributing any screen circuit, in an amplifier getting its screen
such distortion to the audio system assumes, of voltage through a dropping resistor, both plate
course, that acheck has been made on the linear- and screen being modulated. The "double-edged"
ity of the modulated r.f, amplifier, preferably by pattern is the result of audio phase shift in the
use of the trapezoidal pattern. screen circuit combined with varying screen- to-
cathode resistance during modulation. The over-
Typical Patterns
all effect is to delay the rise in output amplitude
Figs. 10-19, 10-20 and 10-21 show some typical during the up- sweep of the modulation cycle,
scope patterns of modulated signals for different slightly distorting the modulation envelope as
conditions of operation. The screen-modulation shown in the wave- envelope pattern. This effect,
patterns, Fig. 10-19, also show how the presence which becomes more pronounced as the audio
of even- harmonic audio distortion can be de- modulating frequency is increased, is usually ab-
tected in the trapezoidal pattern. The pattern to sent at low modulation percentages but develops
be sought in adjusting the transmitter is the rapidly as the modulation approaches 100 per
one at the top in Fig. 10-20, where the top and cent. It can be reduced by reducing the screen
bottom edges of the pattern continue in straight bypass capacitance, and also by connecting re-
lines up to the point representing 100 per cent sistance ( to be determined experimentally, but
modulation. If these edges tend to bend over of the same order as the screen dropping resist-
toward the horizontal at the maximum height of ance) between screen and cathode.
the wedge the amplifier is " flattening" on the The right-hand pictures in Fig. 10-21 show the
modulation up-peaks. This is usually caused by effect of insufficient audio power. Although the
attempting to get too large acarrier output, and trapezoidal pattern shows good linearity in the
can be corrected by tighter coupling to the an- r.f. amplifier, the wave-envelope pattern shows
Checking Transmitter Performance 301
afew per cent of the sum of the two resistances.
The wave- envelope pattern in Fig. 10-22 shows
the effect of hum on the vertical deflection plates.
This may actually be on the carrier or may be
introduced in some way from the a.c. line
through stray coupling between the scope and the
line or because of poor grounding of the scope,
transmitter or modulator.
It is important that r.f. from the modulated

xx>
stage only be coupled to the oscilloscope, and
then only to the vertical plates. If r.f. is present
also on the horizontal plates, the pattern will
lean to one side instead of being upright. If the
oscilloscope cannot be moved to aposition where
the unwanted pick-up disappears, asmall bypass
capacitor ( 10 Figf. or more) should be connected
across the horizontal plates as close to the
cathode-ray tube as possible. An r.f. choke ( 2.5
mh. or smaller) may also be connected in series
with the ungrounded horizontal plate.

MODULATION CHECKING WITH

Fig. 10- 22— Upper photo— Audio phase shift in cou-
THE PLATE METER
pling circuit between transmitter and horizontal de-
flection plates. Lower photo— Hum on
The plate millianuneter of the modulated am-
vertical deflection plates.
plifier provides a simple and fairly reliable means
for checking the performance of a phone trans-
flattened peaks ( both positive and negative) in mitter, although it does not give nearly as definite
the modulation envelope even though the audio information as the oscilloscope does. If the mod-
signal applied to the amplifier was a sine wave. ulated amplifier is perfectly linear, its plate cur-
More speech- amplifier gain merely increases the rent will not change when modulation is applied if
flattening without increasing the modulation per- 1) the upward modulation percentage does
centage in such a case. The remedy is to use a not exceed the modulation capability of the
larger modulator or less input to the modulated amplifier,
r.f. stage. In some cases the trouble may be 2) the downward modulation does not exceed
caused by an incorrect modulation- transformer 100 per cent, and
turns ratio, causing the modulator to be over- 3) there is no change in the d.c. operating
loaded before its maximum power output capa- voltages on the transmitter.
bilities are reached. The plate current should be constant, ideally,
with any of the methods of modulation discussed
Faulty Patterns in this chapter, with the single exception of the
The pattern defects shown in Fig. 10-21 are controlled- carrier system. The plate meter can-
only a few out of many that might be observed not give a reliable check on the performance of
in the testing of aphone transmitter, all capable the latter system because the plate current in-
of being interpreted in terms of improper opera- creases with the intensity of modulation.
tion in some part of the transmitter. However,
Plate Modulation
it is not always the transmitter that is at fault
when the scope shows an unusual pattern. The With plate modulation, a downward shift in
trouble may be in some defect in the test setup. plate current may indicate one or more of the
Patterns representative of two common faults following:
of this nature are shown in Fig. 10-22. The upper 1) Insufficient excitation.
picture shows the trapezoidal pattern when the 2) Insufficient grid bias.
audio voltage applied to the horizontal plates of 3) R.f. amplifier not loaded properly.
the cr. tube is not exactly in phase with the 4) Insufficient output capacitance in the filter
modulation envelope. The normal straight edges of the modulated-amplifier plate supply.
of the wedge are transformed into ellipses which 5) Excessive d.c. input to the r.f. amplifier,
in the case of 100 per cent modulation ( shown) under carrier conditions. Alternately, the
touch at the horizontal axis and reach maximum cathode emission of the amplifier tubes may
heights equal to the height of the normal wedge be low.
at the modulation up- peak. Such a phase shift 6) In plate- and-screen modulation of tetrodes
can occur ( and usually will) if the audio voltage or pentodes, the screen is not being suffi-
applied to the c.r. tube deflection plates is taken ciently modulated along with the plate. If
from any point in the audio system other than the d.c. screen voltage is obtained through
where it is applied to the modulated r.f. stage. a dropping resistor, a dip in plate current
The coupling capacitor shown in Fig. 10-17 must may occur if the screen bypass capacitance
have very low reactance compared with the re- is large enough to bypass audio frequencies.
sistance of R1 and R2 in series — not larger than 7) Poor voltage regulation of the modulated-
 302 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
amplifier plate supply. It is readily checked for one or more of the r.f. stages have insuffi-
by measuring the voltage with and without cient smoothing. With a hum- free carrier, hum
modulation. Poor line regulation will be introduced by the modulator can be checked by
shown by a drop in filament voltage with turning on the modulator but leaving the speech
modulation. amplifier off; power- supply filtering is the likely
Any of the following may cause an upward source of such hum. If carrier and modulator are
shift in plate current: both clean, connect the speech amplifier and ob-
1) Overmodulation ( excessive audio power, serve the increase in hum level. If the hum dis-
audio gain too high). appears with the gain control at minimum, the
2) Incomplete neutralization of the modu- hum is being introduced in the stage or stages
lated amplifier. preceding the gain control. The microphone also
3) Parasitic oscillation in the modulated am- may pick up hum, acondition that can be checked
plifier. by removing the microphone from the circuit
but leaving the first speech-amplifier grid circuit
Grid Modulation
otherwise unchanged. A good ground ( to a cold
With any type of grid mo(lulation, any of the water pipe, for example) on the microphone
following may cause adownward shift in modu- and speech system usually is essential to hum-
lated-amplifier plate current: free operation.
1) Too much r.f. excitation.
2) Insufficient grid bias with control-grid Spurious Sidebands
modulation. Grid bias is usually not critical A superheterodyne receiver having good selec-
with screen and suppressor modulation. tivity ( bandwidth of less than 1 kc.) is needed
3) With control- grid modulation, excessive for checking spurious sidebands outside the nor-
resistance in the bias supply. mal communication channel. The r.f. input to the
4) Insufficient output capacitance in plate- receiver must be kept low enough, by removing
supply filter. the antenna or by adequate separation from the
5) Amplifier is not loaded heavily enough. transmitter, to avoid overloading and consequent
Because grid modulation is not perfectly linear, spurious receiver responses. An " S"-meter read-
(always less so than plate modulation) an am- ing of about half scale is satisfactory. With the
plifier that is properly designed and operated selectivity at its sharpest, tune through the re-
may show a small upward plate-current shift gion outside the normal channel limits ( 3 to 4
with modulation, 10 per cent or less with sine- kilocycles each side of the carrier) while an-
wave modulation and amounting to an occasional other person talks into the microphone. Spurious
upward flicker with voice. An upward plate cur- sidebands will be observed as intermittent
rent shift in excess of this may be caused by "clicks" or crackles well away from the carrier
1) Overmodulation ( excessive modulating frequency. Sidebands more than 3 to 4 kc. from
voltage). the carrier should be of negligible strength, com-
2) Regeneration ( incomplete neutralization). pared with the carrier, in a properly modulated
3) With control- grid or suppressor modula- phone transmitter. The causes are overmodula-
tion, bias too great. tion or nonlinear operation.
4) With screen modulation, d.c. screen voltage With sine- wave modulation the relative inten-
too low. sities of sidebands can be observed if a tone of
5) Audio distortion in modulator. 1000 cycles or so is used. The " S"-tneter will
In grid-modulation systems the modulator is show how the spurious side frequencies ( those
not necessarily operating linearly if the plate spaced more than the modulating frequency
current stays constant with or without modula- from the carrier) compare with the carrier itself.
tion. It is readily possible to arrive at a set of Without an " S"- meter, the a.v.c. should be
operating conditions in which flattening of the turned off and the b.f.o. turned on; then the r.f.
up- peaks is just balanced by overrnodulation gain should be set to give a moderately strong
downward. The oscilloscope provides the only beat note with the carrier. The intensity of the side
certain check on grid modulation.
frequencies can be estimated from their relative
strengths as the receiver is tuned through them.
COMMON TROUBLES IN THE Receivers having steep- sided band-pass filters
PHONE TRANSMITTER for single-sideband reception can be used, but
Noise and Hum on Carrier the technique is more difficult. If the band pass
is, say, 3 kc., the signal should first be tuned in
Noise and hum may be detected by listening to with the carrier placed at one edge of the pass
the signal on a receiver, provided the receiver is band. If it is placed at the low edge, for example,
far enough away from the transmitter to avoid the receiver should then be tuned 3 kc. higher
overloading. The hum level should be low com- so its response will be in the region just outside
pared with the voice at 100 per cent modulation. the normal spectrum space occupied by one side-
Hum may come either from the speech amplifier band. Any "crackles" heard in this region repre-
and modulator or from the r.f. section of the sent the results of nonlinearity of over- modula-
transmitter. Hum from the r.f. section can be tion. This assumes that the precautions men-
detected by completely shutting off the modu- tioned above with respect to receiver over-
lator; if hum remains, the power- supply filters loading have been carefully observed.
An A. M. Modulation Monitor 303
prevent r.f. pickup, and a ground connection
R.
F.in Speech Amplifier separate from that to which the transmitter is
A small amount of r.f. current in the speech connected is advisable.
amplifier — particularly in the first stage, which If the transmitter is "hot" with r.f., the cause
is most susceptible to such ri. pickup — will usually is to be found in the method of coupling
cause overloading and distortion in the low-level to the antenna. Any form of coupling that in-
stages. Frequently also there is a regenerative volves either a direct or capacitive connection
effect which causes an audio- frequency oscilla- between the transmitter and the transmission line
tion or " howl" to be set up in the audio system. is likely to cause the transmitter chassis to as-
In such cases the gain control cannot be advanced sume an r.f. potential above ground because of
very far before the howl builds up, even though "parallel" type currents on the line. An earth
the amplifier may be perfectly stable when the connection to the transmitter does not always
r.f. section of the transmitter is not turned on. help in such a case. The best remedy is to use
Complete shielding of the microphone, micro- inductive coupling between the transmitter and
phone cord, and speech amplifier is necessary to line.

MODULATION MONITORING
It is always desirable to modulate as fully as ages between 300 and 500; with a slight modi-
possible, but 100 per cent modulation should fication it can be extended to 750 volts.
not be exceeded — particularly in the downward The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 10-24. A
direction — because harmonic distortion will be voltage divider, consisting of Ri, R2 plus RI and
R4, is connected across the plate supply of the
generated and the channel width increased. This
modulated stage. The cathodes of two diodes are
causes unnecessary interference to other stations.
connected to the modulated voltage applied to the
The oscilloscope is the best instrument for con-
r.f. amplifier, and the anodes of the two diodes
tinuously checking the modulation. However,
are connected through WOK resistors to the
simpler indicators may be used for the purpose,
junctions on the voltage divider. The voltage
once calibrated.
divider is proportioned so that the cathode of Vi
A convenient indicator, when aClass B modu-
lator is used, is the plate milliammeter in the is at approximately 50 per cent of the plate sup-
ply voltage and the cathode of V2 is at 15 per
Class B stage, since the plate current of the mod-
cent of the voltage. When the instantaneous
ulator fluctuates with the voice intensity. Using
voltage is 50 per cent or less of the idling plate
the oscilloscope, determine the gain-control set-
voltage, as during the negative portion of amod-
ting and voice intensity that give 100 per cent
ulation cycle, the upper diode of V3 will conduct
modulation on voice peaks, and simultaneously
and the voltage drop across the associated 100K
observe the maximum Class B plate-milliam-
resistor will close the eye of Vi. If during the
meter reading on the peaks. When this maximum
negative portion of the cycle the instantaneous
reading is obtained, it will suffice to adjust the
gain so that it is not exceeded.
A high- resistance ( 1000-ohms- per-volt or
more) rectifier- type voltmeter ( copper-oxide or
germanium type) also can be used for modula-
tion monitoring. It should be connected across
the output circuit of an audio driver stage where
the power level is afew watts, and similarly cali-
brated against the oscilloscope to determine the
reading that represents 100 per cent modulation.
The plate milliammeter of the modulated r.f.
stage also is of value as an indicator of over-
modulation, as explained earlier.

A. M . MODULATION MONITOR
The modulation monitor shown in Figs. 10-23
and 10-25 uses two magic- eye tubes and a dual
diode. One eye closes whenever the modulation
reaches 50 per cent or more, and the second eye
closes when the modulation hits 85 per cent or
Fig. 10- 23— An a.m, modulation indicator using two
more. In operation, the operator controls his
speech to close the "50%" eye much of the time inexpensive magic eye tubes. It is to be connected

without closing the "85%" eye except on rare to the plate supply and modulation transformer of
occasions. No adjustment of the monitor is re- the plate- modulated transmitter stage. The monitor

quired other than the setting of two intensity is built in one half of a Minibox and the entire as-
controls for the ambient light condition. The sembly is supported by a cane- metal housing. Heater
monitor, with the constants to be described, will transformers hang down from the Minibox, inside

work with any plate- modulated amplifier at volt- the housing.

304 AMPLITUDE MODULATION
voltage goes as low as 15 per cent of the supply
voltage, the lower diode of V3 will conduct and
the drop across the associated 100K resistor will
close the eye of 12. Capacitors at the grids of
VI and V2 make the edges of the closing eyes
readily visible.
Type 1629 magic eye tubes are used because
they are common tubes in radio surplus stores
and are quite inexpensive. Because they have a
limited cathode- to- heater voltage rating, it is
necessary to use a separate heater transformer
with its center tap connected to a midpoint on
the voltage divider. For similar insulation rea-
sons, a separate heater transformer is used for
the twin diode, V3.

Construction
With the exception of the transformers, all
components are mounted inside a5 X 7X 3- inch
Minibox. A supporting housing for the chassis 4.7K
100K

is made from a small piece of Reynolds No. 33 2W 1629

aluminum mesh, available in many hardware
stores. A h-inch lip bent in on the bottom edge
provides greater rigidity for the structure and a
surface to which four rubber feet can be at-
tached. The monitor is built within one half of
the Minibox and the two transformers are
mounted on the other side of this half. Two
Amphenol 58-MEA8 assemblies are used to sup- Fig. 10- 24— Circuit diagram of the modulation monitor.
port the magic eye tubes; these include the Unless specified otherwise, resistors are /
2
1 watt, re-
mounting brackets, the sockets and wires, the sistances are in ohms, capacitances are in µf.
light shields and the metal escutcheons. The 6H6 C¡, C:— Disk ceramic.
socket is supported off the chassis by two 34-
inch E2, E,— Insulated tip lacks ( Johnson 105-601, —602,
ceramic insulators. —603)
T¡- 12.6-v. 2-a. transformer ( Knight 61 G 420)
Operation T,- 6.3-v. 0.6-a. transformer ( Knight 61 G 416)
When using the monitor with a transmitter, 85 per cent and be completely closed at 100 per
the only adjustment necessary is that of the two cent modulation.
100K intensity controls. The " 50%" eye will
start to close at about 50 per cent modulation Higher Voltages
and will be completely closed at around 70 per If the monitor is to be used at supply voltages
cent. The " 85%" eye will start to close at about between 500 and 750, several alterations are re-
quired. Either the "50%" eye must be elimi-
nated or a second 12.6-volt transformer must be
added ( so that each 1629 has its own heater sup-
ply). At the higher voltage, additional 47K
2-watt resistors should be connected in series
with the intensity controls. The voltage divider
R1 through R4 must be modified for the higher
dissipation.

Fig. 10-25— Modulation monitor with housing and case

removed. Tie strips and adequately- insulated wire are
required. Cable clamps hold the wires from the magic.
eye sockets, to avoid strain on the tubes. Transformers
cannot be seen in this view because they are on the
other side of the assembly. Note ventilation holes at
right-hand corner.
 Chapter 11

Suppressed- Carrier and

Single-Sideband Techniques
A fully modulated a.m. signal has two-thirds
of its power in the carrier and only one-third
in the sidebands. The sidebands carry the in-
telligence to be transmitted; the carrier "goes AUDIO OUTPUT
along for the ride" and serves only to demodu-
late the signal at the receiver. By eliminating
the carrier and transmitting only the sidebands
or just one sideband, the available transmitter (A)
power is used to greater advantage. The carrier
must be reinserted at the receiver, but this is
no great problem, as explained later under
"Receiving Suppressed- Carrier Signals."
Assuming that the same final- amplifier tube
or tubes are used either for normal a.m. or for
single sideband, carrier suppressed, it can be
shown that the use of s.s.b. can give an effective
gain of up to 9 db. over a.m. — equivalent to
increasing the transmitter power 8times. Elimi-
nating the carrier also eliminates the heterodyne = ( B)
interference that so often spoils communication
in congested phone bands.

DOUBLE-SIDEBAND GENERATORS
FCUTPUT
The carrier can be suppressed or nearly elimi- L
2
nated by an extremely sharp filter or by using a
balanced modulator. The basic principle in any
balanced modulator is to introduce the carrier
in such away that it does not appear in the out-
Fig. 11- 1—Typical rectifier-type balanced modulators.
put but so that the sidebands will. This require-
The circuit at A is called a " bridge" balanced mod-
ment is satisfied by introducing the audio in
ulator and has been widely used in commercial work.
push-pull and the r.f. drive in parallel, and con-
The balanced modulator at B is shown with constants
necting the output in push-pull. Balanced modu-
suitable for operation at 450.kc. It is useful for work-
lators can also be connected with the r.f. drive
and audio inputs in push-pull and the output in ing into a crystal bandpass filter. T1 is a transformer
designed to work from the audio source into a600-ohm
parallel with equal effectiveness. The choice of
load, and Ta is an ordinary 1.f. transformer with the
abalanced modulator circuit is generally deter-
trimmer reconnected in series with a0.001-0. capacitor,
mined by constructional considerations and the
for impedance-matching purposes from the modulator.
method of modulation preferred by the builder.
Vacuum-tube balanced modulators can be oper- The capacitor C1 is for carrier balance and may be
ated at high power levels and the double- side- found unnecessary in some instances—it should be tried
band output can be used directly into the an- connected on either side of the carrier input circuit and
tenna. A d.s.b. signal can be copied by the same used where it is more effective. The 250-ohm potentio-
meter is normally all that is required for carrier bal-
methods that are used for single-sideband sig-
ance. The carrier input should be sufficient to develop
nals, provided the receiver has sufficient selec-
tivity to reject one of the sidebands. several volts across the resistor string.
The circuit at C is shown with constants suitable for
In any balanced-modulator circuit there will
operation at 3.9 Mc. TS is a step-down output trans-
be no output with no audio signal. When audio
former ( Stancor A3250, 10,000 to 200 ohms), shunt-fed
is applied, the balance is upset, and one branch
will conduct more than the other. Since any to eliminate d.c. from the windings. LIcan be a small

modulation process is the same as "mixing" coupling coil wound on the "cold" end of the carrier-
in receivers, sum and difference frequencies oscillator tank coil, with sufficient coupling to give two
or three volts of r.f. across its output. L2 is a slug-tuned
(sidebands) will be generated. The modulator
is not balanced for the sidebands, and they will coil that resonates to the carrier frequency with the
appear in the output. effective 0.001 itf. across it. The 1000-ohm potentio-
In the rectifier-type balanced modulators meter is for carrier balance.

305
 306 SIDEBAND
application is shown in the s.s.b. generators
described later iii this chapter.

SINGLE-SIDEBAND GENERATORS
Two basic systems for generating s.s.b. sig-
nals are shown in Fig. 11-3. One involves the
use of a bandpass filter having sufficient selec-
tivity to pass one sideband and reject the other.
Filters having such characteristics can only be
constructed for relatively low frequencies, and
Fig. 11-2—A twin-diode balanced-modulator circuit.
most filters used by amateurs are designed to
This is essentially the same as the circuit in Fig. 11-1C,
work somewhere around 500 kc. Good sideband
and differs only in that a twin diode is used instead of
filtering can be done at frequencies as high as 5
dry rectifiers. The heater circuit for the twin diode can
Mc. by using multiple-crystal filters. The low-
be connected in the usual way ( one side grounded or
frequency oscillator output is combined with
center tap grounded).
the audio output of a speech amplifier in abal-
anced modulator, and only the upper and lower
sidebands appear in the output. One of the side-
shown in Fig. 11-1, the diode rectifiers are con-
bands is passed by the filter and the other re-
nected in such amanner that, if they llave equal jected, so that an s.s.b. signal is fed to the
forward resistances, no r.f. can pass from the mixer. The signal is there mixed with the out-
carrier source to the output circuit via either of put of a high- frequency r.f. oscillator to pro-
the two possible paths. The net effect is that no duce the desired output frequency. For addi-
r.f. energy appears in the output. When audio is tional amplification alinear r.f. amplifier ( Class
applied, it unbalances the circuit by biasing the
A or Class B) must be used. When the s.s.b.
diode ( or diodes) in one path, depending upon signal is generated around 500 kc. it may he
the instantaneous polarity of the audio, and necessary to convert twice to reach the oper-
hence some r.f. will appear in the output. The ating frequency, since this simplifies the prob-
r.f. in the output will appear as a double- side-
lem of rejecting the " image" frequencies result-
band suppressed- carrier signal. ( For a more ing from the heterodyne process. The problem
complete description of diode-mo(lulator opera-
of image frequencies in the frequency conver-
tion, see " Diode Modulators," QST, April, 1953, sions of s.s.b, signals differs from the problem
p. 39.)
in receivers because the beating- oscillator fre-
In any diode modulator, the r.f. voltage quency becomes important. Either balanced
should be at least 6 or 8 times the peak audio modulators or sufficient selectivity must be used
voltage, for minimum distortion. The usual
to attenuate these frequencies in the output and
operation involves a fraction of a volt of audio hence minimize the possibility of unwanted
and several volts of r.f. The diodes should be radiations. ( Examples of filter- type exciters
matched as closely as possible — ohmmeter
can be found in QST for June, 19§8, and Janu-
measurements of their forward resistances is ary, 1956.)
the usual test.
The second system is based on the phase
(The circuit of Fig. 11-1B is described more relationships between the carrier and sidebands
fully in Weaver and Brown, " Crystal Lattice
in amodulated signal. As shown in the diagram,
Filters for Transmitting and Receiving," QST,
the audio signal is split into two components
August, 1951. The circuit of Fig. 11-1C is suit- that are identical except for a phase difference
able for use in a double-balanced-mo(lulator
of 90 degrees. The output of the r.f. oscillator
circuit and is so described in " SSB, Jr.," Gen- (which may be at the operating frequency, if
eral Electric Ham News, September, 1950.) desired) is likewise split into two separate com-
Vacuum- tube diodes can also be used in the ponents having a 90- degree phase difference.
two- and four-diode balanced- modulator cir-
One r.f. and one audio component are combined
cuits, and many operators consider them superior in each of two separate balanced modulators.
to the dry rectifier circuits. A typical balanced
The carrier is suppressed in the modulators,
modulator circuit using a twin diode ( 6AL5,
and the relative phases of the sidebands are
6H6, etc.) is shown in Fig. 11-2. In phasing- type such that one sideband is balanced out and the
s.s.b. generators ( described later) two of these other is augmented in the combined output. If
modulators are required, and they are usually the output from the balanced modulators is high
worked into a common output circuit. ( For a enough, such an s.s.b. exciter can work directly
description of a complete s.s.b. exciter using into the antenna, or the power level can be in-
6AL5 balanced modulators, see Vitale, " Cheap creased in a following amplifier.
and Easy S.S.B.," QST, March, 1956, and May,
1958.) Properly adjusted, either system is capable of
good results. Arguments in favor of the filter
Another form of balanced modulator uses
system are that it is somewhat easier to adjust
the type 7360 "beam-deflection" tube, and it is
without an oscilloscope, since it requires only a
capable of a high order of carrier suppression
receiver and a v.t.v.m. for alignment, and it is
(60 db.) with good output ( 4 volts peak- to-
more likely to remain in adjustment over a long
peak) and low distortion ( 45 db.). A typical
period of time. The chief argument against it,
Sideband Generators 307

11111111111111 (1 1, 1 ,1 ill1111w1111111111 1wi 1+1111

LOW FREQ LINEAR
RF BALANCED SIDEBAND MIXER RF
OSCILLATOR MODULATOR FILTER AMPLIFIER
Il

fLOW RF fLOW RP f LOW R F f HIGH RF fHIGH RI;

HIGH-FREQ
D- AMPLIFIER
AUDIO I _
(A) RF
OSCILLATOR

•fo

BALANCED
MODULATOR

AUDIO
\ 90° PHASE
iiI111101 ,„ 1111111111111 LINEAR

D
- AMPLIFIER
SHI FT
NETWORK
901 DIFFERENCE RF
AMPLIFIER

° fAnse fR F fRF
BALANCED Fig. I1-3—Two basic systems for gener-
MODULATOR
ating single-sideband suppressed-carrier
signals. Representations of a typical en-
f AUDIO 90° -.-
DIFFERENCE velope picture ( as seen on an oscillo-

(B) RF
90 ° R F
scope) and spectrum picture ( as seen on
avery selective panoramic receiver) are
PHASE shown above and below the connecting
OSCILLATOR
SHIFT links.

from the amateur viewpoint, is that it requires most of the alignment difficulty has been elimi-
quite a few stages and at least one frequency nated. In most cases the phasing system will
conversion after modulation. The phasing sys- cost less to apply to an existing transmitter.
tem requires fewer stages and can be designed Regardless of the method used to generate a
to require no frequency conversion, but its s.s.b. signal of 5 or 10 watts, the minimum cost
alignment and adjustment are often considered will be found to be higher than for an a.m.
to be a little " trickier" than that of the filter transmitter of the same low power. However,
system. This probably stems from lack of as the power level is increased, the s.s.b. trans-
familiarity with the system rather than any mitter becomes more economical than the a.m.
actual . ffifficulty, and now that commercial pre- rig, both initially and from an operating stand-
adjusted audio- phasing networks are available, point.

FILTER-TYPE S.S.B. EXCITERS

The basic configuration of a filter- type s.s.b. filters generally utilize war- surplus crystals.
exciter was shown in Fig. 11-3. Suitable filters, The frequency of the filter determines how
sharp enough to reject the unwanted side fre- many conversions must be made before the op-
quencies a few hundred cycles and above from erating frequency is reached. If the filter fre-
the carrier frequency, can be built in the range quency. is 30 kc. or so, it is wise to convert first
20 kc. to 10 Mc. The low- frequency filters gen- to 500 or 600 kc. and then convert to the 3.9- Mc.
erally use iron-cored inductors, and the • new band, to avoid the image that would almost
toroid forms find considerable favor at fre- surely result if the conversion from 30 to 3900
quencies up to 50 or 60 kc. These filters are of kc. were made without the intermediate step.
normal band-pass constant- k and nt - derived When a filter at 500 kc. is used, only one con-
configuration. In the range 450 to 500 kc., either version is necessary to operate in the 3.9- Mc.
crystal- lattice or electro-
mechanical filters are band, but 14- Mc. and higher- frequency opera-
used. Low- frequency filters are manufactured tion would require at least two conversions to
by Barker & Williamson and by Burnell & Co., hold down the images ( and local-oscillator sig-
and electro - mechanical filters are made by the nals if balanced mixers aren't used) and make
Collins Radio Co. Crystal filters are available them easy to eliminate.
from Hermes Electronics and McCoy Elec- The choice of converter circuit depends
tronics in the megacycles range; homemade largely on the frequencies involved and the im-
 308 SIDEBAND
BAL P.'D! VDDD
.

12AD/
AMPLIFIER OR
CONVERTER
Fig. 11-4—One type of bal-
anced-modulator circuit that
can be used with amechanical
filter ( Collins F455-31 or F500-
31 series) in the i.f. range. The
filters are furnished in various
types of mountings, and the
values of CI and C2 will de-
pend upon the type of filter
selected.
Ti —Plate-to-push- pull- grid s
audio transformer,
TO CARRIER • 300
OSCILLATOR

pedance level. At low frequencies ( up to 500 formers can be either capacitor- tuned as shown,
kc.) and low impedances, rectifier- type balanced or they can be slug-tuned.
modulators are often used for mixers, because A variable- frequency signal generator of
the balanced modulator does not show the local- some kind is required for alignment of the filter,
oscillator frequency in its output and one source but this can be nothing more elaborate than a
of spurious signal is minimized. At high im- shielded h. fo, unit. The signal should be intro-
pedance levels, and at the higher frequencies, duced at the balanced modulator, and an output
vacuum tubes are generally used, in straight indicator connected to the plate circuit of the
converter or balanced- modulator circuits, de- vacuum tube following the filter. With the
pending upon the need for minimizing the local- crystals out of the circuit, the transformers can
oscillator frequency in the output. be brought close to frequency by plugging in
Sideband filters in the 30- to 50-kc. range are small capacitors ( 2 to 5 fig.) in one crystal
usually low- impedance devices, and rectifier- socket in each stage and then tuning the trans-
type balanced modulators are common practice. formers for peak output at one of the two
Sideband filters in the if. range are higher- im- crystal frequencies. The small capacitors can
pedance circuits and vacuum- tube balanced then be removed and the crystals replaced in
modulators are the rule in this case. An ex- their sockets.
ample of one that can be used with the high- Tuning the signal source slowly across the
impedance ( 15,000 ohms) mechanical filter is pass band of the filter and watching the output
shown in Fig. 11-4. The filter can be followed indicator will show the selectivity characteristic
by a converter or amplifier tube, depending of the filter. The objective is a fairly flat
upon the signal level. Some models of the me- response for about two kc. and arapid drop-off
chanical filters have a23-db, insertion loss, while outside this range. It will be found that small
others have only 10. changes in the tuning of the transformers will
Crystal- lattice filters are also used to reject change the shape of the selectivity character-
the unwanted sideband. These filters can be istic, so it is wise to make asmall adjustment of
made from crystals in the if. range — many of one trimmer, swing the frequency across the
these are still available from stores selling mili- band, and observe the characteristic. After a
tary surplus. A popular configuration is the little experimenting it will be found which way
"cascaded half lattice" shown in Fig. 11-5. The the trimmers must be moved to compensate for
crystals used in this filter can be obtained at the peaks that will rise when the filter is out
frequencies in the i.f, range, and ones that are of adjustment.
within the ranges of the modified i.f, trans- The ( suppressed) carrier frequency must be
formers will be satisfactory. Two 100-mtf. adjusted so that it falls properly on the slope of
capacitors are connected across the secondary the filter characteristic. If it is too close to the
winding of two of the transformers to give filter mid- frequency the sideband rejection will
push-pull output. The crystals should be ob- be poor; if it is too far away there will be a
tained in pairs 1.8 kc. apart. The if. trans- lack of " lows" in the signal.

- —
10
FROM
BALANCED CONVERTER
AMPLIFIER
OR
MODULATOR

Fig. 11-5—A cascaded half-lattice crystal filter that can be used for sideband
selection. The crystals are surplus type in FT-243A holders. Y1 and Y. should be
the same frequency and Y2 and Y4 should be 1.8 kc. higher. 12-450-kc. i.f.
.

transformers.
A Filter Sideband Exciter 309

A HIGH- FREQUENCY CRYSTAL- FILTER SIDEBAND EXCITER

When asideband signal is generated at 500 kc. Referring to the wiring diagram in Fig. 11-7,
or below, several frequency conversions are usu- the two triode sections of a 6CG7 are used in
ally required to move the signal to the 14- Mc. cascade for the speech amplifier, to bring the
band without danger of " image" signals. By voice signal up to the desired level of about 1
generating the sideband signal at a high fre- volt. This is used to modulate the beam of the
quency, only one frequency conversion is re- 7360 balanced-modulator stage. The 7360 is also
quired. The sideband transmitter shown in Figs. used as the ( suppressed) carrier oscillator, by
11-6 through 11-9 is built around a commercial raising its cathode above r.f. ground and con-
9- Mc. crystal filter and, with a6DQ5 in the out- necting the carrier-frequency crystal • between
put stage, it will deliver 50 watts p.e.p. on 75, 40 control grid and ground. Two crystals are fur-
and 20 meters. The crystal filter is furnished with nished with the crystal filter; in this case they
two matching crystals for the oscillator, so that have nominal frequencies of 8.998500 and
upper or lower sideband can be obtained by shift- 9.001500 Mc. The 12-µg. adjustable ceramic
ing the ( suppressed) carrier frequency to one capacitors ( Centralab 827-B) in shunt with the
side or the other of the crystal- filter pass band. crystals are used to pull the frequencies into
To facilitate construction and adjustment, the correct relationship to the filter pass band. Since
exciter has none of the " frills" to be found in the good linearity of the 7360 is destroyed if the
some commercial equipment, although they can grid is driven positive, a 1N34A diode is used to
of course be added by the experienced amateur. provide bias in addition to that produced by the
Plug-in coils and crystal control are used, al- cathode resistor. Carrier balance is obtained
though there is provision for " pulling" the crystal through adjustment of the relative positive biases
frequency by means of a " VXO" circuit. Voice- (about + 20 volts) on the deflection plates, and
controlled break-in has been omitted in the in- also through the capacitive balance made possible
terests of simplicity ( and perhaps a better type by the range of C1.Upsetting the balance by
of operation), and the transmitter is turned on changing the bias on one deflection plate provides
or off by a foot switch or key. No operating a "calibration" signal or, by changing the un-
conveniences have been omitted, however, other balance still more by closing S2,sufficient carrier
than the ability to make sudden large frequency for c.w. operation.
changes. A "calibrate" position of the mode The 9- Mc, crystal filter, FL i,is a low-imped-
switch permits accurate setting of one's frequency ance device ( 560 ohms), and the double-sideband
at alevel that does not block the receiver, and in signal appearing in L1 is coupled to FL I through
the " standby" condition a bias voltage of — 100 alow- impedance winding. A suitable termination
is available to be applied to any subsequent for the filter is obtained by the properly-trans-
amplifier that might generate undesirable diode formed self impedance of the circuit made up of
noise without the additional bias. L2 and the 47- µpf. capacitor; since the correct

Fig. 11-6—This single-sideband ex-

citer unit uses a 9-Mc, crystal filter
ond a choice of oscillator frequencies
to obtain the upper or lower side-
band. The output tube ( right) is a
6DQ5. For simplicity, plug-in coils
are used, and two of them are
shielded by grocery- store products
painted gray ( center).
One side has been removed for
the photograph; the top plate is
"plug on" at the four corners through
jacks mounted on the four corners
of the top plate.
The frequency control for the unit
is a " VXO," a crystal-controlled os-
cillator that can be pulled several
kc. by a panel control ( large knob
under meter). The crystal in use is
plugged in at the lower right, just
above a small CAL control knob that sets the signal level into the receiver when the function switch ( left, below
VXO control) is on " calibrate." Small knob at lower left is sideband-selector switch. Switch to left of meter
switches meter to grid or cathode of output tube or to r.f. voltmeter on output line; knob just below adjusts sen-
sitivity of r.f. voltmeter.
356 TRANSMISSION LINES
sible to dissipate a large part of the transmitter
output in the tuner itself, and for this reason an
output indicator is highly desirable, at least for
the initial tune-up. Either an r.f. ammeter in the
output lead or an r.f. voltmeter from it to chassis
will be satisfactory. Under some conditions a
neon bulb will serve as an r.f. voltmeter.
If TVI is aproblem, the low-pass filter should
be installed in the line between coupler and
transmitter.

A WIDE- RANGE COUPLER FOR ANY

ANTENNA
The coupler shown in Figs. 13-16 and 13-18
will match a transmitter's 50- or 70- ohm output
to antenna loads as low as 10 ohms and as
high as 4000, balanced or unbalanced. For load
changes it uses a capacitive voltage divider. Re-
ferring to Fig. 13-17, the capacitors CO3C3 and Fig. 13- 16—This wide- range antenna coupler can be
(" 4,connected in series across the inductance L1 used with parallel- line or coaxial transmission lines,

form the divider. as well as with a wire of random length. The ca-
To simplify construction and duplication, a pacitors at the center of the chassis are insulated
single length of coil stock is used for the induc- from the chassis and from each other; the near
tance. The link, /_ 2L3,is actually two coils. For capacitor is a normal split- stator capacitor and is
80 and 40 meters, the two coils are connected mounted on the chassis. The coil at the far side is
in series to provide an 8- turn link. On 20, 15 and supported by its leads above the band switch.
10 the coils are connected in parallel, resulting Controls along the bottom, from left to right,
in the equivalent of a two- turn link. Using the are the link capacitor, the Monimatch FORWARD-
two coils in this fashion provides tighter coupling REFLECTED switch and the Monimatch SENSITIVITY
to L1 than would be obtained if a single link control.

MON IMATCH

, 3.5

14
C2
21
J3
TO 28 "( ANT.
XMTR 08
FEEDERS

C3 J4

28
21
'4
rs20
C4
3

Fig. 13- 17—Circuit diagram of the antenna coupler and Monimatch.

C1 - 250 -µPf. variable, 0.045- inch spacing for high Ja, 12 — Feedthrough insulators.
power (Johnson 250E20); 0.025- inch spacing 1,—See Fig. 13-19 and text.
for low power ( Hammarlund MC- 250-M). M,-0-1 ma. or less; see text.
Cs, C. - 100 -
µµf. variable, 0.125- inch spacing for high P;—Coax plug, type PL- 259.
power (Johnson 100E45); 0.025- inch spacing Rs, 12::— For 50-ohm bridge, 150 ohms, 2 -
/
1 watt corn.
for low power ( Hammarlund MC- 100-M). position; for 70-ohm bridge, 100-ohms, 2 -
/
1

Ca- 100 -144f. -per -section, dual variable, 0.125- inch watt composition.
spacing for high power (Johnson 100ED45); R,- 20,000- ohm control, linear taper.
0.025- inch spacing for low power ( Hammar- S,— Rotary, 1 pole, 2 positions ( Centralab type 1460).
lund MCD-100-M). Ss— Ceramic rotary, 4 poles, 5 positions, 1 pole per
CR,, CR2-1N34A germanium diodes. section, 4 sections (Centralab index type
J2, 14— Chassis- type coax receptacles, type SO- 239. P-272 with type " TD" or " XD" sections).
A Filter Sideband Exciter 311

MIXER AMPLIFIER OUTPUT

eBA7 6CLet 6DQ5
Cs
.001 470
.001 6KV. OUTPUT

PLATE

330K
-
10
er, 01

+700

.01
.001
+15/
0 REG. IOK
101
100
+300
+300 VM
SENS 100K

2.5rtsk. CR, 3 1000

12
16
1S0V1.1. (6) REMOTE
TO Ti 63V

100 KEY
TO MISER GRID

5 3C

530 °

Fig. 11-7- Circuit diagram of the crystal-filter sideband generator. Unless specified otherwise, capacitances are
in µALL, decimal capacitances are in µf., resistors are Y2 watt, resistances are in ohms. Capacitors marked with
polarity are electrolytic.

C-15-µp.f. differential capacitor (Johnson 160-308). 1-2- 3.1-6.8-

Ah. variable inductor ( Miller M-4405).
Cs- Dual 50-µµf. variable ( Johnson 167-52). Coupling coil is 4 t. No. 22 enam, close.
Ca- Dual 50-µµf. variable ( Hammarlund HFD-50). Each wound over " cold" end.
section has 30-µµf, mica compression trim- L-1,- See coil table, next page.
mer in parallel. L- 5-henry 100- ma. choke ( Stancor C-2305).
Cs-50-Aµf. miniature variable ( Hammarlund APC-508). G- 2- henry 200- ma. choke ( Stancor C-2325).
Cs- 11-µµf. variable ( Johnson 167-1). F4- Line plug, preferably fused, 11
2 amp.
/
C,-100-/L/of. variable ( Hammarlund HFA-100A). RFC- 5 1. No. 22 spacewound on 100-ohm 1-watt
Cs-Mounted in Lo form. See coil table. resistor.
C8 - 365 -µ,uf. midget variable ( Allied Radio 61 H 009 6- position ( 2 used) rotary switch (Centralab
or Lafayette Radio MS-214). PA- 2003).
CR,CRu-400 p.i.v. 500- ma. silicon ( Lafayette Radio Ss-S.p.s.t. toggle.
SP- 196). Sa-4- pole 5- position (4 used) 2-section rotary switch
FL-9.0-Mc. crystal filter ( McCoy Electronics 32 B1). (Centralab PA- 1013).
.4-Microphone jack ( Amphenol 75 PC- 1M). v.c.t. 200- ma, power transformer with 6.3- and
J2- Coaxial receptacle ( S0-239). 5-v. filament windings ( Knight 61 G 414).
18 - Phono jack. 1
.2-6.3-v.0.6-amp. fil. transformer ( Knight 61 G 416).
14 - Open - circuit phone jack. Ys- See coil table, next page.

provides 700 volts for the output stage, 300 volts ances the balanced modulator but keeps the
for the low-level stages, and regulated 150 volts output stage biased off, for calibration purposes,
for the oscillators. Inexpensive silicon rectifiers and in the fourth position it unbalances the
are used in a combination circuit that provides a modulator and turns on the final, for tune-up
basic 700 and 300 volts under load. A small fila- purposes.
ment transformer, T 2 , is connected to the ( other-
Construction
wise) unused 5- volt winding of the power tran-
former, and the resulting 90 volts at the sec- The transmitter is built on a 10 X 14 X 3- inch
ondary is rectified to furnish the bias voltage for aluminum chassis, with front and rear panels
the output stage. made of sturdy sheet aluminum 9 inches high.
The mode switch, S3,turns on the power sup- The cane- metal sides are bolted to aluminum
ply, and places the transmitter in readiness to be angle stock that is bolted to the panels; this can
controlled at .14.In its third position, S3 unbal- be seen in Figs. 11-6 and 11-8. A lip bent inward
312 SIDEBAND
on the bottom of each side plate of cane metal the cover and the cover is held to the chassis by
rests on the chassis; see Fig. 11-8. The top plate the same screws that secure the socket. The two
of cane metal has a banana jack set in each black tube shields visible in one of the pictures
corner, which engages a corresponding banana are ordinary tube shields sprayed with flat black.
plug mounted on the angle stock ( see Fig. 11-6).
Alignment
The placement of most of the major compo-
nents can be seen in the several photographs. The During the first stages of testing the trans-
7360 beam-deflection modulator tube should be mitter, it is suggested that the 10- and 5100-ohm
mounted well away from transformers or chokes resistors be disconnected from Pin 3of the 6DQ5
that might be surrounded by an a.c. field, because socket. This will open the cathode circuit for d.c.
the tube is sensitive to these a.c. fields and low- and the tube will be inactive in the socket. At the
frequency sidebands can be generated by these same time, open the lead from L 9 to the rectifiers.
stray fields. Aluminum brackets made of scrap With the tubes in place, and coils and crystals
sheet material will be required to mount C.,and for a band plugged in, the unit should first be
C 8 ,C 3 and C 4,and the tie-point strips supporting tuned as ac.w. transmitter. First checks for out-
CR 1 through CR i.,. The bracket supporting C 3 put and resonance can be made with S3 in the
has two National TPB feedthrough bushings "calibrate" position, using the 500.000-ohm CALI-
mounted on the side to shorten the leads be- BRATE LEVEL control as an excitation control. A
tween stators and related tube sockets. The useful tool at this point is a pick-up loop and a
neutralizing capacitor, C3,must be insulated from shielded lead to a receiver ( see Fig. 11-14).
the chassis, and another National TPB feed- Checking at L 5 should show r.f. of the desired
through is used from the rotor terminal to the frequency that is controllable in amplitude by the
underside of the chassis. setting of the CALIBRATE LEVEL control. With an
The coil shield cans are made from baking- insulated screwdriver on the padder across CIA ,
powder ( Calumet) cans emptied and sprayed on adjust the ganged shafts of C 3 and C, and the
the outside with grey lacquer. A hole is cut in screwdriver on the padder for maximum output

Band ( Mc.) 3.8-4.0 7.2-7.3 14.2-14.35

Crystal Y1 5.2-5.0 16.2-16.3 5.2-5.35
L5 46 t.* 22 t." 10 t."
Shunt 10,000 ohms 10,000 ohms None

10 t."
Lt None None 34 inch from Ls

L5 46 t. 5 22 t." 10 t."
Shunt 4700 ohms 4700 ohms 47.000 Ohms

Le 46 t." 24 t." 12 t. 4."

L7 72 t.* 20 t." Same as 3.8 Mc.

Cs (Ile ) 1000 330 —

*No. 24, 32 t.p.i., 1-inch diam. ( B&W 3016).

"No. 20. 16 t.p.i., 1- inch diam. ( B&W 3015).
***No. 18. 8 t.p.i., 1-inch diam. ( 13&.W 3014).
Coils are mounted in 1h-inch o.d. polystyrene plug-in coil forms (Allied Radio 24-4P and 24-5P).
Shunt resistors are 3.6-watt except 4700 ohms, which are 1-watt.

Fig. 11-8—Another view of the top of the

filter sideband exciter. The variable capad.
tor in the VXO circuit is under the meter; the
small box to the right of this capacitor is the
crystal filter, and the two matched oscillator
crystals supplied with the filter are near the
panel. The 7360 beam-deflection modulator
is in the block tube shield near the filter; a
grommet on the shaft ( next to the 7360) of
the balance potentiometer serves as aknob.
Tubes in the foreground, from left to right,
are 6AU6 VXO, 6BA7 mixer, 6CL6 ( black
shield) amplifier and 6DQ5 output stage. The
long extension shafts behind the tubes con-
trol plate tuning and output loading ca-
pacitors.
A Filter Sideband Exciter 313
as indicated by the receiver. The object is to set and the 25,000-ohm bias control should be set to
the padder so that its capacitance is equal to the give maximum bias ( arm closest to capacitor
circuit capacitance across L 5 , thus enabling the side). Set S 4 to read cathode current ( full scale
circuits to track. If this alignment is done on 20 is 200 ma.) and turn on the transmitter. With a
meters ( preferable), the padder across C3, 4 will key plugged in at / 4,close the key and turn the
also have to be adjusted at the same time. bias potentiometer arm until a cathode current
If S 4 is set to the position for measuring the of about 30 ma. ( reading of 0.15) is obtained.
r.f. output, resonating the output circuit may Swinging C 6 around should give no change in
show a slight amount of r.f. even though the cathode current; if the cathode current suddenly
cathode circuit is open. If r.f. is indicated, the kicks up it means the stage is not completely
stage can be roughly neutralized by setting C 5 neutralized and needs touching up.
for minimum output under these conditions. The Switching to the "tune" position and using the
receiver, connected at / 2 or coupled to L 6, is a "calibrate level" control for an excitation con-
much more sensitive neutralization indicator, trol, it should be possible to drive the 6DQ5 into
however. grid current on any of the three bands. With the
Switching now to OPERATE, it should be found excitation backed off just below the point of grid
that there is asetting of the 5000-ohm "balance" current, the output stage should be loaded to
control that gives very low output. Test this first draw about 120 ma. cathode current. Switching
with C1 set at equal capacitances; after finding to "operate" and speaking into the microphone,
the minimum setting for the potentiometer try the gain should be set to where voice peaks kick
adjusting the capacitor. If the wiring is reason- the cathode current to peaks of 50 ma. ( 0.25) or
ably symmetrical, it may be found that C/ has so. A much finer adjustment of loading condi-
little effect, but this is nothing to worry about. tions and a better control of speech level before
If the tone of the ( apparently) suppressed carrier distortion can be obtained by using an oscillo-
suddenly changes as the potentiometer reaches scope to observe the effects of tuning, loading
the null point, it indicates the presence of 60- or and level.
120-cycle residual sidebands, stemming from a.c. No values are given for 10- and 15-meter
at the deflection plates or amagnetic field around operation because full output cannot be obtained
the tube. on these bands without an additional stage of
If the two crystals in the 7360 balanced modu- amplification. .
lator had exactly the same activity, it might be
possible to set their frequencies by adjusting the
trimmers across the crystals until, in the testing
in the "calibrate" setting of S 3 ,exactly the same
output uas obtained fur either setting of S1.
Since this equal- output condition is not neces-
sarily the case, it becomes necessary to adjust
the two trimmers, until, judging by ear, the side-
band signal sounds the same for either setting of
S1 ( and proper tuning of the receiver). A more
sophisticated and accurate approach is to borrow
an audio oscillator ( if one is lacking) and meas-
ure the relative outputs at various audio fre-
quencies for the two settings of Si.The output
should start to fall off fast below about 400 cycles
and above about 3000; the exact figures will be
determined by the filter characteristics and by
personal preferences of the operator.
When an acceptable sideband signal can be ob-
tained, the transmitter can be turned off long
enough to reconnect Lo and also the resistors in
the 6DQ5 cathode circuit. Before turning on the
power, a dummy load should be connected at Jo

Fig. 11-9— Underneath the chassis of the sideband ex-

citer. The twelve silicon rectifiers of the power supply
are hung between tie points mounted on an aluminum
bracket ( upper right). The ganged capacitors, CS, C4
that tune the excitation stages are mounted on an
aluminum bracket ( lower left center); the shaft of
C4 is insulated to keep it above ground potential.
Controls and outlets along the back panel (top) are,
left to right: S2, output jack, microphone jack, key jack,
bias control, remote jack . 111, and the a.c. line con-
nection.
314 SIDEBAND

A PHASED SINGLE-SIDEBAND EXCITER

The sideband generator shown in Figs. 11-10 and — 45 degrees in the r.f. phase- shift network
and 11-11 uses the phasing principle outlined to give a net difference of 90 degrees.
earlier ( Fig. 11-3B) to produce an upper or The output of the balanced modulators is
lower single-sideband signal. It will also gen- amplified by a Class- A 6CL6, which has suffi-
erate a double-sideband signal, with or without cient output to drive two or three 6146s in Class
carrier. The generator features the new beam- AB i.The tube complement and power supply
deflection 7360 tube in the balanced modulator shown in the circuit diagram are such that the
portion of the circuit, and it is complete ( with 6CL6 can be overdriven on 75, 40 and 20 meters
power supply) except for the frequency- con- (but Class- A operation demands that the tube
trolling source. A watt or two of r.f. from a never be driven into grid current). On 15 and
v.f.o. or crystal- controlled oscillator is sufficient 10 meters this reserve gain is lacking, and con-
for the unit. sequently inductor and phase- shift values for
Referring to the circuit diagram in Fig. 11-12, these bands are not given.
a 12AT7 twin triode serves as the speech am- For ease of adjustment the grid, screen and
plifier. An audio phase- shift network ( Barker plate currents of the 6CL6 can be measured, by
& Williamson Model 350 2Q4) plugs in the octal proper settings of S4. Further, the input and
socket /2.This preadjusted network has the output r.f. voltages can be metered, for con-
property of delivering two audio signals differ- venience in setting the excitation and the output
ing in phase by 90 degrees -.I- 1.5 degrees over tuning.
the range 300 to 3000 cycles. The audio network To simplify the construction and adjustment,
is protected against low- and high- frequency plug-in coils and r.f. phase- shift networks are
components outside this range by the coupling- used ( Fig. 11-13). The r.f. network is made up
capacitance values and the low-pass filter of 100- ohm resistors and suitable capacitors
C,C2L, L2.The two audio signals from the net- (100- ohms reactance at the operating fre-
work are equalized by the PHASE control and quency) ; once adjusted it will hold sufficiently
amplified by V2A and V2B and applied to the de- over an amateur hand.
flection plates of the 7360 balanced modulators. The mode switch, .51,shifts from one side-
The r.f. introduced at 14 is split and shifted -I- band output to another by shifting the deflection

Fig. 11- 10— This phasing-type single ( and double) sideband generator features the 7360 beam- deflection tube
in the balanced- modulator section. The 6a6 output amplifier ( behind meter) delivers sufficient output to drive
one or more 6146 amplifier tubes in Class AB,. Plug-in coils are used to simplify construction.
The r.f. phase-shift network ( coil form at extreme left, with two capacitor shafts visible) is plug-in for each
band. The audio phase-shift network ( B & W Type 2Q4 No. 350) is housed in the tube envelope in front of
the audio transformer at rear left. The unshielded tube at rear center is a voltage- regulator tube; two black
knobs in front of the VR tube are on the carrier balance controls.
Toggle switches on the panel, left to right, are tra nsmit-receive, power and spotting ( carrier insert). Two
knobs at left, above the microphone jack, turn the mode ( lower) and the tune-operate switches. Knob under the
meter is on the 5- position meter switch.
A Sideband Exciter 315

Fig. 11- 11— View underneath the chassis of the sideband generator. Tuning capacitors are mounted close under
the sockets for the associated plug-in coils. At rear of the chassis ( bottom in this view), two terminals are used for
bias measurement, and the 4-terminal barrier strip is for making connection to remote control and v.f.o. on-off
circuits. Two inductors, part of the low-pass oudio filter that protects the audio phase-shift network, are mounted
near the r.f, input jack ( lower left).

plate to which the audio is applied in one of the from convention is the location of the AUDIO
balanced modulators. A third position of the GAIN control on the chassis instead of the front
switch disables one of the balanced modulators, panel, but the control is used so seldom that the
resulting in double-sideband output from the location is justified.
generator. A spotting switch, S2,is used to mo- No special considerations are required in wir-
mentarily unbalance a balanced modulator and ing the audio section other than the usual pre-
allow r.f. to feed through in an amount suffi- cautions against hum pickup. Before installing
cient to be heard in the receiver. The amount of L1 and L2 they should be set to their correct
unbalance is determined by the setting of the value of 25 mh. An impedance bridge or Q
SPOT LEVEL resistor. A second circuit of S2 is meter can be used for the purpose, if available.
available to turn on the external oscillator at If not, they can be set with an audio oscillator
the same time. The TUNE-OPERATE Switch, Sa,is and v.t.v.m. ( or oscilloscope). Connect an in-
used to ground the 6CL6 screen during tune-up ductor in parallel with one of the 0.1-µf. capac-
procedures. itors, and connect the combination to the audio
The power supply includes a bias supply for oscillator output through a high resistance
the 6CL6 amplifier stage. When switch S6 is (100K or so). Connect the v.t.v.m. ( or ' scope)
closed, normal operating bias is applied to the across the parallel-tuned circuit, and adjust the
6CL6, but when it is opened the bias will rise to inductor for maximum voltage across the com-
the power- supply level and reduce the 6CL6 bination when the audio oscillator is set at 3200
plate current to zero. This is useful if the 6CL6 cycles. Repeat for the other inductor and capac-
generates " diode noise" on standby that is itor, and do not change the slug settings again.
audible in the receiver. Remote connections The filter will have a cut-off frequency of 3200
allow the same bias to be applied to a following cycles.
amplifier during standby, or they can be used to R.f. wiring should be made short and direct
open and close the circuit normally controlled wherever possible. Input and output are run to
by S. jacks / 3 and in RG-58/U coaxial cable. Try
to maintain symmetry of leads in the balanced-
Construction modulator portion of the circuit.
The physical arrangement of the major com- Coil and r.f. phase- shift network dimensions
ponents is shown in Figs. 11-10 and 11-12. The are given in the coil table. La is amanufactured
generator is built on an 8 X 17 X 3-inch alumi- product used as is; Le and L, are made from
num chassis, with a7- inch high relay rack panel coil stock and mounted inside the polystyrene
held to it by the components along the bottom plug-in coil forms. The L5 form also carries
front. Millen 80008 2A1 - inch diameter aluminum padding capacitors for C7 (these aren't shown
shields are used at the sockets for L4,L, and in Fig. 11-12). A padder for C6,used
the r.f. phase-shift network. A minor departure only on 75 meters, can be connected to a spare
 316 SIDEBAND
AU D IO
AMPLIFI E R
SPEECH AMPLIFI ER
.0068 12 AT 7

VIA VD A
AU DI
O
0068
GAIN
BLU E

7, BLA CK PHA SE

HIC MEG §47N

V 28

33« ®

C4LCHH

I
ON

108.
II 0 MO.

REC TIFI ER L6

Pl
2.

3AMP. 0 150

0 A 2 / VR 150

115 V
A.C.

3AMP.

È
6
L3V
2200

400v I
I0,Uf
330v. I
ON
3
BIAS
MEASURE
2200

o
tniods/
S6 __E° REMOTE

Fig. 11- 12— Schematic diagram of the sideband generator. Unless specified otherwise, resistors are /
2 -
1 watt, . 01-
and .002-p.f. capacitors are disk ceramic, 600 volts; . 1- and . 2-4, capacitors are tubular paper, 400 volts;
capacitors marked with polarities are electrolytic.

Cs-0.1-µf. 200-v. paper :

II 10 per cent ( Sprague Js, I.—Coaxial- plug receptacle ( S0-239).
21M- Pi). 1.2-4-30 mh. slug-tuned coil ( Miller 6315) adjusted
Cs— Dual 100-/zµf. variable ( Hammarlund HFD-100). to 25 mh. See text.
C.-15-p.Af. variable ( Hammarlund MAPC-15). La, L4, 1,— See coil table.
C-100-p.p.f. variable ( Hammarlund APC-1008). 1,- 10- henry 110- ma, filter choke ( Knight 62G139).
C5-100-11/4 variable ( Hammarlund HFA-100A). PI— Fuse plug.
Co — Dual 365-µ0. variable, stators in parallel ( broad- S,- 3- pole 3- position rotary switch.
cast replacement type). So—D.p.d.t. toggle.
C,..— See coil table. 2- position non-shorting rotary switch.
variable ( Johnson 30M8 160-130). S.— Two- pole 5- position rotary switch, non- shorting.
CR - 360 p.i.v. 200- ma. silicon ( Sarkes-Tarzian K-200). S..—S.p.s.t. toggle.
I,- 6.3-v. panel light. T,- 20,000-to- 600 ohms tube-to- line transformer (Thor-
Ji —Microphone connector ( Amphenol 75-PC1M). darson 22591).
Js— Octal tube socket, for phase- shift network. T2-520 v.c.t. at 90 ma., 5 v., 6.3 v. ( Knight 61G412).

pin on the socket for L3,with the other capac- Since the rotor terminals of Cy,and
no
would
touch each other when the two capaci-
C
11
itor terminal connected the chassis. A jumper
in the 75- meter L3 will then connect the padder tors are in place, each terminal must be snipped
across C6. off close to the ceramic. A piece of tinned wire
By cutting a small notch in each side of the is then soldered to the remaining portion of the
coil form, the two trimmer capacitors CII and CI1 terminal and led across the ceramic and up
can be mounted side by side in the coil form. through the hole that will be farther from the
 A Sideband Exciter 317

L5
4 ryrri..4,
BALANCED
MODULATOR R.E AMPLIFIER .002
1N52 OUTPUT
6C L6
6

.002 .
002 15 RFC 1 C
6 c,
.002 . 002 100 730 J3
5
mh. »Pf. 2.5mh.

C5 .
001

o-
1
.001

100
»Pt

680 I 820
51(

ee
. 910
/OA
4.76
4711 2.5 mh
TUNE

2200
470
470K

+150 + 200
1000
T
o

1500 1500
H Mc, O
S00'.

SPOT avEL
$, 48

—5 01.11041
5

C)- 27K 3500

R.F PHASE SHIFT possible to adjust the generator with

only the source of single-tone a.f., a
0
selective receiver and a v.t.v.m. The
sPoT basic arrangement for aligning the side-
S, s29 band generator, or any sideband gen-
erator using the phasing method, is
shown in Fig. 11-14.
To align the generator just described,
2 5 mh
connect an audio oscillator to the micro-
.01 TO V.F.O. phone jack, J1,through an attenuator
IN52 12K CONTROL
4 I(S4a) as shown in Fig. 11-14. Open the 500K
AUDIO GAIN control in the generator
about half way and apply a 1000- cycle
R.F. IN
audio tone. Adjust the input level for
other trimmer capacitor when the two are in approximately 1volt a.c. at the plates of V2A and
place. The connections to C s , C1„ and the two 112„, with the 500- ohm BALANCE control set at
100- ohm 1- watt ( composition, not wirewound) half resistance. It will be found that the PHASE
resistors must be made before the wires are control will be offset under these conditions; this
snaked through the coil- form pins and soldered. is perfectly natural since the attenuations through
Before soldering to the coil- form pins, the the two channels of the audio phase- shift net-
lengths of leads to the stators of C, and C11 can work are not equal. If a good oscilloscope is
be measured and soldered. The leads to the available ( identical phase shifts through ver-
rotors from the coil- form pins are long leads tical and horizontal amplifiers), the outputs
that are led up from the pins through the holes from V2A and V2B should give a circle on the
in the ceramic end supports. When these long scope face when the vertical and horizontal
leads have been soldered to the leads from the gains are equalized.
rotors they will serve to hold C, and C11 in Apply r.f. from the v.f.o. or crystal-controlled
place. Any surplus length should he snipped off. oscillator at .1
4,and increase its amplitude until
See Fig. 11-13. When soldering to the pins of the meter shows full scale with S4 turned full
the polystyrene coil forms, hold the pin in pliers clockwise. A full-scale reading will be close
or a vise, to prevent heat from reaching the to the 7360
10 volts r.m.s. at the No. 3 pins of
polystyrene. balanced- modulator tubes. With S, in the TUNE
Adjustment
position, and S, switched to read the grid cur-
An audio oscillator or other source of low- rent tune
of the 6CL6, it should be possible to
distortion single- tone audio is a necessity in the and C, and get an indication of grid current.
C3
preliminary adjustment of the sideband genera- Turn off the generator by pulling the line plug
tor. An oscilloscope is also very useful, but it is and temporarily open one side of the 10-ohm
318 SIDEBAND

Fig. 11- 13— Plug-in coils and

r.f. phase-shift networks for
the sideband generator.
Output tank coils ( right)
include additional padding
capacitor for C7, as given
in the coil table. Polysty-
rene coil forms are 4- pin
(Allied Radio 24-4P) and
5- pin ( Allied Radio 24-5P).

resistor in the plate- voltage lead to the 6CL6. modulator and 6CL6 circuits for maximum out-
The 6CI.6 stage can now be neutralized, using put — this resonates these circuits. Next adjust
for an indicator areceiver connected to the out- the 5K BALANCE potentiometers for minimum
put jack / 3.Use a length of coaxial cable from output. Then introduce a single audio tone of
/3 YO the receiver, and install an attenuator net- around 1000 cycles at the microphone terminal.
work at the receiver antenna terminals, as Here again it may be necessary to use a resist-
shown in Fig. 11-14. Adjust the neutralizing ance voltage divider to hold the signal down and
capacitor for minimum signal at the receiver, prevent overload. Advance the gain control and
with all circuits resonated, 53 on TUNE, and the look at or listen to the output signal from the
signal backed off below the grid- current level. 6CL6. It is most likely to be a heavily modu-
Turn off the power, reconnect the 10-ohm re- lated signal. Try various settings of C9 and C11
sistor, and connect adummy load to the output until the modulation is minimized, and experi-
of the sideband generator. Couple the scope ment as well with slight touches on the BALANCE
and/or receiver to the dummy load or 1. 5, as and PI1ASE controls. S., should he in the OPERATE
shown in Fig. 11-14. When connecting to. an positions during these adjustments. With the
oscilloscope, a tuned circuit is required, and the v.t.v.m. check the r.f. voltages at the No. 3 pins
r.f. voltage developed across the tuned circuit is of the 7360s— they should be the same within
applied directly to the vertical deflection plates. a few per cent. Ifnot, they can be brought into
The receiver is connected by coupling loosely this condition by readjustment of C9 and C11 ,
through a loop and length of shielded cable; consistent with minimum modulation on the
when further attenuation is required it is output signal.
obtained through the use of resistors at the The s.s.b. signal with single- tone audio input
receiver input terminals. is a steady unmodulated signal. While it may
With the oscillator running, tune the balanced not be possible to eliminate the modulation en-

SIDEBAND GENERATOR COIL TABLE

Band
(meters) La 1, L5 Cr pad" Cs, Cac,•••

47 t. No. 24, 32 t.p.i.,

75 154 diam.; 3 turn link 41 turns* 27 turns • 910 µµf. 390 ge
(B & W 80 MCL)

25 t. No. 22. 16 t.p.i.,

40 P4 diam.; 3 turn link 20 turns* 19 turns 470 /Le. 200 µxi f.
(B & W 40 MCI.)

13 t. No. 18, 8 t.p.i.,

20 11
/ diam.; 2 turn link
4 17 turns** 16 turns** 270 µµf. 91 µµf.
(B & W 20 MCL)

.32 t.p.i. No. 24, 1 inch diam. ( B & W 3016 Miniductor).

••16 t.p.i. No. 20, 4 .', inch diam. ( B & W 3011 Miniductor).
,

"'Silver mica, ± 5 per cent tolerance.

Alignment 319
008

lank
RESONATE
10 BAND IN
USE

AUDf0
\
dk SS 8
xCITER
\OSCILLATOR c, DUMMY LOAD OSOLILDSCOM

Fig. 11- 14— Fundamental arrangement for using an oscilloscope and/or receiver when testing an s.s.b. exciter or
transmitter. An audio oscillator is required to furnish the audio signal, and its output is best controlled by the
external control R. The audio volume control in the s.s.b. exciter should not be turned on too far, or it should
be set at the normal position if you know that position, and all volume controlling should then be done with R,
and the output attenuator of the audio oscillator. This will reduce the chances of overloading the audio and other
amplifier stages in the exciter, a common cause of distortion.
The oscilloscope is coupled to the dummy load through a loop, length of coaxial line, and an L-C circuit tuned
to the operating frequency. It is necessary to go directly to the vertical deflection plates of the oscilloscope
rather than through the vertical amplifier.
The receiver is coupled to the dummy load through a loop and a length of shielded line. If too much signal is
obtained this way, an attenuator, can be added to the input terminals of the receiver. Small values of R2

and large values of 12.3 give the most attenuation: in some cases Rs might be merely a few inches of solid wire.

tirely, it will be possible to get it down to a and the age. on—in the earlier tests the a.g.c.
satisfactorily low level. Conditions that will pre- should be off but the r.f. gain reduced low
vent this are improper r.f. phasing, lack of enough to avoid receiver overload.
carrier balance ( suppression), distortion in the Examples of the proper and improper scope
audio signal ( at the source or through overload patterns are shown in Fig. 11-15.
in the speech amplifier), and lack of audio bal- The bias potentiometer for the 6CL6 ampli-
ance at the 12AT7 audio amplifier. Of these, fier should be set initially for a bias of about
the r.f. phasing and the audio balance are per- —3 volts, which should correspond to plate
haps the most critical. and screen currents of about 30 and 7 ma.,
A final check on the signal can be made with respectively. Under maximum- signal conditions,
the receiver in its most selective condition. The just short of running into grid current, the
spectrum testing described below cannot be plate current will kick up slightly. The best
done with a broad receiver. Examining the indicator of proper modulation level is the out-
spectrum near the signal, the side signals other put meter.
than the main one ( carrier, unwanted sidebands, (For an extensive treatment of the alignment
and sidebands from audio harmonics) should be of commercial phasing- type s.s.b. exciters, see
at least 30 db. down from the desired signal. Ehrlich, " How to Adjust Phasing- Type S.S.B.
This checking can be done with the S- meter Exciters," QST, November, 1956.)

AMPLIFICATION OF S.S.B. SIGNALS

When an s.s.b. signal is generated at some is necessary to change frequency by heterodyne
frequency other than the operating frequency, it methods. These are exactly the same as those

(A) E3) (
c) (
D)
Fig. 11- 15— Sketches of the oscilloscope face showing different conditions of adjustment of the exciter unit. (
A)
shows the substantially clean carrier obtained when all adjustments are at optimum and a sine- wave signal is
fed to the audio input. ( B) shows improper r.f. phase and unbalance between the outputs of the two balanced
modulators. ( C) shows improper r.f. phasing but outputs of the two balanced modulators equal. (
D) shows
proper r.f. phasing but unbalance between outputs of two balanced modulators.
320 SIDEBAND
used in receivers, and any of the normal mixer operating conditions were observed. A triode
or converter circuits can be used. One exception or pentode amplifier circuit would differ only in
to this is the case where the heterodyning oscil- detail; typical circuits can be found in Chapter
lator frequency is close to the desired output Six.
frequency. In this case, abalanced mixer should The simplest linear amplifier is the Class-A
be used, to minimize the heterodyning oscillator amplifier, which is used almost without exception
frequency in the output. throughout receivers and low-level speech ampli-
To increase the power level of an s.s.b. signal, fiers. ( See Chapter Three for an explanation of
alinear amplifier must be used. A linear ampli- the classes of amplifier operation.) While its
fier is one that operates with low distortion, linearity can be made relatively good, it is in-
and the low distortion is obtained by the proper efficient. The theoretical limit of efficiency is 50
choice of tube and operating conditions. Physi- per cent, and most practical amplifiers run about
cally there is little or no difference between a 25 per cent at full output. At low levels this is
linear amplifier and any other type of r.f. ampli- not worth worrying about, but when the 2- to
fier stage. The circuit diagram of a tetrode r.f. 10- watt level is exceeded the efficiency should be
amplifier is shown in Fig. 11-16; it is no dif- considered, in view of the tube, power- supply and
ferent basically than the similar ones in Chapter operating costs.
Six. The practical differences can be found in Class-AB I operation provides excellent linear
the supply voltages for the tube and their spe- amplifiers if suitable tubes are used. Primary ad-
cial requirements. The proper voltages for a vantages of Class- AB, amplifiers are that they
number of suitable tubes can be found in Table give greater output than straight Class-A am-
11-I; filament-type tubes will require the addi- plifiers using the same tubes, and they too do not
tion of the filament bypass capacitors C9 and C1, require any grid driving power ( no grid current
and the completion of the filament circuit by drawn at any time). Triodes can be used in Class
grounding the filament-transformer center tap. AB, but tetrodes or pentodes are to be preferred.
The grid bias, El,is furnished through an r.f. Class-AB i operation requires high peak plate
choke, although a resistor can be used if the current without grid current, which is easier to
tube is operated in Class AB 1 ( no grid current). obtain with multigrid tubes than with triodes.
The screen voltage, E2,must be supplied from a To obtain maximum output from tetrodes,
"stiff" source ( little or no voltage change with pentodes and most triodes, it is necessary to op-
current change) which eliminates the use of a erate them in Class AB2.Although this produces
dropping resistor from the plate supply unless maximum peak output, it increases the driving-
a voltage- regulator tube is used to stabilize the power requirements and, what is more important,
screen voltage. requires that the driver regulation (ability to
Any r.f. amplifier circuit can be adapted to maintain wave form under varying load) be good
linear operation through the proper selection of or excellent. The usual method to improve the
operating conditions. For example, the tetrode driver regulation is to connect a fixed resistor,
circuit in Fig. 11-16 might be modified by the R1,across the grid circuit of the driven stage, to
use of another neutralizing scheme, but the re- offer a load to the driver that is modified only
sultant amplifier would still be linear if the proper slightly by the additional load of the tube when

Fig. 11- 16—Circuit diagram of otetrode linear am-

plifier using link-coupled input tuning and pi net-
work output coupling. The grid, screen and plate
voltages (E1 E2 and Es) are given in Table 11-1 for
anumber of tubes. Although the circuit is shown for
an indirectly-heated cathode tube, the only change
required when a filament type tube is used is the
addition of the filament bypass capacitors Co and
C10.
Minimum voltage ratings for the capacitors are
given in terms of the power supply voltages.

CI—Grid tuning capacitor, 3E1. Cs—H.v. bypass capacitor, 2E5.

Cs— Neutralizing capacitor, 2E8. Co, Cm— Filament bypass capacitor.
Cs—Grid-circuit bypass capacitor, part of neutralizing Li—Grid inductor.
circuit, 3E1. 1—Flate inductor.
C4—Plate tuning capacitor, 1.5Es. RI—Grid circuit swamping resistor, required for AB,
Cs—Output loading capacitor. 0.015 spacing for kilo- See text.
watt peak. RFC i—Grid-circuit r.f. choke.
Co--Plate coupling capacitor, 2Es. RFC2—Plate r.f. choke.
Cr—Screen bypass capacitor, 2Es- Ti—Filament transformer.
 TABLE 1-I— LINEAR- AMPLIFIER TUBE- OPERATION DATA FOR SINGLE SIDEBAND — GROUNDED-CATHODE CIRCUIT

Unless otherwise noted, ratings are manufacturers for audio operation. Values given are for one tube. Driving powers represent tube losses only— circuit losses will increase the figures

Zero-Sig. Max.-Sig. Zero-Sig. Max.-Sig. Peak R.F. Max.-Sig. Max.-Sig. Max.-Rated Max.-Rated m g. Plat. Max.-Sig.
Plate Screen D.C. Grid Driving Screen Grid Useful Power
Tube Class Voltage) D.C. Plate D.C. Plate D.C. Screen D.C. Screen Grid D.C. Grid Dissipation
Voltage Voltage Power Dissipation Dissipation Output
Current Current Current Current Voltage Current
2E26 AB) 500 200 — 25 9 45 — 10 25 0 o 2.5 — — 15

6146 600 200 — 50 14 115 .5 14 50 o o 3 — 25 47

6883
Alb
750 195 — 50 12 110 .5 13 50 0 o 3 — 25 60
807
Aill
600 300 — 34 18 70 .3 8 34 — 0 3.5 —
—
25 28
36
1625 750 300 — 35 15 70 .3 8 35 — 0 3,5 30
— — 65 124
1000 — o 22 175 — — 93 — 3.8
155
811-A a 1250 — 0 27 175 — — 88 13 3.0 — — 65
170
1500 — — 4,5 16 157 — — 85 — 2.2 — — 65
1500 500 — 90 30 83 — 5 70 — — 10 — — 60
— 10 — — 85
4-65A, AB, 2000
2500
500
400
—105
— 85
20
15 75
66 —
— 3
3 eo
77 _
— — 10 — — 100
15 60 — 3 77 — — 10 — — 120
3000 400 — 90
PL- 177A ,
Mt
1500 600 —110 30 175 0 8 108 o 0 10 — 110
125
140
210
PL-177WA , 2000 600 —115 25 175 0 7 112 0 0 10 —
AB) — 65 30 200 — 35 60 0 4, 20 — — 250
7094 2000 400
AlIt 2500 750 , — 95 25 145 — 27 90 0 o — — — 245
158 .8 29 115 — .1 22 — 100 258
813 2250 750 , — 90 23
Age 18 180 .6 28 118 — .2 22 — 125 325
2500 750s — 95
2000 615 —105 40 135 ( 100) 4 — 14 ( 4.0) 4 105 0 o 20 — — 150
10 (3.0) , 100 0 0 20 — — 180
A81 2500 555 —100 35 120 (85) , —
3000 510 — 95 30 105 (75) 4 — 6.0 ( 1.5) 4 95 o o 20 — -- 200
____ 175
4.125A
1500 350 — 41 44 200 0 17 141 9 1,25 20 s 125
AfSr 2000 350 — 45 36 150 0 3 105 7 .7 20 s 125 175
47 130 0 3 89 6 .5 20 5 122 200
2500 350 — 43
7034/ 1000 300 — 50 so 225 0 11 so 0 0 12 — — 115
AlIt 1500 300 — so 50 225 o 11 50 0 0 12 — — 200
— — 250
4X150A 1800 300 — 50 50 225 o 11 50 0 0 12
— 15 (3.5) 4 115 0 0 35 — — 335
2500 600 —115 65 230 ( 170) ,
3000 600 —110 55 210 ( 150) , — 12 ( 2.5) 4 110 o 0 35 — 7- 400
AB, 9,5 ( 2.0)4 105 0 0 35 — — 425
3500 555 —105 45 185 ( 130) 4 —
165 ( 115) 4 7.5 ( 1.5) 4 100 0 0 35 — — 450
4000 510 —100 40 —
4-250A 150 214
1500 300 — 48 so 243 0 17 96 11 1.1 35 10
325
ASS 2000 300 — 48 60 255 o 13 99 12 1.2 35 10 185
420
2500 300 — 51 60 250 o 12 100 11 1.1 35 10 205
520
300 — 53 63 237 0 17 99 10 1 35 10 190
3000
1500 — —118 135 286 — — 118 o 0 — — — 128
2000 — —170 100 273 — — 170 o 0 — — — 245
30411 Alb 242 — — 230 0 0 — — — 305
2500 — —230 80
222 — — 290 0 0 — — — 365
3000 — —290 65
1 35 143 0 0 25 — 265 570
2500 750 —143 100 350
Pt- 175A , Alit 3000 750 —150 80 350 1 29 150 0 o 25 — 305 680
1 24 160 0 0 25 — 345 790
3500 750 —160 75 350
2000 500 , —110 200 800 12 43 110 0 0 30 — — 1040
N.-8295/172
Allt 2500 500« —115 200 800 11 40 115 0 0 30 — — 1260
PL- 8432
3000 500 , —115 220 800 11 39 115 0 o 30 — — 1590

2000 325 — 60 250 1000 —2 35 60 — o 12 o — 1020

4CX1000A Aga
3000 325 — 60 250 900 —2 35 60 — o 12 0 — 1680

'Approximate; adjust to give stated zero-signal plate current. ' 60 Mc. ' 0 r. suppressor grid
ningle-sideband suppressed-carrier ratings, voice signal. 'Values in parentheses are with two-tone test signal. 6+35 v. suppressor grid.
Multiband Antennas 371
tenna at right angles for as great a distance as
L (feet)=
possible before bending. No sharp bends should
be allowed anywhere in the line.
361-
Multiband Operation with Coaxial
Line Feed
The proper use of coaxial line requires that
the standing- wave ratio be held to a low value,
preferably below 2:1. Since the impedance of an
ordinary antenna changes widely from band to
band, it is not possible to feed a simple antenna
with coaxial line and use it on anumber of bands
without tricks of some kind. The single excep-
tion to this is the use of 75-ohm coaxial line to
feed a7- Mc, half- wave antenna, as in Fig. 14-19;
this antenna can also be used on 21 Mc. and the
s.w.r. in the line will not run too high.
One multiband antenna system that can be
used by anyone without much trouble is shown
in Fig. 14-22. Here separate dipoles are con-
nected to one feedline. The 7- Mc, dipole also
serves on 21 Mc. A low s.w.r. will appear on the
feedline in each band if the dipoles are of the
proper length. The antenna system can be built
by suspending one set of elements from the one
above, using insulator- terminated wood spread-
Fig. 14-21—Two versions of the off-center-fed antenna. ers about one foot long. An alternative is to let
(A) Single-wire feed shows approximately 600 ohms one antenna droop several feet under the other,
impedance to ground and is most conveniently coupled bring ropes attached to the insulators back to a
to the transmitter as shown. The pi- network coupling common support point. It has been found that a
will require more capacity at C, than at C2. Lr is best separation of only an inch or two between dipoles
found by experiment—an inductance of about the same is satisfactory. By using a length of the Twin-
size as that used in the output stage is a good starting Lead used for folded dipoles ( one Copperweld
point. The parallel-tuned circuit will be a tuned circuit conductor and one soft-drawn), the strong wire
that resonates at the operating frequency with tand C can be used for the low- frequency dipole. The
close to those used in the output stage. The tap is found soft-drawn wire is then used on a higher band,
by experiment, and it should be as near the top of Las supported by the solid dielectric.
it can and still give good loading of the transmitter. A vertical antenna can be operated on several
(B) Two-wire off-center feed uses 300-ohm TV line. bands and fed with a single length of coaxial line
Although the 300-ohm line can be coupled directly to provided the antenna is no longer than 0.6 wave-
some transmitters, it is common practice to step down length at the highest frequency and that a suit-
the impedance level to 75 ohms through a pair of able matching network for each band is used at
"balun" coils. the base. A good radial or ground system is re-
quired. The matching sections can be housed in a
the transmitter's metal cabinet and/or v.f.o. 3.514c.

notes will develop serious modulation. If such is

found to be the case, the feeder length should be
changed.
A newer version of the off- center- feed antenna
uses 300-ohm TV Twin- Lead to feed the an-
tenna, as shown in Fig. 14-21B. It is claimed that
the antenna offers a good match for the 300-ohm
line on four bands and, although this is more
wishful thinking than actual truth, the system
is widely used and does work satisfactorily. It
is subject to the same feed line length and " r.f.- Fig. 14-22—An effective "all-band" antenna fed with a
in-the-shack" troubles that the single- wire ver- single length of coaxial line can be constructed by join-
sion enjoys. However, in this case a pair of ing several half wavelength antennas at their centers
"balun" coils can be used to step down the im- and feeding them at the common point. In the example
pedance level to 75 ohms and at the same time above, a low s.w.r. will be obtained on 80, 40, 20 and
alleviate some of the feedline troubles. This an- 15 meters. ( The 7-Mc, antenna also works at 21 Mc.) If
tenna system is popular among amateurs using a28-Mc, antenna were added, 10-meter operation could
multiband transmitters with pi- network- tuned also be included.
output stages. The antenna lengths can be computed from formula
With either of the off- center- fed antenna sys- 14-B. The shorter antennas can be suspended afoot or
tems, the feedline should run away from the an- two below the longest one.
Amplification of S.S.B. Signals 323
current demands. If the maximum screen current can be obtained from the tubes in voice- signal
does not exceed 30 or 35 ma., astring of VR tubes s.s.b. service. In no case should the average plate
in series can be used to regulate the screen volt- dissipation be exceeded for any considerable
age. If the current demand is higher, it may be length of time, but the nature of a s.s.b. signal
necessary to use an electronically regulated is such that the average plate dissipation of the
power supply or a heavily bled power supply tube will run well below the peak plate dissipa-
with acurrent capacity of several times the cur- tion.
rent demand of the screen circuit. Getting the most out of a linear amplifier is
Where VR tubes are used to regulate the done by increasing the peak power without ex-
screen supply, they should be selected to give a ceeding the average plate dissipation over any
regulated voltage as close as possible to the tube's appreciable length of time. This can be done by
rated voltage, but it does not have to be exact. raising the plate voltage or the peak current ( or
Minor differences in idling plate current can be both), provided the tube can withstand the
made up by readjusting the grid bias. increase. However, the manufacturers have not
The plate voltage applied to the linear ampli- released any data on such operation, and any ex-
fier should be held as constant as possible under trapolation of the audio ratings is at the risk of
the varying current-demand conditions. This con- the amateur. A 35- to 50-per cent increase above
dition can be met by using low- resistance trans- plate- voltage ratings should be perfectly safe in
formers and inductors and by using alarge value most cases. In atetrode or pentode, the peak plate
of output capacitor in the power- supply filter. current can be boosted some by raising the screen
An output capacitor value three or four times the voltage. In all instances there will be an optimum
minimum required for normal filtering ( Chap- set of driving and loading conditions for any given
ter Seven) is reasonable. Although some slight set of plate and grid ( and screen) voltages, but
improvement can be obtained by using still the tube manufacturer can obviously give only a
higher values of capacitance, the problem of turn- few ( and they are likely to be conservative). The
ing on the supply without blowing fuses ( on the only dependable approach to determining the
initial surge) starts to become significant. proper conditions for an "unknown" linear ( one
One should bear in mind that the same ampli- operating at other than manufacturer's ratings)
fier can be operated in several classes of operation is by using an oscilloscope and dummy load.
by merely changing the operating conditions When running a linear amplifier at consider-
(bias, loading, drive, screen voltage, etc.). How- ably higher than the audio ratings, the "two-tone
ever, when the power sensitivity of an amplifier test signal" ( described later) should never be
is increased, as by changing the operation from applied at full amplitude for more than a few
Class AB2 to Class AE I,the stability require- seconds at any one time. The above statements
ments for the amplifier become stringent. about working tubes above ratings apply only
From the standpoint of ease of adjustment and when avoice signal is used — aprolonged whistle
availability of proper operating voltages, alinear or two-tone test signal may damage the tube.
amplifier with Class AB., tetrodes or pentodes or (For a method of adjusting amplifiers safely at
one with zero- bias Class B triodes would be first high input, see Goodman, " Linear Amplifiers and
choice. The Class B amplifier would require more Power Ratings," QST, August, 1957.)
driving power. ( For examples of Class AB I tet- Linear amplifiers are rated in " p.e.p. input" or
rode amplifiers, see Wolfe and Romander, " A 4X- "p.e.p. output." The "p.e.p." stands for peak
2508 Linear," QST, Nov., 1956; Muir, "Ground- envelope power. P.e.p. input is not indicated by
ed- Grid Tetrode Kw.," QST, April, 1957; the maximum reading the plate milliammeter
and Rinaudo, " Compact AB i Kw.," QST, Nov., kicks to ( see " Adjustment of Amplifiers" be-
1957.) low) ; it is the input that would be indicated by
Tables 11-I and 11- II list a few of the more the plate milliammeter and voltmeter if the
popular tubes commonly used for s.s.b. linear- amplifier were driven continuously by a single
amplifier operation. . Except where otherwise r.f. signal of the peak amplitude the amplifier
noted, these ratings are those given by the manu- can handle within its allowable distortion limits.
facturer for audio work and as such are based on The p.e.p. output is the r.f. output under these
a sine- wave signal. These ratings are adequate same conditions. As implied in the preceding
ones for use in s.s.b. amplifier design, but they paragraph, it may be impossible to measure the
are conservative for such work and hence do not p.e.p. input or output directly without injuring
necessarily represent the maximum powers that the tube or tubes.

GROUNDED- GRID AMPLIFIERS WITH FILAMENT-TYPE TUBES

It is not necessary to use indirectly heated socket. The inductance of the r.f. chokes does not
cathode type tubes in grounded-grid circuits, have to be very high, and 5to 10 ph. will usually
and filament-type tubes can be used just as effec- suffice from 80 meters on down. The current-
tively. However, it is necessary to raise the fila- carrying capacities of the r.f. chokes must be
ment above r.f. ground, and one way is shown in adequate for the tube or tubes in use, and if the
Fig. 11-17. Here filament chokes are used be- resistance of the chokes is too high the filament
tween the filament transformers and the tube voltage at the tube socket may be too low and the
324 SIDEBAND
tube life will be endangered. In such a case, a
higher-voltage filament transformer can be used,
with its primary voltage cut down until the volt-
age at the tube socket is within the proper limits. Re.
INPUT
Although filament chokes can be wound on
wooden or ceramic forms ( e.g., large cylindrical
ceramic antenna insulators), they can be made
more compact and with lower resistance ( less
voltage drop) by winding them on ferrite rods.
Individual chokes for each side of the filament
are desirable if they must be wound on wood
or ceramic, but when wound on ferrite a dual
winding is satisfactory. The single winding
choke(s) should be wound with heavy wire
spaced ( with string) one-half to one wire diam-
Fig. 11- 17—When filament-type tubes are used in a
eter. In the ferrite-cored choke the two parallel
enameled wires are treated as one wire; see Chap- grounded-grid circuit, it is necessary to use filament
chokes to keep the filament above r.f. ground. In the
ter Six for two examples of homemade filament
portion of a typical circuit shown here, the filament
chokes.
chokes. RFC,and RFC2, can be a manufactured unit
When considerable power is available for driv-
ing the grounded-grid stage, the matching be- (e.g., B&W FC15 and FC30) or homemade os described
in the text. Total plate and grid current can be read
tween driver stage and the amplifier is not too
on amilliammeter inserted at x.
important. However, when the driving power is
marginal or when the driver and amplifier are to
be connected by along length of coaxial cable, a 11- II), the input impedance can be computed from
matching circuit can be used in the input of the (peak r.f. driving voltage) 2
grounded-grid amplifier. The input impedance of Zin
X driving power
a grounded- grid amplifier is in the range of 50
to 400 ohms, depending upon the tube or tubes From this and the equations for a pi or L net-
and their operating conditions. When data for work, a suitable matching circuit can be devised.
grounded-grid operation is available ( see Table It should have alow Q, about 2or 3.

ADJUSTMENT OF AMPLIFIERS
One of the more important features of the plate and grid meters can serve thereafter to
linear amplifier is that the ordinary plate and indicate roughly changes in operating conditions.
grid meters are at best only a poor indicator of All linearity tests require that the vertical
what is going on. As the meters bounce back and plates of the scope be supplied with r.f. from
forth, even a person who is thoroughly familiar the amplifier output. To avoid interaction within
with this kind of amplifier would be hard put to the instrument, it is usually best to connect di-
sense whether the input power registered is rectly to the cathode-ray tube terminals at the
attributable to ( a) overdrive and underload, back of the cabinet. A pick-up device and its con-
which yield distortion, splatter, TVI, etc., or ( b) nections to the oscilloscope are shown in Fig.
underdrive and too-heavy loading, resulting in 11-14. Normally, the pick-up loop should be
inefficiency and loss of output. coupled to the dummy load, antenna tuner, or
The simplest and best way to get the whole transmission line; i.e., to a point in the system
story is to make a linearity test; that is, to send beyond where any tuning adjustments are to be
through the amplifier a signal whose amplitude made.
varies from zero up to the peak level in acertain The only other piece of test equipment will
known manner and then observe, by means of an be an audio oscillator. Since only one frequency
oscilloscope, whether this same waveform comes
out of the amplifier at maximum ratings.
2.2
6C4 1_, LI
Test Equipment MEG eta

Even the simplest type of cathode-ray oscil- C, 02,1 02,ut Ca OUTPUT

loscope can be used for linearity tests, so long as

it has the regular internal sweep circuit. If this IW ei sge6

instrument is not already part of the regular sta- 1000

i .

tion equipment, it might be well to purchase one 250V.

of the several inexpensive kits now on the market,
so that it will be on hand not only to make initial Fig. 11- 18— Fixed-frequency audio oscillator having
tests but also as a permanent monitor during good output waveform. The frequency can be varied
all operation. Barring a purchase, it is recom- by changing the values of CIand Cy.
mended at least that a scope be borrowed to Li —Small speaker output transformer, secondary not

make the line-up checks, whereupon the regular used.

Adjustment of Amplifiers 325
is needed, the simple circuit of Fig. 11-18 works
quite well. Some equipment has a circuit similar
to this one built right into the exciter audio
system. We a

e
l
t II I l ill It it It it . 1 I 'I
i iIli • at Pe 11. 8 1 l' a8 I
Two-Tone Test 'ese I a • a
Ile* 4 ' i4: X II

The two-tone test involves sending through 31E j i ot

V li I 1
4n. :
IV 1 •
the amplifier or the system a pair of r.f. signals Cdr. 71. 11 f t f,
of equal amplitude and a thousand cycles or so
apart in frequency. The combined envelope of Ise
r
Iti
ur
g lir
1., .41' .., il \ i' \ i
le
two such signals looks like two sine waves folded
on one another. If this waveform comes out of
the final, well and good; if not, there is work to
do.
There are two commonly used ways to generate
the two-tone signal, and the choice of which to
use depends un the particular type of exciter Aa
1111.. Jell
available.
11g.
Method A — for Filter or Phasing Exciters:
1) Turn up the carrier insertion until acarrier \lee
is obtained at about half the expected output
..P n..
amplitude. ale de
a•,iii„,
2) Connect an audio oscillator to the micro- .a.
phone input and advance audio gain until ( when lair
iP
141
.

the carrier and the one sideband are equal) the

scope pattern takes on the appearance of full
modulation; i.e., the cusps just meet at the
center line. See Fig. 11-19, photo No. 1. (2)
3) To change the drive through the system,
increase or decrease the carrier and audio set-
tings together, maintaining equality of the two
signals.
Method B — for Phasing Exciters:
&it
1) Disable the audio input to one balanced /1.1I I'
modulator, by removing a tube or by tempo-
rarily short-circuiting an audio transformer.
2) Connect the audio oscillator and advance
audio gain to get the desired drive. Note that
with one balanced modulator cut out, the re-
sultant signal will be double-sideband with no
carrier, hence two equal r.f. signals.
131
Double- Trapezoid Test
Fig. 11- 19--Correct Patterns. 1— Desired two-tone test
When Method B can be used with phasing pattern. 2— Desired double- trapezoid test pattern.
exciters, it is possible to derive asomewhat more 3— Typical voice pattern in a correctly adjusted am-
informative pattern by making a connection plifier, scope set for 30- cycle sweep. Note that peaks
from the exciter audio system to the horizontal are clean and sharp.
signal input of the oscilloscope and using this
audio signal, instead of the regular internal
sweep, to cause the horizontal deflection. Those If the audio can be picked off at the plate of
who are familiar with the regular trapezoid test the audio modulator tube that is still working,
for a.m. transmitters will recognize this set-up the input signal need not be a pure sine wave;
as being the same, except that instead of one merely whistling or talking into the microphone
trapezoid, this test produces two triangles point- should produce the appropriate pattern. If, be-
ing toward each other. cause of the exciter layout, it is necessary to pick
Each individual triangle is subject to the same up the audio signal ahead of the phase- shift
analysis as the regular trapezoid pattern; i.e., network, it will then be necessary to use agood
the sloping sides of the pattern should be straight sine- wave audio oscillator as before. Also, with
lines for proper operation. Since it is much easier the latter set-up, the pattern will probably have
to tell whether a line is straight or not than to aloopy appearance at first, and phase correction
judge the correctness of asine curve, the double will be needed to make the figure close up. This
trapezoid has the advantage of being somewhat can be done either by varying the audio fre-
more positive and sensitive to slight departures quency or by putting aphaser in series with the
from linearity than is the regular two-tone pat- horizontal input to the scope, as shown in Fig.
tern. 11-20.
 326 SIDEBAND

LS

Le

is

Fig. 11-20—"Phaser" circuit for the oscilloscope. 1.2

to
Ratings 0 .1 to
Before proceeding with linearity tests, it is
well to have in mind the current and power
Fig. 11-21—When the two-tone test signal is used for
levels to expect. A suppressed-carrier signal is
checking the linearity of an amplifier, the peak current
exactly like an audio signal, except for its fre-
is higher than the current indicated by the plate meter.
quency, so the audio ratings for any tube are
The ratio of these values depends upon the ratio of the
idling ( no-signal) current to the indicated current.
The graph shows the relationship.
= no-signal ( idling) current,
= meter reading with two-tone test signal,
le = actual peak current.

(4)

perfectly applicable for linear r.f. service where

no carrier is involved. On the other hand, the
ratings sometimes shown for Class B r.f. tele-
phony are not what is wanted, because they are
for conventional a.m. transmission with carrier.
If audio ratings are not given for the desired
tube type, it will be safe to assume that the
(5) (
9) maximum-signal input for Class- B or - AB 2 serv-
ice is about 10 per cent less than the key-down
Class-C c.w. conditions. The input will have to
be held somewhat lower in Class-AB I operation
because the average efficiency is lower and, also,
the tube can draw only alimited amount of cur-
rent at zero grid voltage.
The maximum- signal conditions determined
from tube data correspond in s.s.b. work to the
(6) 10) very peak of the r.f. envelope; when atwo-tone
test signal ( or voice) is used, the plate milliam-
meter does not indicate the peak plate current.
The relationship between peak current and indi-
cated current is variable with voice signals, but
with the two tone test signal applied there is a
definite relationship between indicated ( d.c.)
current and peak current. This relationship is
plotted in Fig. 11-21. Knowing the ratio of the
idling current to the plate current with the two-
tone test signal, /.//d., one can find the factor
Fig. 11- 22-- Improper Amplifier Operation. 4— Over-
that can be applied to give the peak current.
drive, indicated by flattening of peaks. 5— Same as 4, For example, an amplifier draws 50 ma. with no
double- trapezoid test. 6— Too much bias, causing cross-
signal and 250 ma. ( before flattening) with the
over to become pinched together rather than cutting
two-tone test signal. /0//,k = 0.2, and /,k// d.. =
straight across center line. 7— Same as 6, double- trap- 1.45, from Fig. 11-21. Thus / 9k = 1.45 x 250 =
ezoid test. 8— Two-tone test with vhf. parasitics. Note 363 ma.
fuzzy halo or fringe. In milder cases the fuzziness will Should the resulting peak input ( 0.363 X
appear just at the peaks. 9— Two-tone test with funda- plate voltage) be different than the design value
mental frequency parasitics, accompanied by overdrive. for the particular amplifier tube, the drive and
10— Severe overdrive and parasitics. 11— Voice pattern loading adjustments can be changed in the
showing flattening of peaks due to overdrive. When proper directions ( always adjusting the loading
flattening is apparent on the voice pattern, the case is so that the peaks of the envelope are on the verge
a severe one. of flattening) and the proper value reached.
Adjustment of Amplifiers 327

Using the Linearity Tests

The photos ( Figs. 11-19, 11-22 and 11-23) have
been taken to show many of the typical patterns
that may be encountered with either of the test
arrangements described previously. They are
classified separately as to those representing
correct conditions ( Fig. 11-19), faulty operation
of the r.f. amplifier ( Fig. 11-22), and various
other patterns that look irregular but which
(12) (16)
really represent apeculiarity in the test set-up or
the exciter but not in the final ( Fig. 11-23).
Aside from the problem of parasitics, which
may or may not be a difficult one, it should be
possible without much difficulty to achieve the
correct linearity pattern by taking action as in- iº!•
dicated by the captions accompanying the
photos. It can then be assumed that the am-
plifier is not contributing any distortion to the
signal so long as the peak power level indicated
by the test is not exceeded. It is entirely pos- (13)
sible, however, that good linearity will be ob-
tained only by holding the power down to a
level considerably below what is expected, or
conversely that there will be signs of excessive
plate dissipation at alevel that the tubes should
handle quite easily. In such cases, some atten-
tion should be given to the plate loading, as
discussed below.
The several patterns of Fig. 11-24 show how
loading affects the output and efficiency of a (14) (18)
linear amplifier. In the first two, loading is rela-
tively light and limiting takes place in the final
plate circuit. Reserve power is still available in
the driver, evidenced by the fact that heavier
loading on the final allows the peak output to
increase up to the optimum level of the third
pattern. With still heavier loading the output
ceases to increase but in fact drops somewhat;
even though the input power goes up all the
time, the efficiency goes down rapidly. In the (19)
(15)
last two patterns, the driver is the limiting
element in the system, and the extra power- Fig. 11- 23— Improper Test Setup. 12— Two r.f. signals
handling capability of the final, due to heavier unequal. In Method A, caused by improper settings of
loading, is wasted by inability of the driver to either carrier or audio control. Method B, either carrier
do it justice. leakage through disabled modulator or unequal side.
1) For good efficiency, the final itself must be bands due to selective action of some high- Q circuit off
the limiting element in the power-handling ca- resonance. 13— Same as 12, double-trapezoid test
pability of the system. (Method B). 14— Distorted audio. A clue to this defect
2) If the final is not being driven to its limit, is that successive waves are not identical. 15— Same dis-
it should be loaded less heavily until such is the tortion as 14, but switched to double trapezoid test
case. pattern. Note that correct pattern prevails regardless of
3) If the power level obtained above is less poor audio signal. 16-- Carrier leakage through working
than should be expected, more driving power is modulator ( Method B only). 17—Same as 16, double
needed. trapezoid. 18—( Note tilt to left.) Caused by incomplete
There are several ways to tell whether or not suppression of unwanted sideband ( Method A) or by
the final is being driven to its limit. One way is r.f. leakage into horizontal circuits of scope. 19— Double
to advance the drive until peak limiting is ap- trapezoid with audio phase shift in test setup.
parent in the output, then move the oscilloscope
coupling link over to the driver plate tank and
see whether or not the same limiting appears method is to detune the final slightly while
there. Another way is to decrease or increase the limiting is apparent, and if proper drive condi-
final loading slightly and note whether the limit- tions prevail the pattern will improve when the
ing output level increases or decreases corre- amplifier plate is detuned.
spondingly. If it does not, the final is not con- The intermediate and driver stages will follow
trolling the system. Still another but similar the same laws, except that what is called "load-
328 SIDEBAND

, lent pie,
In% I I.
1 1i

e
sad „sad sad L
i'um,'V tto

(20) (21) (22)

Fig. 11-24—Amplifier Loading Char-

acteristics. Two-tone patterns taken
at the output of a Class-B linear
amplifier with constant drive 9nd
successively heavier loading. Meas-
ured input power: 20-90 watts; 21
—133 watts; 22-250 Watts; 23-
330 watts; 24-400 watts.

(23) (24)

ing" on afinal is often referred to as " impedance been adjusted and is operating with a linearity
matching" when going between tubes. More test signal at maximum linear output into the
often than not, an apparent lack of power trans- lamp load. Then, having reconnected the regular
fer from adriver to its succeeding stage is due antenna, the same loading conditions for the
to a poor match. In Class-AB 2 or - B service, a final will be reproduced by adjusting its tuning
step-down type of coupling is required between and loading until the identical combination of
power stages, and a person accustomed to the plate and grid currents can be obtained. This
conventional plate-to-grid coupling capacitor process will require only a few moments of on-
technique will be surprised to find how effective the-air operation.
it is to tap the driven stage down on its tank — When the final on-the-air checks are made, it
or otherwise to decouple the system. For ex- will be convenient to make a few reference
ample, an 807 driving a pair of 811s requires a marks on the oscilloscope screen to indicate the
voltage step-down of about 3 or 4 to 1 from peak height of the pattern. The scope will then
plate to each grid. serve as a permanent output monitor for all
operations. For best results the sweep should be
Dummy Load
set for about 30 cycles, in which case the voice
For the sake of everyone concerned, linearity patterns will stand out clearly and can easily be
tests should be kept off the air as much as possi- kept just within the reference lines. Incidentally,
ble. They make quite a racket and spurious the pattern is really fascinating to watch.
signals are plentiful in earlier stages of misad- Don't be a "meter bender." Input power isn't
justment. Ordinary lamp bulbs make afine dum- everything. If you have to cut your input in
my load so long as it is recognized that their half to avoid overload, the fellow at the other'
impedance is not exactly the same as the an- end will hardly notice the difference in level.
tenna and that this impedance changes some- At the same time, your neighbors, both those
what as the bulbs light up. These factors can on the ham band and those next door trying
be taken into account by making careful note of to watch TV, will appreciate the difference
plate and grid currents after the transmitter has right away.

FREQUENCY CONVERSION
The preferred s.s.b. transmitter is probably facturer's ratings leave little to be desired.
one that generates the s.s.b. signal at some suit- When high-level heterodyning is required, as
able frequency and then heterodynes the signal when an exciter delivering from 5 to 20 watts
into the desired amateur bands, although a few on a single band is available and multiband
designs exist that generate the s.s.b. signal at operation is desired, a high-level converter is
the operating frequency and consequently elimi- used. Since the efficiency of a converter is only
nate the need for heterodyning. When the het- about one-fourth that of the same tube or
erodyning is done at low level ( involving an tubes used in Class AB 2,using aconverter stage
s.s.b. signal of not more than a few volts), as the output stage is not very economical, and
standard receiving techniques are satisfactory. the high-level converter is generally used to
Normal receiver converter tubes run at manu- drive the output stage.
vox 329
v
, fier is amplified and rectified, and the resultant
d.c. signal is used to key an oscillator and one
L2
or more stages in the s.s.b. transmitter and
Lo !to
.UTPut
"blank" the receiver at the time that the trans-
mitter is on. Thus the transmitter is on at any
and all times that the operator is speaking but is
off during the intervals between sentences. The
voice-control circuit must have a small amount
SSB.
of "hold" built into it, so that it will hold in
between words, but it should be made to turn on
(A) rapidly at the slightest voice signal coming
through the speech amplifier. Both tube and
807
relay keyers have been used with good success.
Some voice-control systems require the use of
SS4 B
headphones by the operator, but a loudspeaker
can be used with the proper circuit. ( See
Nowak, "Voice-Controlled Break- In . . . and
a Loudspeaker," QST, May, 1951, and Hunter,
"Simplified Voice Control with aLoudspeaker,"
VF
QST, October, 1953.)
If an antenna relay is used to switch the
antenna from the receiver to the transmitter
and back again, it is often possible to operate
Fig. 11- 25— Two examples of " high-level" mixer cir- the output linear amplifier stage with some
cuits. The circuit at A has been used with 6V6, 6L6, idling current and experience no difficulty with
6AQ5 and 6Y6 type tubes. With 300 volts on the plate the "diode noise" generated by the amplifier
the idling current is about 15 ma., kicking as high as plate current. However, when the receiver,
30 ma. with the s.s.b. signal. transmitter and antenna are always connected
The circuit in B operates with a positive screen volt- together, as when an electronic transmit- receive
age and some cathode bias, and is capable of some- switch is used ( see Chapter Eight), weak sig-
what more output than the circuit shown in A. nals will not be heard through the diode noise
In either case the output circuit, C,L, is tuned to the of the transmitter. To overcome this difficulty,
sum or difference frequency of the oscillator and s.s.b. the idling current of the amplifier must be re-
signal. Coupling coils I., and 1, will usually be three duced to zero during listening periods. This can
or four turns coupled to their respective driving sources. be accomplished through the use of the circuit
in Fig. 11-26. Here K1 is a relay controlled by
Reference to tube manuals will disclose no
information of the operation of small transmit-
ting tubes as mixers. However, it has been
found that most of the tetrodes in the 15- to 35-
watt plate- dissipation class make acceptable
mixers, and tubes like the 6V6, 6L6, 807 and
6146 have been used successfully. The usual
procedure is to feed one of the signals ( oscil-
lator or s.s.b.) to the control grid and the other
to the cathode or screen grid. Typical circuits
are shown in Fig. 11-25.
(Suggestions for converting to and operating Fig. 11- 26— Bias- switching circuit for use with a Class-
in the 50- and 144-Mc. bands can be found in AB, linear amplifier and an electronic t.r. switch.
Tilton, " Single-Sideband Ideas for the V.H.F. Ri - 4700 ohms, 1watt.
Man," QST, May, 1957.) K,-100,000 ohms, 2 watts.
K,— VOX relay or relay controlled by VOX circuit.
VOICE- CONTROLLED BREAK-IN N/- 0A2 or OB2, depending upon amplifier require-

Although it is possible for two s.s.b. stations ments.

operating on widely different frequencies to

work "duplex" if the carrier suppression is the voice-controlled break-in circuit. When the
great enough ( inadequate carrier suppression relay is closed, the operating bias El for the
would be a violation of the FCC rules), most linear amplifier is determined by the setting of
s.s.b. operators prefer to use voice-controlled the arm on R 2.When the relay is open, the grid
break-in and operate on the same frequency. bias jumps to the value E, which should be high
This overcomes any possibility of violating the enough to cut off the amplifier stage. The volt-
FCC rules and permits " round table" operation. age regulator tube should be one with anominal
Many various systems of voice-controlled voltage drop in excess of the normal bias for the
break-in are in use, but they are all basically the amplifier tube, and the negative supply voltage
same. Some of the audio from the speech ampli- E should be at least 25 per cent higher than the
330 SIDEBAND
ignition potential of the VR tube. The circuit in it cannot be used when grid current is drawn
Fig. 11-26 is applicable to Class AB i amplifiers; during operation.

RECEIVING SUPPRESSED- CARRIER SIGNALS

The reception of suppressed-carrier signals with the main tuning dial. With experience, it
requires that the carrier be accurately reinserted becomes a simple matter to determine which
at the receiver. In addition, the reception of way to tune to make the signal sound lower- or
a double-sideband suppressed-carrier signal re- higher-pitched if the receiver ( or transmitter)
quires that one sideband be filtered off in the drifts off.
receiver before demodulation or that a special When a double sideband suppressed- carrier
type of converter be used. Because little or no signal is received, sufficient selectivity will be
carrier is transmitted, the usual a.v.c. in the required in the receiver to eliminate one side-
receiver has nothing that indicates the average band and convert the signal into a single- side-
signal level, and this fact requires either manual band signal before detection, where it can be
variation of the r.f. gain control or the use of a received by the method outlined above. Receiver
special a.v.c. system. ( As, for example, Luiclç bandwidths of 3kc. or less will be required for
"Improved A.V.C. for Sideband and C.W.," this purpose, or the use of a " Signal Slicer," a
QST, October, 1957.) selectivity device that uses the phasing principle.
A suppressed-carrier signal can be identified (See GE Ham News, Vol. 6, No. 4, July, 1951.)
by the absence of a strong carrier and by the Newcomers to single sideband often wonder
severe variation of the S meter at a syllabic if there is any device that can be added to a
rate. When such a signal is encountered, it receiver that will make the tuning of sideband
should first be peaked with the main tuning dial. signals less critical. At the present time there
(This centers the signal in the i.f. pass band.) is no device that will "lock in" automatically.
After this operation, do not touch the main tun- However, if the receiver is lacking in selectivity,
ing dial. Then set the r.f. gain control at avery an apparent improvement can be obtained by
low level and switch off the a.v.c. Increase the using an adapter that adds selectivity to the
audio volume control to maximum, and bring up receiving system. No improvement in ease of
the r.f. gain control until the signal can be tuning will be noticed on good sideband signals
heard weakly. Switch on the beat oscillator, and (good suppression of unwanted sideband), but
carefully adjust the frequency of the beat oscil- fair or mediocre signals will be easier to tune.
lator until proper speech is heard. If there is a The reason is that the adapter makes a better
slight amount of carrier present, it is only nec- sideband signal out of the incoming signal by
essary to zero-beat the beat oscillator with this removing the vestiges of the unwanted side-
weak carrier. It will be noticed that with incor- band, and a good sideband signal will tune
rect tuning of an s.s.b. signal, the speech will easier than a fair one. The sideband adapters
sound high- or low-pitched or even inverted also usually have detectors designed for best
(very garbled), but no trouble will be had in detection of sideband signals, a point that was
getting the correct setting once a little expe- overlooked in some of the older receivers. Good
rience has been obtained. The use of minimum detectors for sideband signals include diodes
r.f. gain and maximum audio gain will insure with sufficient b.f.o. injection ( 5 to 10 times
that no distortion ( overload) occurs in the peak signal) and "product detectors" ( see
receiver. It may require a readjustment of your Chapter Five). Either detector is capable of low
tuning habits to tune the receiver slowly enough distortion output if the input is held down.
during the first few trials.
Once the proper setting of the b.f.o. has been WHICH SIDEBAND
established by the procedure above, all further To identify which sideband the other station is
tuning should be done with the main tuning using, remember this simple rule: If tuning the
control. However, it is not unlikely that s.s.b. receiver to a lower frequency makes the voice
stations will be encountered that are transmit- sound tower-pitched, he is on lower sideband.
ting the other sideband, and to receive them will With any receiver having sufficient selectivity
require shifting the b.f.o. setting to the other to give astronger signal on one side than on the
side of the receiver i.f. passband. The initial other of zero beat, this rule will aid in properly
tuning procedure is exactly the same as outlined setting the b.f.o.: A selective receiver can be set
above, except that you will end up with a con- up for lower-sideband reception by setting the
siderably different b.f.o. setting. The two b.f.o. b.f.o. so that there is little or no signal on the
settings should be noted for further reference, low- frequency side of zero beat when tuning
and all tuning of s.s.b. signals can then be done through a steady carrier or c.w. signal.
 Chapter 12

Specialized
Communication Systems

FREQUENCY AND PHASE MODULATION

It is possible to convey intelligence by modu- reasons for the use of f.m. and p.m. in amateur
lating any property of a carrier, including its work.
frequency and phase. When the frequency of the Frequency Modulation
carrier is varied in accordance with the varia- Fig. 12-1 is a representation of frequency
tions in a modulating signal, the result is fre- modulation. When a modulating signal is ap-
quency modulation (f.m.). Similarly, varying plied, the carrier frequency is increased during
the phase of the carrier current is called phase one half-cycle of the modulating signal and de-
modulation (p.m.). creased during the half-cycle of opposite po-
Frequency and phase modulation are not in- larity. This is indicated in the drawing by the
dependent, since the frequency cannot be varied fact that the r.f. cycles occupy less time ( higher
without also varying the phase, and vice versa. frequency) when the modulating signal is posi-
The difference is largely a matter of definition. tive, and more time ( lower frequency) when
The effectiveness of f.m. and p.m. for com- the modulating signal is negative. The change
munication purposes depends almost entirely in the carrier frequency ( frequency deviation)
on the receiving methods. If the receiver will is proportional to the instantaneous amplitude
respond to frequency and phase changes but is of the modulating signal, so the deviation is
insensitive to amplitude changes, it will dis- small when the instantaneous amplitude of the
criminate against most forms of noise, partic modulating signal is small, and is greatest when
ularly impulse noise such as is set up by ignition the modulating signal reaches its peak, either
systems and other sparking devices. Special positive or negative.
methods of detection are required to accomplish As shown by the drawing, the amplitude of
this result. the signal does not change during modulation.
Modulation methods for f.m. and p.m. are
Phase Modulation
simple and require practically no audio power.
There is also the advantage that, since there is If the phase of the current in a circuit is
no amplitude variation in the signal, interference changed there is an instantaneous frequency
to broadcast reception resulting from rectifica- change during the time that the phase is being
tion of the transmitted signal in the audio cir- shifted. The amount of frequency change, or
cuits of the BC receiver is substantially elimi- deviation, depends on how rapidly the phase
nated. These two points represent the principal shift is accomplished. It is also dependent upon
the total amount of the phase shift. In a prop-
erly operating p.m. system the amount of phase
shift is proportional to the instantaneous am-
11 111111 RI ¡Ili dint ¡flit11 ¡lit! plitude of the modulating signal. The rapidity
of the phase shift is directly proportional to the
fla ir" MIT 111 1111111 11111111 11111 frequency of the modulating signal. Conse-
quently, the frequency deviation in p.m. is pro-
*meek:we ofAlalulatteq4na/
portional to both the amplitude and frequency
of the modulating signal. The latter represents
the outstanding difference between f.m. and
p.m., since in f.m. the frequency deviation is
proportional only to the amplitude of the modu-

IN\ Alt
lating signal.

Modulation Depth
Percentage of modulation in f.m. and p.m.
has to be defined differently than for a.m.
Fig. 12- 1—Graphical representation of frequency mod- Practically, " 100 per cent modulation" is reached
ulation. In the unmodulated carrier at A, each r.f. when the transmitted signal occupies a channel
cycle occupies the same amount of time. When the just equal to the bandwidth for which the
modulating signal, B, is applied, the radio frequency receiver is designed. If the frequency deviation
h increased and decreased according to the ampli- is greater than the receiver can accept, the re-
tude and polarity of the modulating signal. ceiver distorts the signal. However, on another

331
Antenna Construction 389
lead-in insulators. Holes cut through the walls
of the building and fitted with feed- through in-
sulators are undoubtedly the best means of
bringing the line into the station. The holes
should have plenty of air clearance about the
conducting rod, especially when using tuned lines
that develop high voltages. Probably the best
place to go through the walls is the trimming
board at the top or bottom of a window frame
which provides flat surfaces for lead-in insula-
tors. Cement or rubber gaskets may be used to
waterproof the exposed joints.
Where such a procedure is not permissible,

Fig. 14- 50—Using a lever for twisting heavy guy wires.

Guy wires may be anchored to atree or build-

ing when they happen to be in convenient spots.
For small poles, a 6-foot length of 1- inch pipe
driven into the ground at an angle will suffice.

HALYARDS AND PULLEYS

Halyards or ropes and pulleys are important
items in the antenna- supporting system. Partic-
ular attention should be directed toward the
choice of a pulley and halyards for ahigh mast
since replacement, once the mast is in position,
Fig. 14- 51— An antenna lead-in panel may be placed
may be a major undertaking if not entirely im-
over the top sash or under the lower sash of a window.
possible. Substituting a smaller height sash in half the window will
Galvanized-iron pulleys will have alife of only
simplify the weatherproofing problem where the sash
a year or so. Especially for coastal-area instal-
overlaps.
lations, marine-type pulleys with hardwood
blocks and bronze wheels and bearings should be the window itself usually offers the best oppor-
used. tunity. One satisfactory method is to drill holes
For short antennas and temporary installa- in the glass near the top of the upper sash. If
tions, heavy clothesline or window- sash cord the glass is replaced by plate glass, a stronger
may be used. However, for more permanent jobs, job will result. Plate glass may be obtained from
Winch or - inch waterproof hemp rope should automobile junk yards and drilled before placing
be used. Even this should be replaced about once in the frame. The glass itself provides insula-
ayear to insure against breakage. tion and the transmission line may be fastened to
It is advisable to carry the pulley rope back up bolts fitting the holes. Rubber gaskets will render
to the top in "endless" fashion in the manner of the holes waterproof. The lower sash should be
a flag hoist so that if the antenna breaks close provided with stops to prevent damage when it
to the pole, there will be ameans for pulling the is raised. If the window has afull-length screen,
hoisting rope back down. the scheme shown in Fig. 14-52B may be used.
As aless permanent method, the window may
BRINGING THE ANTENNA OR be raised from the bottom or lowered from the
FEED LINE INTO THE STATION top to permit insertion of aboard which carries
The antenna or transmission line should be the feed-through insulators. This lead-in ar-
anchored to the outside wall of the building, as rangement can be made weatherproof by making
shown in Fig. 14-52, to remove strain from the an overlapping joint between the board and win-

feecee

Antenna
/rase/oters
Fig. 14- 52— A— Anchoring feeders takes the Spreys
strain from feed- through insulators or window
glass. B— Going through a full-length screen, a
cleat is fastened to the frame of the screen on /lean/
Screw-eyes Slack WIWI
the inside. Clearance holes are cut in the cleat
and also in the screen.

To feed- ,..".r,-ocy4
,,se/a.tors
A
390 ANTENNAS
dow sash, as shown in Fig. 14-51, or by using Coaxial line can be brought through clearance
weatherstrip material where necessary. holes without additional insulation.

ROTARY- BEAM CONSTRUCTION

It is a distinct advantage to be able to shift which becomes an important consideration when
the direction of a beam antenna at will, thus close- spaced elements are used.
securing the benefits of power gain and direc- Aluminum alloy tubes are generally used for
tivity in any desired compass direction. A favor- the elements. The elements frequently are con-
ite method of doing this is to construct the structed of sections of telecsoping tubing making
antenna so that it can be rotated in the hori- length adjustments for tuning quite easy. Elec-
zontal plane. The use of such rotatable antennas trician's thin-walled conduit also is suitable for
is usually limited to the higher frequencies- 14 rotary-beam elements. Regardless of the tubing
Mc. and above—and to the simpler antenna-ele- used, the ends should be plugged up with corks
ment combinations if the structure size is to be sealed with glyptal varnish.
kept within practicable bounds. For the 14-, 21- The element lengths are made adjustable by
and 28- Mc, bands such antennas usually consist sawing a 6- to 12-inch slot in the ends of the
of two to four elements and are of the parasitic- larger-diameter tubing and clamping the smaller
array type described earlier in this chapter. At tubing inside. Homemade clamps of aluminum
50 Mc. and higher it becomes possible to use can be built, or hose clamps of suitable size can
more elaborate arrays because of the shorter be used. An example of this construction is
wavelength and thus obtain still higher gain. An- shown in Fig. 14-53. If steel clamps are used,
tennas for these bands are described in another they should be cadmium- or zinc-plated before
chapter. installation.
The problems in rotary-beam construction are
those of providing a suitable mechanical support Supports
for the antenna elements, furnishing ameans of Metal is commonly used to support the ele-
rotation, and attaching the transmission line so ments of the rotary beam. For 28 Mc., apiece of
that it does not interfere with the rotation of the 2- inch diameter duraluminum tubing makes a
system. good "boom" for supporting the elements. The
elements can be made to slide through suitable
Elements holes in the boom, or special clamps and brac-
The antenna elements usually are made of kets can be fashioned to support the elements.
metal tubing so that they will be at least par- Fittings for TV antennas can often be used on
tially self-supporting, thus simplifying the sup- 21- and 28- Mc. beams. "Irrigation pipe" is agood
source of aluminum tubing up to diameters of 6
inches and lengths of 20 feet. Muffler clamps can
be used to hold beam elements to aboom.
Most of the TV antenna rotators are satisfac-
SAW SLOT tory for turning the smaller beams.
BOTH SIDES With all- metal construction, delta, "gamma"
Fig. 14 -
53 — Details of telescoping tubing for beam or "T"-match are the only practical matching
elements. methods to use to the line, since anything else
requires opening the driven element at the cen-
porting structure. The large diameter of the con- ter, and this complicates the support problem for
ductor is beneficial also in reducing resistance, that element.

"PLUMBER'S- DELIGHT" CONSTRUCTION

The lightest beam to build is the so-called ware should be cadmium-plated to forestall cor-
"plumber's delight", an array constructed en- rosion; the plating can be done at aplating shop
tirely of metal, with no insulating members be- and will not be very expensive if it is all done
tween the elements and the supporting structure. at the same time.
Some suggestions for the constructional details Muffler clamps and a steel plate can be used
are given in Figs. 14-54, 14-55 and 14-56. These to hold the boom to the supporting mast, as
show portions of a4-element 10-meter beam, but shown in Fig. 14-55. For maximum strength, the
the same principles hold for 15- and 20- meter mast section should be a length of galvanized
beams. iron pipe. The plate thickness should run from
Boom material can be the irrigation pipe sug- Yi 6 inch for a 10- meter beam to Ar inch or more
gested earlier ( available from Sears Roebuck). for a 20-meter beam. Steel plates of this thick-
Muffler clamps and homemade brackets ( alumi- ness are best cut in awelding shop, where it can
num or cadmium-plated steel) can be used to be done quickly for anominal fee. After the plate
hold the parasitic elements to the boom, as shown has been cut and the muffler-clamp holes drilled,
in Fig. 14-54. The muffler clamps and all hard- the plate, clamps and hardware should be plated.
334 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

OSC OR REACTANCE
Fig. 12-3— Reactance modulator using a high-
AMP MOD. C2 1(
transconductance pentode ( 6BA6, OCIO, etc.).
C1—R.f. tank capacitance ( see text).
C2, C2-0.001-µf. mica.
C4, C2, C2-0.0047-µf. mica.
(1) C2-10-Itf. electrolytic.
RFC,

C„—Tube input capacitance.

R,-47,000 ohms.
o megohm.
A.F.
INPUT Rs—Screen dropping resistor; to give proper
screen voltage on modulator tube.
#-Tr
Ri —Cathode bias resistor; Class-A operation.
Li—R.f. tank inductance.
RFC1-2..5-mh. r.f. choke.
Design Considerations
The sensitivity of the modulator ( frequency the Q, the smaller the amount of detuning
change per unit change in grid voltage) depends needed to secure a given number of degrees of
on the transconductance of the modulator tube. phase shift. If the Q is at least 10, the relation-
It increases when R1 is made smaller in com- ship between phase shift and detuning ( in kilo-
parison with C8.It also increases with an in- cycles either side of the resonant frequency)
crease in L/C ratio in the oscillator tank cir- will be substantially linear over a phase- shift
cuit. However, for highest carrier stability it is range of about 25 degrees. From the standpoint
desirable to use the largest tank capacitance of modulator sensitivity, the Q of the tuned
that will permit the desired deviation to be se- circuit on which the modulator operates should
cured while keeping within the limits of linear be as high as possible. On the other hand, the
operation. effective Q of the circuit will not be very high
A change in any of the voltages on the modu- if the amplifier is delivering power to a load
lator tube will cause a change in r.f. plate cur- since the load resistance reduces the Q. There
rent, and consequently a frequency change. must therefore be acompromise between modu-
Therefore it is advisable to use a regulated lator sensitivity and r.f. power output from the
power supply for, both modulator and oscillator. modulated amplifier. An optimum figure for Q
At the low voltage used ( 250 volts or less) the appears to be about 20; this allows reasonable
required stabilization can be secured by means loading of the modulated amplifier and the nec-
of gaseous regulator tubes. essary tuning variation can be secured from a
reactance modulator without difficulty. It is ad-
Speech Amplification
visable to modulate at a very low power level
The speech amplifier preceding the modulator — preferably in a stage where receiving- type
follows ordinary design, except that no power is tubes are used.
taken from it and the a.f. voltage required by Reactance modulation of an amplifier stage
the modulator grid usually is small — not more usually also results in simultaneous amplitude
than 10 or 15 volts, even with large modulator modulation because the modulated stage is de-
tubes. Because of these modest requirements, tuned from resonance as the phase is shifted.
only a few speech stages are needed; a two- This must be eliminated by feeding the modu-
stage amplifier consisting of apentode followed lated signal through an amplitude limiter or
by a triode, both resistance-coupled, will more one or more " saturating" stages — that is, am-
than suffice for cr)stal microphones. plifiers that are operated Class C and driven
hard enough so that variations in the amplitude
PHASE MODULATION of the grid excitation produce no appreciable
The same type (if reactance- tube circuit that variations in the final output amplitude.
is used to vary the tuning of the oscillator tank For the same type of reactance modulator,
in f.m. can be used to vary the tuning of an the speech- amplifier gain required is the same
amplifier tank and thus vary the phase of the for p.m. as for f.m. However, as pointed out
tank current for p.m. Hence the modulator cir- earlier, the fact that the actual frequency devi-
cuit of Fig. 12-3 can be used for p.m. if the re- ation increases with the modulating audio fre-
actance tube works on an amplifier tank instead quency in p.m. makes it necessary to cut off the
of directly on a self-controlled oscillator. frequencies above about 3000 cycles before
The phase shift that occurs when a circuit is modulation takes place. If this is not done, un-
detuned from resonance depends on the amount necessary sidebands will be generated at f re-
of detuning and the Q of the circuit. The higher qüencies considerably away from the carrier.

CHECKING F.M. AND P.M. TRANSMITTERS

Accurate checking of the operation of an methods than the corresponding checks on an
f.m. or p.m. transmitter requires different a.m. set. This is because the common forms of
F.M. and P.M. 335
measuring devices either indicate amplitude 2000

variations only ( a d.c. milliammeter, for ex-

ample), or because their indications are most 2
g 1000
easily interpreted in terms of amplitude. There
is no simple measuring instrument that indi-
cates frequency deviation directly.
However, there is one favorable feature in
f.m. or p.m. checking. The modulation takes
place at avery low level and the stages follow-
ing the one that is modulated do not affect the
linearity of modulation so long as they are
2000
properly tuned. Therefore the modulation may -3 -2 -1 +2 +3

be checked without putting the transmitter on Grid— Voltage Deviate°

From Operating Bias
the air, or even on adummy antenna. The power
is simply cut off the amplifiers following the Fig. 12-5—A typical curve of frequency deviation vs.
.
modulated stage. This not only avoids unneces- modulator grid voltage.
sary interference to other stations during test-
ing periods, but also keeps the signal at such measured by comparison with a calibrated
alow level that it may be observed quite easily audio- frequency oscillator. Note that with the
on the station receiver. A good receiver with a battery polarity positive with respect to ground
crystal filter is an essential part of the check- the radio frequency will move in one direction
ing equipment of an f.m. or p.m. transmitter, when the voltage is increased, and in the other
particularly for narrow-band f.m. or p.m. direction when the battery terminals are re-
The quantities to be checked in an f.m. or versed. When several readings have been taken
p.m. transmitter are the linearity and frequency acurve may be plotted to demonstrate the rela-
deviation. Because of the essential difference tionship between grid voltage and frequency
between f.m. and p.m. the methods of checking deviation.
differ in detail. A sample curve is shown in Fig. 12-5. The
usable portion of the curve is the center part
Reactance-Tube F.M.
which is essentially a straight line. The bend-
It is possible to calibrate a reactance modu- ing at the ends indicates that the modulator is
lator by applying an adjustable d.c. voltage to no longer linear; this departure from linearity
the modulator grid and noting the change in will cause harmonic distortion and will broaden
oscillator frequency as the voltage is varied. A the channel occupied by the signal. In the ex-
suitable circuit for applying the adjustable ample, the characteristic is linear 1.5 kc. on
voltage is shown in Fig. 12-4. The battery either side of the center or carrier frequency.
A good modulation indicator is a "magic-
eye" tube such as the 6E5. This should be con-
TO MOD. GRID
nected across the grid resistor of the reactance
RESISTOR modulator as shown in Fig. 12-6. Note its de-
flection ( using the d.c. voltage method as in
Fig. 12-4) at the maximum deviation to be
used. For narrow-band f.m. the proper devia-
Fig. 12-4—D.c. method of checking frequency deviation tion is approximately 2000 cycles ( this maxi-
of a reactance-tube- modulated oscillator. A 500- or mum deviation is based on an upper a.f. limit
1000- ohm potentiometer may be used at I21. of 3000 cycles and a deviation ratio of 0.7) at
the output frequency. This deflection represents
should have a voltage of 3 tb 6 volts ( two or "100 per cent modulation" and with speech in-
more dry cells in series). The arrows indicate put the gain should be kept at the point where
clip connections so that the battery polarity can it is just reached on voice peaks. If the trans-
be reversed. mitter is used on more than one band, the gain
The oscillator frequency deviation should be
measured by using a receiver in conjunction TO GRID
with an accurately calibrated frequency meter,
or by any means that will permit accurate
measurement of frequency differences of a few
SPEECH —
hundred cycles. One simple method is to tune AMP
GAIN
in the oscillator on the receiver ( disconnecting CONTROL
the receiving antenna, if necessary, to keep the
signal strength well below the overload point)
+250V.
and then set the receiver b.f.o. to zero beat.
Then increase the d.c. voltage applied to the Fig. 12-6-6E5 modulation indicator for f.m. or p.m.
modulator grid from zero in steps of about V2 modulators. To insure sufficient grid voltage for a good
volt and note the beat frequency at each deflection, it may be necessary to connect the gain
change. Then reverse the battery terminals and control in the modulator grid circuit rather than in an
repeat. The frequency of the beat note may be earlier speech-amplifier stage.
336 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
control should be marked at the proper setting checked by observing the carrier as the a.f. gain
for each band, because the signal amplitude is slowly increased. The beat- note frequency
that gives the correct deviation on one band will stay constant so long as the modulator
will be either too great or too small on another. is linear, but nonlinearity will be accompanied
For example, if the output frequency is in the by a shift in the average carrier frequency
29- Mc, band and the oscillator is on 7Mc., the that will cause the beat note to change in fre-
deviation at the oscillator frequency should not quency. If such a shift occurs at the same time
exceed 2000/4, or 500 cycles. that the 6-kc. sidebands appear, the extra side-
bands may be caused by modulator distortion
Checking with a Crystal- Filter Receiver
rather than by an excessive modulation index.
With p.m. the d.c. method of checking just This means that the modulator is not capable
described cannot be used, because the fre- of shifting the frequency over a wide-enough
quency deviation at zero frequency ( d.c.) also range. The 6-kc. sidebands should appear before
is zero. For narrow- band p.m. it is necessary to there is any shift in the carrier frequency.
check the actual width of the channel occupied
by the transmission. ( The same method also R.F. Amplifiers
can be used to check f.m.) For this purpose it The r.f. stages in the transmitter that follow
is necessary to have a crystal- filter receiver the modulated stage may be designed and ad-
and an a.f. oscillator that generates a 3000- justed as in ordinary operation. In fact, there
cycle sine wave. are no special requirements to be met except
Keeping the signal intensity in the receiver that all tank circuits should be carefully tuned
at a medium level, tune in the carrier at the to resonance ( to prevent unwanted r.f. phase
output frequency. Do not use the a.v.c. Switch shifts that might interact with the modulation
on the beat oscillator, and set the crystal filter and thereby introduce hum, noise and distor-
at its sharpest position. Peak the signal on the tion). In neutralized stages, the neutralization
crystal and adjust the b.f.o. for any convenient should be as exact as possible, also to minimize
beat note. Then apply the 3000- cycle tone to unwanted phase shifts. With f.m. and p.m., all
the speech amplifier ( through an attenuator, r.f. stages in the transmitter can be operated at
if necessary, to avoid overloading; see chapter the manufacturer's maximum c.w.-telegraphy
on audio amplifiers) and increase the audio ratings, since the average power input does not
gain until there is a small amount of modula- vary with modulation as it does in a.m. phone
tion. Tuning the receiver near the carrier fre- operation.
quency will show the presence of sidebands The output power of the transmitter should
3kc. from the carrier on both sides. With low be checked for amplitude modulation. It should
audio input, these two should be the only side- not change from the unmodulated-carrier value
bands detectable. when the transmitter is modulated. If no output
Now increase the audio gain and tune the indicator is available, a flashlight lamp and
receiver over a range of about 10 kc. on both loop can be coupled to the final tank coil to
sides of the carrier. When the gain becomes serve as a current indicator. If the carrier
high enough, a second set of sidebands spaced amplitude is constant, the lamp brilliance will
6 kc. on either side of the carrier will be de- not change with modulation.
tected. The signal amplitude at which these Amplitude modulation accompanying f.m. or
sidebands become detectable is the maximum p.m. is just as much to be avoided as frequency
speech amplitude that should be used. If the or phase modulation that accompanies a.m. A
6E5 modulation indicator is incorporated in the mixture of a.m. with either of the other two
modulator, its deflection with the 3000- cycle systems results in the generation of spurious
tone will be the " 100 per cent modulation" de- sidebands and consequent widening of the
flection for speech. channel. If the presence of a.m. is indicated by
When this method of checking is used with variation of antenna current with modulation,
a reactance- tube- modulated f.m. ( not p.m.) the cause is almost certain to be nonlinearity in
transmitter, the linearity of the system can be the modulator.

RECEPTION OF F.M. AND P.M. SIGNALS

Receivers for f.m. and p.m. signals differ sponding to the frequency or phase modulation
from those for a.m. and s.s.b. principally in two on the signal.
features — there is no need for linearity in the Frequency- or phase-modulated signals can
amplifier stages preceding detection ( in fact, it be received after a fashion on any ordinary re-
is advantageous if the amplitude variations in ceiver that has a selectivity curve with sloping
the signal and background noise can be sides. As shown in Fig. 12-7A, the receiver is
"washed out"), and the detector must be capa- tuned so that the carrier frequency is placed
ble of converting the frequency variations in part- way down on one side of the selectivity
the incoming signal into amplitude variations. curve so that the amplitude is less than the
These amplitude variations, combined with rec- maximum that would be possible with normal
tification, produce an audio voltage corre- tuning. When the frequency of the signal varies
 F.M. and P.M. 337
DEVIATION ing steep- sided selectivity curves, the method
LIMITS
is not very satisfactory because the distortion
is quite severe unless the frequency deviation
is small, because the relationship between fre-
quency deviation and output amplitude is linear
over only a small part of the selectivity curve.
A detector designed expressly for f.m. or p.m.
will have acharacteristic similar to that shown
in Fig. 12-7B. The output is zero when the un-
modulated carrier is tuned to the center, 0, of
the characteristic. When the frequency swings
higher, the rectified output amplitude increases
in the positive direction ( as chosen in this ex-
FREQUENCY ample), and when the frequency swings lower
the output amplitude increases in the negative
DEVIATION
LIMITS
direction. Over the range in which the charac-
teristic is a straight line the conversion from
f.m. to a.m. is linear and there is no distortion.
ccl One type of detector that operates in this way
is the frequency discriminator, which combines
the f.m.-to-a.m. conversion with rectification to
give an audio- frequency output from the fre-
quency-modulated r.f. signal.

Limiter and Discriminator

A practical discriminator circuit is shown in
Fig. 12-8. The f.m.-to-a.m. conversion takes
Fig. 12-7—F.m. or p.m. detection characteristics. A— place in transformer T1,which operates at the
"Slope detection," using the sloping side of the re- intermediate frequency of a superheterodyne
ceiver's selectivity curve to convert f.m. or p.m. to a.m. receiver. The voltage induced in the trans-
for subsequent rectification. B—Typical discriminator former secondary, S, is 90 degrees out of phase
characteristic. The straight portion of this curve be- with the primary current. The primary voltage
tween the two peaks is the useful region. The peaks is introduced at the center tap on the second-
should always lie outside the pass band of the ary through C1 and combines with the second-
receiver's selectivity curve. ary voltages on each side of the center tap in
such a way that the resultant voltage on one
with modulation it swings between some such side of the secondary leads the primary voltage
limits as are indicated in Fig. 12-7A, resulting and the voltage on the other side lags by the
in an amplitude- modulated output varying be- same phase angle, when the circuits are reso-
tween X and Y. After this f.m.-to-a.m. conver- nated to the unmodulated carrier frequency.
sion the signal goes to aconventional detector When rectified, these two voltages are equal
(usually a diode) and is rectified in the same and of opposite polarity. If the frequency
way as an a.m. signal. changes, there is ashift in the relative phase of
With most receivers, particularly those hay- the voltage components that results in an in-

I.F. T.
SEC.
(FROM
I.F.
AMR)

+5 ( 250-300V.)

Fig. 12-8—Limiter-discriminator circuit. This type of circuit is frequently used at 455 kc. In the form of an
"adapter" for communications receivers, for reception of narrow-band f.m. signals.
Cs—App. 100 pg. for 455-kc. i.f.; 50 itetf. for higher RFC1-10 mh. r.f. choke for 455-kc. i.f.; 2.5 mh. satis-
frequencies. factory for frequencies above 3Mc.
Ts—Discriminator transformer for i.f. used. Push-pull V1-6AU6 or equivalent.
diode transformer may be substituted. Vs-6AL5 or equivalent.
338 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
crease in output amplitude on one side of the rectification, with grid- leak bias developed in
secondary and acorresponding decrease in am- the 50,000- ohm resistor in the grid circuit. An-
plitude on the other side. Thus the voltage other contributing factor is low screen voltage,
applied to one diode of V 2 increases while the the screen voltage-divider constants being
voltage applied to the other diode decreases. chosen to result in about 50 volts on the screen.
The difference between these two voltages,
Receiver Tuning with an F.M. Detector
after rectification, is the audio- frequency out-
put of the detector. In tuning a signal with a receiver having a
The ouput amplitude of a simple discrimina- discriminator or other type of f.m. detector the
tor depends on the amplitude of the input r.f. tuning controls should be adjusted to center the
signal, which is undesirable because the noise- carrier on the detector characteristic. At this
reducing benefits of f.m. are not secured if the point the noise suppression is most marked, so
receiving system is sensitive to amplitude vari- the proper setting is easily recognized. An am-
ations. A discriminator is always preceded by plitude- modulated signal tuned at the same
some form of amplitude limiting, therefore. point will have its modulation "washed off" if
The conventional type of limiter also is shown the signal is completely limited in amplitude
in Fig. 12-8. It is simply a pentode i.f. ampli- and the discriminator alignment is symmetri-
fier, V1,with its operating conditions chosen so cal. With either f.m. or a.m. signals, there will
that it " saturates" on a relatively small signal be a distorted audio- frequency output if the
voltage. The limiting action is aided by grid receiver is tuned "off-center."

RADIOTELETYPE
Radioteletype ( abbreviated RTTY) is aform until atypewriter key is depressed. At this time
of telegraphic communication employing type- it begins operating, forms the proper pulse se-
writer- like machines for 1) generating acoded quence, and then comes to rest again before the
set of electrical impulses when atypewriter key next key is depressed to form the following
corresponding to the desired letter or symbol is character. The receiving mechanism operates
pressed, and 2) converting a received set of in similar fashion, being set into operation by
such impulses into the corresponding printed the first pulse of the sequence from the trans-
character. The message to be sent is typed out mitter. Thus, although the actual transmission
in much the same way that it would be written speed cannot exceed about 60 w.p.m. it can be
on a typewriter, but the printing is done at the considerably slower, depending on the typing
distant receiving point. The teletypewriter at speed of the operator.
the sending point also prints the same material, It is also possible to transmit by using per-
for checking and reference. forated tape. This has the advantage that the
The machines used for RTTY are far too complete message may be typed out in advance
complex mechanically for home construction, of actual transmission, at any convenient speed;
and if purchased new would be highly expen- when transmitted, however, it is sent at the ma-
sive. However, used teletypewriters in good chine's normal maximum speed. A special
mechanical condition are available at quite transmitting head and tape perforator are re-
reasonable prices. These are machines retired quired for this process. A reperforator is a
from commercial service but capable of entirely device that may be connected to the conven-
satisfactory operation in amateur work. They tional teletypewriter for punching tape when
may be obtained from a number of sources the machine is operated in the regular way. It
(latest information on this may be obtained may thus be used either for an original mes-
from ARRL, Newington, Conn.) on condi- sage or for "taping" an incoming message for
tion that they will be used purely for amateur retransmission.
purposes and will not be resold for commercial
use.
Types of Machines urrER .
ce
MARK -
There are two general types of machines, the
page printer and the tape printer. The former
prints on apaper roll about the same width as
abusiness letterhead. The latter prints on paper I I
I I
tape, usually gummed on the reverse side so it SPACE
3 5 1 I STOP

may be cut to letter- size width and pasted on a r 221.5,4-221PS 2210 221PS 4.22PS -.I-221%5.4.-31PS -1

ISS.S.
sheet of paper in a series of lines. The page
printer is the more common type in the equip-
ment available to amateurs. Fig. 12-9— Pulse sequence in the teletype code. Each
The operating speed of most machines is such character begins with a start pulse, always a " space,"
that characters are sent at the rate of about 60 and ends with a " stop" pulse, always a " mark." The
words per minute. Ordinary teletypewriters are distribution of marks and spaces in the five elements
of the start-stop variety, in which the pulse- between start and stop determines the particular
forming mechanism (motor driven) is at rest character transmitted.
Radioteletype 339
Fig. 12- 10—Teletype letter code as it
appears on perforated tape. Start
tr. vi
FIGURES — 3 8 9 0 14 57 2 6 Fi 2 ce 75 a
r
and stop elements do not appear on
LETTERS— A BC DEF H I MNOPORSTLIVWXYZu3 11°4
tope Elements are numbered from
1 • • se. • • • • • • • • • • •
FEED 2 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • top to bottom, and dots indicate
HOLES
3 • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • marking pulses. Numerals, punctua-
4 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
5 • • • • • • • • S • •
tion signs, and other arbitrary sym-
bols are secured by carriage shift.
There are no lower-case letters on a teletypewriter . Where blanks appear in the above chart in the "FIGS" line,
characters may differ on different machines.

Teletype Code units known respectively as the keyer and re-

In the special code used for teletype every ceiving converter.
The radio transmitter and receiver are quite
character has five "elements" sent in sequence.
Each element has two possible states, either conventional in design. Practically all the spe-
"mark" or " space," which are indicated by cial features needed can be incorporated in the
different types of electrical impulses ( i.e., mark keyer and converter, so that any ordinary ama-
might be indicated by a negative voltage and teur equipment is suitable for RTTY with little
space by apositive voltage). In customary prac- modification.
tice each element occupies a time of 22 milli-
Transmission Methods
seconds. In addition, there is an initial " start"
element ( space), also 22 milliseconds long, to It is quite possible to transmit teletype sig
set the sending and receiving mechanisms in nais by ordinary "on- off" or "make-break" key-
operation, and aterminal " stop" element ( mark) ing such as is used in regular hand- keyed c.w.
31 milliseconds long, to end the operation and transmission. In practice, however, frequency-
ready the machine for the next character. shift keying is preferred because it gives defi-
This sequence is illustrated in Fig. 12-9, nite pulses on both mark and space, which is
which shows the letter G with its start and stop an advantage in printer operation. Also, since
elements. The letter code as it would appear on f.s.k. can be received by methods similar to
perforated tape is shown in Fig. 12-10, where those used for f.m. reception, there is consider-
the black dots indicate marking pulses. Figures able discrimination against noise, both natural
and arbitrary signs — punctuation, etc. — use and man-made, distributed uniformly across
the same set of code impulses as the alphabet, the receiver's pass band, when the received
and are selected by shifting the carriage as in signal is not too weak. Both factors make for
the case of an ordinary typewriter. The car- increased reliability in printer operation.
riage shift is accomplished by transmitting Frequency-Shift Keying
either the "LTRS" or " Fics" code symbol as
required. There is also a "carriage return" General practice with f.s.k. is to use a fre-
code character to bring the carriage back to the quency shift of 850 cycles per second, although
starting position after the end of the line is FCC regulations permit the use of any value
reached on a page printer, and a " line feed" of frequency shift up to 900 cycles. The smaller
character to advance the page to the next line values of shift have been shown to have a
after a line is completed. signal- to- noise- ratio advantage in commercial
circuits, and are currently being experimented
Additional System Requirements with by amateurs. At present, however, the
To be used in radio communication, the major part of amateur RTTY work is done
pulses ( d.c.) generated by the teletypewriter with the 850- cycle shift. This figure also is used
must be utilized in some way to key a radio in much commercial work. The nominal trans-
transmitter so they may be sent in proper se- mitter frequency is the mark condition and the
quence and usable form to a distant point. At frequency is shifted 850 cycles ( or whatever
the receiving end the incoming signal must be shift may be chosen) lower for space.
converted into d.c. pulses suitable for operating On the v.h.f. bands where A2 transmission is
the printer. These functions, shown in block permitted audio frequency-shift keying ( a.f.s.k.)
form in Fig. 12-11, are performed by electronic is generally used. In this case the r.f. carrier is
transmitted continuously, the pulses being
transmitted by frequency- shifted tone modula-
'17 tion. The audio frequencies used have been

TRANSMITTER RADIO
RECEIVER I
more- or- less standardized at 2125 and 2975
cycles per second, the shift being 850 cycles as
in the case of straight f.s.k. ( These frequencies
RE TER
RECEIVING
CONVERTER
are the 5th and 7th harmonics, respectively, of
425 cycles, which is half the shift frequency,
and thus are convenient for calibration and
alignment purposes.) With a.f.s.k. the lower
TELETYPEWRITER

audio frequency is customarily used for mark

Fig. 12-11—Radioteletype in block form. and the higher for space.
 340 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
DETECTOR CURRENT AMP.

E-5 1

.003

0151%7 470K EA

*—AAM—MA-4 To
'-'PRINTER

r-°
Pe, I5° 100K

'Tr
6X5
e
6SL7 6SLT 6SNT 6X5
115 v.A C.

7 A / / 7

Fig. 12- 12—Receiving converter for f.s.k. teletype signals (

W2PAT). Unless otherwise indicated, capacitances are
In ed. resistances are in ohms, resistors are ' 2watt. Capacitors of 0.01 4. or less may be mica or ceramic; larger
values may be paper. Capacitors with polarities indicated are electrolytic.

C,-0.15-
pf. paper. propriately shunted).
C.,-0.1-yf. paper. 12,- 50,000- ohm volume control, linear taper.
C12,- 1N34 or equivalent. Ru - 1000 ohms, 1 watt.
Xi— Polar relay, to operate on 20 ma. Si—S.p.s.t. toggle.
1,-36 mh. (
TV width control, GE type RLD-019). T,— Power transformer, 500 volts c.t., 30 ma. ; 6.3 volts
1,-29 mh. ( TV width control, GE type RLD-014). 3 amp.
M,.—Zero- center d.c. milliammeter, 20 ma. or more full Vi,- 6517 ( or 12AX7).
scale ( may be a 100-0-100 microammeter ap- V,-6SN7GT or 12AU7).

THE RECEIVING CONVERTER

In receiving an f.s.k. teletype signal, the re- to overcome distortion that occurs in trans-
ceiver's beat- frequency oscillator is turned on mission. There are many ways by which these
as for ordinary c.w. reception and the receiver results can be accomplished, and the higher the
tuning is then adjusted so that the mark and order of performance the more complicated the
space signals produce audio beat tones of 2125 circuits become. However, satisfactory results
and 2975 cycles. Either frequency can be used under reasonably good receiving conditions can
for either mark or space, but no matter which be secured with relatively simple equipment,
may be used at the transmitter, the mark and and the " basic" circuit shown in Fig. 12-12 has
space frequencies can be reversed at the re- proved to be quite successful in practice. It
ceiver simply by tuning to the "other side of operates as follows:
zero beat." (This cannot be done with a.f.s.k., When audio output from the receiver is ap-
of course, but the reversal can be accomplished plied, the two diodes, CR 1 and CR 2,which are
quite simply, if necessary, by interchanging the biased with approximately 0.3 volt, limit the
outputs from the two frequencies as applied to peak voltage at the grid of the limiter tube,
the printer.) The audio- frequency tones are ViA ,to 0.6 volt or less for signal voltages up to
applied to separate rectifiers to convert them 30 volts or more. Additional limiting in VI,
into d.c. impulses, which may then be further further stabilizes the voltage level. V iB is pri-
amplified to the power level required to operate marily an amplifier, and delivers approximately
the printer. 15 volts output, constant to within 1db. for re-
The receiving converter which performs ceiver output voltages varying between about
these functions generally will include means 0.5 volt and more than 30 volts.
for clipping or limiting the signals so they are The two tones, thus limited in amplitude, are
held at constant amplitude, and may also in- applied to two simple filter circuits, LIC, and
clude provision for some shaping of the pulses L2C2,tuned to 2125 and 2975 cycles, respectively.
Radioteletype 341
04-
Fig. 12- 13—Modification of converter circuit for 250 V.
use with single-magnet printers. Unless other-
wise indicated, capacitances are in µf., resist-
2W.
ances in ohms, resistors are Y2 watt.
656G
MI—Zero-center d.c. milliammeter, 100 ma. full NE- 51
scale ( may be microammeter with ap- 5
50k
propriate shunt). TO 6SL7 DEI.
PLATES
11i-50,000-ohm volume control. o

o
The two tones are thus separated, one be- ro set..
ing applied to the grid of V2A and the other me'

to the grid of V2B .V2A and V 2B operate as NE- 5I

grid- leak detectors, and when a signal is

applied to, say, V2A ,
the flow of grid current 6Y6G 656G

causes the grid to be driven practically to plate-

current cutoff. As a result the plate voltage on
V2A ,normally 15 volts with no signal, rises to 50
volts. This is sufficient to ignite the neon lamp
connected between the plate of V 2A and the grid
of V3B ,and apositive bias of about 25 volts is ap- The zero-center meter, M I,is not a necessity
plied to the grid of V3B .VBB then takes a plate but is a convenience in making adjustments.
current of about 20 ma. and abias of 20 volts is R1 should be adjusted on receiver noise for zero
developed across the common cathode resistor, R2. reading. With a2125- cycle tone the pointer will
This is sufficient to cut off the plate current of swing to the left and L1 should be adjusted for
V3A ,hence the left-hand magnet of the polar- maximum deflection. With a2975- cycle tone the
ized relay, K1,is inoperative while the right- pointer will swing to the right and L2 should be
hand magnet closes the contacts on its side. A adjusted for maximum deflection. Equal deflec-
similar action takes place when a signal is tions should be obtained from both channels.
applied to the grid of V2B but not to V2A ;in this The keying circuit shown in Fig. 12-12 is for
case the relay contacts are pulled to the left. use with the Model 12 machine which requires
The relay thus keys the mark and space volt- an external power supply. For machines having
ages applied to the printer. a single selector magnet the modification
Potentiometer R1 is adjusted so that incom- shown in Fig. 12-13 may be used so the printer
ing noise ( which will affect both channels may be operated directly. These machines usu-
equally) is balanced out and does not cause K1 ally require a current of 60 ma., which will be
to operate. The neon lamps improve the opera- furnished by this circuit and may be adjusted
tion of the circuit by acting as switches, mak- to the correct value by means of R1.Note that
ing for sharp demarcation between mark and a heavier power supply is required than that of
space pulses. Fig. 12-12.

FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYERS
The keyboard contacts of the teletypewriter magnet or relay circuit. A fast- acting relay
actuate a direct-current circuit that operates must be used, and the coil must be one that will
the printer magnets, and apair of terminals is operate satisfactorily on the current available
provided at which a keyed d.c. signal of the in the printer circuit. This will usually be either
order of 100 volts is available. ( Some machines, 20 or 60 milliamperes, depending on the type of
such as the Model 12, require an external d.c. machine.
power supply for this purpose; others have
self-contained power supplies.) In the "resting" F.S.K. with Variable- Frequency Oscillators
condition the contacts are closed ( mark) and the Perhaps the simplest satisfactory circuit for
voltage at the terminals, which are in parallel frequency- shift keying av.f.o. is the one shown
with the contacts, is zero. In operation, the con- in Fig. 12-14A. This operates from the voltage
tacts open for "space" and the full voltage appears available at the keyboard contact terminals
across the terminals. As normally connected, the and uses areactance tube to obtain the required
spacing signal has positive polarity. frequency shift.
This keyed d.c. voltage may be used to oper- The frequency shift is obtained by changing
ate a keyer circuit for the radio transmitter, the plate resistance of the reactance tube, V2,so
provided it is not "loaded" to such an extent that in effect the variable capacitor C2 is alter-
that it affects the operation of the printer. Al- nately disconnected or connected in parallel
ternatively, the keyed current, rather than the with the tuning capacitor in .the v.f.o. tank cir-
voltage, may be used for external keying. This cuit. With no voltage applied to the grid, V2 is
can be done by using an auxiliary keying relay biased so that the plate current is low and the
with its coil connected in series with the printer effect of C 2 on the oscillator frequency is small.
 342 SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
the shift may be made by means of RI.If the
20K V. F.O transmitter output is on a higher- frequency
51w. I TANK
CKT. band than that on which the v.f.o. operates, the
shift at the v.f.o. fundamental frequency must
be reduced accordingly.
o F.S.K. With Crystal Oscillators
FROM KEYBOARD
CONTACTS
Fig. 12-14B is acircuit which has been found
(A)
to give a frequency shift of 850 cycles or more
with crystals of the type ordinarily used for
TO BUFF
AMP. frequencies of the order of 3.5 Mc. and higher.
5600
This is an oscillator of the "grid- plate" type
discussed in Chapter 6 on transmitters, with
XTAL the addition of avariable capacitor, C s , in series
r=1 with the crystal. C s reduces the total capaci-
2 5mh tance across the crystal and thus raises the
oscillation frequency. When it is shorted out
the capacitance across the crystal is higher and
+150
the resulting frequency is lower.
Although relay contacts could be used for
(B) shorting the capacitor, the diode arrangement
#.4 RELAY COIL IN SERIES
`rd' WITH KEYBOARD CONTACTS shown in Fig. 12-14B is more reliable in prac-
1000 tice. With the contacts of 1C 1 open there is no
Fig. 12- 14—Frequency-shift keyer circuits. Unless other- d.c. path through CR 2 and it acts simply as a
wise indicated, capacitances are in µO., resistances are small capacitance ( about 1NIL) in parallel with
in ohms, resistors are 1,4 watt. A—Reactance-tube keyer C s. When the contacts of K 1 are closed there is

for use with variable-frequency oscillator (W6OWP). a d.c. circuit through CR 1,CR 2 and the 1000-
B— Crystal oscillator circuit (W2PAT). It is essential that ohm resistor. Thus there is a path for direct
all leads associated with the crystal portion of the cir- current flow as a result of rectification of the
cuit be held to a small fraction of an inch in length if r.f. voltage across CR 2.Because of the d.c. bias
maximum shift is desired. the resistance of CR 2 drops to a low value and
Co—Paper (see text). C s is effectively shorted out.

C2-501.20. midget variable. Adjustment of the circuit consists simply of

Cs- 100-µµf. midget variable. determining the setting of C s at which the op-
CR2-1N34 or equivalent. erating frequency is 850 cycles ( or the desired
K2—Normally closed relay, fast operating, coil current shift) higher with the contacts of K1 open than
according to printer magnet or relay current. the frequency when the relay contacts are
RI—Volume control. closed. A normally closed relay is used in order
32—S.p.s.t. toggle. to make the mark frequency lower than the
V2- 1-watt neon bulb without base resistor. space frequency, in accordance with usual
V2-6C4 or equivalent. practice.
V8-6AK5 or equivalent.
Frequency Adjustment
The frequency shift, whatel. er the type of cir-
cuit, should be made as nearly exact as avail-
When a positive voltage from the keyboard able equipment will permit, since the shift must
contacts is applied to the grid the plate resist- match the frequency difference between the
ance is low and the oscillator frequency be- filters in the receiving converter if the signals
comes lower because of the greater effect of C 2 . are to be usable at the receiving end. An accu-
The amount of frequency shift depends on the rately calibrated audio oscillator is useful for
capacitance of C s and the amplitude of the this purpose. To check, the mark frequency
positive voltage applied to the grid of Vs. The should be tuned in on the station receiver, with
latter can be controlled by R1. the b.f.o. on, and the receiver set to exact zero
C1, the associated 20,000-ohm resistor, and beat ( see Chapter 21 on measurements for
the neon bulb, VI,constitute a filter for remov- identification of exact zero beat). The space
ing clicks generated at the keyboard contacts. frequency should then be adjusted to exactly
The value of C1 depends somewhat on the ma- the desired shift. This may be done by adjusting
chine, and values up to 0.25 if. can be used, if for an auditory zero beat between the beat tone
necessary, without objectionable distortion of from the receiver and the tone from the audio
the keying pulses. The capacitance should be oscillator. If an oscilloscope is available, the
adjusted for clickless keying. frequency adjustment may be accomplished by
The frequency- shift circuit should be initially feeding the receiver tone to the vertical plates
adjusted at the lowest radio frequency to be and the audio- oscillator tone to the horizontal
used, since the shift will be smallest in this plates, and then adjusting the space frequency
case. If Cs is set so a shift of 850 cycles is ob- for the elliptical pattern that indicates the two
tained at this frequency, further adjustment of frequencies are the same.
Prediction Charts 399
sphere storms) and are accompanied by dis-
turbances in the earth's magnetic field (
magnetic PROPAGATION IN THE BANDS
storms). Ionosphere storms are characterized BELOW 30 MC.
by amarked increase in absorption, so that ra- The 1.8- Mc., or " 160-meter," band offers re-
dio conditions become poor. The critical frequen- liable working over ranges up to 25 miles or so
cies also drop to relatively low values during a during daylight. On winter nights, ranges up to
storm, so that only the lower frequencies are use- several thousand miles are not impossible. Only
ful for communication. Ionosphere storms may small sections of the band are currently avail-
last from afew hours to several days. Since the able to amateurs, because of the loran (naviga-
sun rotates on its axis once every 28 days, dis- tion) service in that part of the spectrum.
turbances tend to recur at such intervals, if the The 3.5- Mc., or "80-meter," band is a more
sunspots responsible do not become inactive in useful band during the night than during the
the meantime. Absorption is usually low, and daylight hours. In the daytime, one can seldom
radio conditions good, just preceding a storm. hear signals from adistance of greater than 200
miles or so, but during the darkness hours dis-
Sporadic-E Ionization tances up to several thousand miles are not un-
Scattered patches or clouds of relatively dense usual, and transoceanic contacts are regularly
ionization occasionally appear at heights ap- made during the winter months. During the
proximately the same as that of the E layer, for summer, the static level is high.
reasons not yet known. This sporadic-E ioniza- The 7-Mc., or "40-meter," band has many of
tion is most prevalent in the equatorial regions, the same characteristics as 3.5, except that the
where it is substantially continuous. In northern distances that can be covered during the day and
latitudes it is most frequent in the spring and night hours are increased. During daylight, dis-
early summer, but is present in some degree a tances up to a thousand miles can be covered
fair percentage of the time the year ' round. It under good conditions, and during the dawn and
accounts for much of the night-time short distance dusk periods in winter it is possible to work sta-
work on the lower frequencies ( 3.5 and 7 Mc.) tions as far as the other side of the world, the
and, when more intense, for similar work on 14 signals following the darkness path. The winter
to 28 Mc. Exceptionally intense sporadic-E ioni- months are somewhat better than the summer
zation permits work over distances exceeding 400 ones. In general, summer static is much less of a
or 500 miles on the 50-Mc. band. problem than on 80 meters, although it can be
There are indications of a relationship be- serious in the semitropical zones.
tween sporadic-E ionization and average sunspot The 14-.Mc., or "20-meter," band is probably
activity, but it does not appear to be directly the best one for long-distance work. During the
related to daylight and darkness since it may high portion of the sunspot cycle it is open to
occur at any time of the day. However, there is some part of the world during practically all of
an apparent tendency for the ionization to peak the 24 hours, while during a sunspot minimum
at mid-morning and in the early evening. it is generally useful only during daylight hours
and the dawn and dusk periods. There is prac-
Tropospheric Propagation tically always a skip zone on this band.
Changes in temperature and humidity of air The 21-Mc., or " 15-meter," band shows highly
masses in the lower atmosphere often permit variable characteristics depending on the sun-
work over greater than normal ground- wave spot cycle. During sunspot maxima it is useful
distances on 28 Mc. and higher frequencies. The for long-distance work during a large part of
effect can be observed on 28 Mc., but it is gen- the 24 hours, but in years of low sunspot activ-
erally more marked on 50 and 144 Mc. The ity it is almost wholly a daytime band, and
subject is treated in detail later. sometimes unusable even in daytime. However,
it is often possible to maintain communication
PREDICTION CHARTS over distances up to 1500 miles or more by
The Central Radio Propagation Laboratory sporadic-E ionization which may occur either
of National Bureau of Standards offers predic- day or night at any time in the sunspot cycle.
tion charts, by means of which it is possible to The 28-Mc. (" 10-meter) band is generally
predict with considerable accuracy the maximum considered to be a DX band during the daylight
usable frequency that will hold over any path hours ( except in summer) and good for local
on the earth during amonthly period. The charts work during the hours of darkness, for about
can be obtained from the Superintendent of half the sunspot cycle. At the very peak of the
Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, sunspot cycle, it may be "open" into the late
Washington 25, D.C. for 15 cents per copy or evening hours for DX communication. At the
$1.50 per year ($2.00 foreign). They are called sunspot minimum the band is usually "dead" for
"CRPL Ionospheric Predictions." The use of the long-distance communication, by means of the
charts is explained in Handbook 90, "Handbook F 2 layer, in the northern latitudes. Nevertheless,
for CRPL Ionospheric Predictions," available sporadic-E propagation is likely to occur at any
for 40 cents from the same address. time, just as in the case of the 21- Mc. band.
Predictions on E-layer propagation may be There will often be exceptions to the general
obtained from information included in Hand- conditions described above, and their observation
book 90. is a very interesting facet of amateur radio.
344 TRANSMISSION LINES
given voltage is applied to an infinitely long current during a cycle. It is only when the
line, in exactly the same way that a definite line is not properly matched that the wave
value of actual resistance limits current flow motion becomes apparent through observa-
when a voltage is applied. tions made with ordinary instruments.
The inductance and capacitance per unit
length of line depend upon the size of the con- STANDING WAVES
ductors and the spacing between them. The In the infinitely long line (or its matched
closer the two conductors and the greater counterpart) the impedance is the same at any
their diameter, the higher the capacitance and point on the line because the ratio of voltage
the lower the inductance. A line with large to current is always the same: However, the
conductors closely spaced will have low im- impedance at the end of the line in Fig. 13-2 is
pedance, while one with small conductors zero — or at least extremely small — because
widely spaced will have relatively high im- the line is short-circuited at the end. The out-
pedance. going power, on meeting the short-circuit,
reverses its direction of flow and goes back
"Matched" Lines along the transmission line toward the input
Actual transmission lines do not extend to end. There is a large current in the short-
infinity but have adefinite length and are con- circuit, but substantially no voltage across
nected to, or terminate in, a load at the the line at this point. We now have avoltage
"output" end, or end to which the power is and current representing the power going
delivered. 1f the load is a pure resistance of a outward ( incident power) toward the short-
value equal to the characteristic impedance circuit, and a second voltage and current rep-
of the line, the line is said to be matched. resenting the reflected power traveling back
To current traveling along the line such a toward the source.
load just looks like still more transmission The reflected current travels at the same
line of the same characteristic impedance. speed as the outgoing current, so its instan-
In other words, ashort line terminated in a taneous value will be different at every point
purely resistive load equal to the characteristic along the line, in the distance represented by
impedance of the line acts just as though it the time of one cycle. At some points along
were infinitely long. In a matched transmis-
sion line, power travels outward along the Vas ge. LENGTH
line from the source until it reaches the load, Short-

where it is completely absorbed.

Current
alone' line as
R.F. on Lines measured
44/ ammeter
The principles discussed above, although
based on direct- current flow from a battery, Current
distribution
also hold when an r.f. voltage is applied to the including
line. The difference is that the alternating s, polarity

voltage causes the amplitude of the current at

Volta«
the input terminals of the line to vary with along line
eregardiny
the voltage, and the direction of current flow porarity
also periodically reverses when the polarity of
Voltage
the applied voltage reverses. The current at a distribution
includMy
given instant at any point along the line is the polarity
result of a voltage that was applied at some
earlier instant at the input terminals. Since the
distance traveled by the electromagnetic fields Fig. 13- 2— Standing waves of voltage and current

in the time of one cycle is equal to one wave- along short-circuited transmission line.

length ( Chapter 2), the instantaneous ampli-

tude of the current is different at all points in the line the phase of the incident and reflected
a one- wavelength section of line. In fact, the currents will be such that the currents cancel
current flows in opposite directions in the each other while at others the amplitude will
same wire in successive half- wavelength sec- be doubled. At in-between points the ampli-
tions. However, at any given point along the tude is between these two extremes. The
line the current goes through similar varia- points at which the currents are in and out of
tions with time that the current at the input phase depend only on the time required for
terminals did. them to travel and so depend only on the
Thus the current ( and voltage) travels distance along the line from the point of
along the wire as a series of waves having a reflection.
length equal to the speed of travel divided In the short-circuit at the end of the line the
by the frequency of the a.c. voltage. On an two current components are in phase and the
infinitely long line, or one properly matched total current is large. At adistance of one-half
by its load, an ammeter inserted anywhere in wavelength back along the line from the
the line will show the same current, because short-circuit the outgoing and reflected com-
the ammeter averages out the variations in ponents will again be in phase and the re-
Standing Waves 345
sultant current will again have its maximum order for the total current at the end of the
value. This is also true at any point that is a line to be zero. The incident and reflected
multiple of a half wavelength from the short- components of voltage are in phase and add
circuited end of the line. together. The result is again that there are
The outgoing and reflected currents will standing waves, but the conditions are re-
cancel at a point one-quarter wavelength, versed as compared with ashort-circuited line.
along the line, from the short-circuit. At this Fig. 13-3 shows the open- circuited line case.
point, then, the current will be zero. It will
17IA. I4X IA %A %A. unarm
also be zero at all points that are an odd multi-
ple of one-quarter wavelength from the short- (A) , ereent
Open.

circuit. Current
If the current along the line is measured at aleml line
as measined
successive points with an ammeter, it will be by ammeter
found to vary about as shown in Fig. 13-2B. Current
a, ci,,
The same result would be obtained by measur- including
ing the current in either wire, since the am- polarity

meter cannot measure phase. However, if the

Voltage
phase could be checked, it would be found along line
the in each successive half-wavelength sec- disregording
polar/A1
tion of the line the currents at any given
instant are flowing in opposite directions, as Voltage
dirtribOtion
indicated by the solid line in Fig. 13-2C. including
polaiity
Furthermore, the current in the second wire is
flowing in the opposite direction to the current
in the adjacent section of the first wire. This is
Fig. 13- 3— Standing waves of current and voltage along
indicated by the broken curve in Fig. 13-2C. The
an open- circuited transmission line.
variations in current intensity along the trans-
mission line are referred to as standing waves.
The point of maximum line current is called a Lines Terminated in Resistive Load
current loop or current antinode and the point Fig. 13-4 shows a line terminated in a
of minimum line current is called a current resistive load. In this case at least part of the
node. incident power is absorbed in the load, and so
is not available to be reflected back toward
Voltage Relationships the source. Because only part of the power is
Since the end of the line is short-circuited, reflected, the reflected components of voltage
the voltage at that point has to be zero. This can and current do not have the same magnitude
only be so if the voltage in the outgoing wave is as the incident components. Therefore neither
met, at the end of the line, by a reflected voltage voltage nor current cancel completely at any
of equal amplitude and opposite polarity. In other point along the line. However, the speed at
words, the phase of the voltage wave is reversed which the incident and reflected components
when reflection takes place from the short- travel is not affected by their amplitude, so
circuit. This reversal is equivalent to an extra the phase relationships are similar to those in
half cycle or half wavelength of travel. As a open- or short-circuited lines.
result, the outgoing and returning voltages It was pointed out earlier that if the load
are in phase a quarter wavelength from the resistance, Z R , is equal to the characteristic
end of the line, and again out of phase a half impedance, Zo, of the line all the power is
wavelength from the end. The standing waves absorbed in the load. In such a case there is
of voltage, shown at D in Fig. 13-2, are there- no reflected power and therefore no standing
fore displaced by one-quarter wavelength waves of current and voltage. This is a special
from the standing waves of current. The case that represents the change-over point
drawing at E shows the voltages on both
wires when phase is taken into account. The 1
2 X 14X
/
1 ix 3/
4x /
2 x /
1 4 x.—
1 LENGTH
polarity of the voltage on each wire reverses Load
in each half wavelength section of transmis- (ze)
sion line. A voltage maximum is called a
voltage loop or antinode and avoltage min-
imum is called avoltage node.

Open- Circuited Line

If the end of the line is open-circuited in-
stead of short-circuited, there can be no cur-
rent at the end of the line but alarge voltage
can exist. Again the incident power is reflected
back toward the source. The incident and re-
flected components of current must be equal Fig. 13-4— Standing waves on a transmission line ter-
and opposite in phase at the open circuit in minated in a resistive load.
346 TRANSMISSION LINES
between " short-circuited" and "open-circuited" fraction so that the s.w.r. will be expressed by
lines. If ZR is less than Zo, the current is a number larger than 1.
largest at the load, while if ZR is greater than It is easier to measure the standing-wave
Zo the voltage is largest at the load. The two ratio than some of the other quantities ( such
conditions are shown at B and C, respectively, as the impedance of an antenna) that enter
in Fig. 13-4. into transmission- line computations. Conse-
The resistive termination is an important quently, the s.w.r. is a convenient basis for
practical case. The termination is seldom an work with lines. The higher the s.w.r., the
actual resistor, the most common terminations greater the mismatch between line and load.
being resonant circuits or resonant antenna In practical lines, the power loss in the line
systems, both of which have essentially resis- itself increases with the s.w.r., as shown later.
tive impedances. If the load is reactive as well
as resistive, the operation of the line resembles INPUT IMPEDANCE
that shown in Fig. 13-4, but the presence of The input impedance of a transmission line
reactance in the load causes two modifica- is the impedance seen looking into the send-
tions: The loops and nulls are shifted toward ing- end or input terminals; it is the impedance
or away from the load; and the amount of into which the source of power must work
power reflected back toward the source is when the line is connected. If the load is per-
increased, as compared with the amount re- fectly matched to the line the line appears to
flected by a purely resistive load of the same be infinitely long, as stated earlier, and the
total impedance. Both effects become more input impedance is simply the characteristic
pronounced as the ratio of reactance to re- impedance of the line itself. However, if there
sistance in the load is made larger. are standing waves this is no longer true; the
input impedance may have a wide range of
Standing- Wave Ratio
values.
The ratio of nia \ nitwit current to minimum This can be understood by referring to Figs.
current along a line, Fig. 13-5, is called the 13-2, 13-3, or 13-4. If the line length is such
standing-wave ratio. The same ratio holds for that standing waves cause the voltage at the
maximum voltage and minimum voltage. It is input terminals to be high and the current
a measure of the mismatch between the load low, then the input impedance is higher than
and the line, and is equal to 1when the line is the Zo of the line, since impedance is simply
perfectly matched. ( In that case the " maxi- the ratio of voltage to current. Conversely,
mum" and " minimum" are the same, since the low voltage and high current at the input
current and voltage do not vary along the terminals mean that the input impedance is
line.) When the line is terminated in a purely lower than the line Zo. Comparison of the
resistive load, the standing- wave ratio is three drawings also shows that the range of
ZR Zo
input impedance values that may be encoun-
S.
W.R.= (13-A) tered is greater when the far end of the line
Zo ZR
is open- or short-circuited than it is when the
Where S.W.R.= Standing-wave ratio line has a resistive load. In other words, the
ZR = Impedance of load ( must be higher the s.w.r. the greater the range of
pure resistance) input impedance values when the line length
= Characteristic impedance of is varied.
line In addition to the variation in the absolute
Example: A line having a characteristic im- value of the input impedance with line length,
pedance of 300 ohms is terminated in a resis- the presence of standing waves also causes
tive load of 25 ohms. The s.w.r. is the input impedance to contain both reactance
S.W.R. =
Zo
— =
300
— = 12 to 1
and resistance, even though the load itself
ZR 25 may be apure resistance. The only exceptions
It is customary to put the larger of the two to this occur at the exact current loops or
quantities, ZR or Zo,in the numerator of the nodes, at which points the input impedance is
apure resistance. These are the only points at
which the outgoing and reflected voltages and
2.0
currents are exactly in phase: At all other
'max distances along the line the current either
leads or lags the voltage and the effect is
exactly the same as though a capacitance or
inductance were part of the input impedance.
The input impedance can be represented
either by a resistance and acapacitance or by
a resistance and an inductance. Whether the
impedance is inductive or capacitive depends
DISTANCE ALONG LINE
on the characteristics of the load and the
Fig. 13-5—Measurement of standing-wave ratio. In this length of the line. It is possible to represent
drawing, Inm is 1.5 and 1.1. is 0.5, so the s.w.r. the input impedance by an equivalent circuit
= ¡ mi. = 1.5/0.5 = 3to 1. having resistance and reactance either in ser-
Impedance 347
ies or parallel, so long as the total impedance true of lengths that are integral multiples of
and phase angle are the same in either case. ahalf wavelength. It is also true for all values
The magnitude and character of the input of s.w.r. Hence the input impedance of any
impedance is quite important, since it deter- line, no matter what its Zo,that is a multiple
mines the method by which the power source of ahalf wavelength long is exactly the same
must be coupled to the line. The calculation of as the load impedance. Such aline can be used
input impedance is rather complicated and its to transfer the impedance to a new location
measurement is not feasible without special without changing its value.
equipment. Fortunately, in amateur work it is When the line is aquarter wavelength long,
unnecessary either to calculate or measure it. or an odd multiple of a quarter wavelength,
The proper coupling can be achieved by rela- the load impedance is "inverted." That is, if
tively simple methods described later in this the current is low and the voltage is high at
chapter. the load, the input impedance will be such as
to require high current and low voltage. The
Lines Without Load
relationship between the load impedance and
The input impedance of a short-circuited or input impedance is given by
open-circuited line not an exact multiple of
oi
one- quarter wavelength long is practically a Zs —Z
Z ( 13-B)
pure reactance. This is because there is very R
little power lost in the line. Such lines are where Zs = Impedance looking into line ( line
frequently used as " linear" inductances and length an odd multiple of one-
capacitances. quarter wavelength)
If ashorted line is less than a quarter-wave = Impedence of load ( must be pure
long, as at X in Fig. 13-2, it will have induc- resistance)
tive reactance. The reactance increases with Zo = Characteristic impedance of line
the line length up to the quarter-wave point.
Example: A quarter-wavelength line having
Beyond that, as at Y, the reactance is capacitive, a characteristic impedance of 500 ohms is ter-
high near the quarter-wave point and becom- minated in a resistive load of 75 ohms. The
ing lower as the half- wave point is approached. impedance looking into the input or sending
end of the line is
It then alternates between inductive and ca-
pacitive in successive quarter- wave sections. Zo , (
500) , 250,000
Tit 75 3333 ohm,
Just the reverse is true of the open-circuited Ze

line. If the formula above is rearranged, we have

At exact multiples of a quarter wavelength
the impedance is purely resistive. It is appar- ZO •
VZSZR (
13 - C)
ent, from examination of B and D in Fig. 13-2, This means that if we have two values of im-
.that at points that are a multiple of a half pedance that we wish to "match," we can do
wavelength—i.e., Va, 1, 11 /2 wavelengths, etc. so if we connect them together by a quarter-
—from the short-circuited end of the line the wave transmission line having acharacteristic
current and voltage have the same values that impedance equal to the square root of their
they do at the short circuit. In other words, if product. A quarter- wave line, in other words,
the line were an exact multiple of ahalf wave- has the characteristics of a transformer.
length long the generator or source of power
would " look into" ashort circuit. On the other Resonant and Nonresonant Lines
hand, at points that are an odd multiple of a The input impedance of a line operating
quarter wavelength—i.e., g, 34, 11,4, etc. — with a high s.w.r. is critically dependent on
from the short circuit the voltage is maximum the line length, and resistive only when the
and the current is zero. Since Z = Ell, the length is some integral multiple of one- quarter
impedance at these points is theoretically in- wavelength. Lines cut to such a length and
finite. ( Actually it is very high, but not in- operated with a high s.w.r. are called "tuned"'
finite. This is because the current does not or "resonant" lines. On the other hand, if the
actually go to zero when there are losses in s.w.r. is low the input impedance is close to
the line. Losses are always present, but us- the Zo of the line and does not vary a great
ually are small.) deal with the line length. Such lines are called
"flat," or " untuned," or "nonresonant."
Impedance Transformation
There is no sharp line of demarcation be-
The fact that the input impedance of a line tween tuned and untuned lines. If the s.w.r.
depends on the s.w.r. and line length can be is below 1.5 to 1the line is essentially flat, and
used to advantage when it is necessary to the same input coupling method will work
transform a given impedance into another with all line lengths. If the s.w.r. is above 3
value. or 4 to 1the type of coupling system, and its
Study of Fig. 13-4 will show that, just as in adjustment, will depend on the line length
the open- and short-circuited cases, if the line and such lines fall into the "tuned" category.
is one-half wavelength long the voltage and It is usually advantageous to make the
current are exactly the same at the input s.w.r. as low as possible. A resonant line be-
terminals as they are at the load. This is also comes necessary only when a considerable
348 TRANSMI SSION LINES
mismatch between the load and the line has flow in opposite directions. This was shown
to be tolerated. The most important practical in Figs. 13-2C and 13-3C. It means that the
example of this is when a single antenna is fields set up about the two wires have the
operated on several harmonically related fre- same intensity, but opposite directions. The
quencies, in which case the antenna impedance consequence is that the total field set up about
will have widely different values on different such atransmission line is zero; the two fields
harmonics. "cancel out." Hence no energy is radiated.
Practically, the fields do not quite cancel
RADIATION out because for them to do so the two con-
Whenever awire carries alternating current ductors would have to occupy the same space,
the electromagnetic fields travel away into whereas they are actually slightly separated.
space with the velocity of light. At power- line However, the cancellation is substantially com-
frequencies the field that " grows" when the plete if the distance between the conductors is
current is increasing has plenty of time to very small compared to the wavelength.
return or "collapse" about the conductor when Transmission line radiation will be negligible
the current is decreasing, because the alterna- if the distance between the conductors is 0.01
tions are so slow. But at radio frequencies wavelength or less, provided the currents in
fields that travel only a relatively short dis- the two wires are balanced.
tance do not have time to get back to the The amount of radiation also is proportional
conductor before the next cycle commences. to the current flowing in the line. Because of
The consequence is that some of the electro- the way in which the current varies along the
magnetic energy is prevented from being re- line when there are standing waves, the effec-
stored to the conductor; in other words, tive current, for purposes of radiation, be-
energy is radiated into space in the form of comes greater as the s.w.r. is increased. For
electromagnetic waves. this reason the radiation is least when the line
The lines previously considered have con- is flat. However, if the conductor spacing is
sisted of two parallel conductors of the same small and the currents are balanced, the radia-
diameter. Provided there is nothing in the tion from a line with even a high s.w.r. is
system to destroy symmetry, at every point inconsequential. A small unbalance in the line
along the line the current in one conductor currents is far more serious — and is just as
has the same intensity as the current in the serious when the line is flat as when the s.w.r.
other conductor at that point, but the currents is high.

PRACTICAL LINE CHARACTERISTICS

The foregoing discussion of transmission side. This reduces radiation to the vanishing
lines has been based on a line consisting of point. So far as the electrical behavior of
two parallel conductors. The parallel-conductor coaxial lines is concerned, all that has pre-
line is but one of two general types, the other viously been said about the operation of
being the coaxial or concentric line. The co- parallel-conductor lines applies. There are,
axial line consists of aconductor placed in the however, practical differences in the construc-
center of a tube. The inside surface of the tion and use of parallel and coaxial lines.
tube and the outside surface of the smaller
inner conductor form the two conducting PARALLEL-CONDUCTOR LINES
surfaces of the line. A type of parallel- conductor line sometimes
In the coaxial line the fields are entirely used in amateur installations is one in which
inside the tube, because the tube acts .as a two wires ( ordinarily No. 12 or No. 14) are
shield to prevent them from appearing out- supported a fixed distance apart by means of
insulating rods called " spacers." The spacings
f „.. No. /2or/4
used vary from two to six inches, the smaller
spacings being necessary at frequencies of the
2t0 order of 28 Mc. and higher so that radiation
will be minimized. The construction is shown
.•••• in Fig. 13-6. Such a line is said to be air-
insulated. The characteristic impedance of such
"open- wire" lines is between 400 and 600
ohms, depending on the wire size and spacing.
Parallel- conductor lines also are occasional-
ly constructed of metal tubing of a diameter
of 'XI to inch. This reduces the character-
istic impedance of the line. Such lines are
Fig. 13-6--Typical construction of open- wire line. The mostly used as quarter- wave transformers,
line conductor fits in a groove in the end of the when different values of impedance are to be
spacer, and is held in place by a tie- wire anchored matched.
in a hole near the groove. Prefabricated parallel-conductor line with
Line /
4.naracrerisrics
1 J4Y

air insulation, developed for television recep- Maintaining good line balance requires, first
tion, can be used in transmitting applications. of all, a balanced load at its end. For this
This line consists of two conductors separated reason the antenna should be fed, whenever
one-half to one inch by molded-on spacers. possible, at a point where each conductor
The characteristic impedance is 300 to 450 "sees" exactly the same thing. Usually this
ohms, depending on the wire size and spacing. means that the antenna system should be fed
A convenient type of manufactured line is at its electrical center. However, even though
one in which the parallel conductors are im- the antenna appears to be symmetrical phys-
bedded in low- loss insulating material ( poly- ically, it can be unbalanced electrically if the
ethylene). It is commonly used as a TV lead- part connected to one of the line conductors
in and has acharacteristic impedance of about is coupled to something (such as house wiring
300 ohms. It is sold under various names, the or a metal pole or roof) that is not duplicated
most common of which is "Twin- Lead." This on the other part of the antenna. Every effort
type of line has the advantages of light weight, should be made to keep the antenna as far as
close and uniform conductor spacing, flexi- possible from other wiring or sizable metallic
bility and neat appearance. However, the objects. The transmission line itself will cause
losses in the solid dielectric are higher than in some unbalance if it is not brought away from
air, and dirt or moisture on the line tends to the antenna at right angles to it for a distance
change the characteristic impedance. Moisture of at least a quarter wavelength.
effects can be reduced by coating the line with In installing the line conductors take care
silicone grease. A special form of 300-ohm to see that they are kept away from metal.
Twin-Lead for transmitting uses a polyethyl- The minimum separation between either con-
ene tube with the conductors molded diamet-
rically opposite; the longer dielectric path in
such line reduces moisture troubles.
In addition to 300-ohm line, Twin- Lead is
obtainable with a characteristic impedance of 700
Re
75 ohms for transmitting purposes. Light- mil
weight 75-and 150-ohm Twin-Lead also is N
available. 600 5
6 6 p
b
l ,5
Characteristic Impedance 0.
' 0
500
The characteristic impedance of an air-insu- re 0 to
re 6
lated parallel- conductor line is given by: H
1110iO4
IA
'— 014
400
Zo = 276 log -c; (
13-D) si;

/0..
where Zo = Characteristic impedance 300 >
7 7/

b= Center-to-center distance between

conductors
200
a= Radius of éonductor (in same
units as b)
It does not matter what units are used for a 000
and bso long as they are the same units. Both 05 1.0 2 3 4 5 70 9 10
CENrEP-1V-CENrEir SPACING (
pCHES)
quantities may be measured in centimeters,
inches, etc. Since it is necessary to have a Fig. 13-7—Chart showing the characteristic impedance
table of common logarithms to solve practical of spaced-conductor parallel transmission lines with air
problems, the solution is given in graphical dielectric. Tubing sizes given are for outside diameters.
form in Fig. 13-7 for a number of common
conductor sizes.
In solid-dielectric parallel-conductor lines ductor and all other wiring should be at least
such as Twin-Lead the characteristic imped- four or five times the conductor spacing. The
ance cannot be calculated readily, because part shunt capacitance introduced by close prox-
of the electric field is in air as well as in the imity to metallic objects can drain off enough
dielectric. current ( to ground) to unbalance the line cur-
rents, resulting in increased radiation. A shunt
Unbalance in Parallel-Conductor Lines capacitance of this sort also constitutes a
When installing parallel-conductor lines reactive load on the line, causing an imped-
care should be taken to avoid introducing ance "bump" that will prevent making the
electrical unbalance into the system. If for line actually flat.
some reason the current in one conductor is
higher than in the other, or if the currents in COAXIAL LINES
the two wires are not exactly , out of phase The most common form of coaxial line con-
with each other, the electromagnetic fields sists of either a solid or stranded-wire inner
will not cancel completely and a considerable conductor surrounded by polyethylene dielec-
amount of power may be radiated by the line. tric. Copper braid is woven over the dielectric
Crystal-Controlled Converters 407

it • \e'

rn
6

e; ,

Fig. 16-8—The 50- and 144-Mc, crystal-controlled converters are built in 3 X 4

X 5- inch Miniboxes and are designed to work into a receiver that tunes 14 to
18 Mc. Plate voltage required is + 150, and use of a 0D3-stabilized supply is
suggested.

CRYSTAL- CONTROLLED CONVERTERS

FOR 50, 144 AND 220 Mc.
The three converters shown in Figs. 16-8 the " Nuvistor" miniature triode and a crystal-
through 16-15 are designed to be used with a controlled local- oscillator signal, they offer low
receiver that tunes 14 to 18 Mc. ( 14 to 19 Mc. noise figures and high stability on the three
for the 220- Mc. converter.). Designed around bands. The power- supply requirement is 150

R.F.AMP. MIXER
4 6CW4 6CVV4
tool

22

1OK

Fig. 16-9—Schematic diagram and parts information for the 50-Mc. converter. Resistors /
2 watt unless specified.
1

Fixed capacitors are ceramic; decimal values in µf., others in µµf.

C1-3-30-µµf. mica trimmer. µh. Ls set for 0.64 µh., Le for 0.66, L
e for 0.73

C2, Cs— No. 22 insulated hookup wires 2 inches long, µh. (Miller coils No. 20A687RBI). LS and L a

twisted together for approximately 11

4 inches.
/ are Ye inch apart c. to c. La to L
e is /
4 inch;
1

Ce—Same, but 1-inch wires twisted for /

2 inch.
1 Le to L, is 7
713 inch.
J1—Coaxial connector, SO-239. 14— No. 32 enam., close-wound Vs inch on 1 4 -
/ inch iron-
.12— Phono jack. slug phenolic form; 3.8 to 8.5 µh., set for 6.9
.18-8- pin plug ( Amphenol 86-RCP8). µh. (Miller coil Na. 20A686RBI).
L1-5 turns No. 18, /
2 -
1 inch diam., 8 t.p.i. ( B & W 1.7— Universal-wound coil, 4.7 to 10 µh., set for 7.9 µh.
3002). (Miller coil No. 20A826R111).
1.2-10 turns Na. 28 enam., close-wound on /
4 -
1 inch iron- La-8 turns No. 32 enam., close-wound on /
4 inch iron-
1

slug phenolic form, tapped at 3 turns; 0.65 to slug phenolic form; 0.67 to 1.25 µh., set for
1.3 µh. ( Miller form Na. 20A00012111). 0.94 µh. ( Miller coil No. 20A10612131).
14, L, 14-8 turns No. 28 enam., close-wound on / 4 -
1 inch '6.-36-Mc. crystal ( International Crystal Mfg. Co. FA-5).
iron-slug phenolic form. Range 0.43 to 0.85
Impedance 351
10

7
e

d,
LOSS IN DECIBELS / 100 FEET

2
e•e
/.d11
1°.1 11.11 ee Fig. 13- 8—Attenuation
e 4.0e
e e e"V data for common types
1.0 of transmission lines.
.6 Curve A is the nominal
-811-8111/0"•••
is attenuation of 600- ohm
.5 08-55/u —
open- wire line with No.
.4
12 conductors, not in-
.3
cluding dielectric loss in
.2 spacers nor possible ra-
St1-10Cr --- diation losses. Addition-
214.05 ,4 _e
al line data are given
214.074,..
.10 fte-rriu in Table 13-1.
.08
.06
.05
.04
.03 A

.02
2 3 4 5e 8 10 20 30 405080 00100 200 500

FREQUENCY IN MEGACYCLES
teristic impedance of the line, because ahigher 9. Whether or not the increase in loss is
current flows in a low-impedance line for a serious depends on what the original loss
given power input. The converse is true of would have been if the line were perfectly
dielectric losses because these increase with matched. If the loss with perfect matching
the voltage, which is greater on high-imped- is very low, a large s.w.r. will not greatly
ance lines. The dielectric loss in air-insulated affect the efficiency of the line — i.e., the ratio
lines is negligible ( the only loss is in the in- of the power delivered to • the load to the
sulating spacers) and such lines operate at power put into the line.
high efficiency when radiation losses are low. Example: A 150-foot length of RG-11/U
It is convenient to express the loss in a cable is operating at 7Mc. with a 5-to- 1s.w.r.
If perfectly matched, the loss from Fig. 13-8
transmission line in decibels per unit length, would be 1.5 X 0.4 = 0.6 db. From Fig. 13-9
since the loss in db. is directly proportional to the additional loss because of the s.w.r. is 0.73
the line length. Losses in various types of db. The total loss is therefore 0.6 ± 0.73 =
1.33 db.
lines operated without standing waves ( that
is, terminated in a resistive load equal to the An appreciable s.w.r. on a solid-dielectric
characteristic impedance of the line) are given line may result in excessive loss of power at
in graphical form in Fig. 13-8. In these curves the higher frequencies. Such lines, whether of
the radiation loss is assumed to be negligible. the parallel- conductor or coaxial type, should
When there are standing waves on the line be operated as nearly flat as possible, particu-
the power loss increases as shown in Fig. 13- larly when the line length is more than 50 feet.

LOADS AND BALANCING DEVICES

The most important practical load for a If, as is often the case, the antenna is to be
transmission line is an antenna which, in most fed through coaxial line (which is inherently
cases, will be "balanced"—that is, symmetri- unbalanced) some method should be used for
cally constructed with respect to the feed connecting the line to the antenna without up-
point. Aside from considerations of matching setting the symmetry of the antenna itself.
the actual impedance of the antenna at the This requires a circuit that will isolate the
feed point to the characteristic impedance of balanced load from the unbalanced fine while
the line ( if such matching is attempted) abal- providing efficient power transfer. Devices for
anced antenna should be fed through a bal- doing this are called baluns. The types used
anced transmission line in order to preserve between the antenna and transmission line are
symmetry with respect to ground and thus generally " linear," consisting of transmission-
avoid difficulties with unbalanced currents on line sections as described in Chapter 14.
the line and consequent undesirable radiation The need for baluns also arises in coupling
from the transmission line itself. a transmitter to a balanced transmission line,
352 TRANSMISSION LINES
o
construction is beyond the scope of this
SWR.20 Handbook.
5
WR.I5 II
Coil Baluns
WR -I0
WR'7II
The type of balun known as the "coil balun"
II is based on the principles of alinear transmis-
SWR.
sion-line balun as shown in the upper drawing
WR.4 of Fig. 13-10. Two transmission lines of equal
length having a characteristic impedance Ze
are connected in series at one end and in par-
sws=3
s allel at the other. At the series- connected end
the lines are balanced to ground and will
s match an impedance equal to 2Z.. At the par-
SWR2lIH allel-connected end the lines will be matched
by an impedance equal to Zo/2. One side may
be connected to ground at the parallel-con-
auriuiu•uu SVIR.15
Ill
•
nected end, provided the two lines have a
length such that, considering each line as a
single wire, the balanced end is effectively
decoupled from the parallel-connected end.
02 03 04 0506 OS 10 2 3 430 OM
This requires a length that is an odd multiple
LINE LOSS IN DB. WHEN MATCHED
of ,4 wavelength. The impedance transforma-
Fig. 13- 9-- Effect of standing- wave radio on line loss. tion from the series-connected end to the
The ordinates give the additional loss in decibels for parallel- connected end is 4 to 1.
the loss, under perfectly matched conditions, shown on A definite line length is required only for
horizontal scale. decoupling purposes, and so long as there is
adequate decoupling the system will act as a
4- to- 1 impedance transformer regardless of
since the output circuits of most transmitters line length. If each line is wound into a coil,
have one side grounded. ( This type of output as in the lower drawing, the inductances so
circuit is desirable for a number of reasons, formed will act as choke coils and will tend to
including TVI reduction.) The most flexible isolate the series- connected end from any
type of balun for this purpose is the inductive- ground connection that may be placed on the
ly coupled matching network described in a parallel-connected end. Balun coils made in
subsequent section in this chapter. This com- this way will operate over a wide frequency
bines impedance matching with balanced-to- range, since the choke inductance is not criti-
unbalanced operation, but has the disadvan- cal. The lower frequency limit is where the
tage that it uses resonant circuits and thus coils are no longer effective in isolating one
can work over only a limited band of fre- end from the other; the length of line in each
quencies without readjustment. However, if a coil should be about equal to a quarter wave-
fixed impedance ratio in the balun can be tol- length at the lowest frequency to be used.
erated, the coil balun described below can be The principal application of such coils is in
used without adjustment over a frequency going from a 300-ohm balanced line to a 75-
range of about 10 to 1 — 3 to 30 Mc., for ohm coaxial line. This requires that the Z. of
example. Alternatively, a similarly wide band the lines forming the coils be 150 ohms.
can be covered by a properly designed trans- Commercial ( B&W) coils are available.
former ( with the same impedance limitation) A balun of this type is simply a fixed-ratio
but the design principles and materials used in transformer, when matched. It cannot com-
such transformers are quite specialized. Their. pensate for inaccurate matching elsewhere in
the system. With a "300-ohm" line on the
20=22 1 balanced end, for example, a 75-ohm coax
cable will not be matched unless the 300-ohm
22 =42, line actually is terminated in a 300-ohm load.
o
2. 0=2Z,
NONRADIATING LOADS
A A
.."-Milfeenrre Parallel -
Typical examples of nonradiating loads for
Coax Conductor a transmission line are the grid circuit of a
C Line
power amplifier ( considered in the chapter on
transmitters), the input circuit of a receiver,
and another transmission line. This last case
includes the " antenna tuner" — a misnomer
Fig. 13-10—Baluns for matching between push-pull and because it is actually a device for coupling a
single-ended circuits. The impedance ratio is 4 to 1 transmission line to the transmitter. Because
from the push-pull side to the unbalanced side. Coiling of its importance in amateur installations, the
the lines ( lower drawing) increases the frequency antenna coupler is considered separately in a
range over which satisfactory operation is obtained. later part of this chapter.
Coupling 353
A good match between an antenna and its varies over a considerable range with fre-
transmission line does not guarantee a low quency. Methods for bringing about a proper
standing-wave ratio on the line when the an- match are discussed in the chapter on receivers.
tenna system is used for receiving. The s.w.r. The most desirable condition is that in
is determined wholly by what the line " sees" which the receiver is matched to the line Zo
at the receiver's antenna-input terminals. For and the line in turn is matched to the antenna.
minimum s.w.r. the receiver input circuit must This transfers maximum power from the an-
be matched to the line. The rated input im- tenna to the receiver with the least loss in the
pedance of a receiver is a nominal value that transmission line.

COUPLING THE TRANSMITTER TO THE LINE

The type of coupling sys- 2C,
tem that will be needed to
transfer power adequately
from the final r.f. amplifier to
the transmission line depends
almost entirely on the input
impedance of the line. As
shown earlier in this chapter, (B)
the input impedance is deter-
2C,
mined by the standing-wave
ratio and the line length. The TO TO
TRANS
simplest case is that whereTRANS
LOW 2
the line is terminated in its
characteristic impedance so
C,
that the s.w.r. is 1 to 1 and 2C,
the input impedance is equal (A) (D)
to the Zo of the line, regard-
less of line length. Fig. 13- 11— Simple circuits for coupling a transmitter
Coupling systems that will deliver power in- to a balanced line that presents a load different than
to a flat line are readily designed. For all the transmitter design output impedance. ( A) and ( B)
practical purposes the line can be considered are respectively series- and parallel- tuned circuits using
to be flat if the s.w.r. is no greater than about variable inductive coupling between coils, and ( C) and
1.5 to 1. That is, a coupling system designed (D) are similar but use fixed inductive coupling and a
to work into a pure resistance equal to the variable series capacitor, C,. A series-tuned circuit
line Zo will have enough leeway to take care of works well with a low- impedance load; the parallel
the small variations in input impedance that circuit is better with high- impedance loads ( several
will occur when the line length is changed, if hundred ohms or more).
the s.w.r. is higher than 1to 1but no greater
than 1.5 to 1. frequency. If the load presented by the line at
Current practice in transmitter design is to the operating frequency is low ( below a few
provide an output circuit that will work into hundred ohms), a series- tuned circuit should
such a line, usually a coaxial line of 50 to 75 be used. When the load is higher than this, the
ohms characteristic impedance. The design of parallel-tuned circuit is easier to use.
such output circuits is discussed in the chapter Typical simple circuits for coupling between
on high-frequency transmitters. If the input the transmitter with 50- to 75-ohm coaxial-line
impedance of the transmission line that is output and a balanced transmission line are
to be connected to the transmitter differs shown in Fig. 13-11. The inductor L1 should
appreciably from the value of impedance have a reactance of about 60 ohms ( see Fig.
into which the transmitter output circuit 2-44) when adjustable inductive coupling is
is designed to operate, an impedance- used ( Figs. 13-11A and 13-11B). When a
matching network must be inserted between variable series capacitor is used, L1 should have
the transmitter and the line input terminals. a reactance of about 120 ohms. The variable
capacitor, C1,should have a reactance at maxi-
IMPEDANCE-MATCHING CIRCUITS mum capacitance of about 100 ohms.
On the secondary side, L. and C. should be
FOR TRANSMISSION LINES
capable of being tuned to resonance at about
As shown earlier in this chapter, the input 80 percent of the operating frequency. In the
impedance of a line that is operating with a series-tuned circuits, for a given low-impedance
high standing-wave ratio can vary over quite load looser coupling can be used between L1 and
wide limits. The simplest type of circuit that L. as the L.-to-C1 ratio is increased. In the
will match such a range of impedances to 50 to parallel-tuned circuits, for a given high-
75 ohms is a simple series- or parallel-tuned impedance load looser coupling can be used be-
circuit, approximately resonant at the operating tween L1 and L as the C - to-L ratio is in-
354 TRANSMISSION LINES

TO SWR TO
TRANS LOW TRANS LOW

/Tr
Cs

(A) (B)

Fig. 13- 12—Coupling from atransmitter designed for 50- to 75-ohm output to a coaxial line with a 3- or 4-to- 1
s.w.r. is readily accomplished with these circuits. Essential difference between the circuits is (A) adjustable induc-
tive coupling and ( B) fixed inductive coupling with variable series capacitor.
In either case the circuit can be adjusted to give a1- to- 1s.w.r. on the meter in the line to the transmitter.
The coil ends marked "x" should be adjacent, for minimum capacitive coupling.

creased. The constants are not critical; the and adjust C. or Cp for minimum s.w.r. as in-
rules of thumb are mentioned to assist in cor- dicated by the bridge. If the s.w.r. is not close
recting a marginal condition where sufficient to 1 to 1, readjust the coupling and retune
transmitter loading cannot be obtained.
or Ci,, continuing this procedure until the s.w.r.
Coupling to coaxial lines that have a high
is practically 1 to 1. The settings may then be
s.w.r., and consequently may present a trans-
mitter with a load it cannot couple to, is done logged for future reference.
with an unbalanced version of the series-tuned In the series-tuned circuits of Figs. 13-11A
circuit, as shown in Fig. 13-12. The rule given and 13-11C, the two capacitors should be set at
above for coupling ease and L.-to- C8 ratio ap- similar settings. The "2C,3" indicates that a
plies to these circuits as well. balanced series-tuned coupler requires twice the
The most satisfactory way to set up initially capacitance in each of two capacitors as does an
any of the circuits of Figs. 13-11 or 13-12 is unbalanced series-tuned circuit, all other things
to connect a coaxial s.w.r. bridge in the line to being equal.
the transmitter, as shown in Fig. 13-12. The It is possible to use circuits of this type with-
"Monimatch" type of bridge, which can handle out initially setting them up with an s.w.r.
the full transmitter power and may be left in bridge. In such a case it is a matter of cut-
the line for continuous monitoring, is excellent and-try until adequate power transfer between
for this purpose. However, a simple resistance the amplifier and main transmission line is
bridge such as is described in the chapter on secured. However, this method frequently re-
measurements is perfectly adequate, requiring sults in a high s.w.r. in the link, with conse-
only that the transmitter output be reduced to a quent power loss, "hot spots" in the coaxial
very low value so that the bridge will not be cable, and tuning that is critical with frequency.
overloaded. To adjust the circuit, make a trial The bridge method is simple and gives the
setting of the coupling ( coil spacing in Figs. optimum operating conditions quickly and with
13-11A and B and 13-12A, C1 setting in others) certainty.

COUPLER OR MATCHING-CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION

The design of matching or "antenna coupler" and to each other if a parallel-conductor trans-
circuits has been covered in the preceding section, mission line is to be used.
and the adjustment procedure also has been out- In general, the construction of acoupler circuit
lined. When circuits of this type are used for for parallel lines should physically resemble the
transferring power from the transmitter to a tank layouts used with push-pull amplifiers. In
parallel-conductor transmission line, a principal parallel-tuned circuits a split- stator capacitor
point requiring attention is that of maintaining should be used. The capacitor frame should be
good balance to ground. If the coupler circuit is insulated from the chassis because, depending on
appreciably unbalanced the currents in the two line length and other factors, harmonic reduction
wires of the transmission line will also be unbal- and line balance may be improved in some cases
anced, resulting in radiation from the line. by grounding and in others by not grounding. It
In most cases the matching circuit will be built is therefore advisable to adopt construction that
on ametal chassis, following common practice in permits either. Provision also should be made
the construction of transmitting units. The chas- for grounding the center of the coil, for the same
sis, because of its relatively large area, will tend reason. The coil in aparallel-tuned circuit should
to establish a " ground"— even though not actu- be mounted so that its hot ends are symmetrically
ally grounded — particularly if it is assembled placed with respect to the chassis and other com-
with other units of the transmitter in a rack or ponents. This equalizes stray capacitances and
cabinet. The components used in the coupler, helps maintain good balance.
therefore, should be placed so that they are elec- When the coupler is of the type that can be
trically symmetrical with respect to the chassis shifted to series or parallel tuning as required,
Coupler Construction 355
two separate single- ended capacitors will be sat-
isfactory. As described earlier, they should be
connected so that both frames go to correspond-
ing parts of the circuit — i.e., either to the coil or
to the line — for series tuning, and when used in
parallel for parallel tuning should be connected
frame- to- stator.
A coupler designed and adjusted so that the
connecting link acts as a matched transmission
line may be placed in any convenient location.
Some amateurs prefer to install the coupler at the
point where the main transmission line enters the
station. This helps maintain atidy station layout
when an air- insulated parallel-conductor trans-
mission line is used. With solid-dielectric lines,
Fig. I3- 13—Circuit diagram of an antenna coupler
which lend themselves well to neat installation
for " random" antennas. All contacts of S2 are not
indoors, it is probably more desirable to install
shown.
the coupler where it can be reached easily for
adjustment and band-changing. Cr.-150 pf. See text for spacing.
11, Jr— Coaxial receptacles ( S0-239).
1,-20 turns No. 12 bare, 21/
2 inch diam., 6 t.p.l.
(B&W 3905-1). Tapped every other turn.
SI—Three- pole 5- position ceramic rotary switch.
11- position ceramic rotary switch.

can be enclosed in ametal cabinet or chassis. If

it is built breadboard, it may be more convenient
to use a small clip instead of S2 to vary the in-
ductance of Li. An elaborate version can be made
with a built-in Monimatch and output indicator.
The several configurations that can be obtained
from the coupler are shown in Fig. 13-14. The
(c) (D) letters correspond to those on the switch Si.
When first using this tuner with an antenna,
try various positions of Ci, C2, Si and S2 in
Fig. 13- 14—The various con- order to find the point at which maximum output
figurations that can be ob- is obtained ( maintaining a constant transmitter
tained from the " random. input). When the correct settings have been
wire" antenna coupler. found for each frequency band, and these set-
tings have been noted for future reference, it is
(E) an easy matter to hop from band to band. With
certain settings and configurations it will be pos -

MATCHING TO " RANDOM" ANTENNAS

Fig. 13- 15—An example of how the antenna coupler
In many cases it is impractical or impossible can be built. In this case the components are in-
to install a conventional antenna complete with stalled in a 10 X 17 X 3- inch aluminum chassis
transmission line. Under these conditions, the only that serves as the support for the transmitter. An
solution may be to string a wire to an existing r.f. ammeter ( right) is used as an output indicator.
support or between two supports and run one end (W4UWA/DL4, QST, November, 1958).
to the transmitter. Such a " random" antenna will
not couple conveniently to the low-impedance
output of most transmitters unless its length
happens to be an odd multiple of aquarter wave-
length. In cases where a random antenna must
be used, the antenna-coupler circuit of Fig. 13-13
provides a simple solution. Although specific
values are given for Ci ,C2 and Li, they are not
critical. C1 and C2 should be at least 150 pf.
The spacing of Ci and C2 should be 0.025 inch
for transmitter inputs of 10() watts or less.
may be a convenient length of any of the twv-
to three-inch diameter air inductors, or it can
be ahomemade coil on aceramic form. It should
be tapped every two or three turns. The tuner
may be built in an open "breadboard" style, or it
412 V.H.F. RECEIVERS
more of the band than is the case with 50 Mc. on a % 1 - inch diameter rod or drill and then

The converter response can be made uniform spáced to meet the specifications. They are sup-
across most or all of the band by tuning the if. ported by soldering the ends directly to tube
output coil, L 5 , for maximum response near the pins, ground lugs or capacitor terminals. The
high end or middle of the band. This coil affects Nuvistor sockets are set in Y2-inch diameter
only the gain of the converter; detuning it does holes in which two notches have been filed to
not reduce the signal-to-noise ratio. The r.f. accept the tabs; the tabs are then bent over and
amplifier plate and mixer grid circuits, C2- L3 and held to the chassis by washers and 4-40 hard-
C3- L4 have only aminor effect on noise figure, so ware. The two 0.001-µf. capacitors bypassing
they can also be " stagger-tuned" to some extent the grid of the second 6CW4 and the bottom
to achieve uniform response. end of L 3 are mica "button" capacitors ( Cen-
A fair final check on the 144-Mc, converter tralab ZA-102). When mounting the tubular
performance is to detune the diode multiplier trimmer capacitors that are used to tune the
circuit, L8C5,and note its effect on the signal-to- signal circuits, it will be necessary to notch the
noise ratio. If the r.f. amplifier is working prop- holes slightly to clear the mounting.
erly it should be possible to detune this circuit The adjustment of the converter is quite simi-
so that the gain drops an S unit or two, before lar to that of the 144-Mc, converter, and the in-
there is any effect on the signal-to-noise ratio structions given earlier apply equally as well to
observable on weak signals. the 220- Mc. band. Depending upon the local
operating habits, it may be desirable to peak the
The 220-Mc. Converter circuits for a particular portion of the band. In
The 220-Mc. converter, Figs. 16-13 and 16-15, areas where TV sets are tuned to Channel 7,
is similar to the 144-Mc, converter in both con- there may be substantial TV-receiver local-
struction and circuitry. A cascode r.f. stage is oscillator radiation that will mess up the first
used ahead of the mixer, and adiode frequency megacycle or two of the band, and consequently
quadrupler is used to furnish a 206-Mc. local- the amateur activity will peak around 222 or 223
oscillator signal from a51.5-Mc, crystal oscilla- Mc. Both agrid-dip oscillator or signal genera-
tor. Two tuned circuits are used between r.f. tor, and a noise generator will be found to be
stage and mixer, coupled by asmall capacitance. very useful in getting best results from the con-
Because the 220-Mc, band is 5Mc. wide, the re- verter.
ceiver following this converter must tune from
Power Supply
14 to 19 Mc.
As can be seen in Fig. 16-15, the construction The circuit for a suitable power supply is
is quite similar to that of the 144-Mc. converter. given in Fig. 16-16. Any power supply of 180
The inductors L1,L 3 ,L 4 and L s are first wound volts or more ( enough to fire a OD3) will be

R. F. AMPLIFIER MIXER
220 MC.
6CW4 6CW4 • f 6CW4 14 MC.

220 MC.
00I
L,
ANT OUT

>1 J

00m
IW.
OSCILLATOR
6CW4 sis mc. 1N82
6CW4
/\
51.5 MC. IO 12

Fig. 16- 14—Circuit diagram of the 220-Mc, crystal-controlled converter. Unless specified otherwise, resistors are
Y2 waft, resistances are in ohms, capacitances in Ø.
C1, C8. C.-1-6 mg. tubular trimmer (Centralab 829 - 6). 14- 4t. as Ls, tapped 1turn from ground end.
Cs-2 µµf., made by twisting two insulated wires 1inch. Ls-4.7 - 10.0 Ah. adjustable inductor (Miller
C.-15-00. variable ( Hammarlund MAC- 15). 20A826R111).
Ji—Chassis-mounting coaxial receptacle (50-239). Ls-0.43 - 0.85 ph. adjustable inductor (Miller
Jr—Phono jack. 20A687R81).
1,1-2% t. No. 18 spaced wire diem., 1,4 inch id., 2 t. insulated wire wound on ground end of L.
1,-1 1
/
tapped 34 t. from ground end. L8-4 t. No. 18 spaced three times wire diem., 1/
4 inch

Ls-0.12 - 0.19 Ah. adjustable inductor (Miller i.d., tapped PA t. from ground end.
20A1571281). Pi—Chassis-mounting octal plug (Amphenol 86-CP8).
1.8- 23
4 t. No. 18 spaced twice wire diem., /
/ 4 inch id.
1
Couplers 357

Fig. 13- 18— The link capacitor and the Monimatch are mounted underneath the chassis.

were tapped, and it maintains symmetry with re- right-hand side; the ganged capacitors, C2 and
spect to the large coil. Cg are supported off the chassis by one- inch
A Monimatch is included as atuning indicator. ceramic stand-off insulators and their shafts are
Some form of indicator is required to show when connected together and to the panel shaft by
the unit is correctly adjusted. If a Monimatch suitable insulated shaft couplings. The two out-
or similar indicator is already available, this put leads that go to h and ./3 are taken off the
part of Fig. 13-17 can be eliminated. rotor mounting points between the two capaci-
As designed and shown, this unit will handle tors. These leads run down below chassis to the
about 500 watts on c.w. or s.s.b. and about half connectors through two rubber grommets. If
that power on a.m. phone. For amateurs using suitable feed- through insulators are available
less power ( in the 50- to 100-watt level), the they can be used to mount C2 and Cg and the
capacitor spacings can be reduced at a saving in under-chassis leads taken from them.
cost, and suitable capacitors are specified in Fig. Fig. 13-19 shows how to make L 1,L2,L 2 and
13-17. The coil remains the same for either L4.Cut atotal of 66 turns from alength of coil
power level — there isn't enough difference in stock, making sure to leave enough lead length
coil cost to warrant using adifferent coil unless at each end of the coil for connections to the
space is at apremium. switch. At 28 ,/2 turns from each end of the coil
If substitutions for the specified capacitors are cut the wire and unwind V2 turn from the sup-
contemplated, no harm will be done if higher- port bars. This will give two coils of 28 turns
capacitance units are substituted. However, if and another of 9turns. Cut the 9-turn coil at the
lower capacitance values are used they will limit center and unwind the half turns, leaving two
the range over which a match can be obtained. coils of 4 turns each. The two 28- turn coils are
The complete coupler, including the Moni- connected together at the center by soldering the
match, is built on a3 X 10 X 14- inch aluminum two inside leads together.
chassis. The front pànel is made from a 10 X The coil assembly is supported by its own
10- inch piece of aluminum sheet stock. The link leads, and it is mounted over 52. The switch is
capacitor, C1, is mounted under the chassis, as made from a Centralab P-272 index and four
is the Monimatch. The loading capacitor, C3, is single-pole five- position rotary ceramic switch
mounted directly on the chassis top along the sections ( Centralab TD or XD). Two switch-
358 TRANSMISSION LINES
CUT HERE AND UNWIND 1
/2 TURN
The leads to S1 are brought out of the Moni-
match box through two feedthrough insulators
\ and run from there to the switch in shielded wire.
M 1 as shown is a500-eta. meter, but a0-1 milliam-
meter can be used.

Adjustment Procedure
The coupler can be used with practically any
antenna system. With abalanced line ( open- wire
or Twin- Lead), the conductors should be con-
28 TURNS
nected to terminals J3 and ./5. A coax line from
28 TURNS
the antenna should be connected to ./4. For single-
wire feed, such as awire fed at the end, the wire
Fig. 13- 19—Details of the coil assembly. Not shown should be connected to / 3 and the coupler chassis
are the taps needed for changing bands. The tap grounded to an earth ground.
points listed below all are counted from the outside Connect a length of coax between the trans-
ends of the coil. mitter and the coupler, using either 50- or 70-
ohm coax, depending on which value the Moni-
7 Mc.- 12 turns. 21 Mc.- 25 turns. match was built to handle. Feed some power
14 Mc.- 23 turns. 28 Mc.- 26 turns. through the system and set Si to read forward
The coil stock in 3 inches in dim., No. 14, 8 turns power. Adjust R3 for a full-scale meter deflec-
per inch (Illumitronic, Air Dux 24081). tion. Next, set S1 to read reflected power and
tune C1 and C2C4 for minimum reading. If it is
mounting brackets of sheet aluminum are used to impossible to get the reading down to zero ( the
support the switch assembly. object of the adjustment), try a different set-
The Monimatch is mounted in a21 /
2 X 21 /
2 X ting of C3 and again adjust the other two con-
5- inch aluminum box ( Bud Minibox CU-3004A). trols. Once the zero reading is obtained, the cou-
Chassis-type coax fittings ( S0-239) are mounted pler is correctly adjusted for that particular
in the center of each end of the box. A piece of frequency. Make anote of the settings and pro-
/-
2
1 inch o.d. copper tubing, 4% inches long, is ceed to the next band. If an accurate record is
connected between the two inner pins of the coax kept it will be simple to change bands quickly.
fittings. The two pick-up leads for the bridge are If an antenna system is encountered that can-
made from No. 14 solid wire held in the proper not be matched, although this is unlikely, the
position by two insulating spacers. Details of the simplest thing to do is to increase or decrease the
spacers are shown in Fig. 13-20. The spacers can length of the feed line. A little experimentation
be made from TA- to '/4- inch thick polystyrene will quickly set up a "matched" condition.
or bakelite.
Two flat strips of copper, % inch wide by 474
inches long, are installed as shown in Fig. 13-18.
The method of mounting the strips is quite sim-
ple. Solder alug to each end of each strip, allow-
ing the end of the lug with the screw hole to
project beyond the edge. Bend this part of the
Fig. 13- 20-- Dimen-
lug up at right angles to the strip. The strips are
sions of the insulat-
then mounted by using the top and bottom screws
ing spacers used to
and nuts of the coax fittings.
hold the pick-up
When soldering the germanium diodes to the
wires in place in
pickup wires, hold the lead of the diode with a
the Monimatch.
pair of pliers between the point of soldering and
the body of the diode. This will keep excess heat
from reaching the diodes and ruining them.
For a50-ohm bridge R1 and R2 should be 150-
ohm, 1 /-
2 watt resistors. For 70-ohm bridge use
100 ohms, 1 /2 watt. The resistors used should be
composition or carbon, not wire-wound.

THE "MONIMATCH"
The "' Monimatch," shown in Figs. 13-21 and parallel to it. When the coupled wire is prop-
13-23, is an s.w.r. monitoring bridge that can erly terminated in a resistance, the voltage
be used continuously in the transmission line at induced in it by power. travelling along the
power levels up to the legal limit. line in one direction will be balanced out in
It makes use of the combined effects of induc- the crystal-rectifier r.f. voltmeter circuit, but
tive and capacitive coupling between the center power travelling along the line in the opposite
conductor of a coaxial line and a length of wire direction will cause a voltmeter indication.
The Monimatch 359
If the bridge is adjusted to match the Z. of
the coaxial line being used, the voltmeter will
respond only to the reflected voltage, just as
in the case of the resistance- type bridges. The
power consumed in the bridge is below one
watt, even at the maximum power permitted
amateur transmitters.
The circuit of Fig. 13-22 uses a d.p.d.t.
switch to exchange the voltmeter and the
terminating resistance, so that either the for-
ward or reflected voltage can be measured.
The sensitivity of this type of bridge is pro-
portional to frequency, so higher power is
required for a given voltmeter deflection at
low than at high frequencies. The sensitivity
also increases with an increase in pickup
length, but this should not be longer than
about 1/20 wavelength, to avoid standing-
wave effects in the pick-up circuit. For higher
frequencies the length should be decreased in
proportion to the wavelength. This reduces
the sensitivity considerably at the lower fre-
quencies, so it is advisable to make separate
units for v.h.f. and the frequencies below 30
Mc.
The additional conductor in the bridge
shown in the photographs is a length of No.
20 enameled wire running under 8 inches of
the RG-8/U shield. The length of the RG-8/U
Fig. 13- 21-- The Monimatch, an s.w.r. monitor that can
is 14 inches. To insert the No. 20 wire under
be left in the line at all times. The unit shown
the cable shield, first loosen the braid by
here will handle a kilowatt.
bunching it from the ends toward the center.
Punch the two small holes for the wire and
then snake the wire through one hole, under short-circuit to the outer conductor of the
the braid, and out the other hole. Next, coaxial line.
smooth out the braid to its original length, It is important when assembling and wiring
being careful not to apply so much pressure the Monimatch that good symmetry be main-
that the enamel on the wire is scratched. tained. Each end of the length of RG-8/U
Check with an ohmmeter to make sure the should be connected in the same way, with
wire and braid are not short circuited. There at least two connections made between the
are several types of enameled wire ( e.g., outer conductor and the coaxial connectors
Formvar, Nylclad) that have an extremely (see Fig. 13-23). The ground connection for
tough covering, and the use of one of these R1 and for the 0.001 - tuf. capacitor should be
is recommended. The covering is somewhat the midpoint on the outer conductor of the
difficult to remove for soldering, but the use RG-8/U. The outer conductor is connected
of the wire will insure against an inadvertent to the chassis only at /1 and /2 ; the cable is
WI

Fig. 13-22—Wiring diagram of the Monimatch.

Ja, .12—S0-239 coaxial receptacle.
RI— Nominally 33 ohms. See text for adjustment pro- Ji
cedure.
SI-4.p.d.t. rotary switch (2 poles used). (
Centrolab XMTR C, LOAD

1409) .00yd. 1000

W1- 14-inch length of RG-8/U with length of No. 20

enam. inserted under outer conductor . See SENSITIVITY
51<
text.

0- loo
360 TRANSMISSION LINES

Fig. 13- 23— Rear view of Monimatch with cane- metal

cover removed. To maintain symmetry, the terminating
resistor R, and the crystal diode are connected to the
midpoints of the leads between S, and S,B, and R,
and C, are grounded to the center of the coaxial- line
outer conductor via the heavy wire running across the
variable resistor. The outer conductor of the coaxial
line is connected to the chassis only at .
1, and 1, and
two connections are made in each case.
The Monimatch is built in a 5 x 7 x 2- inch aluminum
chassis.

stiff enough to be self-supporting and can be a minimum reading with S1 at "RE ?' when
dressed away from the chassis at other points. nearly a full-scale reading can be obtained
A dummy antenna of the same resistance with Si at FOR . A final test on the Monimatch
as the Zo of the line should be used to adjust is to reverse the transmitter and load con-
R, (Fig. 13-22). Make the connecting leads as nections; agood minimum should be obtained
short as possible. Only 30 or 40 watts will be with Si at FOR .
required at 21 and 28 Mc. to give close to full- It is possible to generate harmonics in the
scale deflection, and a dummy load capable voltmeter of sufficient intensity to cause television
of handling this power for a short time can interference. If TVI is aproblem, alow-pass filter
be made from 13 680-ohm 1- watt resistors in should be connected in the line between the Moni-
parallel. ( See " V.H.F. Dummy Loads," QST, match and the antenna coupler or antenna.
March, 1960.) Try several different 33- ohm In many cases the antenna coupler alone will
resistors ( with slightly different d.c. resist- have sufficient selectivity to reject the harmonics
ances) at Ri, and use the one that gives generated by the voltmeter diode.
 Chapter 14

Antennas

An antenna system am be considered to in- pattern of the antenna, its height above ground,
clude the antenna proper ( the portion that radi- and the nature of the ground. The angle is meas-
ates the r.f. energy), the feed line, and any cou- ured in avertical plane with respect to atangent
pling devices used for transferring power from to the earth at that point, and it will usually vary
the transmitter to the line and from the line to with the horizontal angle, except in the case of a
the antenna. Some simple systems may omit the simple vertical antenna. The horizontal angle of
transmission line or one or both of the coupling maximum radiation of an antenna is determined
devices. This chapter will describe the antenna by the free- space pattern of the antenna.
proper, and in many cases will show popular The impedance of the antenna at any point
types of lines, as well as line-to- antenna cou- is the ratio of the voltage to the current at that
plings where they are required. However, it point. It is important in connection with feeding
should be kept in mind that any antenna proper power to the antenna, since it constitutes the load
can be used with any type of feedline if a suit- to the line offered by the antenna. It can be
able coupling is used between the antenna and either resistive or complex, depending upon
the line. Changing the line does not change the whether or not the antenna is resonant.
type of antenna. The field strength produced by an antenna is
proportional to the current flowing in it. When
Selecting an Antenna there are standing waves on an antenna, the
In selecting the type of antenna to use, the parts of the wire carrying the higher current
majority of amateurs are somewhat limited have the greater radiating effect. All resonant
through space and structural limitations to sim- antennas have standing waves—only terminated
ple antenna systems, except for v.h.f. operation types, like the terminated rhombic and termi-
where the small space requirements make the use nated "V," have substantially uniform current
of multielement beams readily possible. This along their lengths.
chapter will consider antennas for frequencies as The ratio of power required to produce agiven
high as 30 Mc.—alater chapter will describe the field strength with a "comparison" antenna to
popular types of v.h.f. antennas. However, even the power required to produce the same field
though the available space may be limited, it is strength with aspecified type of antenna is called
well to consider the propagation characteristics the power gain of the latter antenna. The field is
of the frequency band or bands to be used, to in- measured in the optimum direction of the an-
sure that best possible use is made of the avail- tenna uwier test. The comparison antenna is gen-
able facilities. The propagation characteristics of erally a half- wave antenna at the same height
the amateur-band frequencies are described in and having the same polarization as the antenna
Chapter Fifteen. In general, antenna construc- under consideration. Gain usually is expressed
tion and location become more critical and im- in decibels.
portant on the higher frequencies. On the In unidirectional beams ( antennas with most:
lower frequencies ( 3.5 and 7 Mc.) the vertical of the radiation in only one direction) the front-
angle of radiation and the plane of polarization to-back ratio is the ratio of power radiated in
may be of relatively little importance; at 28 Mc. the maximum direction to power radiated in the
they may be all-important. opposite direction. It is also a measure of the
reduction in received signal when the beam di-
Definitions rection is changed from that for maximum re-
The polarization of a straight-wire antenna sponse to the opposite direction. Front-to-back
is determined by its position with respect to the ratio is usually expressed in decibels.
earth. Thus a vertical antenna radiates verti- The bandwidth of an antenna refers to the
cally polarized waves, while ahorizontal antenna frequency range over which a property falls
radiates horizontally polarized waves in a direc- within acceptable limits. The gain bandwidth,
tion broadside to the wire and vertically polar- the front-to-back-ratio bandwidth and the
ized waves at high vertical angles off the ends of standing-wave-ratio bandwidth are of prime
the wire. The wave from an antenna in aslanting interest in amateur work. The gain bandwidth
position, or from the horizontal antenna in direc- is of interest because, generally, the higher the
tions other than mentioned above, contains antenna gain is the narrower the gain bandwidth
components of both horizontal and vertical will be. The s.w.r. bandwidth is of interest be-
polarization. cause it is an indication of the transmission-line
The vertical angle of maximum radiation efficiency over the useful frequency range of the
of an antenna is determined by the free-space antenna.

361
362 ANTENNAS

GROUND EFFECTS
The radiation pattern of any antenna that is frequencies. It is advantageous, therefore, to
many wavelengths distant from the ground and erect the antenna at a height that will take ad-
all others objects is called the free-space pat- vantage of ground reflection in such a way as
tern of that antenna. The free- space pattern of to reinforce the space radiation at the most de-
an antenna is almost impossible to obtain in sirable angle. Since low angles usually are most
practice, except in the v.h.f. and u.h.f. ranges. effective, this generally means that the antenna
Below 30 Mc., the height of the antenna above should be high—at least one-half wavelength at
ground is amajor factor in determining the radi- 14 Mc., and preferably three-quarters or one
ation pattern of the antenna. wavelength, and at least one wavelength, and
When any antenna is near the ground the free- preferably higher, at 28 Mc. The physical height
space pattern is modified by reflection of radiated required for a given height in wavelengths de-
waves from the ground, so that the actual pat- creases as the frequency in increased, so that
tern is the resultant of the free- space pattern and good heights are not impracticable; ahalf wave-
ground reflections. This resultant is dependent length at 14 Mc. is only 35 feet, approximately,
upon the height of the antenna, its position or while the same height represents a full wave-
orientation with respect to the surface of the length at 28 Mc. At 7Mc. and lower frequencies
ground, and the electrical characteristics of the the higher radiation angles are effective, so that
ground. The effect of a perfectly reflecting again a useful antenna height in not difficult of
attainment. Heights between 35 and 70 feet are
2.0 suitable for all bands, the higher figures being
//= ,1r/
preferable.
Is
I,
‘
,,
,e,A
, ‘•
1.6
tJ Imperfect Ground
Fig. 14-1 is based on ground having perfect
4
,i
, , .
. , conductivity, whereas the actual earth is not a
47 L2 I1 Hr t i perfect conductor. The principal effect of actual
ill i I
ti i \ ground is to make the curves inaccurate at the
t.D lowest angles; appreciable high- frequency radi-
0. 8 ii \ ation at angles smaller than afew degrees is prac-
tically impossible to obtain over horizontal
0.6 il i_ii
.. ii i \\ ground. Above 15 degrees, however, the curves
Nri 011
-4
are accurate enough for all practical purposes,
k 0.4
q ‘. ; N=e \ and may be taken as indicative of the result to be
02
•i .
\ expected at angles between 5and 15 degrees.

o 4 [
Kr 20° 30* 40* 50° 60* 70 be 90*°
The effective ground plane—that is, the plane
from which ground reflections can be considered
VERT/CAL ANGLE to take place—seldom is the actual surface of the
ground but is afew feet below it, depending upon
Fig. 14- 1— Effect of ground on radiation of horizontal the character of the soil.
antennas at vertical angles for four antenna heights.
This chart is based on perfectly conducting ground. Impedance
Waves that are reflected directly upward from
ground is such that the original free- space field the ground induce a current in the antenna in
strength may be multiplied by afactor which has
a maximum value of 2, for complete reinforce-
ment, and having all intermediate values to zero,
for complete cancellation. These reflections only
affect the radiation pattern in the vertical
plane—that is, in directions upward from the
earth's surface—and not in the horizontal plane,
or the usual geographical directions.
Fig. 14-1 shows how the multiplying factor
varies with the vertical angle for several repre-
sentative heights for horizontal antennas. As the
height is increased the angle at which complete
reinforcement takes place is lowered, until for a
height equal to one wavelength it occurs at a
vertical angle of 15 degrees. At still greater
heights, not shown on the chart, the first maxi- V4 Yz 1.0 ht Viz 3'4
1 2.0
HEIGHT ABOVE 6POUND
mum will occur at still smaller angles.
Fig 14- 2— Theoretical curve of variation of radiation
Radiation Angle resistance for a very thin half- wave horizontal antenna
The vertical angle of maximum radiation is as a function of height in wavelength above perfectly
of primary importance, expecially at the higher reflecting ground.
418 V.H.F. RECEIVERS

A CRYSTAL-CONTROLLED CONVERTER FOR 432 Mc.

The crystal- controlled converter shown in
Figs. 16-23 and 16-25 uses two grounded- grid
01e
r.f. stages and a grounded- grid mixer. This
e
proved to be a more stable arrangement and •••
g, L)
easier to duplicate than one with grounded-
cathode stages. A major source of over-all feed-
back is the heater connections, and more elabo-
rate heater- line filtering will be found in this
unit than is usually the case. The local- oscillator
signal at 418 Mc. is obtained by tripling twice
from a 46.44-Mc, crystal oscillator, once in a
e`t
triode section of a 6J6 and once through a
1N82 diode.

Fig. 16-23—The 432-Mc, converter is built in a 5 X

7 X 3- inch Minibox. At the top in this view, from left
to right: input jack, r.f. amplifier, r.f. amplifier, mixer,
output jack. The tube ( shielded) is a 616, used as
crystal oscillator and frequency multiplier.

R.F. AMP-1. R.F.AMP-2 MIXER

6Cw4 6Cw4 6Cw4
ANT
470 432 MC 8 14 MC
432 MC
2 2

100

RCVR .

500

1W.

OSC MULT.
46. 44 MC.
6J6 139.33 MC
VIA
46.44 MC .

001

MIXER RF -2 RF - 6J6 pl

o 3 /\ 4
12

o .001
/77

RFC ,
o

500
RFC 7 RFC g
Z .001fe" Z.001 S T
„ .
001"

Fig. 16- 24—Wiring diagram of the 432-Mc. converter. Capacitance values are in µµf., except
decimal values which are in µf. Resistors are 1
2 watt unless specified otherwise. All 0.001-0.
/
capacitors marked * are button-type ( Centralab ZA-102); other 0.001-µf. capacitors are disk
ceramic. All 500-µµf. feedthrough capacitors are Centralab FT-500.

Ci C2-6-µµf. ceramic variable ( Centralab 829-6) 1.0-2 t. No. 20 insulated, wound around ground end
C3 - 15 -/ uf. variable ( Hammarlund MAC- 15) of L.
RFC,RFC,1-8 inches No. 22 enam. cleaned /
2
1 inch
17 — See Fig. 16-26.
each end and wound on 10K or higher /
2 -
1
La-4.7-10.0+h. adjustable inductor (Miller watt resistor.
20A826RBI). RFC,2-50-µh. r.f. choke (Millen 34300-50).
1.4-0.43-0.85-µh. adjustable inductor (Miller .1,—Coaxial chassis receptacle ( 50-239).
20A687RBI). 12— Coaxial chassis receptacle ( UG-290A/U).
1-x-0.119-0.187-µh. adjustable inductor ( Miller P;— Octal plug ( Amphenol 86-CP8).
20A157RBI). Yi-46.44-Mc. crystal ( International Crystal FA-9).
364 ANTENNAS
135 130 125 20 CI.
.80.1 I
l i I I nj 1 11 1, 1 1. 1 I n
Radiation Characteristics
WOO 3600 3700 3800 3900 40006e. The radiation from a dipole antenna is not
uniform in all directions but varies with the
67 , 84
1, Ft
angle with respect to the axis of the wire. It is
e40' I ri most intense in directions perpendicular to the
MOO 7200 7300 Ke. wire and zero along the direction of the wire,

Ft.
" 20 , 33 REDUCED
RADIATION
goo° 14,1 1
0o 14,2 1
00 14,300 14,4006e.

22
'15 " I t", MAX
I , I
1
RADIATION
21,&00 21,100 21,200 21,300 21000 21,500 KC
AN 7
-f_ N, N, A

Fig. 14- 5— The free- space radiation pattern of a half-

16
y"
wave antenna. The antenna is shown in the vertical
28,000 28,500 29,000 29,800 30000 KC position, and the actual " doughnut" pattern is cut in
half to show how the line from the center of the an-
Fig. 14- 4— The above scales, based on Eq 14-B, can be used tenna to the surface of the pattern varies. In practice
to determine the length of a half-wave antenna of wire. this pattern is modified by the height above ground
and if the antenna is vertical or horizontal. Fig. 14-1
shows some of the effects of height on the vertical
zero at its node because of the resistance of the angle of radiation.
antenna, which consists of both the r.f. resistance
of the wire ( ohmic resistance) and the radiation
with intermediate values at intermediate angles.
resistance. The radiation resistance is an equiva-
This is shown by the sketch of Fig. 14-5, which
lent resistance, a convenient conception to indi-
represents the radiation pattern in free space. The
cate the radiation properties of an antenna. The
relative intensity of radiation is proportional to
radiation resistance is the equivalent resistance
the length of aline drawn from the center of the
that would dissipate the power the antenna radi-
figure to the perimeter. If the antenna is vertical,
ates, with a current flowing in it equal to the
as shown, then the field strength will be uniform
antenna current at a current loop ( maximum).
in all horizontal directions; if the antenna is hori-
The ohmic resistance of a half wavelength an-
tenna is ordinarily small enough, compared with
the radiation resistance, to be neglected for all Fig. 14-6— Illustrating the importance

practical purposes. of vertical angle of radiation in deter-

mining antenna directional effects. Off
Impedance the end, the radiation is greater at

The radiation resistance of an infinitely-thin higher angles. Ground reflection is

half-wave antenna in free space is about 73 ohms. neglected in this drawing of the free-
The value under practical conditions is com- space pattern of a horizontal antenna.

monly taken to be in the neighborhood of 60 to

70 ohms, although it varies with height in the zontal, the relative field strength will depend
manner of Fig. 14-2. It increases toward the upon the direction of the receiving point with
ends. The actual value at the ends will depend on respect to the direction of the antenna wire.
anumber of factors, such as the height, the phys- The variation in radiation at various vertical
ical construction, the insulators at the ends, and angles from a half wavelength horizontal an-
the position with respect to ground. tenna is indicated in Figs. 14-6 and 14-7.

Conductor Size
FEEDING A DIPOLE ANTENNA
The impedance of the antenna also depends
upon the diameter of the conductor in relation Since the impedance at the center of a dipole
to the wavelength, as indicated in Fig. 14-3. If is in the vicinity of 70 ohms, it offers a good
the diameter of the conductor is increased the match for 75-ohm two-wire transmission lines.
capacitance per unit length increases and the in- Several types are available on the market, with
ductance per unit length decreases. Since the different power-handling capabilities. They can
radiation resistance is affected relatively little, be connected in the center of the antenna, across
the decreased L/C ratio causes the Q of the an- a small strain insulator to provide a convenient
tenna to decrease, so that the resonance curve connection point. Coaxial line of 75 ohms imped-
becomes less sharp. Hence, the antenna is cap- ance can also be used, but it is heavier and thus
able of working over a wide frequency range. not as convenient. In either case, the transmis-
This effect is greater as the diameter is in- sion line should be run away at right angles to
creased, and is a property of some importance at the antenna for at least one-quarter wavelength,
the very-high frequencies where the wavelength if possible, to avoid current unbalance in the line
is small. caused by pick-up from the antenna. The antenna
Feeding Dipoles 365

30 Half wavelength from formula

7
%
25 1iii 11
40 ,.. 20
g %
30 i .-.3 15 % Solder joint
Lightweight pacers
-20
i2 10
, tied in place with
i 300- ohm
. go II No. 18 wire Twin -Leed
I , I 10.
10 5
e I
0 ‹: 0
t
It Fig. 14- 9—The construction of an open- wire folded
• 1
10 le
I / dipole fed with 300- ohm line. The length of the antenna
is calculated from Equation 14-8 or Fig. 14-4.
15
30

0 20 40 The half wavelength antenna can also be made

from the proper length of 300-ohm line, opened
25
60 on one side in the center and connected to the
70 7
90 ' feedline. After the wires have been soldered to-
gether, the joint can be strengthened by molding
some of the excess insulating material ( poly-
Fig. 14-7— Horizontal pattern of a horizontal half-wave ethylene) around the joint with a hot iron, or a
antenna at three vertical radiation angles. The solid line
suitable lightweight clamp of two pieces of Lu-
is relative radiation at 15 degrees. Dotted lines show
cite can be devised.
deviation from the 15-degree pattern for angles of 9
Similar in some respects to the two-wire
and 30 degrees. The patterns are useful for shape only,
folded dipole, the three- wire folded dipole of Fig.
since the amplitude will depend upon the height of the
14-10 offers agood match for a 600-ohm line. It
antenna above ground and the vertical angle con-
is favored by amateurs who prefer to use an open-
sidered. The patterns for all three angles have been wire line instead of the 300-ohm insulated line.
proportioned to the same scale, but this does not mean
that the maximum amplitudes necessarily will be the
same. The arrow indicates the direction of the horizontal
antenna wire.

length is calculated from Equation 14-B, for a

half wavelength antenna. When No. 12 or No. 14
enameled wire is used for the antenna, as is gen-
erally the case, the length of the wire is the over-
600-ohm
all length measured from the loop through the in- oper*in. ree
sulator at each end. This is illustrated in Fig.
14-8. Fig. 14- 10—The construction of a 3-wire folded dipole
The use of 75-ohm line results in a "flat" line is similar to that of the 2-wire folded dipole. The end
over most of any amateur band. However, by spacers may have to be slightly stronger than the others
making the half-wave antenna in a special man- because of the greater compression force on them. The
ner, called the two-wire or folded dipole, agood length .pf the antenna is obtained from Equation 14-B
match is offered for a 300-ohm line. Such an an- or Fig. 14-4. A suitable line can be mode from No. 14
tenna is shown in Fig. 14-9. The open- wire line wire spaced 5 inches, or from No. 12 wire spaced 6
shown in Fig. 14-9 is made of No. 12 or No. 14 inches.

enameled wire, separated by lightweight spacers

of Lucite or other material ( it doesn't have to be The three wires of the antenna proper should all
a low-loss insulating material), and the spacing be of the same diameter.
can be on the order of from 4 to 8 inches, de- Another method for offering amatch to a600-
pending upon what is convenient and what the ohm open-wire line with a half wavelength an-
operating frequency is. At 14 Mc., 4-inch separa- tenna is shown in Fig. 14-11. The system is called
tion is satisfactory, and 8-inch spacing can be a delta match. The line is "fanned" as it ap-
used at 3.5 Mc. proaches the antenna, to have a gradually in-
creasing impedance that equals the antenna
impedance at the point of connection. The dimen-
l
e-- Half-wavelength from formed
sions are fairly critical, but careful measurement
before installing the antenna and matching sec-
efin>"7- Solder joint " Solder joint
tion is generally all that is necessary. The length
No12 or
No14 wire
75-ohm TwIn-L*ikl
of the antenna, L, is calculated from Equation
oi coaxial lire 14-B or Fig. 14-4. The length of section C is
computed from:
Fig. 14- 8— Construction of a dipole fed with 75-ohm 118
line. The length of the antenna is calculated from Equa- C(
feet) = (14-E)
tion 14-B or Fig. 14-4.
Freq. (
Mc.)
420 V.H.F. RECEIVERS
it is soldered and at the other by an end of Le. poor connections or poor grounds. In some cases
A regulated 105-volt power supply is recom- the instability may also be caused by having the
mended for use with the converter. The crystal mixer tap too high above ground on L7.
oscillator should be checked first, by measuring
the voltage drop across the 1000-ohm resistor to
L4.The drop across this resistor will be greater
when the stage is not oscillating than when it is, 1 4"
/
---3 ---I
and the slug of L4 should be set at a lower-
inductance value than that which gives mini-
mum voltage drop across the resistor, to insure
proper starting and operation. If awavemeter is
available, the frequency of output should be
checked. The slug of L5 should be set for mini-
mum voltage drop across the 1000-ohm resistor
connected to L5,and again the frequency should
be checked with awavemeter if one is available. L, L, L,
The third harmonic of a 144- Mc, signal source
can be used to align the r.f. stages, after which
C3 and L5 should be peaked for maximum signal. Fig. 16- 26— Details of " coils" I., L.. and L7.Material is
If any instability is experienced in the signal No. 10 tinned copper wire. Taps on ti and L2 are lh
circuits, as evidenced by regeneration or oscil- up from ground end; taps on L- are 1 h and Y2 up
lations at some setting of C1 and C2,look for from ground end.

A CRYSTAL-CONTROLLED CONVERTER FOR 1296 Mc.

The converter described is the result of an voltage regulator for the crystal oscillator. One
effort to simplify circuits and construction of a half of a 12AT7, VIA ,is an overtone oscillator
converter for 1296 Mc. to apoint where it could at approximately 53.4 Mc. The second half, V1B ,
be duplicated with a minimum of effort, and a doubles to 106.8 Mc. A 6CY5, V2,doubles to
limited amount of equipment. 213.6 Mc. and drives a6AK5 doubler to 427 Mc.
Only five tubes are used, and one of these is a The output of V3 drives aDR303 diode multiplier

Fig. 16-27— From the top, the 1296-Mc. converter looks much like conventional designs for the v.h.f. bonds. Across
the lower portion of the chassis are the cascode i.f. amplifier stage and its output jack, left, the power connec-
tions shielded by means of an aluminum film can, the voltage regulator tube, and the 12AT7 crystal oscillator. In
the upper right are the 6CY5 and 6AK5 frequency multipliers. The black nuts, left center,
are used for tension on the adjusting screws for the u.h.f. circuits.
Long-Wire Antennas 367
Example: For afrequency of 3.9 Mc., the length equals above ground will all affect the impedance and
490 ÷ 3.9 = 125.5 = 125 feet 6 inches.
the frequency of resonance, it is desirable to cut
the antenna a little long at first and check for
The impedance of the inverted V antenna is resonance by finding the frequency of minimum
lower than that of a linear dipole, and 50-ohm s.w.r. If the minimum s.w.r. occurs at a fre-
coaxial cable is recommended for the trans- quency well below the desired operating fre-
mission line. Since the exact angle of the wires, quency, trim small equal amounts off of each
the presence of nearby objects and the height end of the inverted V and repeat the test.

LONG-WIRE ANTENNAS
An antenna will be resonant so long as an standing wave is opposite to that in the adjacent
integral number of standing waves of current standing waves. This is shown in the figure by
and voltage can exist along its length; in other drawing the current and voltage curves succes-
words, so long as its length is some integral mul- sively above and below the antenna ( taken as a
tiple of a half wavelength. When the antenna is zero reference line), to indicate that the polarity
more than a half- wave long it usually is called reverses when the current or voltage goes
a long-wire antenna, or a harmonic antenna. through zero. Currents flowing in the same di-
rection are in phase; in opposite directions, out
Current and Voltage Distribution of phase.
Fig. 14-14 shows the current and voltage dis- It is evident that one antenna may be used
tribution along a wire operating at its funda- for harmonically- related frequencies, such as the
mental frequency ( where its length is equal to a various amateur bands. The long-wire or har-
monic antenna is the basis of multiband opera-
Velar (
E)
tion with one antenna.
Curreen1(1)
A Physical Lengths
The length of a long-wire antenna is not an
FUNDAMENTAL (HALF- WAVE) exact multiple of that of a half-wave antenna
because the end effects operate only on the end
sections of the antenna; in other parts of the
wire these effects are absent, and the wire length
is approximately that of an equivalent portion of
the wave in space. The formula for the length of
2.c. HARMONIC ( FULL -WAVE) along-wire antenna, therefore, is
492 ( N — 0.05)
Length (feet) (
14-G)
Freq. (
Mc.)
where N is the number of half- waves on the
antenna.
3Ao HARMONIC ( 3/2 -WAVE) Example: An antenna 4 half-waves long at
14.2 Mc. would be 492 (4 — 0.05) 492 X 3.95
14.2 14.2
= 136.7 feet, or 136 feet 8 inches.

D It is apparent that an antenna cut as a half-

wave for a given frequency will be slightly off
4ebe HARMONIC (2- WAVE) resonance at exactly twice that frequency ( the
second harmonic), because of the decreased in-
Fig. 14- 14— Standing-wave current and voltage distri-
fluence of the end effects when the antenna is
bution along an antenna when it is operated at various
more than one-half wavelength long. The effect
harmonics of its fundamental resonant frequency.
is not very important, except for a possible un-
half wavelength) and at its second, third and balance in the feeder system and consequent radi-
fourth harmonics. For example, if the funda- ation from the feedline. If the antenna is fed in
mental frequency of the antenna is 7 Mc., the the exact center, no unbalance will occur at any
current and voltage distribution will be as shown frequency, but end-fed systems will show an un-
at A. The same antenna excited at 14 Mc. would balance on all but one frequency in each harmonic
have current and voltage distribution as shown range.
at B. At 21 Mc., the third harmonic of 7 Mc.,
Impedance and Power Gain
the current and voltage distribution would be as
in C; and at 28 Mc., the fourth harmonic, as in The radiation resistance as measured at acur-
D. The number of the harmonic is the number rent loop becomes higher as the antenna length
of half waves contained in the antenna at the is increased. Also, a long-wire antenna radiates
particular operating frequency. more power in its most favorable direction than
The polarity of current or voltage in each does a half-wave antenna in its most favorable
 368 ANTENNAS

A
140 7

4Fg

20

I 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Fig. 14- 17— Horizontal patterns of radiation from an

.4.97e4,464 cevorie - A
antenna three half-waves long. The solid line shows the
Fig. 14- 15—Curve A shows variation in radiation re pattern for a vertical angle of 15 degrees; dotted lines
sistance with antenna length. Curve B shows power in show deviation from the 15-degree pattern at 9 and 30
lobes of maximum radiation for long-wire antennas as a degrees. Minor lobes coincide for all three angles.
ratio to the maximum radiation for a half-wave an-
tenna. fects change. Instead of the " doughnut" pattern
of the half- wave antenna, the directional char-
direction. This power gain is secured at the ex- acteristic splits up into " lobes" which make
pense of radiation in other directions. Fig. 14-15 various angles with the wire. In general, as the
shows how the radiation resistance and the power length of the wire is increased the direction in
in the lobe of maximum radiation vary with the
which maximum radiation occurs tends to ap-
antenna length.
proach the line of the antenna itself.
Directional Characteristics Directional characteristics for antennas one
wavelength, three half- wavelengths, and two
As the wire is made longer in terms of the
wavelengths long are given in Figs. 14-16,
number of half wavelengths, the directional ef-

Fig 14- 16— Horizontal patterns of radiation from a

full wave antenna. The solid line shows the pattern for a
ver ical angle of 15 degrees; dotted lines show deviation Fig. 14- 18— Horizontal pat erns of radiation from an
from the 15-degree pattern at 9 and 30 degrees. All antenna two wavelengths long. The solid line shows the
three patterns are drawn to the same relative scale; ac- pattern for a vertical angle of 15 degrees; dotted lines
tual amplitudes will depend upon the height of the an- show deviation from the 15-degree pattern at 9 and 30
tenna. degrees. The minor lobes coincide for all three angles.
Multiband Antennas 369
14-17 and 14-18, for three vertical angles of radi- cent half-wave sections must be out of phase, as
ation. Note that, as the wire length increases, shown in Fig. 14-14. The feeder system must not
the radiation along the line of the antenna be- upset this phase relationship. This is satisfied by
comes more pronounced. Still longer antennas feeding the antenna at either end or at any cur-
can be considered to have practically "end-on" rent loop. A two-wire feeder cannot be inserted
directional characteristics, even at the lower radi- at a current node, however, because this invari-
ation angles. ably brings the currents in two adjacent half-
wave sections in phase. A long wire antenna is
Methods of Feeding usually made ahalf wavelength at the lowest fre-
In a long-wire antenna, the currents in adja- quency and fed at the end.

MULTIBAND ANTENNAS
As suggested in the preceding section, the tern will be somewhat similar to Fig. 14-7, with
same antenna may be used for several bands by the maximum radiation broadside to the wire.
operating it on harmonics. When this is done it Either antenna is a good radiator, but if the
is necessary to use tuned feeders, since the im- radiation pattern is a factor, the point of feed
pedance matching for nonresonant feeder opera- must be considered.
tion can be accomplished only at one frequency Since multiband operation of an antenna does
unless means are provided for changing the not permit matching of the feedline, some at-
length of a matching section and shifting the tention should be paid to the length of the feed-
point at which the feeder is attached to it. line if convenient transmitter-coupling arrange-
A dipole antenna that is center-fed by a solid- ments are to be obtained. Table 14-I gives some
dielectric line is useless for even harmonic suggested antenna and feeder length for multi-
operation; on all even harmonics there is avolt- band operation. In general, the length of the
age maximum occurring right at the feed point, feedline can be other than that indicated, but the
and the resultant impedance mismatch causes a type of coupling circuit may change.
large standing-wave ratio and consequently high Open-wire line feed is recommended for an an-
losses arise in the solid dielectric. It is wise not tenna of this type, since the losses will run too
to attempt to use on its even harmonics a half- high in solid-dielectric line. For low-power appli-
wave antenna center-fed with coaxial cable. On cations up to afew hundred watts, open-wire TV
odd harmonics, as between 7and 21 Mc., a cur- line is convenient and satisfactory to use. How-
rent loop will appear in the center of the antenna ever, for high- power installations up to the kilo-
and afair match can be obtained. High-impedance watt limit, an open- wire line with No. 14 or No.
solid-dielectric lines such as 300-ohm Twin-
Lead may be used in an emergency, provided the
TABLE 14-1
power does not exceed afew hundred watts, but
it is an inefficient feed method. Multiband Tuned- Line- Fed Antennas

When the same antenna is used for work in

Feeder Typo of
several bands, the directional characteristics Antenna Length Band Coup1ing
will vary with the band in use. Length (Ft.) (Ft.) Circuit

Simple Systems With end feed:

The most practical simple multiband antenna 135 45 3.5 - 21 Series

is one that is ahalf wavelength long at the low- 28 Parallel
est frequency and is fed either at the center or 67 45 7-21 Series
one end with an open-wire line. Although the 28 Parallel
standing wave ratio on the feedline will not ap-
proach 1.0 on any band, if the losses in the line With center feed:
are low the system will be efficient. From the
135 42 3.5 - 21 Parallel
standpoint of reduced feedline radiation, acenter-
28 Series
fed system is superior to one that is end-fed,
but the end-fed arrangement is often more con- I35 7755 3.5 - 28 Parallel
venient and should not be ignored as apossibility. 67 42;6 3.5 Series
The center- fed antenna will not have the same 7 - 28 Parallel
radiation pattern as an end-fed one of the same
67 65;4 3.5, 14, 28 Parallel
length, except on frequencies where the length of 7, 21 Series
the antenna is a half wavelength. The end- fed
antenna acts like a long-wire antenna on all
Antenna lengths for end-fed antennas are ap-
bands ( for which it is longer than a half wave- proximate and should be cut to formula length at
length), but the center-fed one acts like two an- favorite operating frequency.
tennas of half that length fed in phase. For ex- Where parallel tuning is specified, it will be
necessary in some cases to tap in from the ends of
ample, if a full-wavelength antenna is fed at one the coil for proper loading — see Chapter 13 for
end, it will have a radiation pattern as shown in examples of antenna couplers.
Fig. 14-16, but if it is fed in the center the pat-
370 ANTENNAS
fact when the space available does not
permit building an antenna a half-wave
long. In this case the ends may be bent,
either horizontally or vertically, so that the total
length equals a half wave, even though the
straightaway horizontal length may be as short
as a quarter wave. The operation is illustrated

Tunmq
Apparatus
Fig. 14- 19—Practical arrangement of a shortened an-
tenna. When the total length, A 8 8 + A, is the
same as the antenna length plus twice the feeder length
of the center-fed antennas of Table 14-1, the same type Fig. 14-20—Folded arrangement for shortened antennas.
of coupling circuit will be used. When the feeder length The total length is a half-wave, not including the feed-
or antenna length, or both, makes the sum different, the ers. The horizontal part is made as long as convenient
type of coupling circuit may be different but the ef- and the ends dropped down to make up the required
fectiveness of the antenna is not changed, unless A -I- A length. The ends may be bent back on themselves like
is less than aquarter wavelength. feeders to cancel radiation partially. The horizontal sec-
tion should be at least aquarter wave long.
12 conductors should be used. This can be built
from soft-drawn wire and ceramic or other suit- in Fig. 14-20. Such an antenna will be asomewhat
able spacers, or it can be bought ready-made. better radiator than aquarter wavelength antenna
on the lowest frequency, but is not so desirable
Antennas for Restricted Space for multiband operation because the ends play an
If the space available for the antenna is not increasingly important part as the frequency is
large enough to accommodate the length nec- raised. The performance of the system in such a
essary for a half wave at the lowest frequency case is difficult to predict, especially if the ends
to be used, quite satisfactory operation can be are vertical ( the most convenient arrangement)
secured by using a short antenna and making because of the complex combination of horizontal
up the missing length in the feeder system. The and vertical polarization which results as well as
antenna itself may be as short as aquarter wave- the dissimilar directional characteristics. How-
length and will radiate fairly well, although of ever, the fact that the radiation pattern is incap-
course it will not be as effective as one a half able of prediction does not detract from the
wave long. Nevertheless such a system is useful general usefulness of the antenna. For one-band
where operation on the desired band otherwise operation with a "flat" line, end-loading with
would be impossible. coils ( 5feet or so in from each end) is practical
Tuned feeders are a practical necessity with and efficient.
such an antenna system, and acenter-fed antenna
"Windom" or Off- Center- Fed Antenna
will give best all-around performance. With end
feed the feeder currents become badly un- A multiband antenna that enjoyed consider-
balanced. able popularity in the 1930s is the "off-center
With center feed, practically any convenient feed" of "Windom," named after the amateur who
length of antenna can be used. If the total length wrote acomprehensive article about it. Shown in
of antenna plus twice feedline is the same as in Fig. 14-21A, it consists of ahalf wavelength an-
Table 14-I, the type of tuning will be the same tenna on the lowest-frequency band to be used,
as stated. This is illustrated in Fig. 14-19. If the with asingle-wire feeder connected 14% off cen-
total length is not the same, different tuning con- ter. The antenna will operate satisfactorily on
ditions can be expected on some bands. This the even-harmonic frequencies, and thus a single
should not be interpreted as a fault in the an- antenna can be made to serve on the 80-, 40-,
tenna, and any tuning system ( series or parallel) 20-, and 10-meter bands. The single-wire feeder
that works well without any trace of heating is shows an impedance of approximately 600 ohms
quite satisfactory. Heating may result when the to ground, and consequently the antenna coupling
taps with parallel tuning are made too close to system must be capable of matching this value to
the center of the coil—it can often be corrected the transmitter. A tapped parallel-tuned circuit
by using less total inductance and more capaci- or a properly- proportioned pi-network coupler
tance. is generally used. Where TVI is a problem, the
antenna coupler is required, so that a low-pass
Bent Antennas
filter can be used in the connecting link of coaxial
Since the field strength at a distance is pro- line.
portional to the current in the antenna, the Although theoretically the feed line can be of
high-current part of adipole antenna ( the center any length, some lengths will tend to give trou-
quarter wave, approximately) does most of ble with "too much r.f. in the shack," with the
the radiating. Advantage can be taken of this consequence that r.f. sparks can be drawn from
Multiband Antennas 371
tenna at right angles for as great a distance as
L (feet)=
possible before bending. No sharp bends should
be allowed anywhere in the line.
361-
Multiband Operation with Coaxial
Line Feed
The proper use of coaxial line requires that
the standing- wave ratio be held to a low value,
preferably below 2:1. Since the impedance of an
ordinary antenna changes widely from band to
band, it is not possible to feed a simple antenna
with coaxial line and use it on anumber of bands
without tricks of some kind. The single excep-
tion to this is the use of 75-ohm coaxial line to
feed a7- Mc, half- wave antenna, as in Fig. 14-19;
this antenna can also be used on 21 Mc. and the
s.w.r. in the line will not run too high.
One multiband antenna system that can be
used by anyone without much trouble is shown
in Fig. 14-22. Here separate dipoles are con-
nected to one feedline. The 7- Mc, dipole also
serves on 21 Mc. A low s.w.r. will appear on the
feedline in each band if the dipoles are of the
proper length. The antenna system can be built
by suspending one set of elements from the one
above, using insulator- terminated wood spread-
Fig. 14-21—Two versions of the off-center-fed antenna. ers about one foot long. An alternative is to let
(A) Single-wire feed shows approximately 600 ohms one antenna droop several feet under the other,
impedance to ground and is most conveniently coupled bring ropes attached to the insulators back to a
to the transmitter as shown. The pi- network coupling common support point. It has been found that a
will require more capacity at C, than at C2. Lr is best separation of only an inch or two between dipoles
found by experiment—an inductance of about the same is satisfactory. By using a length of the Twin-
size as that used in the output stage is a good starting Lead used for folded dipoles ( one Copperweld
point. The parallel-tuned circuit will be a tuned circuit conductor and one soft-drawn), the strong wire
that resonates at the operating frequency with tand C can be used for the low- frequency dipole. The
close to those used in the output stage. The tap is found soft-drawn wire is then used on a higher band,
by experiment, and it should be as near the top of Las supported by the solid dielectric.
it can and still give good loading of the transmitter. A vertical antenna can be operated on several
(B) Two-wire off-center feed uses 300-ohm TV line. bands and fed with a single length of coaxial line
Although the 300-ohm line can be coupled directly to provided the antenna is no longer than 0.6 wave-
some transmitters, it is common practice to step down length at the highest frequency and that a suit-
the impedance level to 75 ohms through a pair of able matching network for each band is used at
"balun" coils. the base. A good radial or ground system is re-
quired. The matching sections can be housed in a
the transmitter's metal cabinet and/or v.f.o. 3.514c.

notes will develop serious modulation. If such is

found to be the case, the feeder length should be
changed.
A newer version of the off- center- feed antenna
uses 300-ohm TV Twin- Lead to feed the an-
tenna, as shown in Fig. 14-21B. It is claimed that
the antenna offers a good match for the 300-ohm
line on four bands and, although this is more
wishful thinking than actual truth, the system
is widely used and does work satisfactorily. It
is subject to the same feed line length and " r.f.- Fig. 14-22—An effective "all-band" antenna fed with a
in-the-shack" troubles that the single- wire ver- single length of coaxial line can be constructed by join-
sion enjoys. However, in this case a pair of ing several half wavelength antennas at their centers
"balun" coils can be used to step down the im- and feeding them at the common point. In the example
pedance level to 75 ohms and at the same time above, a low s.w.r. will be obtained on 80, 40, 20 and
alleviate some of the feedline troubles. This an- 15 meters. ( The 7-Mc, antenna also works at 21 Mc.) If
tenna system is popular among amateurs using a28-Mc, antenna were added, 10-meter operation could
multiband transmitters with pi- network- tuned also be included.
output stages. The antenna lengths can be computed from formula
With either of the off- center- fed antenna sys- 14-B. The shorter antennas can be suspended afoot or
tems, the feedline should run away from the an- two below the longest one.
50-432-Mc. Transmitter 427

Fig. 171 A complete 50-, 144-, 220- and 432- Mc, transmitter, set up for 144- Mc. operation. The large chassis
houses the power supply, modulation equipment and control circuits. The unit at the left is the 144-Mc. trans-
mitter/driver.

A COMPLETE 50- THROUGH 432-MC. TRANSMITTER

The transmitter pictured in Figs. 17-1 through

50- Mc. Transmitter
17-14 includes complete r.f. sections, modulator,
power supply and control circuits for phone, c.w. The 50- Mc. transmitter, Figs. 17-2 and 17-3,
and m.c.w. operation on 50 through 432 Mc. Mod- uses a6CX8 pentode-triode to drive a 6360 out-
ular construction of the r.f. sections is incorpo- put stage. Referring to Fig. 17-4, the pentode
rated, and the amateur requiring only a 50- or section of the 6CX8 is connected to be used in the
144- Mc. transmitter, for example, will not build grid- plate crystal-oscillator circuit or, by clos-
any unused r.f. sections. If later operation is ex- ing S1,as the input amplifier for av.f.o. Various
tended to the higher frequencies, a minimum of ranges of crystals may be used: 6.25 to 6.75 Mc.,
additional equipment is required. 8.33 to 9.0 Mc., 12.5 to 13.5 Mc., and 25 to 27 Mc.
Separate plug-in transmitters are provided for For stability with line- voltage changes, both the
the 50-, 144- and 220- Mc. bands. On 432 Mc., the screen and plate voltages are regulated. When
144- Mc. unit is used as an exciter to drive a the pentode is converted to multiplier operation
plug-in tripler/amplifier. All of the transmitters for use with av.f.o., the cathode is brought down
can be crystal- or v.f.o.-controlled. The phone to r.f. ground. V.f.o. drive on any of the above
(a.m.) carrier output is 10 to 15 watts on all crystal ranges can be used.
bands except 432 Mc., where it drops to about Link coupling is used between the oscillator
5watts. plate coil and the triode section of the 6CX8. In
A single 0-1 milliammeter is used; with switch- the triode the signal is doubled to the 50- Mc.
ing it is possible to meter the grid currents, the band and then inductively coupled to the final
amplifier and modulator cathode currents, and grids. To maintain balance and to help couple the
the r.f. output voltage. Other accessories provided maximum drive from the doubler stage to the
in the unit include an antenna changeover relay, push-pull output stage, a small balancing capaci-
a c.w. monitor, and a spotting switch. Either a tor, C 2, is used to compensate for the triode's
carbon or acrystal microphone can be used with output capacitance.
the modulator. For phone operation, the 6360 output stage is
Verticals 373
CUT wIRE oci
HERE
Fig. 14- 25— Method of connecting the antenna wire
to the strain insulator. The antenna wire is cut off
close to the wrap before checking the resonant fre-
CUT w uE OFF
quency of the trap. HERE
\ " EGG" TYPE
STRAIN INSULATOR

quency can easily be set to within a few kilo- wires are to pass through. After drilling these
cycles of the chosen figure. holes, the disks are slipped over the leads, pressed
The reason for snipping the end leads close to into the ends of the cylinder and asmall amount
the wraps and the inclusion of the loops through of solvent applied to the periphery to obtain a
the egg insulator soon becomes apparent. The good seal. Some air can flow in and out of the
resonant frequency of the capacitor and inductor trap through the antenna-wire holes, and this
alone is reduced about 20 kc. per inch of end lead will prevent the accumulation of condensation.
length and about 350 kc. by the insulator loops.
Length Adjustment
The latter add approximately 2me to the fixed
capacitor value and account for the total of 27 Standing-wave ratios are not uniform through-
shown in Fig. 14-23. out the band or bands for which an antenna is
designed. In a trap antenna, the choice of fre-
Assembly quencies for best performance is a compromise.
Having determined the exact number of in- After making the traps resonant at 14.1 Mc.,
ductor turns, the trap is taken apart and reas- sections A are adjusted for resonance. Sections
sembled with leads of any convenient length. One B are then adjusted for resonance at approxi-
may, of course, connect the entire lengths of sec- mately 7.2 Mc. For the dimensions shown, with
tions A and B to the trap at this time, if desired. the antenna about 250 ft. above street level and
But, if more convenient, afoot or two of wire can 35 ft. above electrical ground, an s.w.r. of virtu-
be fastened and the remaining lengths soldered ally 1to 1was obtained at 7.2 Mc., with maxi-
on just before the antenna is raised. mums of 1.3 and 1.1 at 7.0 and 7.3 Mc., respec-
The protective covers are most readily formed tively. In the 20-meter band, the s.w.r. was also
by wrapping two turns ( plus an overlap of V2 1to 1at 14.1 Mc., 1.1 at 14.0 Mc. and 1.3 at 14.3
inch) of 0.020-inch polystyrene or lucite sheeting Mc. In the 10-meter band, the s.w.r. was 1.3 to 1
around a31Pinch plastic disk held at the center of at 28.0 Mc., 1.1 at 28.4 Mc., 1.5 at 29 Mc., and only
the cylinder so formed. The length of the cover 2.4 at the upper extreme of the band. The s.w.r.
should be about 4inches. A very small amount of on 21 Mc. will be high because the antenna is
plastic solvent ( a cohesive cement that actually not resonant in that band.
softens the plastic surfaces) should then be ap- RG-59/U cable forms the transmission line
plied under the edge of the overlap and the joint and is connected to the antenna through a Con-
held firmly for about two minutes to insure a tinental Electronic & Sound Co. "Dipole Dri-Fit
strong, tight seal. The disk is pushed out and the Connector." After connecting the cable and an-
inner seam of the sheeting sealed. tenna wires, the connector should be coated with
The trap is then placed in the plastic cylinder several layers of insulating varnish to make cer-
and the end disks marked where the antenna tain that the junction is watertight.

VERTICAL ANTENNAS
A vertical quarter-wavelength antenna is often and the antenna length can be adjusted accord-
used in the low-frequency amateur bands to ingly.
obtain low-angle radiation. It is also used when A good ground connection is necessary for the
there isn't enough room for the supports for a most effective operation of a vertical antenna
horizontal antenna. For maximum effectiveness (other than the ground- plane type). In some
is should be located free of nearby objects and it cases ashort connection to the cold-water system
should be operated in conjunction with a good of the house will be adequate. But maximum
ground system, but it is still worth trying where performance usually demands a separate ground
these ideal conditions cannot be obtained. system. A single 4- to 6-foot ground rod driven
Four typical examples and suggested methods into the earth at the base of the antenna is usu-
for feeding avertical antenna are shown in Fig. ally not sufficient, unless the soil has exceptional
14-26. The antenna may be wire or tubing sup- conductivity. A minimum ground system that
ported by wood or insulated guy wires. When can be depended upon is 6 to 12 quarter wave-
tubing is used for the antenna, or when guy wires length radials laid out as the spokes of a wheel
(broken up by insulators) are used to reinforce from the base of the antenna. These radials can
the structure, the length given by the formula is be made of heavy aluminum wire, of the type
likely to be long by a few per cent. A check of used for grounding TV antennas, buried at least
the standing-wave ratio on the line will indicate 6inches in the ground. This is normally done by
the frequency at which the s.w.r. is minimum, slitting the earth with a spade and pushing the
428 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS

e
4,0
Fig. 17- 2—Top view of the 50- Mc. transmitter. The
toggle switch at the lower left changes the input circuit
for crystal or v.f.o. operation; when used, the v.f.o.
output is introduced at the crystal socket.
Fig. 17-3— Bottom view of the 50- Mc. transmitter. The
oscillator/doubler circuitry is at the bottom of the
aluminum plate. All power leads are terminated at
the tie points along the right-hand side, and flexible
plate and screen modulated. The cathode of the leads run from the tie points to the 15- pin plug on the
amplifier stage is keyed during c.w. operation. side of the chassis ( not visible).
The meter can be switched to read the 6360 grid
or cathode current. On grid current the full-scale
meter indicates 5ma., and on cathode current it is appropriate stator of C1 and bolted to the base
100 ma. plate; the adjustment- screw side of C2 is con-
nected to the base. Coils L 4 and L, are mounted
Construction
1inch apart, center to center, supported by their
The 50- Mc, transmitter is built on a 5 x 10- leads.
inch sheet of aluminum, which is held by sheet- The cathode and screen bypass capacitors in
metal screws to a 5 X 10 X 3- inch chassis that the 6360 stage are mounted at the tube socket
serves as a case. The power and metering leads with leads as short as possible. The r.f. voltmeter
within the transmitter run first to multiple tie components can be seen in Fig. 17-3 at the upper
points and then by flexible leads to a 15- pin plug right, bunched together on the upper end of the
(P 1 in Fig. 17-4) mounted on the side of the case terminal strip.
(chassis). The transmitter is plugged into a Leads from the terminal strip to plug P,
matching receptacle on the left side of the power should be made long enough to permit working
supply/ control unit ( see Fig. 17-1). on the transmitter plate when it is unfastened
As can be seen in Fig. 17-3, the tube sockets, from the case. When the plate is replaced, the
input and output connectors, and three of the tun- leads should be bent against the side wall of the
ing capacitors are mounted along the center line chassis away from the coils or other components.
of the aluminum plate. The two adjustable in-
ductors, L1 and L3, are mounted 1 inch apart, Adjustment

center link
turn to center,
aroundand each
coupled
onetogether
at the by"cold"
a The adjustment procedure to be outlined ap-
plies to the unit when used with the power supply
(grounded) end. Capacitor C2 is soldered to the and control circuits described later. All pre-
160- Meter Antennas 375
venient point for bringing out the RG-8/U feed support pipe and the coaxial line is brought out
line. If it is more convenient to bring out of the pipe through a small hole just below the
the coax at the base of the mast, one can eliminate bottom of the flange. The inner conductor of the
the T fitting and use an ordinary coupling. coaxial line is soldered to the junction of the
A cane fishing pole supports the three separate three vertical elements and the braid of the coax-
vertical elements. These elements, made of No. ial line is connected to the pipe flange. Anyone
12 wire, are taped to the pole every three inches worrying about the insulating ability of a cane
with Scotch electrical tape. The bottom end of pole can forget it; it is being used at a low-
the pole is jammed tight into the upper end of the impedance point.

ANTENNAS FOR 160 METERS

Results on 1.8 Mc. will depend to alarge extent clean ground clamp around the cold-water pipe.
on the antenna system and the time of day or A 6- or 8-foot length of 1-inch water pipe,
night. Almost any random long wire that can be driven into the soil at a point where there is
tuned to resonance will work during the night considerable natural moisture, can be used for the
but it will generally be found very ineffective ground connection. Three or four pipes driven
during the day. A vertical antenna—or rather an into the ground 8or 10 feet apart and all joined
antenna from which the radiation is predomi-
nantly vertically polarized—is probably the best
for 1.8- Mc. operation. A horizontal antenna
(horizontally-polarized radiation) will give bet- -r •
ter results during the night than the day. The
vertically- polarized radiator gives a strong
ground wave that is effective day or night, and -2
1

it is to be preferred on 1.8 Mc.

The low-angle radiation from ahorizontal an-
tenna or V4 wavelength above ground is
almost insignificant. Any reasonable height is
small in terms of wavelength, so that ahorizontal
antenna on 160 meters is a poor radiator at
angles useful for long distances ("long," that is,
for this band). Its chief usefulness is over rela-
tively short distances at night.

Bent Antennas
Since ideal vertical antennas are generally out
of the question for practical amateur work, the
best compromise is to bend the antenna in such a
way that the high-current portions of the antenna
run vertically. It is advisable to place the antenna
so that the highest currents in the antenna occur
at the highest points above actual ground. Two Fig. 14-28— Bent antenna for the 160-meter band. In
antenna systems designed along these lines are the system at A, the vertical portion ( length X) should be
shown in Fig. 14-28. The antenna of Fig. 14-28B made as long as possible. In either antenna system, LiCi
uses afull half wavelength of wire but is bent so should resonate at 1900 kc., roughly. To adjust L2 in an-
that the high- current portion runs vertically. The tenna A, resonate Lei alone to the operating frequency,
horizontal portion running to LICi should run then connect it to the antenna system and adjust L2 for
8 or 10 feet above ground. maximum loading. Furthur loading can be obtained by
increasing the coupling between In and the link.
Grounds
A good ground connection is generally impor-
tant on 160 meters. The ideal system is a num- together at the top with heavy wire are more
ber of wire radials buried a foot or two under- effective than the single pipe.
ground and extending 50 to 100 feet from the The use of a counterpoise is recommended
central connection point. The use of any less where a buried system is not practicable or
than six or eight radials is inadvisable. where apipe ground cannot be made to have low
If the soil is good ( not rocky or sandy) and resistance because of poor soil conditions. A
generally moist, a low- resistance connection to counterpoise consists of a number of wires sup-
the cold- water pipe system in the house will of- ported from 6to 10 feet above the surface of the
ten serve as an adequate ground system. The con- ground. Generally the wires are spaced 10 to 15
nection should be made close to where the pipe feet apart and located to form a square or poly-
enters the ground, and the surface of the pipe gonal configuration under the vertical portion of
should be scraped shiny before tightening the the antenna.
 50-Mc. Transmitter 429

AMPLIFIER
OSC. 6C X8 DOUBLER
50 M.
25.1c. 50M'.
V.F.O. OR 6 L6 L,
L. 1- 6 OUTPUT
xTAL L

Ji

01 pt 226

Y.F.0.
-I
7 \AI—
"as
i- RFC. N34 TO 0f,
RFC 2 I-
ogri
.001

6CX8

1
4 5 1 15 1 11 1 2 1 3 1 0 1 13 )
Pi I, 5 1 14 I 12 1 7 1 8 1 9 1
+300v. 0-1MA. KEY +300v. + 300v. 0- MA.
6.3V. + I50v. + 225v. GROUND METER OR MOO. METER
A£. REG. REG. 1-1 GROUND (- 1

Fig. 17-4—Circuit diagram of the 50 - Mc. transmitter. Unless specified otherwise, capacitances are in picofarads
(pf. or 1.4.), resistances, are in ohms, resistors are 1
2 watt. Fixed capacitors are ceramic.
/

C2-8- pf. miniature butterfly variable (Johnson 160- ends of L1 and 1.3. See Fig. 17-4.
208). 4-1.5-3.2-12h. variable inductor (Miller 4404).
C2---3-30-pf. mica compression trimmer. 4-10 t. No. 20, 3 4-
/ inch diam., 16 t.p.i., center-tapped
(B & W 3011).
C2-5- pf. miniature butterfly variable (Johnson 160-
205). 4-8 turns, same material as L.
C2- 11 - pf. miniature butterfly variable (Johnson 160- 4-9 turns, same material as L.
L7-2 turns insulated wire around center of Le.
211).
C2-50- pf. miniature variable ( Hammarlund MAPC-50). PI-15-contact plug with brackets (Cinch-Jones
J 1 —Crystal socket. P-315-AB).
J2—Coaxial receptacle, SO-239. RFC,-75O- h. r.f. choke.
1. 1-3.1-6.81.2h. variable inductor (Miller 4405). RFC2-7-12h. r.f. choke (Ohmite Z-50).
I.2- 3/-
4 turn link of insulated hook-up wire around cold 51-5.p.s.t., toggle.

liminary adjustments are made with the mode and adjust C 3 for maximum grid current. Juggle
switch (S4 in Fig. 17-14) in the phone position the settings of C1 and C2 until the combination is
and with the audio gain control, R1,set at mini- found that gives the maximum grid current. A
mum. The meter when switched to the r.f. volt- maximum of 5 ma. or more should be readily
meter position indicates relative output; it is not attainable, if all is working well.
calibrated. A 50-ohm load should now be connected to 12
With the 50- Mc. transmitter plugged into the and the plate and screen supply should be recon-
power supply and the aluminum plate turned up- nected to the output stage. With the meter
side down ( and the power off), temporarily dis- switched to read final plate and screen current,
connect the + 300- volt lead to L 4 and to the plate turn on the transmitter and quickly adjust C 4
and screen of the 6360. Make an output indicator for the dip in current. Then switch the meter to
from 2or 3turns of insulated hook-up wire, / 12
read output voltage and alternately adjust C 4 and
inch in diameter, with the ends soldered to the C 5 until amaximum indication is obtained.

terminals of a pink-bead ( type 48 or 49) flash- The aluminum plate can now be screwed to the
light bulb. Apply power to the oscillator while case ( chassis) and all controls again peaked for
carefully coupling the indicator coil to L1.Adjust maximum output, as indicated by the output volt-
the core in L1 for maximum brilliance of the meter. Loaded for maximum output on phone, the
flashlight bulb. Couple the indicator to 1, 3 and plate and screen current of the output stage
tune L1 and L 3 for maximum brilliance. Apply should be about 75 ma., and the grid current
plate voltage to the triode by reconnecting the should run 3 to 4 ma.
lead to L 4 (with power off, of course) and, with The 6360 dual pentode is internally neutralized
power on, adjust C1 and C 2 for maximum output and should be completely stable. To check the
indicated at L 4 . stability, pull out the crystal briefly and check
Once an indication has been obtained, switch grid and output-voltage readings. They should
the meter switch to read grid current in the 6360 both be zero.
Driven Elements 377
Fig. 14-30—Simple broadside array
using horizontal elements. By making
the spacing Sequal to % wavelength,
the antenna at A can be used at the
corresponding frequency and up to
twice that frequency. Thus when de-
OPEN- WIRE
signed for 14 Mc. it can also be used UNEASY LENGTH
on 21 and 28 Mc. The antenna at B
can be used on only the design band.
This array is bidirectional, with maxi-
mum radiation " broadside" or per-
pendicular to the antenna plane ( per-
pendicularly through this page). Gain
varies with the spacing S, running NY LENGTH
from 21
/
2 to almost 5 db. ( See Fig. (A) (B)
14-32).

Broadside arrays may be fed either by tuned known as an end- fire array because it radiates
open- wire lines or through quarter- wave match- best along the plane of the antennas, as shown.
ing sections and flat lines. In Fig. 14-30B, note The end- fire array may be used either verti-
the " crossing over" of the phasing section, which cally or horizontally ( elements at the same
is necessary to bring the elements into proper height), and is well adapted to amateur work
phase relationship. because it gives maximum gain with relatively
close element spacing. Fig. 14-32 shows how the
gain varies with spacing. End- fire elements may
be combined with additional collinear and broad-
side elements to give a further increase in gain
and directivity.
MAX. Either tuned or untuned lines may be used with
RADIATION
this type of array. Untuned lines preferably are
matched to the antenna through a quarter- wave
031:60 matching section or phasing stub.

Fig. 14-31—Top view of a ho izontal end-fire array. The Combined Arrays

system is fed with an open-wire line at xand y; the line Broadside, collinear and end- fire arrays may
can be of any length. Feed points x and y are equidis- be combined to give both horizontal and vertical
tant from the two insulators, and the feed line should directivity, as well as additional gain. The lower
drop down vertically from the antenna. The gain of the angle of radiation resulting from stacking ele-
system will vary with the spacing, as shown in Fig. 14-32, ments in the vertical plane is desirable at the
and is a maximum at /
2 wavelength. By using a length
1
higher frequencies. In general, doubling the
of 33 feet and a spacing of 8feet, the antenna will work number of elements in an array by stacking will
on 20, 15 and 10 meters. raise the gain from 2to 4db.
Although arrays can be fed at one end as in
End-Fire Arrays
Fig. 14-30B, it is not especially desirable in the
Fig. 14-31 shows a pair of parallel half- wave case of large arrays. Better distribution of
elements with currents out of phase. This is energy between elements, and hence better over-
all performance will result when the feeders are
a i
ISO Out of Phase -...s attached as nearly as possible to the center of
(End -Fire) the array.
de .
e....
In Ph se
(Broadside)

feed

0 J. Fig. 14-33—A four-element combination broadside-

a I
a I
a I it
5 i collinear array, popularly known as the " lazy- H" an-
Element Spacing (71)
tenna. A closed quarter-wave stub may be used at the
Fig. 14-32—Gain vs. spacing for two parallel half-wave feed point to match into an untuned transmission line,
elements combined as either broadside or end-fire or tuned feeders may be attached at the poiit indi-
arrays. cated. The gain over a half-wave antenna is 5 to 6 db.
378 ANTENNAS
A four-element array, known as the "lazy- H"
antenna, has been quite frequently used. This 480
(14-H)
arrangement is shown, with the feed point indi- Freq. (
Mc.)
cated, in Fig. 14-33. ( Compare with Fig.
Example: A half-wavelength phasing line for
14-30B). For best results, the bottom section
28.8 Mc. would be480
— = 16.66 feet = 16 feet
should be at least a half wavelength above 28.8
ground. 8 inches.
It will usually suffice to make the length of
each element that given by Equations 14-B or The spacing between elements can be made equal
14-C. The phasing line between the parallel ele- to the length of the phasing line. No special ad-
ments should be of open-wire construction, and justments of line or element length or spacing
its length can be calculated from: are needed, provided the formulas are followed
Length of half-wave line (feet) = closely.

DIRECTIVE ARRAYS WITH PARASITIC ELEMENTS

it reinforces radiation on a line pointing to it
Parasitic Excitation from the antenna, and a reflector when the re-
The antenna arrays previously described are verse is the case. Whether the parasitic element
bidirectional; that is, they will radiate in direc- is adirector or reflector depends upon the para-
tions both to the "front" and to the "back" of sitic-element tuning, which usually is adjusted
the antenna system. If radiation is wanted in by changing its length.
only one direction, it is necessary to use different
element arrangements. In most of these arrange- Gain vs. Spacing
ments the additional elements receive power by The gain of an antenna with parasitic elements
induction or radiation from the driven element varies with the spacing and tuning of the ele-
generally called the "antenna," and reradiate it ments and thus for any given spacing there is a
in the proper phase relationship to achieve the tuning condition that will give maximum gain at
desired effect. These elements are called para- this spacing. The maximum front-to-back ratio
sitic elements, as contrasted to the driven ele- seldom if ever, occurs at the same condition that
ments which receive power directly from the gives maximum forward gain. The impedance of
transmitter through the transmission line. the driven element also varies with the tuning
The parasitic element is called adirector when and spacing, and thus the antenna system must
be tuned to its final condition before the match
I between the line and the antenna can be com-
pleted. However, the tuning and matching may
interlock to some extent, and it is usually neces-
.,.., "...b.
.
sary to run through the adjustments several
times to insure that the best possible tuning has
I.' '/' S, been obtained.
s

/
Two- Element Beams
80%4
9

/.
A 2-element beam is useful where space or
/.
601., other considerations prevent the use of the
./. larger structure required for a 3-element beam.
40 gc The general practice is to tune the parasitic ele-
,e 1 .Recitation ment as a reflector and space it about 0.15 wave-
e Resistance
....._.,....e' 20 ez length from the driven element, although some
successful antennas have been built with 0.1-
l I l
wavelength spacing and director tuning. Gain vs.
0.05 0.1 0 5 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 element spacing for a2-element antenna is given
ELEMENT SPACING — WAVELENGTH
in Fig. 14-34, for the special case where the para-
Fig. 14- 34—Gain vs. element spacing for an antenna and sitic element is resonant. It is indicative of the
one parasitic element. The reference point, 0 db., is the performance to be expected under maximum-
field strength from a half-wave antenna alone. The gain tuning conditions.
greatest gain is in direction A at spacings of less than
Three-Element Beams
0.14 wavelength, and in direction B at greater spacings.
The front-to- back ratio is the difference in db. between A theoretical investigation of the 3-element
curves A and B. Variation in radiation resistance of the case ( director, driven element and reflector) has
driven element also is shown. These curves are for a self- indicated a maximum gain of slightly more than
resonant parasitic element. At most spacings the gain 7 db. A number of experimental investigations
as a reflector can be increased by slight lengthening of have shown that the optimum spacing between
the parasitic element: the gain as a director can be in- the driven element and reflector is in the region
creased by shortening. This also improves the front-to- of 0.15 to 0.25 wavelength, with 0.2 wavelength
back ratio. representing probably the best over-all choice.
 144-Mc. Transmitter 431

TRIPLER AMPL FIER

OSC DOUBLER
/2 6C 013 6360 6360
/ C08 1
144 Mc.
1 2 6

24 Mc. 48Mc. 144 Me.

v. F
.O. VIA
vie VS
L.
L
4 L,
OUTPUT
OR XTAL 2
001 L,
pl
100
L2 3
CI

220
C
13
2 22«
100K 38 15K
33
-1_171 N34 TOO,
270 270 9_ .-1-
338 RFC,
•70
00
pl

6C08 6360 ,
5
01= „I
= 1

14 12 15 6 7 1 2 4 5 10 3 11 13 13 11 3 10 5 4 2 I 6 7 8 9 19 15 12
J,
D. +150 + 225 + 300 6.3 GNa MTR KEY MTR MIR .300,300 MIR MTR.
Pi
REG. REG. - OR - - MOD. - -
CND. (13 II 1'01 1 1 2 1
14 15 12)

P2

Fig. 17-7— Circuit diagram of the 144-Mc. transmitter. Unless specified otherwise, capacitances are in pica-
farads ( pf. or gp.f.), resistances are in ohms, resistors are Y2 watt. P2 plugs into Jo for 144-Mc. operation.

C1, C4, C5- 8-

pf. miniature butterfly variable (Johnson 4-9 t. same stock as L.
160-208). Le-21
/ t. No. 18, 1
4 4 -
/ inch diam., 8 t.p.i., c.t. ( B&W

C2-3-30-pf. mica compression trimmer. 3010).

Cs, C8-5-pf. miniature butterfly variable (Johnson 160- 17-1 1
4 t. same stock as
/ Le.

205). 1.8-5 t. No. 18, /

2 -
1 inch diam., 8 Spi., c.t. ( B&W 3002).
C7-30-
pf. miniature variable ( Johnson 160-130). L.-1 t. insulated wire around center of L..
Jr—Crystal socket. Ps- 15-contact male chassis fitting ( Cinch-Jones P-315-
J.—Coaxial receptacle, SO-239. AB).
.1e- 15-contact socket with brackets (Cinch-Jones P2- 15-contact male plug (Cinch-Jones P-315-
CCT).
S-315-AB). RFC,.-750-µh. r.f. choke.
1.8-3.1-6.8-µh. adjustable inductor ( Miller 4405). RFC2-1.8-p.h. r.f. choke ( Ohmite Z-144).
Ls- 1
4 -
/ turn link of insulated hook-up wire around cold S,.—S.p.s.t. toggle.
ends of L, and L, See Fig. 17-7.
4-12 t. No. 20, 34-inch diam., 16 t.p.i., c.t. ( B&W
3011).

of the aluminum plate. The two adjustable resistors and components associated with the
inductors, LI and L3 (Fig. 17-7), are spaced metering circuits.
P/4 inches apart, center to center. They are
Adjustment
coupled by 3
/4-turn links wound around the " cold"
(ground) ends. Inductors L4 and L-, are mounted The adjustment procedure for the 144- Mc.
by their leads on C, and C, respectively; their transmitter is similar to that for the 50- Mc. unit,
centers are 1 inch apart. L, and L, are also except that there is also a push-pull tripler stage
mounted on their respective capacitors, with their to adjust.
adjacent ends / inch apart. 5 8 With the P2 jumper plug in place ( if P and J 2 3

Screen and cathode bypass capacitors are are incorporated) and with the B+ disconnected
mounted at the appropriate tube sockets with very from all stages except the pentode oscillator, peak
short leads. All power wiring is made to the L1 and L, by using a pilot- bulb pickup loop, as
terminal strips along one edge of the base plate ; described for the 50- Mc. unit. Then apply B+ to
these terminal strips also support the various the triode doubler stage and peak it as described
 432 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS

Fig. 17-9— Bottom view of the 220-Mc. transmitter.

Fig. 17- 8—Top view of the 220-Mc. transmitter. Major
Circuit runs from bottom to top.
components are arranged in a line down the middle
of the aluminum plate. The output loading capacitor is
mounted to the right of the output connector (
top).

crystals ( or v.f.o. output) should fall in one of

the following ranges: 6.11 to 6.25 Mc., 8.149 to
8.333 Mc., 12.22 to 12.50 Mc., or 24.44 to 25.00 Mc.
earlier. Switch the meter to the tripler grid- The plate circuit of the oscillator is inductively-
current position, adjust C3 and then alternately coupled to a push-pull tripler, which drives an-
C1 and C2 for maximum grid current. Switch the other 6360 push-pull tripler to 220 Mc. To com-
meter to read final grid current, apply B+ to the plete the chain, a 6360 is operated straight-
tripler, and adjust C4 and C, for maximum final through on 220 Mc. No tuning capacitor is used
grid current. in the grid circuit of the final, since the grid coil,
Attach a50- ohm load to the output connector, L 6,tunes to 220 Mc. with only the input capaci-
apply final plate and screen voltage, and adjust tance of the final stage.
the final for maximum output indication. Typical For phone, combined plate and screen modula-
readings for a.m. phone operation should be: tion of the final stage is used. On c.w., the driver
tripler grid current, 1V2 ma.; final grid current, and final cathodes are keyed simultaneously.
3ma., and final plate ( and screen) current, 75 ma.
Construction
220-Mc. Transmitter
The 220- Mc, transmitter is built on a 5 X 13-
In the 220- Mc, transmitter shoN% nin Figs. 17-8 inch aluminum plate, which is fastened with
and 17-9, a 6CL6 pentode is used in the crystal- sheet- metal screws to a5 X 13 x 3- inch chassis
oscillator stage. As can be seen in Fig. 17-10, the that serves as a case. A 15- pin plug on one side
oscillator stage is connected so that it can also of the case is used for power and meter connec-
take v.f.o. input. For 220- Mc, operation, the tions.
Quads 381

Fig. 14-39— End and side views of a quad. Upper insert shows method of fastening antenna wire to support arms.
Center insert shows construction of support-arm mounting bracket. Lower insert shows method of attaching feed
line and stub to the center insulators. Two small egg insulators are used, fastened to end of lower boom as shown
with a small nail.
251
The length of one side is found from L (feet) = f(mc.)

adjusting the director or directors to give maxi- consists of a pair of square loops, one-quarter
mum gain at the highest frequency to be covered, wavelength on a side or one-wavelength around
and by adjusting the reflector to give optimum the periphery, one loop being driven and the
gain at the lowest frequency. This sacrifices other used as a parasitic reflector. The separa-
some gain at all frequencies, but maintains more tion between the two is usually of the order of
uniform gain over awider frequency range. 0.15 to 0.2 wavelength, with the planes of the
The use of large-diameter conductors will loops parallel.
broaden the response curve of an array because Fig. 14-38 shows typical quad arrangements,
the larger diameter lowers the Q. This causes that at B being the more frequently used. The
the reactances of the elements to change rather reflector is tuned by means of a stub to a lower
slowly with frequency, with the result that the frequency than the one at which the fed loop is
tuning stays near the optimum over a consider- driven, just as is done with the conventional
ably wider frequency range than is the case with straight elements in a driven element- reflector
wire conductors. array of the parasitic type. With the reflector in
place and properly tuned the impedance of the
Combination Arrays driven element at the feed point is of the same
It is possible to combine parasitic elements order as the characteristic impedance of coaxial
with driven elements to form arrays composed cable, so ordinarily the standing-wave ratio on
of collinear driven and parasitic elements and
combination broadside-collinear- parasitic ele-
ments. Thus two or more collinear elements
might be provided with a collinear reflector or
director set, one parasitic element to each driven
element. Or both directors and reflectors might
be used. A broadside-collinear array can be
treated in the same fashion.

THE " QUAD" ANTENNA

The "cubical quad" or, simply, "quad" antenna

Fig. 14-40—A 15/10- meter quad. Tuning stubs for the

reflectors are looped back along the tie bars. Total
weight of this assembly, not including the mast, is 13
pounds.
382 ANTENNAS
the transmission line will be low enough so that and mark it at the approximate quarter- wave
no special means need be included for matching. intervals, and use these marks to indicate where
A few measurements on the quad have indi- the wire fastens to the pole.
cated that its gain is roughly comparable with Dual and triple quads can he built for the
that of athree-element Yagi of ordinary design. bands 20 through 10 meters. One such antenna
A number of attempts have been made to use the is shown in Fig. 14-40, adual quad for 15 and 10
parasitic element as a director instead of as a meters. The same supporting structure is used
reflector, and to use both areflector and director for the two antennas, making the boom length
in a three-element arrangement, these have not equal to 0.15 to 0.2 wavelengths at the lower-
generally been successful; hence the driven-ele- frequency band. Separate coaxial cable feed lines
ment- reflector combination is the one univer- are brought down from the two driven elements.
sally used. In atwo-band quad ( 20/15 or 15/10) the length
The quad is a more cumbersome structure of one side is obtained from
than an ordinary parasitic beam, but is light in L (feet) = 250 4- ( Mc.)
weight and relatively inexpensive. Diagonal In the case of any quad or combination of
spreaders, usually of bamboo, are used to support quads, each quad should be tuned up separately
the corners of the loop, the loop itself being made for maximum forward gain by adjusting the stub
of ordinary antenna wire. The spreaders usually length on the reflector element and checking the
are mounted on a boom which in general is field strength with a nearby ham. If accessible,
similar to the booms used with Yagi antennas and the reflector element can be resonated with a
is also similarly mounted on the mast or tower grid-dip meter to a frequency just below the
and rotated. The light weight permits rotation by lowest to be used; this is a good starting place
a TV rotator. Constructional details of atypical for further adjustment. The resonance of the
quad are given in Fig. 14-39. antenna system can be checked by finding the
If the fishing poles are well treated with a frequency that gives the lowest s.w.r. on the feed
weatherproofing compound they will last several line; this lowest s.w.r is not necessarily 1.0. If
years. Weatherproofing compounds are available the resonant frequency is higher than the desired
at all lumber dealers. Get straight poles with no frequency, lengthen the driven element; shorten
splits in them. No insulators are necessary, the the element if the resonant frequency is too low.
poles themselves acting as long insulators. The In the dual antennas that have been constructed,
easiest way to mount the antenna wire on the there has been little or no evidence of interaction
arms is to lay along length of wire on the ground of tuning.

MATCHING THE ANTENNA TO THE LINE

The load for a transmission line may be any Note that it is essential, if the s.w.r. is to be
device capable of dissipating r.f. power. When made as low as possible, that the load at the point
lines are used for transmitting applications the of connection to the transmission line be purely
most common type of load is an antenna. When resistive. In general, this requires that the load
a transmission line is connected between an an- be tuned to resonance. If the load itself is not
tenna and a receiver, the receiver input circuit resonant at the operating frequency the tuning
(not the antenna) is the load, because the power sometimes can be accomplished in the matching
taken from a passing wave is delivered to the system.
receiver.
Whatever the application, the conditions exist- THE ANTENNA AS A LOAD
ing at the load, and only the load, determine the Every antenna system, no matter what its
standing- wave ratio on the line. If the load is physical form, will have a definite value of im-
purely resistive and equal in value to the charac- pedance at the point where the line is to be con-
teristic impedance of the line, there will be no nected. The problem is to transform this antenna
standing waves. If the load is not purely resis- input impedance to the proper value to match
tive, and/or is not equal to the line Zo,there will the line. In this respect there is no one "best"
be standing waves. No adjustments that can be type of line for a particular antenna system, be-
made at the input end of the line can change the cause it is possible to transform impedances in
s.w.r., nor is it affected by changing the line any desired ratio. Consequently, any type of line
length. may be used with any type of antenna. There are
Only in a few special cases is the load in- frequently reasons other than impedance match-
herently of the proper value to match a prac- ing that dictate the use of one type of line in pre-
ticable transmission line. In all other cases it is ference to another, such as ease of installation,
necessary either to operate with amismatch and inherent loss in the line, and so on, but these are
accept the s.w.r. that results, or else to take steps not considered in this section.
to bring about a proper match between the line Although the input impedance of an antenna
and load by means of transformers or similar system is seldom known very accurately, it is of-
devices. Impedance-matching transformers may ten possible to make a reasonably close estimate
take a variety of physical forms, depending on of its value. The information earlier in this chap-
the circumstances. ter can be used as aguide.
436 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS

Fig. 17- 13— Rear view of the power supply and modulator, with the 144- and 432-Mc, units in place, for 432.
Mc. operation. The 432-Mc, unit is in the foreground; its power plug plugs into a socket on the 144-Mc. driver.
The six- prong plug to the right of the antenna changeover relay is an outlet for v.f.o. power and control, and
the phono jack to the right is J-,, for receiver output. Socket on the side of the chassis is L, for converter power.
The fourth VR tube, visible here but not shown in Fig. 17-14, is for possible use with a receiver/converter
power supply.

B+ lead to the output stage to maximum resist- grid circuit via / 1,or a carbon microphone can
ance, and switch the meter switch to read ampli- be plugged in at /2 ;in this latter case the pen-
fier plate and screen current. Apply B+ to the tode operates as a grounded-grid amplifier. The
output stage and quickly adjust C2 for minimum triode section of the 6AN8 is transformer-coupled
plate current. Then switch the meter to the r.f. to the grids of the 6GK6s.
voltmeter position and adjust C3 and C4 alter- A switch, S4A ,in the secondary circuit of the
nately until maximum output is indicated. Then modulation transformer, short-circuits the trans-
adjust the resistor in the B+ lead until the voltage former secondary during c.w. operation and also
measured at the bypassed end of RFC 2 is + 180. removes B+ from the modulator plates and
Next, go back and repeak all adjustments for screens at the same time. A second half of the
maximum r.f. voltmeter indication. Check occa- same switch, S4B ,transfers the keyed circuit ( s),
sionally to insure that the B+ applied to either the cathode ( s), from ground to the key. The
stage does not exceed + 180 volts; if it does, in- keyed circuit also controls aneon-tube oscillator
crease the resistance of the appropriate resistor. that is used to monitor the sending on c.w. and
The 432- Mc, unit may now be installed in its case to furnish the modulation for an m.c.w. ( modu-
and all controls touched up for maximum output. lated c.w.) signal. A 0.001-gf. capacitor across
Typical meter readings when the transmitter is the primary of the modulation transformer, T2,
properly adjusted for phone operation will be: reduces the high- frequency responses and elimi-
144- Mc, tripler grid, 1,/2 ma.; 144- Mc, final grid, nates aparasitic audio oscillation that occurs un-
3ma. ; 432- Mc, tripler grid, 3ma.; 432- Mc. final der some conditions. A position of the meter
grid, 244 ma.; and 432- Mc, amplifier plate and switch, S5,permits metering the modulator cath-
screen, 55 ma. ode current as well as the other currents men-
tioned previously.
The Modulator/Power Supply Unit
A 5V3 full- wave rectifier is used in the power
In the modulator section ( see Fig. 17-14), a supply. To stabilize the voltages on the crystal
6AN8 is used as the speech amplifier, driving a oscillators, a0A3 and aOD3 are included. A third
pair of 6GK6s in Class AB i.The pentode section regulator tube, a0C3, is shown, to furnish stabi-
of the 6AN8 serves as the input stage; a high- lized voltage for a crystal-controlled converter
impedance microphone can be coupled into the that could pick up its power at . 14.
384 ANTENNAS
in Fig. 14-44. This graph applies where all three
conductors are in the same plane. The two con-
e
ductors not connected to the transmission line
6
must be equally spaced from the fed conductor,
5
and must have equal diameters. The fed conduc-
tor may have adifferent diameter, however. The
4
unequal- conductor method has been found par-
ticularly useful in matching to low- impedance
6
antennas such as directive arrays using close-
spaced parasitic elements.
The length of the antenna element should be
such as to be approximately self- resonant at the
LS
median operating frequency. The length is
usually not highly critical, because a folded di-
pole tends to have the characteristics of a " thick"
antenna and thus has a relatively broad fre-
quency- response curve.

"T" and "Gamma" Matching Sections

The method of matching shown in Fig.
14-45A is based on the fact that the impedance
03
between any two points along a resonant antenna
is resistive, and has avalue which depends on the
spacing between the two points. It is therefore
02
possible to choose apair of points between which
the impedance will have the right value to match
a transmission line. In practice, the line cannot
be connected directly at these points because the
at t 1.52 3 4 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 20 distance between them is much greater than the
SicI2 conductor spacing of a practicable transmission
Fig. 14-43— Impedance transformation ratio, two-conduc-
line. The " T" arrangement in Fig. 14-45A over-
tor folded dipole. The dimensions ch, ch and s ore shown comes this difficulty by using a second conductor
on the inset drawing. Curves show the ratio of the paralleling the antenna to form a matching sec-
impedance ( resistive) seen by the transmission line to tion to which the line may be connected.
the radiation resistance of the resonant antenna system. The " T" is particularly suited to use with a
parallel-conductor line, in which case the two
points along the antenna should be equidistant
5.0
from the center so that electrical balance is main-
40
tained.
so The operation of this system is somewhat com-
plex. Each " T" conductor ( y in the drawing)
forms with the antenna conductor opposite it a
to
short section of transmission line. Each of these
transmission- line sections can be considered to
be terminated in the impedance that exists at the
point of connection to the antenna. Thus the part
of the antenna between the two points carries a

e transmission- line current in addition to the nor-

mal antenna current. The two transmission- line

I
-•— y

02
- Line
(A)

Ii II 111 1
3 1 5 6 7 6 90 16 20 30 40 50
S/de

Fig. 14-44— impedance transformation ratio, three-con-

ductor folded dipole. The dimensions di., ds and sare
shown on the inset drawing. Curves show the ratio of (B) rline
the impedance ( resistive) seen by the transmission line to
the radiation resistance of the resonant antenna system. Fig. 14-45—The "T" match and "gamma" match.
Matching 385
matching sections are in series, as seen by the
main transmission line.
.
I
If the antenna by itself is resonant at the op-
erating frequency its impedance will be purely
resistive, and in such case the matching-section Coaxial
Line
lines are terminated in aresistive load. However,
since these sections are shorter than a quarter (A)
wavelength their input impedance—i.e., the im-
pedance seen by the main transmission line look-
ing into the matching- section terminals—will be
reactive as well as resistive. This prevents a
perfect match to the main transmission line,
since its load must be a pure resistance for per-
fect matching. The reactive component of the
input impedance must be tuned out before a
proper match can be secured.
One way to do this is to detune the antenna
just enough, by changing its length, to cause
reactance of the opposite kind to be reflected to
the input terminals of the matching section, thus
Metal
cancelling the reactance introduced by the latter. Sleeve
Another method, which is considerably easier to
adjust, is to insert a variable capacitor in series
with the matching section where it connects to
the transmission line, as shown in Fig. 14-37.
The capacitor must be protected from the
(B)
Shorted to
weather. Coaxial
Coax Outer
Line
The method of adjustment commonly used is Conduc t«
to cut the antenna for approximate resonance Here
and then make the spacing x some value that is
convenient constructionally. The distance y is
then adjusted, while maintaining symmetry with
respect to the center, until the s.w.r. on the trans-
mission line is as low as possible. If the s.w.r. is
not below 2 to 1after this adjustment, the an- l
e
tenna length should be changed slightly and the
matching- section taps adjusted again. This proc-
ess may be continued until the s.w.r. is as close
to 1to 1as possible.
When the series-capacitor method of reactance
compensation is used ( Fig. 14-37), the antenna Coaxial
Line
should be the proper length to be resonant at the
operating frequency. Trial positions of the
matching- section taps are taken, each time ad-
justing the capacitor for minimum s.w.r., until
the standing waves on the transmission line are
',Shorted
brought down to the lowest possible value. Together
The unbalanced ("gamma") arrangement in
Fig. 14-45B is similar in principle to the "T,"
but is adapted for use with single coax line. The
method of adjustment is the same.

BALANCING DEVICES
An antenna with open ends, of which the half-
(D)
wave type is an example, is inherently abalanced
radiator. When opened at the center and fed with Z2
(•-Z-Z)
a parallel-conductor line this balance is main- 4 Balanced
Unbalanced
tained throughout the system, so long as the
causes of unbalance discussed in the transmis-
sion- line chapter are avoided.
If the antenna is fed at the center through a Fig. 14-46— Radiator with coaxial feed ( A) and methods
coaxial line, as indicated in Fig. 14-46A, this bal- of preventing unbalance currents from flowing on the
ance is upset because one side of the radiator is outside of the transmission line ( Band C). The half-wave
connected to the shield while the other is con- phasing section shown at D is used for coupling between
nected to the inner conductor. On the side con- an unbalanced and a balanced circuit when a 4-to- 1
nected to the shield, a current can flow down impedance ratio is desired or can be accepted.
386 ANTENNAS
over the outside of the coaxial line, and the fields
thus set up cannot be canceled by the fields from
the inner conductor because the fields inside the
line cannot escape through the shielding afforded
by the outer conductor. Hence these "antenna"
currents flowing on the outside of the line will be
responsible for radiation.
()PDT RELAY
Linear Balms OR SWITCH
(A)
Line radiation can be prevented by a number
of devices whose purpose is to detune or decouple
the line for " antenna" currents and thus greatly ANTENNA- OR
reduce their amplitude. Such devices generally ANT COUPLER

are known as baluns (a contraction for "bal-

anced to unbalanced"). Fig. 14-46B shows one
such arrangement, known as a bazooka, which
uses a sleeve over the transmission line to form,
with the outside of the outer line conductor, a
shorted quarter- wave line section. As described
COAX RELAY
earlier in this chapter, the impedance looking into (B) OR SPOT SWITCH
the open end of such asection is very high, so that
the end of the outer conductor of the coaxial line Fig. 14-47—Antenna changeover for receiving and trans-
is effectively insulated from the part of the line mating in two-wire (A) and coaxial line ( B). The low-
below the sleeve. The length is an electrical pass filter for TVI reduction should be connected be-
quarter wave, and may be physically shorter if tween switch or relay and the transmitter.
the insulation between the sleeve and the line is
other than air. The bazooka has no effect on the receiving antenna of optimum performance based
impedance relationships between the antenna and on the same considerations that have been dis-
the coaxial line. cussed for transmitting antennas.
Another method that gives an equivalent ef- The simplest receiving antenna is a wire of
fect is shown at C. Since the voltages at the an- random length. The longer and higher the wire,
tenna terminals are equal and opposite ( with the more energy it abstracts from the wave. Be-
reference to ground), equal and opposite cur- cause of the high sensitivity of modern receivers,
rents flow on the surfaces of the line and second sometimes only a short length of wire strung
conductor. Beyond the shorting point, in the around the room is used for a receiving antenna,
direction of the transmitter, these currents com- but such an antenna cannot be expected to give
bine to cancel out. The balancing section " looks good performance, although it is adequate for
like" an open circuit to the antenna, since it is a loud signals on the 3.5- and 7- Mc. bands. It will
quarter- wave parallel-conductor line shorted at serve in emergencies, but alonger wire outdoors
the far end, and thus has no effect on the normal is always better.
antenna operation. However, this is not essential The use of atuned antenna improves the oper-
to the line-balancing function of the device, and ation of the receiver, because the signal strength
baluns of this type are sometimes made shorter is greater than with a wire of random length.
than aquarter wavelength in order to provide the Where local electrical noise is aproblem, as from
shunt inductive reactance required in certain an electrical appliance, a measure of relief can
types of matching systems. often be obtained by locating the antenna as high
Fig. 14-46D shows a third balun, in which above and as far as possible from the noise source
equal and opposite voltages, balanced to ground, and power lines. The lead-in wire, from the cen-
are taken from the inner conductors of the main ter of the antenna, should be a coaxial line or
transmission line and half- wave phasing section. shielded twin-conductor cable ( RG-62/U). If
Since the voltages at the balanced end are in the twin-conductor cable is used, the conductors
series while the voltages at the unbalanced end connect to the antenna binding posts and the
are in parallel, there is a4-to- 1step-down in im- shield to the ground binding post of the receiver.
pedance from the balanced to the unbalanced side.
This arrangement is useful for coupling between Antenna Switching
a balanced 300-ohm line and a 75-ohm coaxial Switching of the antenna from receiver to
line, for example. transmitter is commonly done with a change-
over relay, connected in the antenna leads or the
RECEIVING ANTENNAS coupling link from the antenna tuner. If the relay
Nearly all of the properties possessed by an is one with a 115-volt a.c. coil, the switch or
antenna as a radiator also apply when it is used relay that controls the transmitter plate power
for reception. Current and voltage distribution, will also control the antenna relay. If the con-
impedance, resistance and directional character- venience of arelay is not desired, porcelain knife
istics are the same in areceiving antenna as if it switches can be used and thrown by hand.
were used as atransmitting antenna. This recip- Typical arrangements are shown in Fig. 14-47.
rocal behavior makes possible the design of a If coaxial line is used, a coaxial relay is recom-
Masts 387
mended, although on the lower-frequency bands An additional refinement is the use of an elec-
a regular switch or change- over relay will work tronic transmit- receive switch, which permits full
almost as well. The relay or switch contacts break-in operation even when using the trans-
should be rated to handle at least the maximum mitting antenna for receiving. For details and
power of the transmitter. circuitry on t.r. switches, see Chapter Eight.

ANTENNA CONSTRUCTION
The use of good materials in the antenna
system is important, since the antenna is exposed 3TOP
to wind and weather. To keep electrical losses GUYS TOTAL HEIGHT
low, the wires in the antenna and feeder system 40 FT PLUS

must have good conductivity and the insulators

must have low dielectric loss and surface leakage,
particularly when wet.
For short antennas, No. 14 gauge hard-drawn
enameled copper wire is asatisfactory conductor.
7
Guy front ono' bock
For long antennas and directive arrays, No. 14 here - no side onyx
or No. 12 enameled copper-clad steel wire necessary
ANT
should be used. It is best to make feeders and
matching stubs of ordinary soft-drawn No. 14 or ....
----- Carrta9e bolts
Three 2x2s t
No. 12 enameled copper wire, since hard-drawn Each 22ft.
or copper-clad steel wire is difficult to handle
unless is is under considerable tension at all
times. The wires should be all in one piece; \Drill e hole thry
where a joint cannot be avoided, it should be upr
ii9
nZane:Morning,

carefully soldered. Open- wire TV line is excel- /

lent up to several hundred watts.
In building a. two-wire open line, the spacer
insulation should be of as good quality as in the
antenna insulators proper. For this reason, good boit 7
4"Carrey boit
ceramic spacers are advisable. Wooden dowels
boiled in paraffin may be used with untuned lines, Speenni e
so
but their use is not recommended for tuned lines.
The wooden dowels can be attached to the feeder Fig. 14-48— Details of a simple 40-foot " A"-frame mast
wires by drilling small holes and binding them to sùitable for erection in locations where space is limited.
the feeders.
At points of maximum voltage, insulation is
most important, and Pyrex glass or ceramic in- in heights up to 40 feet or so. Many low-cost
sulators with long leakage paths are recom- television-antenna supports are now available,
mended for the antenna. Insulators should be and they should not be overlooked as possible
cleaned once or twice a year, especially if they antenna aids.
are subjected to much smoke and soot.
In most cases poles or masts are desirable to "A"-FRAME MAST
lift the antenna clear of surrounding buildings, The simple and inexpensive mast shown in
although in some locations the antenna will be Fig. 14-48 is satisfactory for heights up to 35 or
sufficiently in the clear when strung from one 40 feet. Clear, sound lumber should be selected.
chimney to another or from ahousetop to atree. The completed mast may be protected by two or
Small trees usually are not satisfactory as points three coats of house paint.
of suspension for the antenna because of their If the mast is to be erected on the ground, a
movement in windy weather. If the antenna is couple of stakes should be driven to keep the
strung from a point near the center of the trunk bottom from slipping and it may then be "walked
of a large tree, this difficulty is not so serious. up" by a pair of helpers. If it is to go on aroof,
Where the antenna wire must be strung from one first stand it up against the side of the building
of the smaller branches, it is best to tie a pulley and then hoist it from the roof, keeping it verti-
firmly to the branch and run a rope through the cal. The whole assembly is light enough for two
pulley to the antenna, with the other end of the men to perform the complete operation—lifting
rope attached to a counterweight near the the mast, carrying it to its permanent berth, and
ground. The counterweight will keep the ten- fastening the guys—with the mast vertical all
sion on the antenna wire reasonably constant even the while. It is entirely practicable, therefore,
when the branches sway or the rope tightens and to erect this type of mast on any small, flat area
stretches with varying climatic conditions. of roof.
Telephone poles, if they can be purchased and By using 2 X 3s or 2 x 4s, the height may be
installed economically, make excellent supports extended up to about 50 feet. The 2 x 2 is too
because they do not ordinarily require guying flexible to be satisfactory at such heights.
A High-Power Rig 441
doubler tubes are in the foreground. The trap through ahole in the chassis from C11 over to 13 .
capacitors, C7 and C4,are adjacent to these tubes, Most of the parts visible in the chassis view can
while Co and C5,are between them, a bit off be identified from our description of the panel,
their center line. To the rear of the 5763 doubler rear, and topside layouts. The oscillator cathode
are C5 and C7.The grid tuning capacitor for the choke, RFC 1,can be seen mounted upright near
6146. C,, is just visible inside the amplifier com- the oscillator tube and crystal sockets. Both 5763
partment. sockets should be oriented so that Pins 4 and 5
A separate lead is provided for each power cir- are adjacent to the outside chassis wall. L, is
cuit. Fixed bias for the 6146 is brought in from visible between C1 and the oscillator tube socket.
the bias supply that is part of the high- power L, and L 3 run between this socket and that of
amplifier assembly. This bias is desirable to pre- the doubler. These coils are made from a single
vent the plate current from rising too high when length of Miniductor stock with the specified
the excitation is hacked off. If the exciter is number of turns removed to provide spacing be-
used alone, fixed bias is unnecessary. External tween them. The same applies to L, and L 7 .
meters can be connected in any of the circuits at These are to the left of the 6146 socket..L 4 is be-
the terminal strips. tween the doubler socket and C 4 . The trap coils
The sides, back and top of the amplifier cage are mounted with their axes vertical, to minimize
are Reynolds "Do-It- Yourself" perforated alu- coupling to the band-pass coils. L o is wound
minum sheet, now available in many hardware around and cemented to the bypassed end of L 5 .
stores. The pieces are joined together at the The power lead r.f. chokes are mounted be-
corners with lengths of 9'- inch aluminum angle tween single-terminal tie points on the rear lip
which can be bought or bent up from sheet stock. of the chassis and the feed-through capacitors.
The tuning and loading capacitors are mounted The disk ceramic bypasses are then applied to the
on the front of the cage, so this part should be a tie points. A single-terminal tie point mounted
piece of solid sheet stock rather than the perfo- under RFC, holds one end of the 3300-ohm
rated material. The dimensions of the cage are doubler screen resistor and the lead over to the
not critical. The original is 5 4 inches deep, 2Y8 terminal strip at the rear. A double tie point is
inches across, and 441 inches high. Make provi- mounted between the two 5763 sockets to support
sion for removing the top and outside sheets of the bypassed ends of L 2 and L 3 . Another over
perforated stock for convenience in servicing, nearer the rear of the chassis supports the cold
when the exciter is mounted against the amplifier end of L 5 and the bottom of the doubler grid re-
unit. Extension shafts and couplings bring out sistor.
the amplifier controls to the panel. Wiring will be simplified by the following pro-
Inside the cage, the 6146 can be seen with its cedure. Before mounting the crystal switch,
socket mounted above the chassis on V2- inch ground one terminal of each crystal socket
metal sleeves. The cathode and screen bypasses through a bus wire. Connect short lengths of
should connect to separate ground lugs on the tinned wire to the other terminal of each socket
top of the chassis, with the shortest
possible leads. This wiring can be done
conveniently before the socket is
mounted on the chassis if nuts are used
temporarily to hold the ground lugs in
place over the socket mounting screws.
The neutralizing adjustment, C5, is
mounted on the rear wall of the cage,
and wired to the 6146 plate clip and
the feed-through bushing with 34-inch
wide strips of thin copper. A ceramic
insulator mounted on the wall near the
6146 plate cap supports the junction of
RFC,, RFC,, and C9.An ordinary tie
point supports the other end of RFC 3
and the shielded power lead. The plate
coil, L o ,can be seen in back of the 5763
doubler tube, wired between the stators
of C1, and Cu .C 12 and RFC 4 are
mounted near C11 ,and hooked betweeri
its stator bar and aground lug. A short
length of RG-58/1] coax runs down

Fig. 17- 17—Side view of the exciter, with

cover removed. Band-pass coupling circuits
eliminate front- panel tuning controls except
for crystal switch and output stage tuning.
Antenna Construction 389
lead-in insulators. Holes cut through the walls
of the building and fitted with feed- through in-
sulators are undoubtedly the best means of
bringing the line into the station. The holes
should have plenty of air clearance about the
conducting rod, especially when using tuned lines
that develop high voltages. Probably the best
place to go through the walls is the trimming
board at the top or bottom of a window frame
which provides flat surfaces for lead-in insula-
tors. Cement or rubber gaskets may be used to
waterproof the exposed joints.
Where such a procedure is not permissible,

Fig. 14- 50—Using a lever for twisting heavy guy wires.

Guy wires may be anchored to atree or build-

ing when they happen to be in convenient spots.
For small poles, a 6-foot length of 1- inch pipe
driven into the ground at an angle will suffice.

HALYARDS AND PULLEYS

Halyards or ropes and pulleys are important
items in the antenna- supporting system. Partic-
ular attention should be directed toward the
choice of a pulley and halyards for ahigh mast
since replacement, once the mast is in position,
Fig. 14- 51— An antenna lead-in panel may be placed
may be a major undertaking if not entirely im-
over the top sash or under the lower sash of a window.
possible. Substituting a smaller height sash in half the window will
Galvanized-iron pulleys will have alife of only
simplify the weatherproofing problem where the sash
a year or so. Especially for coastal-area instal-
overlaps.
lations, marine-type pulleys with hardwood
blocks and bronze wheels and bearings should be the window itself usually offers the best oppor-
used. tunity. One satisfactory method is to drill holes
For short antennas and temporary installa- in the glass near the top of the upper sash. If
tions, heavy clothesline or window- sash cord the glass is replaced by plate glass, a stronger
may be used. However, for more permanent jobs, job will result. Plate glass may be obtained from
Winch or - inch waterproof hemp rope should automobile junk yards and drilled before placing
be used. Even this should be replaced about once in the frame. The glass itself provides insula-
ayear to insure against breakage. tion and the transmission line may be fastened to
It is advisable to carry the pulley rope back up bolts fitting the holes. Rubber gaskets will render
to the top in "endless" fashion in the manner of the holes waterproof. The lower sash should be
a flag hoist so that if the antenna breaks close provided with stops to prevent damage when it
to the pole, there will be ameans for pulling the is raised. If the window has afull-length screen,
hoisting rope back down. the scheme shown in Fig. 14-52B may be used.
As aless permanent method, the window may
BRINGING THE ANTENNA OR be raised from the bottom or lowered from the
FEED LINE INTO THE STATION top to permit insertion of aboard which carries
The antenna or transmission line should be the feed-through insulators. This lead-in ar-
anchored to the outside wall of the building, as rangement can be made weatherproof by making
shown in Fig. 14-52, to remove strain from the an overlapping joint between the board and win-

feecee

Antenna
/rase/oters
Fig. 14- 52— A— Anchoring feeders takes the Spreys
strain from feed- through insulators or window
glass. B— Going through a full-length screen, a
cleat is fastened to the frame of the screen on /lean/
Screw-eyes Slack WIWI
the inside. Clearance holes are cut in the cleat
and also in the screen.

To feed- ,..".r,-ocy4
,,se/a.tors
A
A High- Power Rig 443
The plate circuit is alarger version of the one supplies. S2 applies a.c. to the filament trans-
used in the 6146 stage of the exciter, a shunt-fed former of the amplifier and starts the cooling fan.
pi-network. Operation is completely stable with- Above the switches on the panel are the amplifier
out neutralization, probably because the natural plate tuning and loading controls.
neutralized frequency of the tubes is close to 50 On the rear of the chassis, coaxial connectors
Mc. Provision was originally made for neutral- for r.f. input and output are mounted at either
ization, but it was found to be unnecessary. Para- end. Between them are the high-voltage con-
sitic suppression devices were not required, but nector for the plate supply, the cathode circuit
if the layout is varied appreciably from that jack, and a fitting for the remaining power and
shown, the builder should check for both types meter leads.
of instability with great care. Above the chassis, the 4-250A tube is seen near
The jack in the filament center-tap lead is for the front of the chassis. Note that its socket is
keying, or for insertion of agrid-bias modulator. mounted on , A- inch sleeves. Holes - inch in di-
A bias supply that delivers about 50 volts nega- ameter are drilled in the chassis directly under-
tive for the 6146 and 150 for the final amplifier neath those provided in the socket for the passage
is included in the final stage assembly. Filament of cooling air. Holes are also drilled adjacent to
transformers for the exciter and final are also the cathode, grid, and screen pins to pass their
part of this unit. Separate filament switches are leads. Bypassing of cathode and screen is done
included; one for the exciter and the other for the above the chassis. The heat radiating plate con-
final tube and the blower motor. Power leads, ex- nector for the 4-250A was cut down to four fins
cept the high voltage, are brought in on an 8-pin to reduce the over-all height requirement. The
plug. filament transformer, T3,and the screen modu-
lation choke, 1. 4,are also topside.
Building the Amplifier The amplifier plate circuit components are to
A 12 x 10 x 3-inch aluminum chassis is used the left of the tube. The tuning capacitor, C7,or-
for the amplifier unit. Thus, it may be combined iginally a neutralizing capacitor, is mounted on
with the exciter on a 10V2- inch rack panel, if de- the side wall of the shielding assembly. Two
sired. The amplifier controls mounted near the modifications should be made to the neutralizing
panel bottom are, left to right, the input link re- unit before mounting. The circular plates sup-
actance capacitor, C,; the grid tuning capacitor, plied should be replaced with larger ones, 3
C2 ;and S1 and S2.S 1 applies a.c. to the trans- inches in diameter, to increase the available tun-
former for the exciter heaters and to the bias ing range. The bearing assembly of the rotor
disk must be temporarily removed, and
astrap of copper run between the screw
holding the bearing in place and the
opposite ( grounded) end of the square
ceramic insulating pillar, grounding the
capacitor rotor. Two copper straps
must be inserted between the stator
disk and its insulator, to connect the
stator with the blocking capacitor, C5,
and with L3.
The blocking capacitor, the shunt-
feed r.f. choke, RFC 2,and the high-
voltage bypass, C6,are assembled into
one unit before mounting in the ampli-
fier. This is done with the aid of the
hardware supplied with the TV-type
high-voltage capacitors. The bypass
capacitor, on the bottom of the stack,
is equipped with one terminal threaded
and one tapped. The latter is on
the bottom end, for fastening the as-
sembly to the chassis. The threaded ter-
minal screws into the 2- inch ceramic
insulator upon which RFC2 is wound.

Fig. 1719— Bottom view of the

50•Mc. exciter, showing ba nd-
ims circuits and TVI protective
measures.
Rotary Beams 391
The photograph in Fig. 14-56 shows one way The power and control leads to the rotator
a T- matched driven element can be assembled should be run in electrical conduit or in lead
with its half- wave balun. Three coaxial chassis covering, and the metal should be grounded.
receptacles are fastened to a ,
%-inch thick sheet
of phenolic that is supported below the driven
element by three aluminum straps. The two T
rods are also supported by the phenolic sheet at
the inner ends and by suitable straps at the outer
ends where they make up to the driven element.

Rotation
It is convenient but not essential to use a
motor to rotate the beam. If a rope- and- pulley
arrangement can be brought into the operating
room or if the pole can be mounted near awin-
dow in the operating room, hand rotation will
work.
If the use of a rope and pulleys is impracti-
cable, motor drive is about the only alternative.
There are several complete motor driven ro-
tators on the market, and they are easy to mount,
Fig. 14-54—Muffler clamps can be used to hold beam
convenient to use, and require little or no main-
elements to the boom. The angle can be aluminum angle
tenance. Generally speaking, light-weight units
or angle iron; if iron is used it should be cadmium
are better because they reduce the tower load.
plated. This example shows a 34-inch-diameter element
The speed of rotation should not be too
held to a 2-inch diameter boom.
great—one or 1 r.p.m. is about right. This re-
quires a considerable gear reduction from the
usual 1750-r.p.m. speed of small induction mo-
tors; a large reduction is advantageous because
the gear train will prevent the beam from turn-
ing in weather-vane fashion in awind. The usual
beam does not require agreat deal of power for
rotation at slow speed, and a ar-hp. motor will
be ample. A reversible motor should be used.
War-surplus "prop pitch" motors have found
wide application for rotating 14- Mc. beams,
while TV rotators can be used with many 28- Mc.
lightweight beams.
Driving motors and gear housings will stand
Fig. 14- 55— The boom can be tied to the mast with
the weather better if given a coat of aluminum
muffler clamps and a steel plate. The coaxial line from
paint followed by two coats of enamel and acoat
the driven element is taped to the boom and mast.
of glyptal varnish. Even commerical units will
#
last longer if treated with glyptal varnish. Be
sure that the surfaces are clean and free from
*
grease before painting. Grease can be removed
by brushing with kerosene and then squirting
the surface with a solid stream of water. The
work can then be wiped dry with arag.

DRIVEN fLEMENr

Fig. 14-56—( Diagram, above) Details of a coaxial-line

termination board and T-match support for a 10-meter
beam. The balun of a half-wavelength of coaxial line
is coiled and then fastened to the boom with tape ( right).
392 ANTENNAS

A COMPACT 14-Mc. 3- ELEMENT BEAM

A 20-meter beam no larger than the usual clamps can be used for this purpose. The boom
10-meter beam can be made by using center- is a 12-foot length of l 2-inch o.d. 61ST alumi-
loaded elements and close spacing. Such an an- num tubing, with 0.125- inch wall.
tenna will show good directivity and can be ro- The line is coupled and matched at the center
tated with aTV-antenna rotator. of the driven element through adjustment of the
Constructional details of the elements are link wound on the outside of the Lucite tubing.
shown in Figs. 14-57 and 14-58. The loading coils To check the adjustment of the elements, first
are space-wound by interwinding plumb line resonate the driven element to the desired fre-
(sometimes known as chalk line) with the No. quency in the 14- Mc, band with agrid-dip oscil-
12 wire coils. The coil ends are secured by dril- lator. Then resonate the director to approxi-
ling small holes through the polystyrene bar, as mately 14.8 Mc., and the reflector to approxi-
shown in Fig. 14-60. The coils should be sprayed mately 13.6 Mc. This is not critical and only
or painted with Krylon before installing the pro- serves as rough point for the final tuning,
tective Lucite tubes. which is done by use of a conventional field-
The beam will require 4-foot lengths of the strength indicator. Check the transmitter load-

Adj
5/8 ss"—+-4r—.1
"o.
"is oil,/ 0 /"
4
3 o
I s/s"

A A

s'o" 2V/wide
/2"m1
Fig. 14-57— Dimensions of a compact 14-
(A) Mc. beam. A— Side view of a typical ele-
ment. TV-antenna " U" clamps hold the
support arms to the boom. Birnbach 4176
REFLECTOR insulators support the elements. B— Top
DRIVEN plan of the beam showing element spac-
ELEMENT ing and loading-coil dimensions. Elements
DIRECTOR
are made of aluminum tubing. Construc-
43 toms I42 t.vms 4/ ter/IS tion of the loading coils and adjustment
of the elements are discussed in the text.
End- section lengths of 41 inches for the
/72-c.a.:tuft/. tabe reflector, 40 inches for the driven ele-
ment, and 10 inches for the director will
5' tr
be close to optimum.

(3)
tubings indicated in Fig. 14-57A. For good tele- ing and readjust if necessary. Adjust the director
scoping, element- wall thickness of 0.058 inch is for maximum forward gain, and then adjust the
recommended. The ends of the tubing sections reflector for maximum forward gain. At this
should be slotted to permit adjustment, and se- point, check the driven element for resonance
cured with clamps, so that the joints will not and readjust if necessary. Turn the reflector to-
work loose in the wind. Perforated ground ward the field- strength indicator and adjust for

LUCITE END PLATE

Fig. 14-58— Detailed sketch of the

loading and coupling coils at the cen-
ter of the driven element, and its -
mounting. Similar loading coils ( see r
text) are used at the centers of the -
director and reflector.

5-tuen limk matches S2- Om line

Rotary Beams 393
back cut-off. This must be done in small steps. adjustment of the s.w.r. can be made by adjust-
Do not expect the attenuation off the sides of a ing the coupling at the antenna loading coil turns
short beam to be as high as that obtained with and spacing. As in any beam, the s.w.r. will de-
full-length elements. The s.w.r. of the line feed- pend upon this adjustment and not on any that
ing the antenna can be checked with a bridge, can be made at the transmitter. Transmitter
and after the elements have been tuned, a final coupling is the usual for any coaxial line.

A "ONE- ELEMENT ROTARY" FOR 21 Mc.

The directional properties of a simple half- vise or by laying the end of the tubing on ahard
wavelength antenna become more apparent at surface and then hammering it flat. This will
higher frequencies, and it is possible to take ad- provide enough space to accommodate the coax
vantage of this fact to build a "one-element ro- fitting ( Amphenol type 83-1R). A *inch hole
tary" for 21 or 28 Mc. To take advantage of the will be needed in the flat section to clear the
directional properties of the antenna, it is only shell of the coax fitting.

1" FLOOR FLANGE 2x2-4' LONG

Fig. 14-59—(A) Diagram of the 21-Me, an-
tenna and mounting. The U-bolts that hold - I" PIPE

the 2by 2to the floor flange are standard (A)

2-inch TV mast type bolts. ( B) A more de-
tailed drawing of the coil and coax-fitting
mountings. The 1 /-
4 inch spacing between turns
is not critical, and they can vary as much as WRAP TUBING COIL Li_
1/16 inch without any apparent harm to the AROUND PIN TIGHTLY, 17 5 TURNS 4'"
match. AND SOLDER COPPER TUBING

COAX
COAX PLUG SOCKET
JAN. TYPE JAN. TYPE 50-239
PL- 259
(B)
RG-8/U OR
SG-38/U COAX

necessary to rotate it 180 degrees. It can be ro- The coil, L1,is made from %- inch diameter
tated by hand, as will be described, or by a copper tubing. It consists of 5 turns spaced 1%
small TV antenna rotator. A 28- Mc, antenna inch apart and is 1inch inside diameter. The coil
should be made full size ( 14-C) and fed at the is connected in series with the inner conductor
center with RG-11/U. pin on the coax fitting and the other half of the
The 21- Mc, antenna is made from two pieces antenna. To secure agood connection at the coax
of /2- inch diameter electrical thin- wall steel tub- fitting, the coil lead should be wound around the
ing or conduit. This tubing is readily available inner-conductor pin and soldered. The other end
at any electric supply shop. It comes in 10-foot of the coil can be connected with ascrew and nut.
lengths and, while 20 feet is short for a half-
wave antenna at 21- Mc., with loading the length Mounting
is just about right for 52-ohm line feed. ( A half- The antenna can be mounted on a 1-inch floor
wavelength antenna would normally be fed with flange and held in place by two 2- inch bolts, as
72-ohm cable, since the antenna offers a good shown in Fig. 14-61. The floor flange can be
match for this impedance value. In this antenna connected to a 12-foot length of 1-inch pipe
system, the shorter elements, plus the small which will serve as a mast. Television antenna
coil, offer a good match for 52-ohm cable.) If wall mounts can be used to support the mast.
aluminum tubing is available, it can be used in In the installation shown in Fig. 14-61, 19-inch
place of the conduit, and the antenna will be wall mounts were used in order to clear the
lighter in weight. As shown in Figs. 14-59 and eaves of the house. A 2-inch long piece of
14-60, the two pieces of tubing are supported by P%-inch pipe was used as a sleeve, and it was
four stand-off insulators on a four-foot-long clamped in the U bolt on the bottom wall mount.
2 by 2. The coax fitting for the feed line is A '4-inch hole was drilled through the mast
mounted on the end of one of the lengths of tub- pipe approximately 6 inches from the bottom.
ing. A mounting point is made by flattening the Then a 11 4- inch bolt was slipped through the
end of the tubing for alength of about 1V2 inches. hole and the mast was then mounted in the sleeve
The tubing can be flattened by squeezing it in a on the bottom wall mount. The bolt acted as a
394 ANTENNAS

Fig. 14-60—A close-up of the coil and coax

fitting mountings. Be sure that the coil
doesn't short out to the outer conductor when A
soldering the coil end to the inner conductor
pin on the coax fitting.

bearing point against the top of the sleeve. An- of the rod and the rope was brought into the
other V4-inch hole was drilled through the mast shack, so that the antenna could be rotated by
about three feet above the bottom wall mount. the "arm- strong" method. Obviously, one could
A piece of 14-inch metal rod, six inches long, spend more money for a "de luxe" version and
was forced through the hole so that the rod pro- use a TV antenna rotator and mast.
jected on each side of the mast. To turn the RG-8/U 52-ohm coax cable is recommended
mast, a piece of rope was attached to each end to feed the antenna. For power inputs up to 100
watts, the smaller and less expensive RG-58/U
can be used. However, when you buy RG-58/U,
be sure that the line is made by areputable manu-
facturer ( such as Amphenol or Belden). Some
of the line made for TV installations is of in-
ferior quality and is likely to have higher losses.
The feedline was fed up through the mast pipe
and through a 4-inch hole in the 2 by 2. An
Amphenol 83-1SP fitting on the end of the coax
line connects to the female fitting on the antenna.

Coupling to the Transmitter

It may be found that, when the feed line is
coupled to the transmitter, the antenna won't
take power. Since the line is terminated at the
antenna in its characteristic impedance of 52
ohms, the output of the final r.f. amplifier must
be adjusted to couple into a52-ohm load. Where
the output coupling device is a variable link,
all that may be needed is the correct setting of
the link. If the link is fixed, one end of the link
can be grounded to the transmitter chassis and
the other end of the link connected in series
with asmall variable capacitor to the inner con-
ductor of the feed line. The outer conductor of
the coax is grounded to the transmitter chassis.
The capacitor is tuned to the point where the
final amplifier is properly loaded. For transmit-
Fig. 14-61- Over-all view of the antenna and mounting. ters having a pi- network output circuit, it is
The feedline comes out of the bottom of the mast and merely amatter of adjusting the network to the
through the wall into the shack. point where the amplifier is properly loaded.
 Chapter 15

Wave Propagation

Much of the appeal of amateur communica- when they occur. The observant amateur is in
tion lies in the fact that the results are not al- an excellent position to make worthwhile con-
ways predictable. Transmission conditions on tributions to the science, provided he has suf-
the same frequency vary with the year, season ficient background to understand his results.
and with the time of day. Although these varia- He may discover new facts about propagation
tions usually follow certain established patterns, at the very-high frequencies or in the micro-
many peculiar effects can be observed from time wave region, as amateurs have in the past. In
to time. Every radio amateur should have some fact, it is through amateur efforts that most of
understanding of the known facts about radio the extended-range possibilities of various radio
wave propagation so that he will stand some frequencies have been discovered, both by acci-
chance of interpreting the unusual conditions dent and by long and careful investigation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIO WAVES

Radio waves, like other forms of electromag- or mesh-like drawing in Fig. 15-1 is called the
netic radiation such as light, travel at a speed wave front.
of 300,000,000 meters per second in free space, The medium in which electromagnetic waves
and can be reflected, refracted, and diffracted. travel has amarked influence on the speed with
An electromagnetic wave is composed of which they move. When the medium is empty
moving fields of electric and magnetic force. space the speed, as stated above, is 300,000,000
The lines of force in the electric and magnetic meters per second. It is almost, but not quite,
fields are at right angles, and are mutually per- that great in air, and is much less in some other
substances. In dielectrics, for example, the speed
Electric lines of Force is inversely proportional to the square root of
the dielectric constant of the material.
When awave meets agood conductor it can-
not penetrate it to any extent ( although it will
travel through a dielectric with ease) because
the electric lines of force are practically short-
circuited.
Magnetic Polarization
lines of The polarization of a radio wave is taken as
Force
the direction of the lines of force in the electric
field. If the electric lines are perpendicular to
the earth, the wave is said to be vertically
polarized; if parallel with the earth, the wave
is horizontally polarized. The longer waves,
when traveling along the ground, usually main-
tain their polarization in the same plane as was
generated at the antenna. The polarization of
Fig. 15- 1— Representation of electric and magnetic shorter waves may be altered during travel,
lines of force in a radio wave. Arrows indicate instan- hdwever, and. sometimes will vary quite rapidly.
taneous directions of the fields for a wave traveling
Spreading
toward the reader. Reversing the direction of one set
of lines would reverse the direction of travel. The field intensity of awave is inversely pro-
portional to the distance from the source. Thus
pendicular to the direction of travel. A simple if in a uniform medium one receiving point is
representation of a wave is shown in Fig. 15-1. twice as far from the transmitter as another,
In this drawing the electric lines are perpen- the field strength at the more distant point will
dicular to the earth and the magnetic lines are be just half the field strength at the nearer
horizontal. They could, however, have any posi- point. This results from the fact that the energy
tion with respect to earth so long as they remain in the wave front must be distributed over a
perpendicular to each other. greater area as the wave moves away from the
The plane containing the continuous lines of source. This inverse- distance law is based on
electric and magnetic force shown by the grid- the assumption that there is nothing in the

395
396 WAVE PROPAGATION
medium to absorb energy from the wave as it occur at the boundaries between air masses of
travels. This is not the case in practical com- differing temperature and moisture content.
munication along the ground and through the The ground wave is that part of the total ra-
atmosphere.

Types of Propagation
According to the altitudes of the paths along
which they are propagated, radio waves may
be classified as ionospheric waves, tropospheric
waves or ground waves. Fig. 15- 2-- Showing how both direct and reflected waves

• The ionospheric or sky wave is that part may be received simultaneously.

of the total radiation that is directed toward

the ionosphere. Depending upon variable con- diation that is directly affected by the presence
ditions in that region, as well as upon transmit- of the earth and its surface features. The
ting wave length, the ionospheric wave may or ground wave has two components. One is the
may not be returned to earth by the effects of surface wave, which is an earth-guided wave,
refraction and reflection. and the other is the space wave (not to be con-
The tropospheric wave is that part of the fused with the ionospheric or sky wave). The
total radiation that undergoes refraction and space wave is itself the resultant of two com-
reflection in regions of abrupt change of dielec- ponents — the direct wave and the ground-re-
tric constant in the troposphere, such as may flected wave, as shown in Fig. 15-2.

IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION
PROPERTIES OF THE IONOSPHERE ionized particles collide with others this energy
is lost. The absorption from this cause is
Except for distances of a few miles, nearly
greater at lower frequencies. It also increases
all amateur communication on frequencies be-
with the intensity of ionization, and with the
low 30 Mc. is by means of the sky wave. Upon
leaving the transmitting antenna, this wave density of the atmosphere in the ionized region.
travels upward from the earth's surface at such Virtual Height
an angle that it would continue out into space
Although an ionospheric layer is a region of
were its path not bent sufficiently to bring it back
considerable depth it is convenient to assign to
to earth. The medium that causes such bending
it a definite height, called the virtual height.
is the ionosphere, a region in the upper atmos-
This is the height from which a simple reflec-
phere, above a height of about 60 miles, where
tion would give the same effect as the gradual
free ions and electrons exist in sufficient quan-
tity to have an appreciable effect on wave travel.
The ionization in the upper atmosphere is be-
lieved to be caused by ultraviolet radiation from
the sun. The ionosphere is not a single region
but is composed of aseries of layers of varying
densities of ionization occurring at different
heights. Each layer consists of a central region
of relatively dense ionization that tapers off in
intensity both above and below.

Refraction
The greater the intensity of ionization in a Fig. 15-3—Bending In the ionosphere, and the echo or
layer, the more the path of the wave is bent. reflection method of determining virtual height.
The bending, or refraction ( often also called
reflection), also depends on the wavelength; the bending that actually takes place, as illustrated
longer the wave, the more the path is bent for in Fig. 15-3. The wave traveling upward is bent
a given degree of ionization. Thus low- fre- back over a path having an appreciable radius
quency waves are more readily bent than those of turning, and ameasurable interval of time is
of high frequency. For this reason the lower consumed in the turning process. The virtual
frequencies— 3.5 and 7 Mc. — are more " reli- height is the height of a triangle having equal
able" than the higher frequencies — 14 to 28 sides of a total length proportional to the time
Mc.; there are times when the ionization is of taken for the wave to travel from T to R.
such low value that waves of the latter fre-
quency range are not bent enough to return to Normal Structure of the Ionosphere
earth. The lowest useful ionized layer is called the
Absorption
E layer. The average height of the region of
In traveling through the ionosphere the wave maximum ionization is about 70 miles. The air
gives up some of its energy by setting the ion- at. this height. is sufficiently dense so that the
ized particles into motion. When the moving ions and electrons set free by the sun's radiation
The Ionosphere 397
do not travel far before they meet and recom- higher layers give longer skip distances for the
bine to form neutral particles, so the layer can same wave angle. Wave angles at the transmit-
maintain its normal intensity of ionization only ting and receiving points are usually, although not
in the presence of continuing radiation from the always, approximately the same for any given
sun. Hence the ionization is greatest around wave path.
local noon and practically disappears after sun-
Critical and Maximum Usable Frequencies
down.
In the daytime there is a still lower ionized If the frequency is low enough, a wave sent
area, the D region. D- region ionization is pro- vertically to the ionosphere will be reflected back
portional to the height of the sun and is greatest down to the transmitting point. If the frequency is
at noon. The lower amateur-band frequencies then gradually increased, eventually a frequency
(1.8 and 3.5 Mc.) are almost completely ab- will be reached where this vertical reflection just
sorbed by this layer, and only the high-angle fails to occur. This is the critical frequency for
radiation is reflected by the E layer. ( Lower- the layer under consideration. When the operat-
angle radiation travels farther through the D ing frequency is below the critical value there is
region and is absorbed.) no skip zone.
The second principal layer is the F layer, The critical frequency is auseful index to the
which has a height of about 175 miles at night. highest frequency that can be used to transmit
At this altitude the air is so thin that recom- over a specified distance—the maximum usable
bination of ions and electrons takes place very frequency (m.u.f.). If the wave leaving the
slowly. The ionization decreases after sundown, transmitting point at angle A in Fig. 15-4 is, for
reaching aminimum just before sunrise. In the example, at a frequency of 14 Mc., and if a
daytime the F layer splits into two parts, the higher frequency would skip over the receiving
F1 and F2 layers, with average virtual heights point R1,then 14 Mc. is the m.u.f. for the dis-
of, respectively, 140 miles and 200 miles. These tance from T to R1.
layers are most highly ionized at about local The greatest possible distance is covered when
noon, and merge again at sunset into the F layer. the wave leaves along the tangent to the earth;
that is, at zero wave angle. Under average condi-
SKY- WAVE PROPAGATION tions this distance is about 4000 kilometers or
2500 miles for the F2 layer, and 2000 km. or
Wave Angle 1250 miles for the E layer. The distances vary
The smaller the angle at which awave leaves with the layer height. Frequencies above these
the earth, the less the bending required in the limiting m.u.f.'s will not be returned to earth at
ionosphere to bring it back. Also, the smaller any distance. The 4000-km. m.u.f. for the F2
the angle the greater the distance between the layer is approximately 3 times the critical fre- .
point where the wave leaves the earth and that quency for that layer, and for the E layer the
at which it returns. This is shown in Fig. 15-4. 2000-km. m.u.f. is about 5 times the critical
The vertical angle that the wave makes with a frequency.
tangent to the earth is called the wave angle or Absorption in the ionosphere is least at the
angle of radiation. maximum usable frequency, and increases very
rapidly as the frequency is lowered below the
Skip Distance m.u.f. Consequently, best results with low
More bending is required to return the wave power always are secured when the frequency
to earth when the wave angle is high, and at is as close to the m.u.f. as possible.
times the bending will not be sufficient unless It is readily possible for the ionospheric wave
the wave angle is smaller than some critical to pass through the E layer and be refracted
value. This is illustrated in Fig. 15-4, where A back to earth from the F, F1 or F2 layers. This
and smaller angles give useful signals
while waves sent at higher angles pene- 9
trate the layer and are not returned.
The distance between T and R1 is,
therefore, the shortest possible distance,
at that particular frequency, over which
communication by ionospheric refrac-
tion can be accomplished.
The area between the end of the use-
ful ground wave and the beginning of
ionospheric-wave reception is called the
skip zone, and the distance from the
transmitter to the nearest point where
the sky wave returns to earth is called
the skip distance. The extent of the Fig. 15- 4— Refraction of sky waves, showing the critical wave
skip zone depends upon the frequency angle and the skip zone. Waves leaving the transmitter at angles
and the state of the ionosphere, and above the critical ( greater than A) are not bent enough to be
also upon the height of the layer in returned to earth. As the angle is decreased, the waves return to
which the refraction takes place. The earth at increasingly greater distances.
452 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS

Fig. 17- 29— Antenna couplers for 50 and 144 Mc. designed for use with the high- power transmitters
on the previous pages.

key hot, so an insulated key or a keying relay more. They were designed for use with the high-
must be used in the interest of safety. The keying power transmitters described previously, but
jack must be insulated from the panel. may be used at any power level.
Fixed bias for the final amplifier is provided
Construction
by the VR-tube method. When the tube ignites
grids. The effectiveness of this system requires a The two couplers are identical circuitwise.
at the application of drive, the capacitor They are built inside astandard 3by 4by 17- inch
charges. Removing excitation stops the flow aluminum chassis, with a bottom plate to com-
through the VR tube and leaves the negative plete the shielding. The panel is 3%2 inches high.
charge in the capacitor applied to the amplifier If only one coupler is required, a3by 4 by 6- inch
low- leakage capacitor for C5. utility box can be used. Terminals on the back of
Modulation is applied to the plates only. A the chassis include a coaxial input fitting and a
choke of about 10 henrys is connected in the two- post output fitting for each coupler. The cir-
screen lead, or the modulation can be supplied cuit diagram. Fig. 17-30, serves for both.
through a screen winding on the modulation The 50- Mc. coils are cut from commercially
transformer. The bypass value in the screen
circuit should be low enough to avoid affecting
the higher audio frequencies. Occasionally audio
resonance in the screen choke may cause a sing-
ing effect on the modulation. If this develops,
the choke may be shunted with a resistor. Use
the highest value that will stop the singing.
In neutralizing the 4-125As it may be found
Fig. 17- 30—Circuit and parts information for the v.h.f.
that what appears to be the best setting of the
antenna couplers.
screen capacitor will result in a very large drop
in grid current when plate voltage is applied. C- 100-µ,uf. variable for 50 Mc., 50-µgf. for 144 Mc.
The setting may be altered slightly, raising the (Hammarlund MC- 100 and MC-50).
full- load grid current, without adversely affecting Cs- 35-µµf. per-section split-stator variable, 0.07-inch
the stability of the amplifier. The final check for spacing ( Hammarlund MCD-35SX). Reduce to
neutralization is twofold. There should be no 4 stator and 4 rotor plates in each section in
oscillation when drive is removed; and maximum 144-Mc, coupler for easier tuning; see text.
grid current, minimum plate current and maxi-
J1—Coaxial fitting, female.
mum output should all show at one setting of
1,—Two- post terminal assembly ( National FWH).
the plate tuning capacitor. The latter condition
may be observed only when the amplifier is oper- 14-50 Mc.: 4 turns No. 18 tinned, 1inch diameter, 1,4.
ated with ut fixed bias. inch spacing ( Air- Dux No. 808T).
114 Mc.: 2 turns No. 14 enam., 1 inch diameter,
ANTENNA COUPLERS FOR /-
2
1 inch spacing. Slip over 1.2 before mounting.
50 AND 144 MC. I.2-50 Mc.: 7turns No. 14 tinned, 112 inch diameter, 1
/ /
2

The antenna couplers shown in Figs. 17-29, inch spacing ( Air Dux No. 1204). Tap 11
2 turns
/
and at the top of Fig. 17-15, can be used with 52- from each end.
ohm or 75-ohm coaxial line, and with balanced 144 Mc.: 5 turns No. 12 tinned, 1 2 inch diameter,
/
lines of any impedance from 200 to 600 ohms or Ye inch long. Tap Ph turns from each end.
Antenna Couplers 453
available stock, though they can be made by hand
if desired. The coupling winding, L1,is inserted Adjusting the Couplers
inside the tuned circuit. The polyethylene strips An antenna coupler can be adjusted properly
on which the coils are wound keep the two coils only if some form of standing- wave bridge is
from making electrical contact, so no support connected in the line between the transmitter
other than the wire leads in needed. and the coupler. If it is a power-indicating type,
Leads to L1 are brought out between the turns so much the better, as it then can be used for
of L 2,and are insulated from them by two sleeves adjusting the transmitter loading, and the work
of spaghetti, one inside the other. Do not use the can be done at normal transmitter power.
soft vinyl type of sleeving, as it will melt too With the bridge set to read forward power,
readily if, through an accident to the antenna adjust the coupler capacitors and the transmitter
system, the coil should run hot. In the 144- Mc. tuning roughly for maximum indication. Now
coupler the positions of the coils are reversed, set the bridge to read reflected power, and adjust
with the tuned circuit, L 2,at the center, and the the antenna coupler capacitors, first one and then
coupling coil outside it. the other, until minimum reflected power is
Similar tuning capacitors are used in both achieved. Unless the line input impedance is very
couplers, but some of the plates are removed highly reactive, it should be possible to get the
from the one in the 144- Mc. circuit. This pro- reflected power down to zero, or very close to it.
vides easier tuning, though it has little effect on Adjustment of the coupler is now complete.
the minimum capacitance, and therefore on the Tuning for maximum transfer of power from
size of the coil. the transmitter is done entirely at the transmitter.
400 WAVE PROPAGATION

PROPAGATION ABOVE 50 MC.

The importance to the amateur of having some This develops most often during the warmer
knowledge of wave propagation was stressed at months, but may occur at any season. In the ab-
the beginning of this chapter. An understanding sence of any favorable propagation, the average
of the means by which his signals reach their well-equipped 50- Mc, station should be able to
destination is an even greater aid to the v.h.f. work regularly over a radius of 75 to 100 miles
worker. Each of his bands shows different char- or more, depending on local terrain.
acteristics, and knowledge of their peculiarities 144 to 148 Mc.: Ionospheric effects are greatly
is as yet far from complete. The observant user reduced at 144 Mc. F2- layer reflection is unlikely,
of the amateur v.h.f. assignments has a good and sporadic-E skip is rare. Aurora DX is fairly
opportunity to contribute to that knowledge, common, but signals are generally weaker than
and his enjoyment of his work will be greatly on 50 Mc. Tropospheric effects are more pro-
enhanced if he knows when to expect unusual nounced than on 50 Mc., and distances covered
propagation conditions. during favorable weather conditions are greater
than on lower bands. Air-mass boundary bend-
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
ing has been responsible for communication on
V.H.F. BANDS
144 Mc. over distances in eicess of 2500 miles,
An outstanding feature of our bands from 50 and 500-mile work is fairly common in the
Mc. up is their ability to provide consistent and warmer months. The reliable range under nor-
interference- free communication within a lim- mal conditions is slightly less than on 50 Mc.,
ited range. All lower frequencies are subject to with comparable equipment.
varying conditions that impair their effective- 220 Mc. and Higher: Ionospheric propagation
ness for work over distances of 100 miles or less is unlikely at 220 Mc. and up, but tropospheric
at least part of the time, and the heavy occu- bending is more prevalent than on lower bands.
pancy they support results in severe interference Amateur experience on 220 and 420 Mc. is show-
problems in areas of dense population. The v.h.f. ing that they can be as useful as 144 Mc., when
bands, being much wider, can handle many times comparable equipment is used. Under minimum
the amateur population without crowding, and conditions the range may be slightly shorter, but
their characteristics for local work are more when signals are good on 144 Mc., they may be
stable. It is thus to the advantage of amateur better on 220 or 420. Even above 1000 Mc. there
radio as a whole to make use of 50 Mc. and is evidence of tropospheric DX.
higher bands for short-range communication
wherever possible. PROPAGATION PHENOMENA
In addition to reliable local coverage, the The various known means by which v.h.f.
v.h.f. bands also exhibit several forms of long- signals may be propagated over unusual dis-
distance propagation at times, and use of 50 and tances are discussed below.
144 Mc. has been taken up in recent years by F2-Layer Reflection: Most contacts made on 28
many isolated amateurs who must depend on Mc. and lower frequencies are the result of re-
these propagation peculiarities for all or most of flection of the wave by the F 2 layer, the ioniza-
their contacts. It is particularly important to tion density of which varies with solar activity,
these operators that they understand common the highest frequencies being reflected at the
propagation phenomena. The material to follow peak of the 11-year solar cycle. The maximum
supplements information presented earlier in usable frequency ( m.u.f.) for F 2 reflection also
this chapter, but deals with wave propagation follows other well-defined cycles, daily, monthly,
only as it affects the occupants of the world and seasonal, all related to conditions on the
above 50 Mc. First let us consider each band. sun and its position with respect to the earth.
50 to 54 Mc.: This band is borderline territory At the low point of the 11-year cycle, such as
between the DX frequencies and those normally in the early ' 50s, the m.u.f. may reach 28 Mc.
employed for local work. Thus just about every only during a short period each spring and fall,
form of wave propagation found throughout the whereas it may go to 60 Mc. or higher at the
radio spectrum appears, on occasion, in the 50- peak of the cycle. The fall of 1946 saw the first
Mc. region. This has contributed greatly to the authentic instances of long-distance work on 50
popularity of the 50- Mc. band. Mc. by F2- layer reflection, and as late as 1950
During the peak years of a sunspot cycle it contacts were made in the more favorable areas
is occasionally possible to work 50-Mc. DX of of the world by this medium. The rising curve
world-wide proportions, by reflection of signals of the current solar cycle again made F 2 DX
from the F 2 layer. Sporadic-E skip provides con- on 50 Mc. possible in the low latitudes in the
tacts over distances from 400 to 2500 miles or so winter of 1955-6. DX was worked over much of
during the early summer months, regardless of the earth in the years 1956 through 1959, falling
the solar cycle. Reflection from the aurora off in 1960. Loss of the 50- Mc. band to television
regions allows 100- to 1000-mile work during in some countries will limit the scope of 50-Mc.
pronounced ionospheric disturbances. The ever- DX in years to come.
changing weather pattern offers extension of the The F 2 m.u.f. is readily determined by ob-
normal coverage to as much as 300 to 500 miles. servation, and it may be estimated quite accur-
V.H.F. Characteristics 401

s poRAOte."E CLOUDS
about 5,0,,niz,e,..57:: 8L 1:4 :\

Fig. 15-5—The principal means by which v.h.f. signals may be returned to earth, showing the approximate distances
over which they are effective. The F2 layer, highest of the reflecting layers, may provide 50-Mc. DX at the peak of the
11-year sunspot cycle. Such communication may be world-wide in scope. Sporadic ionization of the Eregion produces
the tamiliar "short skip" on 28 and 50 Mc. It is most common in early summer and in late December, but may occur at
any time, regardless of the sunspot cycle. Refraction of v.h.f. waves also takes place at air-mass boundaries, making
possible communication over distances of several hundred miles on all v.h.f. bands. Normally it exhibits no skip zone.

ately for any path at any time. It is predictable Aurora Effect: Low-frequency communica-
for months in advance, enabling the v.h.f. worker tion is occasionally wiped out by absorption in
to arrange test schedules with distant stations the ionosphere, when ionospheric storms, associ-
at propitious times. As there are numerous com- ated with variations in the earth's magnetic field,
mercial signals, both harmonics and funda- occur. During such disturbances, however, v.h.f.
mental transmissions, on the air in the range signals may be reflected back to earth, making
between 28 and 50 Mc., it is possible to deter- communication possible over distances not nor-
mine the approximate m.u.f. by careful listen- mally workable in the v.h.f. range. Magnetic
ing in this range. Daily observations will show storms may be accompanied by an aurora-bore-
if the m.u.f. is rising or falling, and once the alis display, if the disturbance occurs at night
peak for a given month is determined it can be and visibility is good. Aiming a beam at the
assumed that another will occur about 27 days auroral curtain will bring in signals strongest,
later, this cycle coinciding with the turning of regardless of the direction to the transmitter.
the sun on its axis. The working range, via F 2 Aurora- reflected signals are characterized by
skip, is roughly comparable to that on 28 Mc., arapid flutter, which lends a "dribbling" sound
though the minimum distance is somewhat to 28- Mc, carriers and may render modulation
longer. Two-way work on 50 Mc. by reflection on 50- and 144-Mc. signals completely unread-
from the F 2 layer has been accomplished over able. The only satisfactory means of communi-
distances from 2200 to 12,000 miles. The maxi- cation then becomes straight c.w. The effect may
mum frequency for F 2 reflection is believed to be noticeable on signals from any distance other
be about 70 Mc. than purely local, and stations up to about 1000
Sporadic-E Skip: Patchy concentrations of miles in any direction may be worked at the
ionization in the E-layer region are often respon- peak of the disturbance. Unlike the two methods
sible for reflection of signals on 28 and 50 Mc. of propagation previously described, aurora
This is the popular "short skip" that provides effect exhibits no skip zone. It is observed fre-
fine contacts on both bands in the range between quently on 50 and 144 Mc. in northeastern
400 and 1300 miles. It is most common in May, U. S. A., usually in the early evening hours or
June and July, during morning and early eve- after midnight. The highest frequency for au-
ning hours, but it may occur at any time or roral reflection is not yet known, but pronounced
season. Multiple-hop effects may appear, making disturbances have permitted work by this me-
possible work over more than 2500 miles. dium in the 220- Mc. band.
The upper limit of frequency for sporadic-E Tropospheric Bending: The most common
skip is not positively known, but scattered form of v.h.f. DX is the extension of the normal
instances of 144-Mc. propagation over dis- operating range associated with easily observed
tances in excess of 1000 miles indicate that E- weather phenomena. It is the result of the
layer reflection, possibly aided by tropospheric change in refractive index of the atmosphere at
effects, may be responsible. the boundary between air masses of differing
402 WAVE PROPAGATION
temperature and humidity characteristics. Such the 144- Mc, band may show strong signals from
boundaries usually lie along the western or south- far beyond visual distances when lower fre-
ern edges of a stable slow- moving area of high quencies are relatively inactive. It is probable
barometric pressure ( fair, calm weather) in the that this tendency continues on up through the
period prior to the arrival of a storm. microwave range, and there is good evidence
A typical upper-air sounding showing tem- to indicate that our assignments in the u.h.f.
perature and water-vapor gradients favorable and s.h.f. portions of the frequency spectrum
to v.h.f. DX is shown in Fig. 15-6. An increase may someday support communication over dis-
in temperature and a sharp drop in water-vapor tances far in excess of the optical range.
gradient are seen at about 4000 feet. Scatter: Forward scatter, both ionospheric and
Such a favorable condition develops most tropospheric, may be used for marginal com-
often in the late summer or early fall, along the munication in the v.h.f. bands. Both provide
junction between air masses that may have come very weak but consistent signals over distances
together from such widely separated points as that were once thought impossible on frequen-
the Gulf of Mexico and Northern Canada. Under cies higher than about 30 Mc.
i2,000 ( 2.2)%
12,000 (NO>
10
41
10,000 (t48).
8.000 ( \
31 )
0.000
1
4.
16000
' 0.0 4 c,
4+
4 6000
e:à
(NW ac
.2
1 4000 (5.0) Ls ..,`
1 4000
is • (1.9) .......
WATER VAPOR %, TEMPERATURE
2,000 (6.3) \ 2,000 WATER VAPORTEMPERATURE

o
—5 0 5 10 IS 20 0 5 10 15 20
TEMPERATURE ("C) TEMPERATURE CC)

Fig. 15-6— Upper-air conditions that produce extended-range communication on the v.h.f. bands. At the left is shown
the U. S. Standard Atmosphere temperature curve. The humidity curve ( dotted) is that which would result if the
relative humidity were 70 per cent from the ground level to 12,000 feet elevation. There is only slight refraction
under this standard condition. At the right is shown asounding that is typical of marked refraction of v.h.f. waves.
Figures in parentheses are the "mixing ratio"—grams of water vapor per kilogram of dry air. Note the sharp break
in both curves at about 4000 feet. ( From Collier, " Upper-Air Conditions for 2-Meter DX," iDST, September, 1955.)
stable weather conditions the two air masses Tropospheric scatter is prevalent all through
may retain their original character for several the v.h.f. and microwave regions, and is usable
days at a time, usually moving slowly eastward over distances up to about 400 miles. Iono-
across the country. When the path between two spheric scatter, augmented by meteor bursts, usu-
v.h.f. stations separated by fifty to several hun- ally brings in signals over 600 to 1300 miles, on
dred miles lies along such a boundary, signal frequencies up to about 100 Mc. Either form of
levels run far above the average value. scatter requires high power, large antennas
Many factors other than air-mass movement and c.w. technique to provide useful communi-
of a continental character provide increased cation.
v.h.f. operating range. The convection along Back scatter, of the type heard on lower
coastal areas in warm weather is agood exam- bands, is also heard occasionally on 50 Mc.,
ple. The rapid cooling of the earth after a hot when F 2 or sporadic-E skip is present.
day in summer, with the air aloft cooling more Reflections from Meteor Trails: Probably the
slowly, is another, producing a rise in signal least- known means of v.h.f. wave propagation
strength in the period around sundown. The is that resulting from the passage of meteors
early morning hours, when the sun heats the air across the signal path. Reflections from the ion-
aloft, before the temperature of the earth's sur- ized meteor trails may be noted as a Doppler-
face begins to rise, may be the best of the day effect whistle on the carrier of a signal already
for extended v.h.f. range, particularly in clear, being received, or they may cause bursts of
calm weather. reception from stations not normally receivable.
The v.h.f. enthusiast soon learns to correlate Ordinarily such reflections are of little value in
various weather manifestations with radio- communication, since the increases in signal
propagation phenomena. By watching tempera- strength are of short duration, but meteor
ture, barometric pressure, changing cloud for- showers of considerable magnitude and dura-
mations, wind direction, visibility, and other tion may provide fluttery signals from distances
easily- observed weather signs, he can tell with a up to 1500 miles on both 50 and 144 Mc.
reasonable degree of accuracy what is in pros- As meteor-burst signals are relatively weak,
pect on the v.h.f. bands. their detection is greatly aided if high power
The responsiveness of radio waves to vary- and high- gain antennas are used. Two-way
ing weather conditions increases with fre- communication of sorts has been carried on by
quency. The 50- Mc, band is more sensitive to this medium on 50 and 144 Mc. over distances
weather variations than is the 28- Mc, band, and of 600 to 1300 miles.
 Chapter 16

V.H.F. Receivers
and Transceivers

Good receiving facilities are all-important in pentode types is more pronounced as we go

v.h.f. work. High sensitivity, adequate stability higher in frequency. Because of the limitation
and good signal-to-noise ratio, necessary attri- on sensitivity imposed by external noise at that
butes in a receiving system for 50 Mc. and frequency, triode or pentode r.f. amplifiers give
higher frequencies, are most readily attained about the same results at 50 Mc. Thus the pen-
through the use of a converter working into a tode types, which offer the advantages of better
communications receiver designed for lower fre- selectivity and simpler circuitry, are often used
quencies. Though receivers and converters for for 50-Mc. work. But at 144 Mc. and higher, the
the v.h.f. bands are available on the amateur newer triodes designed for r.f. amplifier service
market, the amateur worker can build his own give fully as much gain as the pentodes, and with
with fully as good results, usually at a con- lower internal noise. With the exception of a
siderable saving in cost. transceiver, the equipment described in the
Basically, modern v.h.f. receiving equipment following pages incorporates low-noise r.f. am-
is little different from that employed on lower plifier techniques.
frequencies. The same order of selectivity may Neutralizing Methods
be used on all amateur frequencies up to at least
450 Mc. The greatest practical selectivity should When triodes are used as r.f. amplifiers some
be employed in v.h.f. reception, as it not only form of neutralization of the grid-plate capaci-
allows more stations to operate in agiven band, tance is required. This can be capacitive, as is
but is an important factor in improving the commonly used in transmitting applications,
signal-to-noise ratio. The effective sensitivity of or inductive. The alternative to neutralization
a receiver having "communication" selectivity is the use of grounded-grid technique. Circuits
can be made much better than is possible with for v.h.f. triode r.f. amplifier stages are given in
broadband systems. Figs. 16-1 through 16-4.
This rules out converted radar-type receivers A dual triode operated as aneutralized push-
and others using high intermediate frequencies. pull amplifier is shown at 16-1. This arrange-
The superregenerative receiver, a simple but
broadband device that was popular in the early
days of v.h.f. work, is now used principally for
portable operation, or for other applications
where high sensitivity and selectivity are not of
prime importance. It is capable of surprising
performance, for a given number of tubes and
components, but its lack of selectivity, its poor
signal-to-noise ratio, and its tendency to radiate
a strong interfering signal have eliminated the
superregeneator as a fixed- station receiver in
areas where there is appreciable v.h.f. activity.

R. F. AMPLIFIER DESIGN Fig. 16- 1--- Schematic diagram of a push-pull r.f, am-

The noise generated within the receiver itself plifier for v.h.f. applications. This circuit is well- suited
to use with antenna systems having balanced lines.
is an important factor in the effectiveness of
Coil and capacitor values not given depend on the fre-
v.h.f. receiving gear. At lower frequencies, and
quency at which the amplifier is to be used. Neutraliz-
to a considerable extent on 50 Mc., external
ing capacitance, C.„ may be built up by twisting ends
noise is alimiting factor. At 144 Mc. and higher
the receiver noise figure, gain and selectivity of insulated leads together.

determine the ability of the system to respond

to weak signals. Proper selection of r.f. amplifier ment is well adapted to v.h.f. preamplifier appli-
tubes and appropriate circuit design aimed at cations, or as the first stage in a converter,
low noise figure are more important in the v.h.f. particularly when a balanced transmission line
receiver " front end" than mere gain. such as the popular 300-ohm Twin-Lead is used.
It is relatively selective and may require resis-
Triode or Pentode? tive loading of the plate circuit, when used as a
Certain triode tubes have been developed preamplifier. The loading effect of the following
with this end in view. Their superiority over circuit may be sufficient to give the required

403'
404 V.H.F. RECEIVERS
A simplified version of the cascode, using a
dual triode tube designed especially for this
application, is shown in Fig. 16-3. By reducing
stray capacitance, through direct coupling be-
tween the two triode sections, this circuit makes
for improved performance at the frequencies
above 100 Mc. The two sections of the tube are
in series, as far as plate voltage is concerned, so
it requires higher voltage than the other circuits
shown.
The neutralization process for the cascode
and neutralized- triode amplifiers is somewhat
similar. With the circuit operating normally the
neutralizing adjustments ( capacitance of CN in
Fig. 16-1; inductance of LN in Fig. 16-2) can
Fig. 16-2—Circuit of the cascade r.f. amplifier. Cou-
be set for best signal-to-noise ratio. The best
pling capacitor, C1, may be omitted if spurious receiver
results are obtained using anoise generator, ad-
responses are not a problem. Neutralizing winding, LN justing for lowest noise figure, but careful ad-
should resonate at the signal frequency with the grid- justment on a weak signal provides a fair
plate capacitance of the first tube. Base connections approximation. Noise generators and their use
are for 417A and 6AJ4, but other small in v.h.f. receiver adjustment are treated in July,
triodes mpy be used. 1953, QST, p. 10, and in this Handbook, Chapter
21.
band width, when the push-pull stage is induc- Grounded-grid r.f. amplifier technique is illus-
tively coupled to the mixer. trated in Figs. 16-4 and 16-25. Here the input is
A triode amplifier having excellent noise in the cathode lead, with the grid of the tube
figure and broadband characteristics is shown in grounded, to act as ashield between cathode and
Fig. 16-2. Commonly called the cascode, it uses plate. The grounded-grid circuit is stable and
a triode or triode-connected pentode followed easily adjusted, and is well adapted to broadband
by a triode grounded-grid stage. This circuit is applications. The gain per stage is low, so that
extremely stable and uncritical in adjustment. two or more stages may be required.
At 50 Mc. and higher its over-all gain is at least Tubes well- suited to grounded-grid amplifier
equal to the best single-stage pentode amplifier service include the 6J4, 6AN4, 6AJ4, 6A,M4,
and its noise figure is far lower. 6BC4, 417A and 416B. Disk-seal tubes such as
Neutralization is accomplished by the coil the " lighthouse" and "pencil tube" types are
LN, whose value is such that it resonates at the often used as r.f. amplifiers above 500 Mc., and
signal frequency with the grid-plate capacitance the new ceramic tubes show great possibilities
of the tube. Its inductance is not critical; it for r.f. amplifier service in the u.h.f. range.
may be omitted from the circuit without the Great care should be used in adjusting the r.f.
stage going into oscillation, but neutralization portion of a v.h.f. receiver, whatever circuit is
results in a lower noise figure than is possible used. If it is working properly it will control
without it. Any of several v.h.f. tubes may be the noise figure of the entire system.
used in the cascode circuit. The example shown
in Fig. 16-2 uses the 417A ( 5842), followed by a Reducing Spurious Responses
6AJ4. Two 6A J4s would work almost equally In areas where there is a high level of v.h.f.
well, as would the 6AM4, 6AN4 and 6BC4. Pin activity or extensive use of other frequencies in
connections in Fig. 16-2 should be changed to suit the v.h.f, range, the ability of the receiver to
the tubes selected. operate properly in the presence of strong sig-
nals may be an important consideration. Special
tube types, otherwise similar to older numbers,
have been developed for low overload and cross-
modulation susceptibility. The 6BC8, which may
be used as a replacement for the 6BQ7A or
6BZ7, is one of these.
Modification of the converter design can also
improve performance in these respects. In gen-
eral, the gain ahead of the mixer stage should be
made no more than is necessary to achieve good
6.3
noise figure characteristics. The plate voltage on
the r.f. amplifier should be kept as high as prac-
Fig. 16- 3— Simplified cascade circuit for use with dual tical, to prevent easy overloading.
triodes having separate cathodes. Coil and capacitance
Rejection of signals outside the desired fre-
values not given depend on frequency. Bifilar r.f.
quency range can be improved by the use of
chokes are occasionally used in heater leads. L high- Q tuned circuits ahead of the first r.f.
matches impedances between tubes and improves
amplifier stage. Television transmitters are par-
overall noise figure. ticularly troublesome in this respect, and one or
R. F. Amplifier Design 405
ping the oscillator plate voltage,
either directly or by increasing the
value of the dropping resistor.
7-45
80
A pentode mixer is less subject to
.001 oscillator pulling than atriode, and
it will probably require less injection
voltage. In apentode mixer with no
1000
r.f. amplifier, plate current should be
%CI held to the lowest usable value, to re-
duce tube noise. This may be con-
trolled by varying the mixer screen
voltage. When a good r.f. amplifier
is used the mixer plate current may
be run higher, for better operation
-100 + 100 with strong signals.
Occasionally oscillation near the
Fig. 16-4—Grounded-grid amplifier. Position of top on plate coil
should be adjusted for lowest noise figure. Low gain with this circuit signal frequency may be encount-
makes two stages necessary for most applications. R.f. choke and coil ered in v.h.f. mixers. This usually
values depend on frequency. results from stray lead inductance
in the mixer plate circuit, and is
more coaxial-type circuits inserted in the lead most common with triode mixers. It may be cor-
from the antenna to the converter may be neces- rected by connecting a small capacitance from
sary to keep such signals from interfering with plate to cathode, directly at the tube socket. Ten
normal reception. to 25 µed. will be sufficient, depending on the sig-
A common cause of unwanted signals appear- nal frequency.
ing in the tuning range is the presence of oscilla-
OSCILLATOR STABILITY
tor harmonics in the energy being fed to the
mixer of a crystal-controlled converter. This When ahigh- selectivity if. system is employed
may be prevented by using ahigh oscillator fre- in v.h.f. reception, the stability of the oscillator is
quency, to keep down the number of multiplica- extremely important. Slight variations in oscil-
tions, and by shielding the oscillator and multi- lator frequency that would not be noticed when
plier stages from the rest of the converter. abroadband i.f. amplifier is used become intoler-
Signals at the intermediate frequency may able when the passband is reduced to crystal-filter
ride through aconverter. This can be prevented proportions.
by keeping down capacitive interstage coupling One satisfactory solution to this problem is
in the r.f. circuitry, and by shielding the con- the use of a crystal-controlled oscillator, with
verter and the receiver antenna terminals. The frequency multipliers if needed, to supply the
problem of receiver responses is dealt with in
QST for April, 1955, p. 56, and February, 1958,
p. 27. F OUTFUT

MIXER CIRCUITS
The mixer in av.h.f. converter may be either
a pentode or a triode tube. Pentodes give gen-
erally higher output, and may require less injec- A
•100*

tion. When used without apreceding r.f. ampli-

fier stage, the triode mixer may provide abetter
noise figure. With either tube, the grid circuit is
tuned to the signal frequency, and the plate
circuit to the intermediate frequency.
A simple triode mixer is shown in Fig. 16-5A,
with a pentode mixer at B. A dual-triode ver-
sion ( push-push mixer) is shown at C. The •100X

push-push mixer is well adapted to use at 420

Mc., and may, of course, be used at any lower
frequency. Dual tubes may be used as both mix-
er and oscillator, combining the circuits of Figs.
16-5 and 16-6. A 6U8 could use its pentode as a
mixer ( 16-5B) and the oscillator portion ( 16-
6A) would be a triode. Dual-triode tubes ( 6J6, +100X
12AT7 and many others) would combine 16-5A
and 16-6A. In dual triodes having separate cath- Fig. 16- 5—Typical v.h.f. mixer circuits for triode ( A),
odes some external coupling may be required, pentode ( B) and push- push triode ( C). Circuits A and B
but the common cathode of the 6J6 will provide may be used with one portion of various dual-purpose
sufficient injection in most cases. If the injection tubes. Plate current of pentode ( B) should be held at
is more than necessary it can be reduced by drop- lowest usable value if no r.f. stage is used.
406 V.H.F. RECEIVERS
Fig. 16-6— Recommended oscil-
lator circuits for tunable v.h.f.
converters. Dual- triode- version
(B) is recommended for 220 or 1000
1000
RPO
420 Mc. R.f. choke coil and ca-
pacitor values not given depend +100v.
on frequency. (A) •100V

injection voltage. Such aconverter usually em- rected by building an i.f. amplifier stage into
ploys one or more broadband r.f, amplifier the converter itself. Such astage is useful even
stages, and tuning is done by tuning the receiver when the gain of the system is adequate without
with which the converter is used to cover the it, as the gain control can be used to permit
desired intermediate frequency range. operation of the converter with receivers of
When a tunable oscillator and a fixed inter- widely different performance. If the receiver has
mediate frequency are used, special attention an S-meter, its adjustment may be left in the
must be paid to the oscillator design, to be sure position used for lower frequencies, and the
that it is mechanically and electrically stable. converter gain set so as to make the meter read
The tuning capacitor should be solidly built, normally on v.h.f. signals.
preferably of the double-bearing type. Split- Where reception of wide-band f.m. or un-
stator capacitors specifically designed for v.h.f. stable signals of modulated oscillators is desired,
service, usually having ball-bearing end plates aconverter may be used ahead of an f.m. broad-
and special construction to insure short leads, cast receiver. A superregenerative detector op-
are well worth their extra cost. Leads should erating at the intermediate frequency, with or
be made with stiff wire, to reduce vibration without additional if. amplifier stages, also may
effects. Mechanical stability of air- wound coils serve as an i.f. and detector system for reception
can be improved by tying the turns together of wide-band signals. By using ahigh i.f. ( 10 to
with narrow strips of household cement at sev- 30 Mc. or so) and by resistive loading of the i.f.
eral points. transformers, almost any desired degree of
Recommended oscillator circuits for v.h.f. bandwidth can be secured, providing good voice
work are shown in Fig. 16-6. The single-ended quality on all but the most unstable signals. Any
oscillator may be used for 50 or 144 Mc. with of these methods may be used for reception in
good results. The push-pull version is recom- the microwave region, where stabilized trans-
mended for higher frequencies and may also be mission is extremely difficult at the current state
used on the two lower bands, as well. Circuit of the art.
A works well with almost any small triode, or
one half of a 6J6 or 12AT7. The 6J6 is well THE SUPERREGENERATIVE RECEIVER
suited to push-pull applications, as shown in The simplest type of v.h.f. receiver is the
circuit 16-6B. superregenerator. It affords fair sensitivity with
few tubes and elementary circuits, but its weak-
THE I.F. AMPLIFIER
nesses, listed earlier, have relegated it to appli-
Superheterodyne receivers for 50 Mc. and up cations where small size and low power con-
should have fairly high intermediate frequen- sumption are important considerations.
cies, to reduce both oscillator pulling and image Its sensitivity results from the use of an alter-
response. Approximately 10 per cent of the nating quenching voltage, usually in the range
signal frequency is commonly used, with 10.7 between 20 and 200 kc., to interrupt the normal
Mc. being set up as the standard i.f. for com- oscillation of a regenerative detector. The re-
mercially-built f.m. receivers. This particular generation can thus be increased far beyond the
frequency has a disadvantage for 50- Mc, work, amount usable in astraight regenerative circuit.
in that it makes the receiver subject to image The detector itself can be made to furnish the
response from 28- Mc, signals, if the oscillator is quenching voltage, or a separate oscillator tube
on the low side of the signal frequency. A spot can be used. Regeneration is usually controlled
around 7 Mc. is favored for amateur converter by varying the plate voltage in triode detectors,
service, as practically all communications re- or the screen voltage in the case of pentodes. A
ceivers are capable of tuning this range. typical circuit is shown in Fig. 16-7.
For selectivity with a reasonable number of
i.f. stages, double conversion is usually em-
ployed in complete receivers for the v.h.f. range. Fig. 16-7—Superregener-
A 7- Mc, intermediate frequency, for instance, is ative detector circuit for
changed to 455 kc., by the addition of a second self-quenched detector.
mixer-oscillator. This procedure is, of course, Pentode tube may be
inherent in the use of av.h.f. converter ahead of used, varying screen volt-
acommunications receiver. age by means of the po-
If the receiver so used is lacking in sensitivity, tentiometer to control re- Au nio

the over-all gain of the converter- receiver com- generation.

bination may be inadequate. This can be cor-
Crystal-Controlled Converters 407

it • \e'

rn
6

e; ,

Fig. 16-8—The 50- and 144-Mc, crystal-controlled converters are built in 3 X 4

X 5- inch Miniboxes and are designed to work into a receiver that tunes 14 to
18 Mc. Plate voltage required is + 150, and use of a 0D3-stabilized supply is
suggested.

CRYSTAL- CONTROLLED CONVERTERS

FOR 50, 144 AND 220 Mc.
The three converters shown in Figs. 16-8 the " Nuvistor" miniature triode and a crystal-
through 16-15 are designed to be used with a controlled local- oscillator signal, they offer low
receiver that tunes 14 to 18 Mc. ( 14 to 19 Mc. noise figures and high stability on the three
for the 220- Mc. converter.). Designed around bands. The power- supply requirement is 150

R.F.AMP. MIXER
4 6CW4 6CVV4
tool

22

1OK

Fig. 16-9—Schematic diagram and parts information for the 50-Mc. converter. Resistors /
2 watt unless specified.
1

Fixed capacitors are ceramic; decimal values in µf., others in µµf.

C1-3-30-µµf. mica trimmer. µh. Ls set for 0.64 µh., Le for 0.66, L
e for 0.73

C2, Cs— No. 22 insulated hookup wires 2 inches long, µh. (Miller coils No. 20A687RBI). LS and L a

twisted together for approximately 11

4 inches.
/ are Ye inch apart c. to c. La to L
e is /
4 inch;
1

Ce—Same, but 1-inch wires twisted for /

2 inch.
1 Le to L, is 7
713 inch.
J1—Coaxial connector, SO-239. 14— No. 32 enam., close-wound Vs inch on 1 4 -
/ inch iron-
.12— Phono jack. slug phenolic form; 3.8 to 8.5 µh., set for 6.9
.18-8- pin plug ( Amphenol 86-RCP8). µh. (Miller coil Na. 20A686RBI).
L1-5 turns No. 18, /
2 -
1 inch diam., 8 t.p.i. ( B & W 1.7— Universal-wound coil, 4.7 to 10 µh., set for 7.9 µh.
3002). (Miller coil No. 20A826R111).
1.2-10 turns Na. 28 enam., close-wound on /
4 -
1 inch iron- La-8 turns No. 32 enam., close-wound on /
4 inch iron-
1

slug phenolic form, tapped at 3 turns; 0.65 to slug phenolic form; 0.67 to 1.25 µh., set for
1.3 µh. ( Miller form Na. 20A00012111). 0.94 µh. ( Miller coil No. 20A10612131).
14, L, 14-8 turns No. 28 enam., close-wound on / 4 -
1 inch '6.-36-Mc. crystal ( International Crystal Mfg. Co. FA-5).
iron-slug phenolic form. Range 0.43 to 0.85
462 V.H.F. ANTENNAS
tion of the feedline. Each bay is fed with a length spacing. Dimensions may be taken from
balun and halfwave section of RG-8/U cable. Table 18-I, and figures for the middle of the
These are joined at the center between bays band will give good performance across either
with a Tee fitting. As each bay has an im- band.
pedance of 200 ohms, two 50-ohm leads are
paralleled at the center, resulting in an im-
pedance of about 20 ohms, when the coupling
effect between bays is included. A flexible sec-
tion of 50-ohm coax one wavelength long, with
a balun at the end, steps this up to about 80
ohms. A " Q" section of '/4- inch tubing Y4 inch
center to center steps this up to the point where
it can be fed with 450- ohm open- wire TV line.
30o-oleri bee
The " Twin -
Five" for 144 Mc.

A popular stacked array for 144- Mc, work

is the Twin- Five, originally developed by
W2PAU. 1 In this design two 5-element arrays
of standard design are stacked afull wavelength
apart. If the folded-dipole driven elements are
constructed so that the individual bays have a
feed impedance of about 400 ohms the midpoint Fig. 18- 14— Element arrangement and feed system of
of the open-wire phasing line can be fed with the 12-element array. Reflectors are spaced 0.15 wave-
52-ohm coax and a balun. Where open- wire length behind the driven elements.
line is desired, the impedances can be matched
through a "Q" section of about 300 ohms im- The supporting frame for either array may
pedance. If the constructor is in doubt as to the be made of wood or metal. Details of a metal
actual feed impedance to be matched, the stub support for the 12-element array are shown in
arrangement of Fig. 18-1 will take care of a Figs. 18-16 and 18-17. Note that all elements are
wide range of impedances and lines to be mounted at their midpoints, and that no insula-
matched. Dimensions can be taken from Table tors are used. The elements are mounted in
18-I. front of the supporting frame, to keep metal
An effective 20-element array can be made by out of the field of the array. This method is
using two of these arrays side by side, with preferable to that wherein mechanical balance
full- wave spacing horizontally also. The im- is maintained through mounting the driven ele-
pedance at the midpoint of the horizontal phas-
ing line will then be about 100 ohms, which is
still well within the range of "Q" sections of
practical dimensions.

LARGE COLLINEAR ARRAYS

FOR 144 MC. AND HIGHER
High gain and very broad frequency response
are desirable characteristics found in curtains
of half- wave elements fed in phase and backed
up by reflectors. The reflector can be made up
of parasitic elements, or it can be a screen ex-
tending approximately a quarter wavelength
beyond the ends of the driven elements. There
is not a large difference between the two types
of reflectors, except that higher front-to-back
ratio and somewhat broader frequency response
are achieved with the plane reflector.

12 -and 16- Element Arrays

Two collinear systems that may be used on

144, 220 or 420 Mc. are shown in Figs. 18-14
and 18-15. Either may be fed directly with 300-
ohm transmission line, or through coaxial line
and abalun. In the 12- element array, Fig. 18-14,
the reflectors are spaced 0.15 wavelength in back
of the driven elements, while the 16-element•
array, Figs. 18-15 and 18-10, uses 0.2 wave- Fig. 18- 15—Schematic drawing of a 16-element array.
A variable "Q" section may be inserted at the feed
Brown—"The Wide- Spread Twin-Five" CQ, March, point if accurate matching is desired. Reflector spacing
1950. is 0.2 wavelength.
50-Mc. Converter 409
a small capacitor made by twisting' two insu- ohm resistor will indicate about 70 to 90 volts
lated wires. with the oscillator oscillating, and it should drop
A good idea of the parts arrangement can be back to about 50 volts when there is no oscilla-
obtained from the bottom view, Fig. 16-10. The tion. Start with the core in L8 unscrewed
input coils, L2 and L3,are to the right of the (closest to chassis) and slowly run it in while
antenna connector, and the output jack, / 2,is to watching the voltmeter. The voltage should rise
the right of 1. 3.The output coil, L7,is at the top lo about 90 volts and then drop suddenly. Set
right of the picture, and a shielded wire is run the core for the highest voltmeter reading ( low-
from the coil ( actually from the 0.001-µf, ca- est oscillator plate current) at which the oscil-
pacitor) to the output jack. lator will start each time power is applied. If a
Nuvistor sockets have two small tabs on them wavemeter is available, check the frequency of
that are bent against the underside of the chassis oscillation to see that it is 36 Mc.
after they have been installed. The tabs require The 50-Mc, converter is now ready to receive
that clearance slots be filed for them after the strong signals, as soon as it is connected to the
-inch hole for the socket has been drilled or receiver. Make up a cable of any small coax,
punched. Note in Fig. 16-10 that these tabs are putting aphono- pin plug on one end. The other
clamped to the chassis by washers held to the end connects to the receiver antenna terminals.
chassis by 4-40 hardware. This may require acoax fitting for some receiv-
When thè converter is completed, the tubes ers, but most have screw terminals. Connect the
should be plugged in and a power supply ( any inner conductor to the antenna terminal and the
150-volt d.c. and 6.3-volt a.c. source; see Fig. outer sheath to the ground terminal or the re-
16-161 connected at .1 3 through a mating cable ceiver chassis. Do this with the shortest possible
plug ( Amphenol 78-PF8). With all the tubes in leads, to keep down pickup of signals at 14 Mc.
place, and the crystal, the oscillator should be Now a 50-Mc. signal is needed. This can be
checked first. A voltmeter connected between from agrid-dip oscillator, anearby 50-Mc, sta-
chassis and the junction of L8 and the 10,000- tion, the harmonic of atransmitter, or ideally, a

R.. AMP. R.F. AMP. MIXER

6CW4 6CW4 6CW4

144 MC.

XTAL OSC.
6CW4

j43.333

1
IL CR 1

.00.1 I
33

47 K

Fig. 16- 11—Schematic diagram and parts information for the 144-Mc. converter. Resistors /
2 watt unless specified.
1

Fixed capacitors are ceramic unless specified. Decimal values in pf., others in ispf.

C2, C.-1-7.5-µ,af. ceramic trimmer (Centralab L-5 turns No. 28 enamel, close-wound on Ye- inch iron'
829-7). slug form. Range 0.24 to 0.41 µh., set for
C4-4-30-120. ceramic trimmer ( Mallory ST-554-N). 0.33 ¡th. ( Miller coil No. 20A337RBI).
Ce-20-11/if. miniature variable ( Hammarlund MAC-20). L-6 1
2 turns No. 18, /
/ 4 -
1 inch diam., % inch long.
Ce, C7 — 0.001 -
pf. button-type bypass ( Centralab L-5 turns like 1.3, 1
/2 inch long, tapped at 2 turns. L.

ZA-102). Do not use disk-ceramic or other and I., are parallel, % inch apart, c. to c.
wire- lead capacitors for these points. L
e— Universal-wound coil, 4.7 to 10 µh., set for 7.9 ish.

Ci,— No. 22 insulated hookup wires 1% inches long, (Miller coil No. 20A826RBI).
twisted together for approximately 1 inch. L
e- 9 turns No. 28 enamel, close-wound on 14-inch
CR‘—Crystal-diode rectifier; 1N82. iron-slug form. Range 0.58 to 1 µh., set for
Ji—Coaxial connector, 50-239. 0.82 µh. ( Miller coil No. 20A827RBI).
.12— Phono lack. L
e- 12 turns insulated hookup wire around Le.
/
1

13-8-pin plug ( Amphenol 86-RCP8). L9-8 turns No. 18, - inch diam., % inch long.
Li, L8-6 turns No. 18, 1/
4-inch diam. /
2 inch long. Tap
1 '6-43.333-Mc. crystal ( International Crystal Mfg. Co.
at 21
2 turns.
/ FA-5).
410 V.H.F. RECEIVERS
good signal generator. For any except the last, it may still be heard as long as the cover is off
connect some kind of antenna to / 1.A short the converter case. It should disappear when the
piece of wire will do at first, and the length can case is assembled. Recheck the adjustment of L2
be varied to suit the strength of the signal. Set and L, after final adjustment of the trap.
the stud in L4 at about the middle of its range. Further work to improve weak- signal recep-
Next, peak the screws in L2,L3,1. 5,L6 and L7 tion should be done with a noise generator,
for maximum signal strength. Now disable the though satisfactory results can be obtained on
r.f. amplifier stage by disconnecting the 10,000- weak signals if the work is done with care. The
ohm resistor from Ls,or by removing the heater aim should be better signal-to-noise ratio, rather
lead from Pin 12 of the socket. Adjust L4 for than merely greater signal strength. Using the
minimum signal. Replace the heater or plate receiver S meter, or the audio sound of a weak
voltage and readjust all coils except L4 for max- signal, tune for maximum signal with respect to
imum signal again. noise.
The converter should be close to optimum per- As afinal check, put a50- ohm resistor across
formance if everything has been done properly Observe the noise level. Now remove the re-
to this point. If the Channel 2 trap is used, ad- sistor and put on an antenna system with .50-
just it so that no interference is heard from the ohm feed. If the noise rises appreciably, this ex-
local TV station. If the station is very near by, ternal noise is the limiting factor in v.h.f. recep-

Fig. 16- 12— Interior of the 144-Mc. converter. Details of parts arrangement are given in the text. The if. output
from the mixer plate coil, is, (upper right) is brought through ashielded lead down the
side and across the bottom to the output connector, J2, at the lower left.
144-Mc. Converter 411
tion, and the only improvement one can make fication on a 1 4-inch diameter drill and then
from here on is to put up abigger or higher an- mounted on associated tuning capacitors, tie
tenna, or move to aquieter location. points or ground lugs. In the photograph, the
r.f. amplifier input circuit is in the lower right-
The 144-Me. Converter
hand corner. The coil above it is L2,the match-
The 144-Mc. converter, Figs. 16-8 and 16-12, ing reactance, mounted on the side of the box.
uses a two-tube "cascode" r.f. amplifier ahead The two air-wound coils side by side and just
of the mixer, and a frequency-multiplying sys- to the right of center are for the amplifier plate
tem is required to provide the desired 130-Mc. and the mixer grid ( L3 and L4). The second-
local-oscillator signal. Handwound coils are harmonic trap circuit is to their left, just below
used in the r.f. circuits, instead of slug-tuned the third harmonic tank circuit, L8C5.The oscil-
coils, with the exception of the matching react- lator plate coil and the output coil are in the
ance ( L2 in Fig. 16-11) which must be adjusted upper left and right corners, respectively.
for best noise figure. The crystal oscillator Adjustment of the 144- Mc, converter is sim-
works on 43.333 Mc. and drives a crystal-diode ilar, except that the multiplier tank circuit,
frequency tripler to 130 Mc. A trap circuit tuned L8C5,should be adjusted for maximum signal.
to the second harmonic rejects the second har- External noise may not be discernible in quiet
monic and another circuit accentuates the third locations on 144 Mc., and the antenna check
harmonic and provides a "clean" local-oscillator outlined for 50 Mc. may be inconclusive. Adjust-
signal at 130 Mc. As with the 50-Mc, converter, ment of all r.f. circuits should be made carefully
the second-harmonic trap circuit ( L3C4)can be for greatest margin of signal over noise, using
omitted if no local interference problem exists. weak signals. The minimum-signal method of
In the case of the converter pictured, a local adjusting coil L2 may be followed initially, but
f.m. station at 100.8 Mc. gave an output signal at readjustment for optimum signal-to-noise ratio
14.2 Mc. by beating against the 86.6-Mc, second (or lowest noise figure, using anoise generator)
harmonic of the oscillator. A trap in the antenna should produce a worthwhile improvement. Do
circuit was not as effective, since it caused some not use the second-harmonic trap, /4 .4,unless it
deterioration of the 144-Mc. noise figure. is necessary to eliminate f.m. interference, as
Referring to Fig. 16-12, the construction is this circuit introduces one more variable to com-
similar to that of the 50-Mc, converter, with a plicate the adjustment procedure.
few exceptions. The coils can be wound to speci- In most areas 2-meter activity is spread over

Fig. 16- 13—The 220-Mc, converter uses four 6CW4

tubes and a semi-conductor frequency quadrupler.
Screw on the side is neutralization adjustment.
412 V.H.F. RECEIVERS
more of the band than is the case with 50 Mc. on a % 1 - inch diameter rod or drill and then

The converter response can be made uniform spáced to meet the specifications. They are sup-
across most or all of the band by tuning the if. ported by soldering the ends directly to tube
output coil, L 5 , for maximum response near the pins, ground lugs or capacitor terminals. The
high end or middle of the band. This coil affects Nuvistor sockets are set in Y2-inch diameter
only the gain of the converter; detuning it does holes in which two notches have been filed to
not reduce the signal-to-noise ratio. The r.f. accept the tabs; the tabs are then bent over and
amplifier plate and mixer grid circuits, C2- L3 and held to the chassis by washers and 4-40 hard-
C3- L4 have only aminor effect on noise figure, so ware. The two 0.001-µf. capacitors bypassing
they can also be " stagger-tuned" to some extent the grid of the second 6CW4 and the bottom
to achieve uniform response. end of L 3 are mica "button" capacitors ( Cen-
A fair final check on the 144-Mc, converter tralab ZA-102). When mounting the tubular
performance is to detune the diode multiplier trimmer capacitors that are used to tune the
circuit, L8C5,and note its effect on the signal-to- signal circuits, it will be necessary to notch the
noise ratio. If the r.f. amplifier is working prop- holes slightly to clear the mounting.
erly it should be possible to detune this circuit The adjustment of the converter is quite simi-
so that the gain drops an S unit or two, before lar to that of the 144-Mc, converter, and the in-
there is any effect on the signal-to-noise ratio structions given earlier apply equally as well to
observable on weak signals. the 220- Mc. band. Depending upon the local
operating habits, it may be desirable to peak the
The 220-Mc. Converter circuits for a particular portion of the band. In
The 220-Mc. converter, Figs. 16-13 and 16-15, areas where TV sets are tuned to Channel 7,
is similar to the 144-Mc, converter in both con- there may be substantial TV-receiver local-
struction and circuitry. A cascode r.f. stage is oscillator radiation that will mess up the first
used ahead of the mixer, and adiode frequency megacycle or two of the band, and consequently
quadrupler is used to furnish a 206-Mc. local- the amateur activity will peak around 222 or 223
oscillator signal from a51.5-Mc, crystal oscilla- Mc. Both agrid-dip oscillator or signal genera-
tor. Two tuned circuits are used between r.f. tor, and a noise generator will be found to be
stage and mixer, coupled by asmall capacitance. very useful in getting best results from the con-
Because the 220-Mc, band is 5Mc. wide, the re- verter.
ceiver following this converter must tune from
Power Supply
14 to 19 Mc.
As can be seen in Fig. 16-15, the construction The circuit for a suitable power supply is
is quite similar to that of the 144-Mc. converter. given in Fig. 16-16. Any power supply of 180
The inductors L1,L 3 ,L 4 and L s are first wound volts or more ( enough to fire a OD3) will be

R. F. AMPLIFIER MIXER
220 MC.
6CW4 6CW4 • f 6CW4 14 MC.

220 MC.
00I
L,
ANT OUT

>1 J

00m
IW.
OSCILLATOR
6CW4 sis mc. 1N82
6CW4
/\
51.5 MC. IO 12

Fig. 16- 14—Circuit diagram of the 220-Mc, crystal-controlled converter. Unless specified otherwise, resistors are
Y2 waft, resistances are in ohms, capacitances in Ø.
C1, C8. C.-1-6 mg. tubular trimmer (Centralab 829 - 6). 14- 4t. as Ls, tapped 1turn from ground end.
Cs-2 µµf., made by twisting two insulated wires 1inch. Ls-4.7 - 10.0 Ah. adjustable inductor (Miller
C.-15-00. variable ( Hammarlund MAC- 15). 20A826R111).
Ji—Chassis-mounting coaxial receptacle (50-239). Ls-0.43 - 0.85 ph. adjustable inductor (Miller
Jr—Phono jack. 20A687R81).
1,1-2% t. No. 18 spaced wire diem., 1,4 inch id., 2 t. insulated wire wound on ground end of L.
1,-1 1
/
tapped 34 t. from ground end. L8-4 t. No. 18 spaced three times wire diem., 1/
4 inch

Ls-0.12 - 0.19 Ah. adjustable inductor (Miller i.d., tapped PA t. from ground end.
20A1571281). Pi—Chassis-mounting octal plug (Amphenol 86-CP8).
1.8- 23
4 t. No. 18 spaced twice wire diem., /
/ 4 inch id.
1
220-Mc. Converter 413

Fig. 16- 15— View underneath the chassis of the 220- Mc. converter. The long shielded wire runs
from t,, at the lower left to the output jack. Silver- button mica capacitors ( Centralab ZA-102)
that bypass the plate coil and the control grid of the second 6CW4 ( center left) are also used
to support several resistors. Coil Ls is supported by the terminals of Cs ( bottom center). Chassis
is part of 3 X 4 X 5- inch Minibox.

suitable; depending upon the voltage available some are stable enough to do well around 30 Mc.
the value of 12 1 may have to be changed. R1 At least one communications receiver, the NC-
should have a value such that with no current 300, has a range designed especially for v.h.f.
being taken from terminal 6the current through converter use, starting at 30.5 Mc.
the OD3 is between 30 and 40 ma.

Using Other Intermediate Frequencies

The i.f. tuning range beginning at 14 Mc. was

selected as the most desirable for most receivers.
Other ranges may be preferred, and the i.f. can
be altered easily enough. The injection frequency
is lower than the signal frequency by whatever
if. you intend to use. For example, a 50- Mc.
converter with a7- Mc. i.f. would have acrystal Fig. 16-16—Typ'cal power supply for the 50-, 144- or
and injection frequency of 50-7, or 43 Mc. The 220-Mc. converter.
144- Mc, converter would have a 137-Mc, injec- Cr-40-µf. separate section dual capacitor ( Sprague
tion frequency, and the crystal would be one- TCS-48).
third of this, or 45.667 Mc. Cits, CR2-400 p.i.v. silicon rectifier ( 1N1763 or equiv.)
Generally speaking, single-conversion com- is—Octal socket.
munications receivers ( most inexpensive types, Ps—Line plug, preferably fused.
and all older receivers) work best with low in- R2-3000 ohms, 5-watt wirewound.
termediate frequencies, such as 7 Mc. or lower. SI—S.p.s.t. toggle.
Double-conversion receivers will be satisfactory T1-125 v. at 50 ma., 6.3 v. at 2.0 amp ( Knight 61 G
in the 14-Mc, range in almost every case, and 411 or equiv.).
414 V.H.F. RECEIVERS

•-•

'
.111

Fig. 16- 17—This pair of 420-Mc, transceivers will be all ready to go as soon as
the handset connectors are plugged in the panel sockets. Each handful is acom-
plete station, built around the 6CW4 Nuvistor and apair of transistors.

A SIMPLE 420-MC. TRANSCEIVER

A transceiver is a compact radio station that detector or modulated oscillator. When transmit-
uses some ( or all) of the components for both ting, a 2N107 with a microphone in the emitter
transmitting and receiving. In the 1930s, trans- circuit serves as a speech amplifier, and a2N270
ceivers were very popular for portable and mobile is used as the modulator. During receiving, the
work in the 5- and DA - meter bands ( forerunners transistors amplify the output of the superregen-
of the present 50- and 144- Mc. assignments). In erative detector. The value of 470 ohms for R 3

a transceiver, one tube is used as a modulated may seem small, but it worked out best in terms
oscillator while transmitting and as a super- of smooth operation of the detector, and the two-
regenerative detector for receiving, and the audio stage transistor amplifier provides plenty of audio
system is used as modulator and as audio ampli- output.
fier. The broad signal from the modulated oscil- An inexpensive power transformer, T1,is used
lator is readily received with good audio quality as a combination audio output and modulation
by the superregenerative detector, and the in- transformer. The impedance ratio of the trans-
herent a.g.c. action of the detector allows the former is not optimum for the handset headphone,
receiver to handle a wide range of signal levels. but the two transistor amplifiers provide enough
without attention to a gain control. gain for adequate audio. A 3.2-ohm loudspeaker
The transceiver shown in Figs. 16-17 and 16-20 is a better impedance match for the transistor
is a simple self-contained unit that is readily through T1,and will give ample volume for fixed-
portable and will furnish communication up to station operation when plugged into J2.
25 or 30 miles over line-of sight ranges, and less Considerable time was spent in trying various
than that over masked routes, depending upon the r.f. chokes in the circuit, and maximum transmit-
terrain. It can be built for just over $25. ter output was obtained when the values shown
in Fig. 16-18 were used.
The Circuit
The 420- Mc. transceiver circuit, Fig. 16-18, is Construction
similar to an old stand-by of the 1930s except Parts placement can be quite critical. Unless
for the transistors in the audio system. The the constructor has had previous u.h.f. experi-
6CW4, V1,is used as either a superregenerative ence, it is best to wire the transceiver exactly as
420-Mc. Transceiver 415

ANT.

Fig. 16- 18—Circuit diagram of the 420-Mc. transceiver. Unless specified otherwise, capacitances are in picofarads
(pf. or WI resistances are in ohms, resistors are Y2 watt. Capacitors marked with polarity are electrolytic.

BT,-6-volt " A" battery ( Burgess F4PI). Ps-4-conductor plug (Cinch-Jones P-304-
CCT).
BT,-45-volt miniature " B" battery ( Burgess XX30). RFC1-1.0-41. r.f. choke ( Stancor RTC-8515 or Miller
Cs-8.7-
pf. midget tuning capacitor ( Hammarlund MAC- 4602).
10 or Johnson 160-104). RFC,, RFCs-10-pl. r.f. choke (Stancor RTC-8522 or
Cs-7.3 -
pf. subminiature variable ( Johnson 189-3). Miller 4612).
HS,—Western Electric El, available through many sur- RFC s-2.4-µh. r.f. choke ( Stancor RTC-8517 or Miller
plus outlets. 4606).
JI— Coaxial connector, SO-239. 2- position lever switch ( Centralab 1458).
Js— Open-circuit phone jack. Ss—S.p.s.t. toggle switch.
Js-4-conductor connector ( Cinch-Jones S-304-AB). Ts— Small power transformer, 115-v. primary, 250-v. c.t.
14—See text and Fig. 16-19. and 6.3-v. secondary ( Knight, Allied Rodio 62
G 008).

described and with the parts specified. Once the Nuvistor socket to one of these lugs. Position
builder has gained some experience with a work- this lug so that one end of the coupling loop, 1. 1,
ing unit, he will be in a much better position to can later be soldered to it.
experiment and make changes if he so desires. Next mount the three electrolytics, C6,C 7 ,and
Construction of the transceiver is started by C8,on the Plexiglas board. On the middle termi-
cutting and drilling a piece of 3 X 3 X 'A- inch nal strip, solder a one- inch piece of bare wire to
Plexiglas or polystyrene to the dimensions shown the ground lug and a two-inch piece of insulated
in Fig. 16-19A. Seven one- inch tapped spacers are wire to the next terminal. On the bottom terminal
mounted on the Plexiglas sheet with 6-32 X Vd, - strip, solder a two-inch insulated wire to the
inch screws. Using Figs. 16-20 and 16-21 as center lug.
guides, mount terminal strips under three of these In sequence 14, 14, R7,R 6 , R4,and Rs can
screws. Insert the 6CW4 in its socket. Push the now be soldered in place. Q1 is mounted on the
Nuvistor through the 74 6- inch hole so that its middle terminal strip and Q 2 on the lower. Solder
socket rests on top of the Plexiglas sheet. Make the oscillator coil ( dimensions shown in Fig. 16-
sure no part of the Nuvistor socket comes in con- 198 ) in place and then the three r.f. chokes,
tact with any other metal part near it. Position RFC 2, RFC 3,and RFC 4. Mount two 0.01-µf.
the socket so that Pin 4is on the left, as shown in disk- ceramic capacitors, C 3 and C 4 , on the top
Fig. 16-21. terminal strip. Assembly of components on the
Solder the small trimmer capacitor, C 2 , to the Plexiglas board is now complete.
main tuning capacitor, C1,and then mount C, Drill the front panel of the Minibox, using
in the /4-inch hole next to the Nuvistor socket. Figs. 16-17 and 16-22 as a guide. Make a strap
Put two soldering lugs under the screw labeled A from a 7 x r4- inch piece of scrap aluminum to
in Fig. 16-21. Connect a wire from Pin 12 of the secure the batteries to the lower half of the Mini-
416 V.H.F. RECEIVERS
Fig. 16-19—(A) Details of the Plexiglas or polystyrene
sheet that supports the components. (
8) Dimensions of

4A ,A Ely
ke -r
coils Li and Ly. The material is No: 12 tinned copper
wire.

+A +A

jack, 13,and the on-off switch, S2.Mount the an-

A - No 28 tenna connector, Ji,in the center of the top of the
Dr
e- A+ j .
Minibox. After connecting an insulated shaft ex-
tender to the tuning capacitor, C1,attach the
C- 7/16 j-t- e Plexiglas board and its associated components to
(A) I 2» the Minibox with seven 6-32 x 1 /-
4 inch screws.
One end of the free soldering lug ( located at
point A, Fig. 3) is bolted under the lower right
mounting nut of J. Cover the coupling loop ( di-
mensions shown in Fig. 16-19B) with spaghetti
and solder it in place. Solder RFC 1 between C1
1
34.
and Si,. Solder all remaining leads with the ex-
ception of the transformer connections. Bolt the
I I
— I transformer to two one- inch spacers. Mount these
4.-1
L 3/ spacers to the Minibox, keeping the black leads of
the transformer toward the outside of the box.
COUPLING OSCILLATOR Finish the wiring by soldering the transformer
COIL COIL leads.
L1 L2
(B) Make awhip antenna for the transceiver from
a91 /-
4 inch piece of No. 12 tinned copper wire and
box. Mount the send- receive switch, SI,just a PL-259 coax connector. Bend the top half inch
above the strap, bolting it to the chassis with the of the wire into acircle as asafety precaution.
same screw that holds the end of the strap. The
switch spring should be on the right side as indi- Alignment
cated in Fig. 16-21. Solder R2,R3,RI,and C5 on Install the batteries, plug in the whip and
the appropriate switch contacts. handset, turn on S2,and switch S1 to the receive
Mount and wire the handset socket, the speaker position. A hissing sound should be heard. Mesh

Fig. 16- 20— Inside view of a 420- Mc. transceiver. The plastic sheet that supports
most of the components is at the upper right.
420-Mc. Transceiver 417

-A
• Fig. 16- 21— Location of com-
ponents on the clear plastic
R FC 2
sheet. One 3-terminal and
RFC, two 5-terminal tie- point
R FC, strips are required.
• R FC 3

.111k

R5 1 Be I
s, e I R. I
Cu
1C7

Ce o,

I R7 I C9 I

SWITCH SPRING ON
THIS SIDE

the main tuning capacitor plates half way and set ceiver is a2-meter transmitter. Its 3rd harmonics
C2 to minimum capacitance. Position a 0-100 should provide accurate calibration points from
knob on the insulated shaft extender so that the 432 to 444 Mc. Also useful, but normally not as
dial reads 50. Using a432- Mc, signal source, ad- accurate, are grid-dipper and signal- generator
just C2 until 432 Mc. is heard at adial setting of harmonics.
50. Vary the coupling between the oscillator coil To see if the receiver is working at its best, it is
and output loop for maximum sensitivity, retun- advisable to try different values of R1 and also to
ing C2 to keep the dial at amid- scale. Units ad- try smaller values for C9.This experimentation is
justed in such a manner should cover about 415 necessary because minor variations in wiring, the
to 455 Mc. and be able to detect a modulated transistor and tube characteristics may cause
signal of 2microvolts. An unmodulated carrier of differences in performance. Of the two units
50 to 100 µv. or more should silence the receiver shown in the first photograph, the receiver of one
hiss. required no capacitance at C to give the same
9

A good signal source for calibrating the re- performance and sensitivity as the receiver re-
quiring a C of 270 pf.
9

Because of different tube operating conditions,

the transmitter operates at a slightly higher fre-
quency than the receiver. This can be corrected
c e with acompensating circuit; however, too much
IV; power is lost in the process to make it worth
• B+ +A
-40 +A -e while. If only one of the transceiver operators
will retune his dial to the same setting after each
transmission, this deficiency should prove to be
no great handicap. The plate power input to the
e _ A transmitter should be about 0.2 to 0.25 watt.
For maximum transmitter output it is impor-
'11
'A" A
4.

tant that the A battery be up to par. As the fila-

3W ment battery deteriorates, power output drops
off rapidly. However, the receiver will perform
satisfactorily with low battery voltage.

Operation
In field testing two of these units, it was found
that at all times horizontal polarization was equal
2 1/i to or better than vertical polarization. The great-
est DX so far has been a 30-mile line-of- sight
A - No. 28 DrIll C - 34; E - I
( 34'
contact between Glastonbury, Conn., and West-
B - V.; D - F - X 3A6- field, Mass. Since only simple whips were used
for antennas, much greater range should be pos-
Fig. 16- 22— Location of holes on the panel. The panel is sible with beams at both ends. Non-line-of- sight
part of a 4 X 5 X 6- inch Minibox ( Bud CU- 3007A). contacts will, of course, be over much shorter
The square hole, E, takes the 4- pin connector ( Cinch- distances, the maximum range depending upon
Jones 5- 304- AB) used to connect the handset to the the size of the obstructions and the antennas in
transceiver. use.
418 V.H.F. RECEIVERS

A CRYSTAL-CONTROLLED CONVERTER FOR 432 Mc.

The crystal- controlled converter shown in
Figs. 16-23 and 16-25 uses two grounded- grid
01e
r.f. stages and a grounded- grid mixer. This
e
proved to be a more stable arrangement and •••
g, L)
easier to duplicate than one with grounded-
cathode stages. A major source of over-all feed-
back is the heater connections, and more elabo-
rate heater- line filtering will be found in this
unit than is usually the case. The local- oscillator
signal at 418 Mc. is obtained by tripling twice
from a 46.44-Mc, crystal oscillator, once in a
e`t
triode section of a 6J6 and once through a
1N82 diode.

Fig. 16-23—The 432-Mc, converter is built in a 5 X

7 X 3- inch Minibox. At the top in this view, from left
to right: input jack, r.f. amplifier, r.f. amplifier, mixer,
output jack. The tube ( shielded) is a 616, used as
crystal oscillator and frequency multiplier.

R.F. AMP-1. R.F.AMP-2 MIXER

6Cw4 6Cw4 6Cw4
ANT
470 432 MC 8 14 MC
432 MC
2 2

100

RCVR .

500

1W.

OSC MULT.
46. 44 MC.
6J6 139.33 MC
VIA
46.44 MC .

001

MIXER RF -2 RF - 6J6 pl

o 3 /\ 4
12

o .001
/77

RFC ,
o

500
RFC 7 RFC g
Z .001fe" Z.001 S T
„ .
001"

Fig. 16- 24—Wiring diagram of the 432-Mc. converter. Capacitance values are in µµf., except
decimal values which are in µf. Resistors are 1
2 watt unless specified otherwise. All 0.001-0.
/
capacitors marked * are button-type ( Centralab ZA-102); other 0.001-µf. capacitors are disk
ceramic. All 500-µµf. feedthrough capacitors are Centralab FT-500.

Ci C2-6-µµf. ceramic variable ( Centralab 829-6) 1.0-2 t. No. 20 insulated, wound around ground end
C3 - 15 -/ uf. variable ( Hammarlund MAC- 15) of L.
RFC,RFC,1-8 inches No. 22 enam. cleaned /
2
1 inch
17 — See Fig. 16-26.
each end and wound on 10K or higher /
2 -
1
La-4.7-10.0+h. adjustable inductor (Miller watt resistor.
20A826RBI). RFC,2-50-µh. r.f. choke (Millen 34300-50).
1.4-0.43-0.85-µh. adjustable inductor (Miller .1,—Coaxial chassis receptacle ( 50-239).
20A687RBI). 12— Coaxial chassis receptacle ( UG-290A/U).
1-x-0.119-0.187-µh. adjustable inductor ( Miller P;— Octal plug ( Amphenol 86-CP8).
20A157RBI). Yi-46.44-Mc. crystal ( International Crystal FA-9).
432-Mc. Converter 419
Referring to the circuit diagram in Fig. 16-24, through and button bypass capacitors are used.
the circuitry through the oscillator-multiplier Study of Figs. 16-23 and 16-25 will give a
chain is similar to that shown for the lower- good idea of the location of the various compo-
frequency converters described earlier in this nents. The shield partition is built from a 31/f-
chapter. Adjustable inductors tune the circuits inch wide strip of aluminum, and a9.-inch lip is
on the lower frequencies, and at 418 Mc. avari- bent on one edge for mounting on the chassis.
able capacitor, C3,tunes in half-turn coil, L7 (see The line of screws holding the chassis bisects
Figs. 16-25 and 16-26). In the signal channel, the chassis.
6CW4s are used as grounded-grid amplifiers Practically all of the components will be sup-
and mixer, and the coupling circuits are ceramic ported by tube- socket pins, button or feed-
trimmers and half-turn inductors. The B+ leads through capacitors, ground. lugs or tie points.
are filtered heavily as are the heater leads. For The exception is the diode multiplier, which is
over-all good stability, numerous ceramic feed- supported at one end by the point on L7 to which

4;/r
e

,
5

Fig. 16-25—View underneath the 432-Mc. converter shows the partition separating the oscillator and multiplier
(right) from the r.f. and mixer. R.f. chokes mounted on button bypass capacitors ( left) provide filtering for heater
wiring. Feedthrough bypass capacitors in partition are 2 inches from chassis, except heater feedthrough (
top)
which is 1
/2 inch from chassis. Oscillator injection lead from 1.7 to the cathode of the mixer runs through rubber

grommet in partition.
420 V.H.F. RECEIVERS
it is soldered and at the other by an end of Le. poor connections or poor grounds. In some cases
A regulated 105-volt power supply is recom- the instability may also be caused by having the
mended for use with the converter. The crystal mixer tap too high above ground on L7.
oscillator should be checked first, by measuring
the voltage drop across the 1000-ohm resistor to
L4.The drop across this resistor will be greater
when the stage is not oscillating than when it is, 1 4"
/
---3 ---I
and the slug of L4 should be set at a lower-
inductance value than that which gives mini-
mum voltage drop across the resistor, to insure
proper starting and operation. If awavemeter is
available, the frequency of output should be
checked. The slug of L5 should be set for mini-
mum voltage drop across the 1000-ohm resistor
connected to L5,and again the frequency should
be checked with awavemeter if one is available. L, L, L,
The third harmonic of a 144- Mc, signal source
can be used to align the r.f. stages, after which
C3 and L5 should be peaked for maximum signal. Fig. 16- 26— Details of " coils" I., L.. and L7.Material is
If any instability is experienced in the signal No. 10 tinned copper wire. Taps on ti and L2 are lh
circuits, as evidenced by regeneration or oscil- up from ground end; taps on L- are 1 h and Y2 up
lations at some setting of C1 and C2,look for from ground end.

A CRYSTAL-CONTROLLED CONVERTER FOR 1296 Mc.

The converter described is the result of an voltage regulator for the crystal oscillator. One
effort to simplify circuits and construction of a half of a 12AT7, VIA ,is an overtone oscillator
converter for 1296 Mc. to apoint where it could at approximately 53.4 Mc. The second half, V1B ,
be duplicated with a minimum of effort, and a doubles to 106.8 Mc. A 6CY5, V2,doubles to
limited amount of equipment. 213.6 Mc. and drives a6AK5 doubler to 427 Mc.
Only five tubes are used, and one of these is a The output of V3 drives aDR303 diode multiplier

Fig. 16-27— From the top, the 1296-Mc. converter looks much like conventional designs for the v.h.f. bonds. Across
the lower portion of the chassis are the cascode i.f. amplifier stage and its output jack, left, the power connec-
tions shielded by means of an aluminum film can, the voltage regulator tube, and the 12AT7 crystal oscillator. In
the upper right are the 6CY5 and 6AK5 frequency multipliers. The black nuts, left center,
are used for tension on the adjusting screws for the u.h.f. circuits.
 1296-Mc. Convener 421

2700
1000 1000
576
062
.001 22K 1000 000
.001

Dau BLER DOUBLER

05 C,
C. 6CY5 _
F. y64 ic5

VIA V, s 1296MC
.001

$3.4
MC.
1282
04 C.

C7 CR ,
+200 V.0—MA--0- 0
47 . 001

4
6.5 V.
14 MC.OUT
RFC 2 C8
L7 Ja
IF AMP
6.3 V. 6DJ 8
-200 V.I

100
J3 .01

Fig. 16-28—Circuit diagram and parts information for the 1296-Mc. converter. Decimal values of capacitors are in tif.
C1, C11, C3 - 0.5- to trimmer ( Erie 532-08-ORS). 14-11 turns No. 22 enam. close-wound on '/4-
inch slug.
C., Ce— Cavity tuning screws; see text. tuned form ( CTC PIS-6 or ISM).
Ce—U.h.f. bypass: 13
/
4 X 1
4 -
/ inch brass plate, insulated 1.9-4 turns like Li.
from end of r.f. assembly with .005- inch 1.8-6 turns No. 22 tinned, U-inch diem., /
4
3 inch long,
plastic film. See Figs. 16-30 and 16-32. center-tapped.
C7, C.-0.0014. feed-through bypass (Centralab FT- L.--3 turns like Li, 56 inch long.
1000). Le- 1turn insulated hookup wire at center of L.
CRI— Multiplier diode, DR303 or 1N82. Le, Li-25 turns No. 28 enam. closewound on form like
CR.— Mixer diode, 1N21B, C, D, E, or MA 4218. Li. Tap on Le 31
2 turns from cold end.
/
Ja— Coaxial fitting, BNC type. Le-4 turns insulated hookup wire around B-1- end of La.

Jr—Closed-circuit jack. RFC1-1 1t. No. 22 spacewound on 1-watt resistor.

to 1282 Mc. The 1282- Mc, energy is coupled to Crystal diode multipliers may be new to some,
the mixer crystal along with the input signal, but they provide avery simple way to get small
and the 14- Mc, difference frequency is amplified amounts of r.f. at this frequency. Several types
by a6DJ8 cascode i.f, stage and coupled with a of crystal diodes may be used. When the con-
link to the output jack. verter was first constructed, various types were
tried, and 1N82 diodes gave the best perform-
The Injection System ance. Later, a DR303 was tried, and it gave
The crystal oscillator is operated at low volt- about twice the output.
age and with aregulated plate supply to improve
U.H.F. Circuitry
stability, a critical factor in operation at 1296
Mc. Variations in oscillator frequency that The tuned circuits at 1282 and 1296 Mc. are
would go unnoticed at lower frequencies be- half wave coaxial lines, shorted at each end and
come disturbing at 1296 Mc., for even though tuned capacitively at their centers. The outer
the oscillator frequency is high to start with, it conductors are formed of thin brass sheet, sol-
is being multiplied twenty-four times. Oscillator dered at the joints. Dimensions are not critical,
stability is improved if the crystal is not sub- except for length, and the circuit will probably
jected to large and sudden changes in tempera- work if the length is within plus or minus IA
ture. It was found that mounting the crystal inch. The center conductors are 14- inch brass
inside the chassis, where it is protected from rod, drilled and tapped at each end. The lines are
drafts, resulted in much better stability than tuned by 8-32 screws which provide a small
mounting above the chassis. The three multi- variable capacitance to ground at the center of
plier stages are quite conventional and need each line. A nut is soldered on the inside of
very little comment, with one possible excep- each trough to provide threads, and anylon nut
tion: Pins 2 and 7 of the 6AK5 should be (or short length of nylon rod tapped 8-32) is
grounded as directly as possible. Any stray used on top of the chassis as a jam nut. This
inductance in the cathode lead seems to have a provides tension on the screw to give smooth
large effect on the output power of this stage. tuning. The mixer-crystal holder is made by
422 V.H.F. RECEIVERS

Fig. 16-29— Details of the sheet- metal

parts of the trough- line tank circuits.
The small plate at the left is insulated
from the end of the trough assembly
with thin sheet teflon. Slot in the parti-
tion, upper portion of drawing, provides
space for the mixer crystal, as shown in
Figs. 16-30 and 16-31.

soldering a '/4-inch length of 14-inch i.d., %- nection of the fitting should be cut down so that
inch o.d. brass tubing in the r4 6-
inch hole in the it clears the 14- inch rod that is the trough line
mixer bypass plate, then making two saw cuts center conductor. If desired, a type N fitting
across the end of the tubing at 90-degree angles could be used by drilling out the hole for the
to form fingers. These are bent in until they larger fitting. The input loop is soldered to the
grip the large end of the crystal firmly. The end of the trough line about % 6 inch up from
mixer bypass plate is insulated by covering the the bottom, and run straight over to the input
side away from the crystal holder with cello- fitting. The coupling loop to the mixer crystal
phane tape, and is mounted on the end of the is soldered to the end of the trough line
trough lines with 4-40 screws and insulating between the mixer crystal and the center con-
shoulder washers. The holder for the small end ductor. The entire uhf. portion of the con-
of the crystal is a contact removed from an verter can be silver plated, if means are avail-
octal tube socket. able, but this is not mandatory.
The antenna input connector is a UG 1094/U
Filtering
BNC fitting. It must be spaced up with a few
Winch i.d. washers so that the threads will just The power to the converter should be filtered
reach through the chassis and the trough line to prevent signals in the i.f. range from getting
with enough length for the nut. The center con- into the converter and back into the receiver.

•
•
•

Fig. 16- 30— Bottom view of the 1296-Mc. converter. Oscillator multiplier components are at the right. Note the
diode multiplier in the lower right corner of the 1282-Mc, tank circuit. The mixer crystal is at the left end of the
tank circuits.
1296-Mc. Converter 423

•
Fig. 16-31—Close-up view of the uhf. circuits. These are halfwave lines, tuned at their midpoints. The mixer
crystal is held in place by a slotted brass sleeve, soldered to a capacitor plate on the outside of the trough.
Though it is not visible in the picture, the capacitor plate is insulated from the trough end with a thin film of
plastic. Screws that hold the inner conductors in position are insulated from the capacitor plate by fiber washers.

This is accomplished by bringing in B+ top over a large dowel and hammering out the
through a 47- ohm resistor and a feed- through bulge. The top is then drilled for the feed-
bypass capacitor. The filament power comes through capacitors and the terminal strip
through achoke wound on a 1- watt resistor and mounting screw. The top is held in place on the
through a feed- through bypass. To cover the top of the chassis with these components. The
exposed terminals on top of the converter, an power cable is brought in through a grommet
aluminum can that 35- mm. film is packaged in in the bottom of the film can. The paint can be
was used. The top was flattened by placing the removed from the film can with lacquer thinner.
424 V.H.F. RECEIVERS
With a noise generator, experiment with size
Adjustment and shape of input coupling and mixer coupling
The oscillator and multiplier stages can be loops, and local oscillator injection. It may be
checked out as in any converter, using agrid- dip worthwhile, also, to try different taps on the i.f.
meter to tune circuits, up to the 213- Mc. stage. input coil. When changing mixer crystals, do
The output of the 427- Mc, stage can be checked not decide which is best until you have opti-
by temporarily disconnecting the multiplier mized these adjustments for the particular
diode where it connects to the side of the trough crystal in question. A 1N21E may seem no
line and putting ameter in series with the diode better than the 1N21B you started with, until
to ground.' Current here should be 6 ma. or things are peaked up for the new crystal. Then
more. The diode should then be reconnected and there is a difference.
a0- 1-ma. meter connected to the mixer current It is important that the shortest possible feed-
jack. The tuning screw in the 1282- Mc, trough line be used at this frequency. RG-8/U is com-
line should be adjusted until crystal current is monly used, but has about 9-db, loss per 100
obtained. If the crystal current is less than 0.2 feet. The converter has a BNC input connector
ma., solder a -inch long piece of wire to the as RG-55/U cable is used between the converter
contact at the small end of the mixer crystal and the antenna relay, a distance of three feet.
and bend the other end near the center conduc- From the relay to the antenna, RG-8/U is used.
tor of 1282- Mc, line, and readjust the tuning. Double- shielded cables such as RG-71/U 93-
Next, adjust the tuning of the 1296-+Mc. line ohm or RG-55/U 53-ohm cable should be used
until the crystal current dips. This indicates that between converters and the receiver to keep
the input circuit is tuned to 1282 Mc. Back the signals at the intermediate frequency from leak-
screw out slightly, and you will be near 1296 ing to the receiver.
Mc. Connect the converter to areceiver tuned to (From March, 1961, QST.)
14 Mc. and adjust the i.f, amplifier coils for
maximum noise in the receiver. At this point
you can listen for the harmonic of a 144- or 432- IC6AXN provided a drawing of the converter top plate
Mc. transmitter and peak up the input on that which can be used as a template for drilling. Copies of
this template will be sent free of charge upon receipt of
signal. For further improvement acrystal diode a stamped self-addressed envelope. Address ARRL Tech-
noise generator will be required. nical Dept., Newington, Connecticut 06111,

1215 Mc. and higher

The September, 1960, issue of QST carried an experimental transceiver for 5650 Mc. based on
article on the conversion of the war- surplus using the 2K26 reflex klystron as transmitter
APX-6 transponder to a 1215- Mc, transmitter and receiver local oscillator. Elementary wave-
receiver. Anyone interested in this frequency guide techniques are used with a horn antenna.
will do well to consider the unit, since it is an An account of experimental two-way coin-,
inexpensive way to get started on the band. munication above 20 kMc. was carried in the
The August, 1960, issue of QST described an May, 1959, issue of QST.
 Chapter 17

V.H.F. Transmitters

Transmitter stability regulations for the 50- Overtone operation is possible with standard
Mc. band are the same as for lower bands, and fundamental-type crystals, using regenerative cir-
proper design may make it possible to use the cuits. Practically all will oscillate on their third
same rig for 50, 28, 21, and even 14 Mc., but overtones, and fifth and higher odd overtones may
Incorporation of 144 Mc. and higher in the usual be possible. Adjustment of regeneration is more
multiband transmitter is generally not feasible. critical, however, if the crystals are not ground
Rather, it is usually more satisfactory to com- for overtone characteristics. The frequency may
bine 50 and 144 Mc., since the two bands are not be an exact multiple of that marked on the
close to a third-harmonic relationship. At least crystal holder, so care should be used in work-
the exciter portion of the transmitter may be ing with crystals that are near aband edge.
made to cover both bands very readily. Crystals ground for overtone service can be
Though no stability restrictions are imposed made to oscillate on other overtones than the one
by law on amateur operation at 144 Mc. and marked on the holder. For more discussion of
higher, the use of stabilized narrow-band sys- overtone oscillator techniques, see QST for
tems pays off in improved effectiveness in both April, 1951, page 56, and March, 1955, page 16.
transmitter and receiver. It is this factor, more Crystals are now available for frequencies up
than the interference potentialities of the wide- to around 100 Mc. They are somewhat more
band systems, which makes it desirable to expensive and more critical in operation than
employ advanced techniques at 144, 220 and 420 those for 30 Mc. and lower, however. Use of
Mc. 50- Mc. crystals is made occasionally as a means
The low-power stages of atransmitter for the of preventing radiation of the harmonics from
v.h.f. bands need not be greatly different in de- lower frequency crystals that might cause TVI.
sign from those used for lower bands, and the
techniques of Chapter Six can be used. The con- FREQUENCY MULTIPLIERS
structor has the choice of starting at some lower Frequency multiplying stages in av.h.f. trans-
frequency, usually around 6, 8 or 12 Mc., multi- mitter follow standard practice, the principal
plying to the operating frequency in one or more precaution being arrangement of components for
additional stages, or he can use a high initial short lead length and minimum stray capacitance.
frequency and thus reduce the number of multi- This is particularly important at 144 Mc. and
plier stages. The first approach has the virtue of higher. To reduce the possibility of radiation of
using low-cost crystals, but h.f. crystals may oscillator harmonics on frequencies that might
effect an economy in power consumption, an im- interfere with television or other services, the
portant factor in portable or emergency-powered lowest satisfactory power level should be used.
gear. Low-powered stages are easier to shield or filter,
in case such steps become necessary.
CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS Common practice in v.h.f. exciter design is to
Crystal oscillator stages for v.h.f. transmitters make the tuned circuits capable of operation over
may make use of any of the circuits shown in the whole range from 48 to 54 Mc., so that the
Chapter Six when crystals up to 12 Mc. are used, output stage can drive either an amplifier at
but certain variations are helpful for higher fre- 50 to 54 Mc. or a tripler from 48 to 144 Mc.
quencies. Crystals for 12 Mc. or higher are Tripling is often done with push-pull stages,
usually of the overtone variety. Their frequency particularly when the output frequency is to be
of oscillation is an approximate odd multiple of 144 Mc. or higher.
some lower frequency, for which the crystal is
actually ground. Thus 24- Mc, crystals com- AMPLIFIERS
monly used in 144- Mc, work are 8- Mc. cuts, Most transmitting tubes now used by ama-
specially treated for overtone characteristics. teurs will work on 50 Mc., but for 144 Mc. and
The overtone crystals currently being supplied higher the tube types are limited to those having
are nearly as stable as those designed for funda- low input and output capacitances and compact
mental operation, and they are easy to handle in physical structure. Leads must be as short as
properly designed circuits. possible, and soldered connections should be
Manufacturers usually provide recommended avoided in high-powered circuits, where heating
circuits with their overtone crystals. These may may be great enough to melt the solder.
be nothing more than a conventional triode cir- Plug-in coils and their associated sockets or
cuit, or they may involve additional feedback. jack bars are generally unsatisfactory for use at

425
426 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS
144 Mc. and higher because of the stray induct- 6; 7th harmonic of 25- Mc, stages in Channel 7;
ance and capacitance they introduce. One way 4th harmonic of 48- Mc, stages in Channel 9 or
around this trouble is the use of adual tank cir- 10; and many other combinations. This may in-
cuit in which the inductor for 144 Mc. is a con- clude i.f. pickup, as in the cases of 24- Mc. inter-
ventional tuned line, with its shorting bar made ference in receivers having 21- Mc. i.f. systems,
as a removable plug. When the stage is to be and 48- Mc. trouble in 45- Mc. i.f.'s.
used on another band the short is removed and a 4) Fundamental blocking effects, including
coil is plugged into the jack, the line then serving modulation bars, usually found only in the lower
as apair of plate leads. Such an arrangement will channels, from 50- Mc. equipment.
operate as efficiently on 144 Mc. as if it were de- 5) Image interference in Channel 2 from 144
signed for that band alone. Mc., in receivers having a45- Mc. i.f.
At 220 Mc. and higher it may be necessary to 6) Sound interference ( picture clear in some
employ half- wave lines as tuned circuits, as cases) resulting from r.f. pickup by the audio
shown later in a432- Mc. unit. circuits of the TV receiver.
Neutralization of triode amplifiers for 50 and
144 Mc. can follow standard practice, but the There are many other possibilities, and u.h.f.
stray inductance and capacitance introduced by TV in general use will add to the list, but nearly
the neutralizing circuits may be excessive for all can be corrected completely, and the rest can
220 Mc. and higher. In such instances grounded- be substantially reduced.
grid amplifiers may be used. Driving power is Items 1, 4and 5are receiver faults, and nothing
applied to the cathode circuit, with the grid can be done at the transmitter to reduce them,
acting as a shield. Some of the drive appears in except to lower the power or increase separation
the output, so both the driver and amplifier must between the transmitting and TV antenna sys-
be modulated when a.m. is used. For this reason tems. Item 6 is also a receiver fault, but it can
the grounded-grid amplifier is used mainly in f.m. be alleviated at the transmitter by using f.m. or
transmitters or linear amplifiers. c.w. instead of a.m. phone.
Instability shows up frequently in tetrode Treatment of the various harmonic troubles,
amplifiers as the result of ineffective screen by- Items 2 and 3, follows the standard methods de-
passing. The solution lies in series- resonating tailed elsewhere in this Handbook. It is sug-
the screen circuits to ground. The r.f. choke and gested that the prospective builder of new v.h.f.
capacitor values vary with frequency, so screen equipment familiarize himself with TVI preven-
neutralization is essentially a one- band device. tion techniques, and incorporate them in new
construction projects.
FREQUENCY MODULATION Use as high a starting frequency as possible,
Though f.m. has not enjoyed great popularity to reduce the number of harmonics that might
in v.h.f. operation, probably because of lack of cause trouble. Select crystal frequencies that do
suitable receivers in most v.h.f. stations, its possi- not have harmonics in TV channels in use locally.
bilities should not be overlooked, particularly for Example: The 10th harmonic of 8- Mc, crystals
the higher bands. At 420 Mc., for instance, the used for operation in the low part of the 50- Mc.
efficiency of most amplifiers is so low that it is band falls in Channel 6, but 6- Mc. crystals for
often difficult to develop sufficient grid drive for the same band have no harmonic in that channel.
proper a.m. service. With f.m. any amount of If TVI is a serious problem, use the lowest
grid drive may be used without affecting the transmitter power that will do the job at hand.
audio quality of the signal, and the modulation Much interesting work can be done on the v.h.f.
process adds nothing to the plate dissipation. bands with but a few watts output, particularly
Thus considerably higher power can be run with if agood antenna system is used.
f.m. than with a.m. before damage to the tubes Keep the power in the multiplier and driver
develops or the signal is of poor quality. stages at the lowest practical level, and use link
Frequency modulation also simplifies trans- coupling in preference to capacitive coupling.
mitter design. The principal obstacle to greater Plan for complete shielding and filtering of the
use of f.m. in v.h.f. work is the wide variation in r.f. sections of the transmitter, should these steps
selectivity of v.h.f. receivers, making it difficult become necessary.
for the operator to set up his deviation so that it Use coaxial line to feed the antenna system,
will be satisfactory for all listeners. and locate the radiating portion as far as possible
from TV receivers and their antenna systems.
V.H.F. TVI PREVENTION AND CURE
Some v.h.f. TV tuners have removable strips
The principal causes of TVI from v.h.f. that can be replaced with double-conversion in-
transmitters are as follows: serts for u.h.f. reception. For a number of chan-
1) Adjacent-channel interference in Channel nels the first conversion frequency may then fall
2from 50 Mc. in or near the 144- Mc. band. Where this method
2) Fourth harmonic of 50 Mc. in Channels 11, is employed for u.h.f. reception the receiver is
12 or 13, depending on the operating frequency. very sensitive to 144- Mc. interference. The cure
3) Radiation of unused harmonics of the os- is to replace the strips with others having a dif-
cillator or multiplier stages. Examples are 9th ferent conversion frequency, or use aconventional
harmonic of 6 Mc., and 7th harmonic of 8 Mc. u.h.f. converter for reception of the channels
in Channel 2; 10th harmonic of 8Mc. in Channel from 14 up.
50-432-Mc. Transmitter 427

Fig. 171 A complete 50-, 144-, 220- and 432- Mc, transmitter, set up for 144- Mc. operation. The large chassis
houses the power supply, modulation equipment and control circuits. The unit at the left is the 144-Mc. trans-
mitter/driver.

A COMPLETE 50- THROUGH 432-MC. TRANSMITTER

The transmitter pictured in Figs. 17-1 through

50- Mc. Transmitter
17-14 includes complete r.f. sections, modulator,
power supply and control circuits for phone, c.w. The 50- Mc. transmitter, Figs. 17-2 and 17-3,
and m.c.w. operation on 50 through 432 Mc. Mod- uses a6CX8 pentode-triode to drive a 6360 out-
ular construction of the r.f. sections is incorpo- put stage. Referring to Fig. 17-4, the pentode
rated, and the amateur requiring only a 50- or section of the 6CX8 is connected to be used in the
144- Mc. transmitter, for example, will not build grid- plate crystal-oscillator circuit or, by clos-
any unused r.f. sections. If later operation is ex- ing S1,as the input amplifier for av.f.o. Various
tended to the higher frequencies, a minimum of ranges of crystals may be used: 6.25 to 6.75 Mc.,
additional equipment is required. 8.33 to 9.0 Mc., 12.5 to 13.5 Mc., and 25 to 27 Mc.
Separate plug-in transmitters are provided for For stability with line- voltage changes, both the
the 50-, 144- and 220- Mc. bands. On 432 Mc., the screen and plate voltages are regulated. When
144- Mc. unit is used as an exciter to drive a the pentode is converted to multiplier operation
plug-in tripler/amplifier. All of the transmitters for use with av.f.o., the cathode is brought down
can be crystal- or v.f.o.-controlled. The phone to r.f. ground. V.f.o. drive on any of the above
(a.m.) carrier output is 10 to 15 watts on all crystal ranges can be used.
bands except 432 Mc., where it drops to about Link coupling is used between the oscillator
5watts. plate coil and the triode section of the 6CX8. In
A single 0-1 milliammeter is used; with switch- the triode the signal is doubled to the 50- Mc.
ing it is possible to meter the grid currents, the band and then inductively coupled to the final
amplifier and modulator cathode currents, and grids. To maintain balance and to help couple the
the r.f. output voltage. Other accessories provided maximum drive from the doubler stage to the
in the unit include an antenna changeover relay, push-pull output stage, a small balancing capaci-
a c.w. monitor, and a spotting switch. Either a tor, C 2, is used to compensate for the triode's
carbon or acrystal microphone can be used with output capacitance.
the modulator. For phone operation, the 6360 output stage is
428 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS

e
4,0
Fig. 17- 2—Top view of the 50- Mc. transmitter. The
toggle switch at the lower left changes the input circuit
for crystal or v.f.o. operation; when used, the v.f.o.
output is introduced at the crystal socket.
Fig. 17-3— Bottom view of the 50- Mc. transmitter. The
oscillator/doubler circuitry is at the bottom of the
aluminum plate. All power leads are terminated at
the tie points along the right-hand side, and flexible
plate and screen modulated. The cathode of the leads run from the tie points to the 15- pin plug on the
amplifier stage is keyed during c.w. operation. side of the chassis ( not visible).
The meter can be switched to read the 6360 grid
or cathode current. On grid current the full-scale
meter indicates 5ma., and on cathode current it is appropriate stator of C1 and bolted to the base
100 ma. plate; the adjustment- screw side of C2 is con-
nected to the base. Coils L 4 and L, are mounted
Construction
1inch apart, center to center, supported by their
The 50- Mc, transmitter is built on a 5 x 10- leads.
inch sheet of aluminum, which is held by sheet- The cathode and screen bypass capacitors in
metal screws to a 5 X 10 X 3- inch chassis that the 6360 stage are mounted at the tube socket
serves as a case. The power and metering leads with leads as short as possible. The r.f. voltmeter
within the transmitter run first to multiple tie components can be seen in Fig. 17-3 at the upper
points and then by flexible leads to a 15- pin plug right, bunched together on the upper end of the
(P 1 in Fig. 17-4) mounted on the side of the case terminal strip.
(chassis). The transmitter is plugged into a Leads from the terminal strip to plug P,
matching receptacle on the left side of the power should be made long enough to permit working
supply/ control unit ( see Fig. 17-1). on the transmitter plate when it is unfastened
As can be seen in Fig. 17-3, the tube sockets, from the case. When the plate is replaced, the
input and output connectors, and three of the tun- leads should be bent against the side wall of the
ing capacitors are mounted along the center line chassis away from the coils or other components.
of the aluminum plate. The two adjustable in-
ductors, L1 and L3, are mounted 1 inch apart, Adjustment

center link
turn to center,
aroundand each
coupled
onetogether
at the by"cold"
a The adjustment procedure to be outlined ap-
plies to the unit when used with the power supply
(grounded) end. Capacitor C2 is soldered to the and control circuits described later. All pre-
 50-Mc. Transmitter 429

AMPLIFIER
OSC. 6C X8 DOUBLER
50 M.
25.1c. 50M'.
V.F.O. OR 6 L6 L,
L. 1- 6 OUTPUT
xTAL L

Ji

01 pt 226

Y.F.0.
-I
7 \AI—
"as
i- RFC. N34 TO 0f,
RFC 2 I-
ogri
.001

6CX8

1
4 5 1 15 1 11 1 2 1 3 1 0 1 13 )
Pi I, 5 1 14 I 12 1 7 1 8 1 9 1
+300v. 0-1MA. KEY +300v. + 300v. 0- MA.
6.3V. + I50v. + 225v. GROUND METER OR MOO. METER
A£. REG. REG. 1-1 GROUND (- 1

Fig. 17-4—Circuit diagram of the 50 - Mc. transmitter. Unless specified otherwise, capacitances are in picofarads
(pf. or 1.4.), resistances, are in ohms, resistors are 1
2 watt. Fixed capacitors are ceramic.
/

C2-8- pf. miniature butterfly variable (Johnson 160- ends of L1 and 1.3. See Fig. 17-4.
208). 4-1.5-3.2-12h. variable inductor (Miller 4404).
C2---3-30-pf. mica compression trimmer. 4-10 t. No. 20, 3 4-
/ inch diam., 16 t.p.i., center-tapped
(B & W 3011).
C2-5- pf. miniature butterfly variable (Johnson 160-
205). 4-8 turns, same material as L.
C2- 11 - pf. miniature butterfly variable (Johnson 160- 4-9 turns, same material as L.
L7-2 turns insulated wire around center of Le.
211).
C2-50- pf. miniature variable ( Hammarlund MAPC-50). PI-15-contact plug with brackets (Cinch-Jones
J 1 —Crystal socket. P-315-AB).
J2—Coaxial receptacle, SO-239. RFC,-75O- h. r.f. choke.
1. 1-3.1-6.81.2h. variable inductor (Miller 4405). RFC2-7-12h. r.f. choke (Ohmite Z-50).
I.2- 3/-
4 turn link of insulated hook-up wire around cold 51-5.p.s.t., toggle.

liminary adjustments are made with the mode and adjust C 3 for maximum grid current. Juggle
switch (S4 in Fig. 17-14) in the phone position the settings of C1 and C2 until the combination is
and with the audio gain control, R1,set at mini- found that gives the maximum grid current. A
mum. The meter when switched to the r.f. volt- maximum of 5 ma. or more should be readily
meter position indicates relative output; it is not attainable, if all is working well.
calibrated. A 50-ohm load should now be connected to 12
With the 50- Mc. transmitter plugged into the and the plate and screen supply should be recon-
power supply and the aluminum plate turned up- nected to the output stage. With the meter
side down ( and the power off), temporarily dis- switched to read final plate and screen current,
connect the + 300- volt lead to L 4 and to the plate turn on the transmitter and quickly adjust C 4
and screen of the 6360. Make an output indicator for the dip in current. Then switch the meter to
from 2or 3turns of insulated hook-up wire, / 12
read output voltage and alternately adjust C 4 and
inch in diameter, with the ends soldered to the C 5 until amaximum indication is obtained.

terminals of a pink-bead ( type 48 or 49) flash- The aluminum plate can now be screwed to the
light bulb. Apply power to the oscillator while case ( chassis) and all controls again peaked for
carefully coupling the indicator coil to L1.Adjust maximum output, as indicated by the output volt-
the core in L1 for maximum brilliance of the meter. Loaded for maximum output on phone, the
flashlight bulb. Couple the indicator to 1, 3 and plate and screen current of the output stage
tune L1 and L 3 for maximum brilliance. Apply should be about 75 ma., and the grid current
plate voltage to the triode by reconnecting the should run 3 to 4 ma.
lead to L 4 (with power off, of course) and, with The 6360 dual pentode is internally neutralized
power on, adjust C1 and C 2 for maximum output and should be completely stable. To check the
indicated at L 4 . stability, pull out the crystal briefly and check
Once an indication has been obtained, switch grid and output-voltage readings. They should
the meter switch to read grid current in the 6360 both be zero.
430 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS

aria

4r-
ratze

11U8

fge.t

Fig. 17-5-- Top view of the 144-Mc. transmitter/driver.

The power socket ( upper right) with jumper plug in
place, is used with the 432-Mc, tripler amplifier.

•
The 144-Mc. Transmitter
The 144- Mc, transmitter/driver is shown in
Figs. 17-5 and 17-6. As can be seen from the cir- Fig. 17-6— Bottom view of the 144-Mc. transmitter.
cuit diagram, Fig. 17-7, the oscillator- doubler Oscillator-doubler circuitry is at the bottom, tripler cir-
circuitry is about the same as that of the 50- Mc. cuitry in the center and the final at the top. Bypass
unit. The frequency ranges are different; inputs capacitors have very short leads; all power leads are
(crystal or v.f.o.) can be 6.000 to 6.164 Mc., 8.000 brought to the string of tie points on right, and from
to 8.222 Mc., 12.000 to 12.333 Mc., and 24.000 to there lead to the chassis- mounted plug and receptacle.
24.666 Mc.
The output of the doubler stage, working in the
range 48.000 to 49.333 Mc., is inductively coupled
to a push-pull 6360 tripler. Omitting the screen
bypass capacitor is not an error; it follows arec- struction of the 144- Mc, unit can be simplified
ommendation of the tube manufacturer. Inductive (and afew dollars can be saved) by eliminating
coupling is used between the tripler and the 6360 P2 and / 3.
final amplifier. As on 50 Mc., the final is plate
and screen modulated for a.m. operation. On c.w., Construction
the cathodes of the final and the driver stages are The 144- Mc, transmitter is built on a 5 X 13-
both keyed, to minimize chances for abackwave. inch aluminum plate, which is fastened by sheet-
Many of the connections in the 144- Mc, trans- metal screws to a 5 X 13 X 3- inch chassis that
mitter are made through ajumper plug, P2- J3 in serves as a case. The two 15-contact connectors
Fig. 17-7. This is done so that removal of P 2 are mounted on one side of the chassis.
permits connecting the 4.32- Mc, unit via / 3.If As in the 50- Mc, unit, the major transmitter
no 432- Mc, operation is contemplated, the con- components are mounted on the long center line
 144-Mc. Transmitter 431

TRIPLER AMPL FIER

OSC DOUBLER
/2 6C 013 6360 6360
/ C08 1
144 Mc.
1 2 6

24 Mc. 48Mc. 144 Me.

v. F
.O. VIA
vie VS
L.
L
4 L,
OUTPUT
OR XTAL 2
001 L,
pl
100
L2 3
CI

220
C
13
2 22«
100K 38 15K
33
-1_171 N34 TOO,
270 270 9_ .-1-
338 RFC,
•70
00
pl

6C08 6360 ,
5
01= „I
= 1

14 12 15 6 7 1 2 4 5 10 3 11 13 13 11 3 10 5 4 2 I 6 7 8 9 19 15 12
J,
D. +150 + 225 + 300 6.3 GNa MTR KEY MTR MIR .300,300 MIR MTR.
Pi
REG. REG. - OR - - MOD. - -
CND. (13 II 1'01 1 1 2 1
14 15 12)

P2

Fig. 17-7— Circuit diagram of the 144-Mc. transmitter. Unless specified otherwise, capacitances are in pica-
farads ( pf. or gp.f.), resistances are in ohms, resistors are Y2 watt. P2 plugs into Jo for 144-Mc. operation.

C1, C4, C5- 8-

pf. miniature butterfly variable (Johnson 4-9 t. same stock as L.
160-208). Le-21
/ t. No. 18, 1
4 4 -
/ inch diam., 8 t.p.i., c.t. ( B&W

C2-3-30-pf. mica compression trimmer. 3010).

Cs, C8-5-pf. miniature butterfly variable (Johnson 160- 17-1 1
4 t. same stock as
/ Le.

205). 1.8-5 t. No. 18, /

2 -
1 inch diam., 8 Spi., c.t. ( B&W 3002).
C7-30-
pf. miniature variable ( Johnson 160-130). L.-1 t. insulated wire around center of L..
Jr—Crystal socket. Ps- 15-contact male chassis fitting ( Cinch-Jones P-315-
J.—Coaxial receptacle, SO-239. AB).
.1e- 15-contact socket with brackets (Cinch-Jones P2- 15-contact male plug (Cinch-Jones P-315-
CCT).
S-315-AB). RFC,.-750-µh. r.f. choke.
1.8-3.1-6.8-µh. adjustable inductor ( Miller 4405). RFC2-1.8-p.h. r.f. choke ( Ohmite Z-144).
Ls- 1
4 -
/ turn link of insulated hook-up wire around cold S,.—S.p.s.t. toggle.
ends of L, and L, See Fig. 17-7.
4-12 t. No. 20, 34-inch diam., 16 t.p.i., c.t. ( B&W
3011).

of the aluminum plate. The two adjustable resistors and components associated with the
inductors, LI and L3 (Fig. 17-7), are spaced metering circuits.
P/4 inches apart, center to center. They are
Adjustment
coupled by 3
/4-turn links wound around the " cold"
(ground) ends. Inductors L4 and L-, are mounted The adjustment procedure for the 144- Mc.
by their leads on C, and C, respectively; their transmitter is similar to that for the 50- Mc. unit,
centers are 1 inch apart. L, and L, are also except that there is also a push-pull tripler stage
mounted on their respective capacitors, with their to adjust.
adjacent ends / inch apart. 5 8 With the P2 jumper plug in place ( if P and J 2 3

Screen and cathode bypass capacitors are are incorporated) and with the B+ disconnected
mounted at the appropriate tube sockets with very from all stages except the pentode oscillator, peak
short leads. All power wiring is made to the L1 and L, by using a pilot- bulb pickup loop, as
terminal strips along one edge of the base plate ; described for the 50- Mc. unit. Then apply B+ to
these terminal strips also support the various the triode doubler stage and peak it as described
 432 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS

Fig. 17-9— Bottom view of the 220-Mc. transmitter.

Fig. 17- 8—Top view of the 220-Mc. transmitter. Major
Circuit runs from bottom to top.
components are arranged in a line down the middle
of the aluminum plate. The output loading capacitor is
mounted to the right of the output connector (
top).

crystals ( or v.f.o. output) should fall in one of

the following ranges: 6.11 to 6.25 Mc., 8.149 to
8.333 Mc., 12.22 to 12.50 Mc., or 24.44 to 25.00 Mc.
earlier. Switch the meter to the tripler grid- The plate circuit of the oscillator is inductively-
current position, adjust C3 and then alternately coupled to a push-pull tripler, which drives an-
C1 and C2 for maximum grid current. Switch the other 6360 push-pull tripler to 220 Mc. To com-
meter to read final grid current, apply B+ to the plete the chain, a 6360 is operated straight-
tripler, and adjust C4 and C, for maximum final through on 220 Mc. No tuning capacitor is used
grid current. in the grid circuit of the final, since the grid coil,
Attach a50- ohm load to the output connector, L 6,tunes to 220 Mc. with only the input capaci-
apply final plate and screen voltage, and adjust tance of the final stage.
the final for maximum output indication. Typical For phone, combined plate and screen modula-
readings for a.m. phone operation should be: tion of the final stage is used. On c.w., the driver
tripler grid current, 1V2 ma.; final grid current, and final cathodes are keyed simultaneously.
3ma., and final plate ( and screen) current, 75 ma.
Construction
220-Mc. Transmitter
The 220- Mc, transmitter is built on a 5 X 13-
In the 220- Mc, transmitter shoN% nin Figs. 17-8 inch aluminum plate, which is fastened with
and 17-9, a 6CL6 pentode is used in the crystal- sheet- metal screws to a5 X 13 x 3- inch chassis
oscillator stage. As can be seen in Fig. 17-10, the that serves as a case. A 15- pin plug on one side
oscillator stage is connected so that it can also of the case is used for power and meter connec-
take v.f.o. input. For 220- Mc, operation, the tions.
 496 MOBILE EQUIPMENT
battery, the necessity for frequent use of the tributor wire out to prevent the motor starting.
hydrometer is an inconvenience and will not
always serve as aconclusive check on adefective Electrolyte Level
battery. Cells may show normal or almost normal Water is evaporated from the electrolyte, but
s.g. and yet have high internal resistance that the acid is not. Therefore water must be added
ruins the usefulness of the battery under load. to each cell from time to time so that the plates
When all cells show satisfactory s.g. readings are always completely covered. The level should
and yet the battery output is low, service stations be checked at least once per week, especially
check each cell by an instrument that measures during hot weather and constant operation.
the voltage of each cell under a heavy load. Distilled water is preferred for replenishing,
Under a heavy load the cell voltages should but clear drinking water is an acceptable substi-
not differ by more than 0.15 volt. tute. Too much water should not be added, since
A load-voltage test can also be made by meas- the gassing that accompanies charging may force
uring the voltage of each cell while closing the electrolyte out through the vent holes in the
starter switch with the ignition turned off. In caps of the cells. The electrolyte expands with
many cars it is necessary to pull the central dis- temperature. ( From QST, August, 1955.)

EMERGENCY AND INDEPENDENT POWER SOURCES

Emergency power supply which operates in- for vibrator supplies. A 0.01-µf. 600-volt ( d.c.)
dependently of a.c. lines is available, or can be paper capacitor should be connected in shunt
built in a number of different forms, depending across the output of the dynamotor, followed by
upon the requirements of the service for which a 2.5-mh. r.f. choke in the positive high-voltage
it is intended. lead. From this point the output should be run to
The most practical supply for the average the receiver power terminals through a smooth-
individual amateur is one that operates from ing filter using 4- to 8-µf. capacitors and a 15- or
a car storage battery. Such a supply may take 30-henry choke having low d.c. resistance.
the form of asmall motor generator ( often called
a dynamotor), a rotary converter, a vibrator- Vibrator Power Supplies
transformer-rectifier combination, or transistor The vibrator type of power supply consists
supply. of a special step-up transformer combined with
Dynamotors a vibrating interrupter ( vibrator). When the
unit is connected to a storage battery, plate
A dynamotor differs from a motor generator power is obtained by passing current from the
in that it is a single unit having a double arma- battery through the primary of the transformer.
ture winding. One winding serves for the driving The circuit is made and reversed rapidly by the
motor, while the output voltage is taken from vibrator contacts, interrupting the current at
the other. Dynamotors usually are operated from regular intervals to give a changing magnetic
6-, 12-, 28- or 32-volt storage batteries and field which induces a voltage in the secondary.
deliver from 300 to 1000 volts or more at various The resulting square-wave d.c. pulses in the
current ratings. primary of the transformer cause an alternating
Successful operation of dynamotors requires voltage to be developed in the secondary. This
heavy direct leads, mechanical isolation to reduce high-voltage a.c. in turn is rectified, either by a
vibration, and thorough r.f. and ripple filtration. vacuum- tube rectifier or by an additional syn-
The shafts and bearings should be thoroughly chronized pair of vibrator contacts. The rectified
"run in" before regular operation is attempted, output is pulsating d.c., which may be filtered by
and thereafter the tension of the bearings should ordinary means. The smoothing filter can be a
be checked occasionally to make certain that no single-section affair, but the output capacitance
looseness has developed. should be fairly large — 16 to 32 if.
In mounting the dynamotor, the support Fig. 19-44 shows the two types of circuits. At
should be in the form of rubber mounting A is shown the nonsynchronous type of vibra-
blocks, or equivalent, to prevent the transmis- tor. When the battery is disconnected the reed
sion of vibration mechanically. The frame of is midway between the two contacts, touching
the dynamotor should be grounded through a neither. On closing the battery circuit the magnet
heavy flexible connector. The brushes on the coil pulls the reed into contact with one contact
high-voltage end of the shaft should be by- point, causing current to flow through the lower
passed with 0.002 pf. mica capacitors to a com-
half of the transformer primary winding. Simul-
mon point on the dynamotor frame, preferably taneously, the magnet coil is short-circuited, de-
to a point inside the end cover close to the brush energizing it, and the reed swings back. Inertia
holders. Short leads are essential. It may prove carries the reed into contact with the upper point,
desirable to shield the entire unit, or even to causing current to flow through the upper half of
remove the unit to a distance of three or four the transformer primary. The magnet coil again
feet from the receiver and antenna lead. is energized, and the cycle repeats itself.
When the dynamotor is used for receiving, a The synchronous circuit of Fig. 19-44B is
filter should be used similar to that described provided with an extra pair of contacts which
 434 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS
rent. Apply high voltage and quickly adjust C7
for minimum plate current. Then replace the plate
on the case ( chassis) and peak all controls for
maximum meter indication in the r.f. voltmeter
position. With the 220- Mc, transmitter adjusted
for maximum output on phone, typical meter
readings should be: first tripler grid current, 2
ma.; second tripler grid current, 24, ma.; final

grid current 2et ma., and final plate current, 80

ma.
432-Mc. Tripler/Amplifier
The 432- Mc, tripler/amplifier shown in Figs.
17-11 and 17-13 is designed to be driven by the
144- Mc, unit described earlier. As can be seen in
the circuit diagram, Fig. 17-12, the first stage is
a 6939 push-pull tripler stage. Its input circuit
tunes to the 144- Mc, band with the input capaci-
tance of the tube and the inductance of L2 ;it is
not at all critical because there is an abundance
of drive available. The input to the tripler can be
anything from 140 to 150 Mc., to cover the entire
el- meter band. However, since almost all crystal-
controlled transmitters in this band are operated
between 432 and 436 Mc., the following crystal
ranges for the 144- Mc, transmitter will prove
most useful: 6.000 to 6.055 Mc., 8.000 to 8.074
Mc., 12.00 to 12.11 Mc., and 24.00 to 24.22 Mc.
The plate circuit of the tripler is a quarter-
wavelength tuned line, L3. It is inductively-
coupled to the half-wavelength tuned line, L4,in
the grid circuit of the push-pull 6939 output am-
plifier. This amplifier uses a quarter- wavelength Fig. 17- 11— Bottom view of the 432-Mc. tripleriampli-
line in its plate circuit, inductively coupled to a fier. A small shield of flashing copper crosses the final
series-tuned output loop, L6.Note that the plate tube socket, and abox ( upper right) of the same mate-
tuning capacitor, C3,does not have its rotor rial houses the r.f. voltmeter on the output terminal.
grounded as might seem normal; it was found
that a parasitic oscillation disappeared when the
rotor was lifted.
A shield is mounted across the socket of the
output amplifier to minimize coupling between C1 is mounted 1inch away on the other side. The
the grid and plate circuits. Small unbypassed re- output amplifier socket is mounted l inches from
sistors are included in the screen leads of both C7.C2 is mounted midway between C1 and the
tubes to discourge parasitic oscillations. Suitable output amplifier, and C3 and . 12 are mounted 1and

r.f. chokes and bypass capacitors are used in the 2inches respectively from the output tube socket.
heater circuit to prevent r.f. loss. C3 is insulated from the chassis by mounting it
As in the other units, the final screen and plate on asmall phenolic disk; some radio stores carry
are modulated for phone work, and for c.w. opera- extruded fibre washers that can be pressed into
tion the cathodes of both stages are keyed. It was service. If none can be found, the phenolic disk
found necessary to shield the r.f. voltmeter ( out- from an RCA phono jack can be used.
put indicator) circuitry to avoid false readings. Dimensions for the inductors L1 through L6
Since this unit uses lower B+ voltages than the are given in Fig. 17-12. A 2 x 3- inch shield of
other three transmitters, suitable dropping resis- flashing copper is mounted across the socket of
tors are included in the unit. In the interests of the output amplifier. It passes over the spaces
good modulation, the resistor to the output ampli- between pins 4 and 5 and pins 1and 9. Pins 4
fier is bypassed for audio by a large capacitor. and 5are soldered to the copper shield, as are the
soldering lugs held by the tube socket's mounting
Construction
screws and the central shield pin of the socket.
The 432- Mc. tripler/amplifier is built on a5X The components for the r.f. voltmeter circuit
10- inch aluminum plate that is held to a 3- inch are mounted with very short leads on a three-
chassis by sheet-metal screws. A 15- pin chassis- terminal strip and enclosed in a small four-sided
mounted plug is mounted at the end of the chassis box made of flashing copper. The voltmeter is
so that it can engage the mating unit on the 144- wired to the output connector with ashort length
Mc. case ( see Fig. 17-13). of hook-up wire.
The major components are mounted along the The several bypass capacitors should be wired
center line of the aluminum plate. The input jack, with very short leads. When the aluminum plate
Jr is mounted 1inch from the tripler socket, and is fastened to the case ( chassis), the power wiring
432-Mc. Transmitter 435

TRIPLER AMPLIFIER
4321/c. 43251
144 Mc
6939 6939 OUTPUT
Ly L. L L6

91 <
V V2.
I.., L2
IN PU
6

• 62K EH • 27K E

-- - j
i\T
C4

'211"

001 lRFC1 RFC 2 •.7K

I 270
100
1N34

opofT
70
.00T

.1 k180V • 150
001
Pt , .001
— 001
25K y 4.7K pt

20p1. L
25Yo 2.5K

6939 6939

2
250 ; RFC
RFC

001
1
- 1
3 1511181211211 1419171141101I3)
» i(663'
'
MIR
300+300 KEY MIR OND. + 300 MIR.
OR MOD. —
ONO

Fig. 17- 12—Circuit diagram of the 432- Mc. tripler/amplifier shown in Fig. 17-13. Unless specified otherwise,
capacitances are in picofarads, resistances are in ohms, resistors are /
2 watt.
1

C1 - 8 pf. miniature butterfly ( Johnson 160-208). wide, bent 2% inches from closed end, Cc center
C2- 11 -pf. miniature butterfly ( Johnson 160-211). 2-1/16 inches from closed end. Space 1
,43 inch
Cs - 5-pf. miniature butterfly, insulated from chassis below 1.9.

(Johnson 160-205). Le — Hairpin loop No. 12, 2-1/16 inches long and Y2

C.-5-
pf. miniature variable ( Johnson 160-102). inch wide, bent 13
4 inches from closed end,
/ C.

J1—Coaxial receptacle, SO- 239. center 15/16 inch from closed end.
4-1 turn of insulated wire around center of LK. Le— Hairpin loop No. 12, 1% inches long and /
2
1 inch
1.2 - 5 t. No. 18, /
2 -
1 inch diam., 8 t.p.i., c.t. ( B&W 3002). wide, bent 7
/a inch from closed end. Space 1/16

4— Hairpin loop No. 12, 17

/8-
inch long, /
2 -
1 inch wide, inch above L..
bent 1 inch from closed end, C1 center % inch P2- 15-contact male chassis plug (Cinch-Jones P-315-
from closed end. AB).
4— Hairpin loop No. 12, 4 inches long and Y2 inch RFC2—RFC.-0.21..h. r.f. choke ( Ohmite Z-460).

running from the terminal strips and resistors to B+ applied to the 432- Mc, unit, turn on the
the 15- pin plug, should be dressed flat against the 2- meter transmitter and adjust C6 and C7 in the
sides of the case, away from the r.f. coils and 144- Mc, unit for a 432- Mc, tripler grid current
components. of 3 to 4 ma. Do not try to get more grid drive.
If the meter reading is too high, reduce it by de-
Adjustment tuning C7 in the 2- meter unit or by loosening the
First, the 144- Mc, transmitter should be tuned coupling between L 1 and /- 2 in the 432- Mc. unit.
for maximum output, as described earlier. With Do not reduce drive by detuning C 6 in the 144-
the power turned off, the juniper plug should be Mc. transmitter. Always adjust this control for
removed from the 144- Mc, unit and the 432- Mc. maximum drive to the 432- Mc. transmitter.
tripler/amplifier plugged in. A coaxial cable Set the resistor in the tripler high- voltage lead
with suitable plugs should be used to connect the to maximum resistance and switch the meter
144- Mc, drive to the tripler input jack. When the switch to position 4. Apply B+ to the tripler
two units are connected together, the meter in stage and adjust C1 and C 2 (Fig. 17-12) alter-
the control unit will read 144- Mc, tripler grid nately until maximum grid current is obtained.
current in position 1, 144- Mc, final grid current Then carefully adjust the slider on the resistor
in position 2, 432- Mc. tripler grid current in until the voltage measured at the bypassed end of
position 3, and 432- Mc. final grid current in RFC 1 is about + 180.
position 4. Connect a 50- ohm dummy load to the output
With the meter switch in position 3 and no connector, / 2.Set the adjustable resistor in the
436 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS

Fig. 17- 13— Rear view of the power supply and modulator, with the 144- and 432-Mc, units in place, for 432.
Mc. operation. The 432-Mc, unit is in the foreground; its power plug plugs into a socket on the 144-Mc. driver.
The six- prong plug to the right of the antenna changeover relay is an outlet for v.f.o. power and control, and
the phono jack to the right is J-,, for receiver output. Socket on the side of the chassis is L, for converter power.
The fourth VR tube, visible here but not shown in Fig. 17-14, is for possible use with a receiver/converter
power supply.

B+ lead to the output stage to maximum resist- grid circuit via / 1,or a carbon microphone can
ance, and switch the meter switch to read ampli- be plugged in at /2 ;in this latter case the pen-
fier plate and screen current. Apply B+ to the tode operates as a grounded-grid amplifier. The
output stage and quickly adjust C2 for minimum triode section of the 6AN8 is transformer-coupled
plate current. Then switch the meter to the r.f. to the grids of the 6GK6s.
voltmeter position and adjust C3 and C4 alter- A switch, S4A ,in the secondary circuit of the
nately until maximum output is indicated. Then modulation transformer, short-circuits the trans-
adjust the resistor in the B+ lead until the voltage former secondary during c.w. operation and also
measured at the bypassed end of RFC 2 is + 180. removes B+ from the modulator plates and
Next, go back and repeak all adjustments for screens at the same time. A second half of the
maximum r.f. voltmeter indication. Check occa- same switch, S4B ,transfers the keyed circuit ( s),
sionally to insure that the B+ applied to either the cathode ( s), from ground to the key. The
stage does not exceed + 180 volts; if it does, in- keyed circuit also controls aneon-tube oscillator
crease the resistance of the appropriate resistor. that is used to monitor the sending on c.w. and
The 432- Mc, unit may now be installed in its case to furnish the modulation for an m.c.w. ( modu-
and all controls touched up for maximum output. lated c.w.) signal. A 0.001-gf. capacitor across
Typical meter readings when the transmitter is the primary of the modulation transformer, T2,
properly adjusted for phone operation will be: reduces the high- frequency responses and elimi-
144- Mc, tripler grid, 1,/2 ma.; 144- Mc, final grid, nates aparasitic audio oscillation that occurs un-
3ma. ; 432- Mc, tripler grid, 3ma.; 432- Mc. final der some conditions. A position of the meter
grid, 244 ma.; and 432- Mc, amplifier plate and switch, S5,permits metering the modulator cath-
screen, 55 ma. ode current as well as the other currents men-
tioned previously.
The Modulator/Power Supply Unit
A 5V3 full- wave rectifier is used in the power
In the modulator section ( see Fig. 17-14), a supply. To stabilize the voltages on the crystal
6AN8 is used as the speech amplifier, driving a oscillators, a0A3 and aOD3 are included. A third
pair of 6GK6s in Class AB i.The pentode section regulator tube, a0C3, is shown, to furnish stabi-
of the 6AN8 serves as the input stage; a high- lized voltage for a crystal-controlled converter
impedance microphone can be coupled into the that could pick up its power at . 14.
 50-432-Mc. Transmitter 437

SPEECH AMPLIFIER MODULATOR

JI 6GK6
oot
VIA - 6AN8A PI
1
XYAL "
4-•-•

GAIN
220

s. 470K

1500
CARBON
° ,-+Y 450V
+300
MOD
3 + 300
.
pl-
00

„ a RUT. MIR.

6AN8 4 MIR
601(6 S2B
5 MTR

MTR.

13 A4YR

S2C 15 + 300

+225
12 REG.

+150
14
REG.

9 GND
MONITOR
S1 ON PITCH
e GND.

7 GND.

6 6.3

KEY
2 OR
GND.

XtATR
2 3 4 1 5 1 6)
63 OND.10 Ba V.F.O.
REG
ANT.

o T.
RCVR

PD
C DRCV I 3.3 MEG.
-CLOCKWISE I. GRID I 1-4 P
RHCOÉ

r
2. GRID 2 lOO pl JACK

3 GRID 3
- .0015(1. -01
Pf. J5
4 FINAL GRID
1 PHONES
5. FINAL PLATE. SCREEN 4
6 R.F. V.M NE- 2 5614 EG . Or

7. MODULATOR C.W.

j, 1 KEY

Fig. 17- 14— Circuit diagram of the power supply, modulator and control unit. Unless specified otherwise, resist-
ances are in ohms, resistors are V2 watt, capacitors marked with polarity are electrolytic.

1,, 1,-6.3-v. pilot lamp. R., R.2-1-megohm volume control, audio taper.
.1,—Microphone connector, shorting type (Amphenol S,—S.p.s.t. toggle.
75 Cl. PC1M). Ss— Rotary switch, 4- pole 2- position, shorting type (Mal-
J,— Closed-circuit phone jack. lory 1212L).
.1B- 15- contact female chassis fitting (Cinch-Jones Sn—D.p.s.t. toggle.
S- 315-A8). S.—D.p.d.t. toggle.
is— Octal socket (Amphenol 78-RS8). Ss— Rotary switch, 2- pole 11- position (7 used), non-
JR — Phono jack. shorting ( Mallory 1321L).
.ln, .1,— Open-circuit phone jack. T1-1:3 plate to push-pull grids ( Triad A-31X).
K1—Coaxial antenna relay with d.p.d.t. external con- T0-20-watt modulation transformer, 10,000-to-5000
tacts, 115 volts a.c. ( Dow- Key DK60-G2C). ohms ( Triad M-3X).
I.,- 8- henry 400-ma. filter choke ( UTC S-35). Ta-800 v.c.t., 380 ma.; 5 v. at 6 a., 6.3 v. at 6 a.
Ls- 10- henry 90-ma, filter choke ( Triad C-7X). (Triad R-24A).
PI— Chassis-mounting line plug ( Amphenol 61-M1). T5 - 6.3 v. at 3 a. ( Knight 62 G 031).
Ps—Chassis-mounting 6-pin plug (Amphenol 86-RCP6).
438 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS
The send- receive switch, S , controls the an-
2 ma. when the VR tubes are lit. Further informa-
tenna changeover relay, K1,and the B+ voltages tion on setting up voltage- stabilized circuits is
to the transmitter in use. Auxiliary contacts on given in the Power Supplies chapter.
the relay can be used to turn on a v.f.o. or turn One of the transmitters should be plugged into
off receiver circuits, through P.,. Although the the power- supply-modulator-control unit and ad-
receiver regulated + 105 ( at 14)is shown turned justed as described earlier. A crystal microphone
off during transmit periods, in some cases it might can be connected at Ji or a carbon microphone
be found desirable to retain this voltage on the plugged into J . Set the GAIN control, RI,to mini-
2

converter oscillator, to minimize drift. mum and switch 55 to the modulator current
position. A reading between 75 to 85 ma. should
Construction be obtained, depending upon which transmitter is
The power supply and modulator are built on used. The higher frequency units put a greater
a 4 X 17 x 10- inch aluminum chassis. As can demand on the power supply resulting in lower
be seen in Fig. 17-1, the power supply components voltages and consequently lower current readings.
(including regulator tubes) occupy most of the The gain control should be advanced until voice
chassis, and the speech amplifier and modulator peaks cause the meter to kick up 10 or 15 ma. at a
fill out the remainder, along the right-hand side. normal speaking level.
The transmitters plug in on the left-hand side, and A visual indication of modulation at the trans-
the converter power outlet is at the right. The co- mitter can be obtained by using a lamp dummy
axial antenna changeover relay is mounted at the load. one are too good above 50 Mc., but six
rear of the unit, as can be seen in Fig. 17-13. Note blue-bead, No. 44 or 46 pilot bulbs, connected in
that the external contacts of the relay are ex- parallel, will give afair indication of transmitter
posed; if they are used to transfer high voltage output. If all is working well, modulation should
they should be protected from accidental contact cause the bulbs to brighten; however, the final
by asuitable cover. may tune differently than when a matched an-
As in ally power supply, the wiring is not crit- tenna or 50-ohm dummy load is used.
ical and the only caution is the usual observation For c.w. operation, plug headphones into / 6,
of good insulating practices. In the speech sec- akey into / , and switch S4 to the c.w. position.
7

tion, several shielded leads should be used; these The neon- bulb oscillator will be keyed simulta-
are indicated in Fig. 17-14. neously with the transmitter and should be heard
in the headphones. The pitch of the monitor can
Adjustment
be varied by adjusting R.,.M.c.w. is accomplished
The voltage regulator tubes will pass differ- by keying the monitor with 54 in the PH ONE posi-
ing amounts of current, depending upon which tion. The modulator current should kick- up when
equipment is plugged into the control unit. Their the key is depressed. The monitor can be keyed
series-dropping resistors should he set so that the for off-the-air code practice by leaving S in the 2

tubes draw at least 5 ma. but not more than 40 receive position while S is in the SPOT position.
3

USING THE 80-METER V.F.O. ON 2 METERS

The circuit at the right (QST, May, 1960) MIXER
allows v.f.o. operation in the v.h.f. range with I2AT7
substantially the stability available on 80 meters. 24 MC.
50
In this example the 80- meter v.f.o. output is 3.5-4 MC.
L
4
heterodyned to 24 Mc., but other combinations L, TO
LIN K
can be used. To minimize the generation of FROM
XTAL
SOCKET
spurious signals, the signal from the v.f.o. should 80- METER
V. F.O.
be held to the lowest value possible consistent 1000

with useful output, by using loose coupling be- SO

tween 1. 1 and L . If the transmitter crystal-
2
+.300V.

oscillator tube is atriode, it should be neutralized OSC.

12A77 20 MC.
or operated as a frequency multiplier. St
L3

Y
i JY2 50 1000
Conversion circuit for obtaining 24-Mc, output with
I=1
3.5-Mc. input. Capacitances are in picofarads ( pf. or
WI resistors are 1 h watt. Bypass capacitors are
1 682.51-6900KC.
-
4700

disk ceramic; other fixed capacitors should be NPO

ceramic or mica.
C,-25- pf. miniature variable. +300v.

1.1-50 turns No. 26 enam. on Vi-inch iron-slug form 1.3-12 turns No. 32 enam., : 4 6 inch long on 38- inch
/
3
(Stancor WC- 1TV width control with turns re- iron-slug form, approx 5µh.
moved leaving single layer, full length, approx. 1.1-15 turns No. 20, 44-inch diom, 1- inch long,
40 µh.). approx. 1.8 oh. ( B&W 3007 Miniductor).
I.2—Single turn insulated wire loosely coupled to 1,-2 or 3turn link at ground end of L.
ground end of SI—S.p.d.t. rotary switch.
A High- Power Rig 439

HIGH- POWER TRANSMITTER FOR 50 AND 144 Mc.

The gear described in the next several pages The exciter is completely shielded, and its
shows how transmitting equipment for two v.h.f. power leads are filtered to prevent radiation of
bands can be coordinated in design so as to work harmonics by the power cable. In addition, there
from a single exciter. If the builder so desires, are built-in traps to absorb unwanted oscillator
the station may be operated from one set of harmonics that might otherwise be passed on to
power supplies and speech equipment, with asin- the amplifier, or to the antenna. Harmonics of
gle set of meters measuring the important cur- this kind are particularly troublesome when they
rents in both transmitters. Each item can be fall in Channel 2, which is so close to the operat-
used by itself, or they combine readily to cover ing frequency that a filter in the antenna line is
both 50 and 144 Mc., at apower level approach- relatively ineffective against them.
ing the legal limit. The interstage coupling circuits are of band-
In order of their description they are an pass design. Once they are properly adjusted
exciter capable of delivering up to 40 watts out- they require no further tuning, when the fre-
put at 48 to 54 Mc., a companion amplifier for quency is changed over a4- Mc. range. Thus only
the 50- Mc, band, a tripler- driver-amplifier for the crystal switch and the output plate circuit
144 Mc., and adual antenna coupler for feeding need be adjusted when changing frequency.
50- and 144- Mc, antennas having balanced lines.
Their physical appearance is such that they com- Circuit Details
bine neatly for rack mounting, as seen in Fig. The oscillator is a5763, using crystals above 6,
17-15. 8, 12, or 24 Mc. for 144- Mc, operation, or 6.25,
8.34, 12.5 or 25 Mc. for 50 Mc. Its plate circuit
THE EXCITER tunes 24 to 27 Mc., quadrupling, tripling or dou-
Though it is shown mounted on the same panel bling the crystal • frequency. ( Crystals at 24 to
as the 50- Mc amplifier in Fig. 17-16, the exciter 27 Mc. are overtone cuts that oscillate at one-third
unit might well be used alone, as a versatile 50- the marked frequency in this circuit.) A series-
Mc. transmitter capable of running up
to about 65 watts input. Provision is
made for taking off 48- Mc, output at
two power levels, through / 3 or . 12,the

latter being used for driving the

144- Mc, tripler to be described later.

Fig. 17-15—A high-power r.f. section for

a 50- and 144-Mc. station. Equipment in-
cludes a band-pass exciter for both bonds,
a 50-Mc. r.f. amplifier built on the same
panel, atripler-driver-amplifier for 144 Mc.,
and a dual antenna coupler for both fre-
quencies. Units can be operated with a
single set of power supplies, and with com-
mon speech equipment and meters.
440 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS

Fig. 17- 16—The 50-Mt. r.f. unit.

Exciter, left portion on the assem-
bly, also serves on 144 Mc. Ampli
fier utilizes a 4-125A, 4-250A or
4-400A.

tuned trap, LiCi,in the oscillator plate circuit allow them to be operated separately. High.
absorbs the third harmonic of 6- Mc. crystals. This voltage supplies may he left connected to all r.f.
18- Mc, energy otherwise would pass on to the units, energizing only the filaments and heaters
next stage, where it mould be tripled to a fre- in the ones being used.
quency in Channel 2. This harmonic has been
found to be a common cause of 50- Mc. TVI in Construction
Channel 2areas. The exciter is built on a 5 X 10 X 3- inch
The doubler is also a5763. A second trap, C4L. 4, aluminum chassis, with a bottom plate and a
in the grid circuit, is tuned to the 7th harmonic perforated aluminum cage to complete the
of 8- Mc. crystals. The two traps thus prevent shielding. The small knobs at the lower left of
radiation of energy in Channel 2, the most criti- the front view are for the crystal switch and the
cal trael"§mitter problem a 6-meter man is likely excitation control. The crystal switch has 12
to encounter in correcting TVI. They can be positions. Ten are for the crystals on the multiple
modified for other frequencies to suit local prob- crystal socket ( Johnson No. 126-120-1). One
lems. An example is the 10th harmonic of 8- Mc. more crystal position is provided on the front
crystals, that falls in Channel 6. A trap for the 5th panel ( a convenience if you want to use a fre-
harmonic of the crystal frequency should take quency not covered by the 10 crystals in the
care of this. multiple socket), and the 12th switch position is
The 6146 amplifier stage has a shunt-fed pi- for an external v.f.o. It connects the 5763 grid
network plate circuit. For best stability over the to the coaxial v.f.o. input fitting, and shorts out
entire operating range the stage is neutralized. RFC and its parallel capacitor. The stage then
The choke, RFC 4,is provided to short out the functions as a frequency multiplier. The output
d.c. voltage that would appear on the output cir- frequency of the v.f.o. could thus be in the 6-, 8-
cuit if C9,should break down. The choke in the or 12- Mc. range. Above the excitation control
plate lead, RFC 5,is for parasitic oscillation sup- may be seen the knobs for the 6146 plate and
pression. Note that each of the three cathode output coupling capacitors.
leads is bypassed separately at the socket. The Three coaxial connectors are on the rear wall
exciter may be keyed in the 6146 cathode jack, of the exciter. The one at the outside edge is for
v.f.o. input. The others are the doubler and 6146
Double-tuned band-pass circuits between the output fittings. Two 4- terminal steatite strips
oscillator and doubler, and between the doubler handle the various power and metering leads.
and final, provide essentially flat response from Adjacent to each terminal except the ground con-
48 to 52 Mc., or 50 to 54 Mc. A potentiometer in nection is a feed-through bypass capacitor to
the doubler screen circuit provides excitation take the power lead through the chassis.
control for the 6146, and may be used to com- TVI that might result from radiation of har-
pensate for variations in drive that may appear monics by the power leads is prevented by filter-
at some spots in the band. ing of each lead. The feed- through bypasses are
The link winding on the doubler plate circuit, connected to the exciter circuits through r.f.
is for the p.urpose of taking off low-level 48- chokes, the inner ends of which are again by-
Mc. output to drive the tripler in the 144- Mc. r.f. passed with small disk ceramic capacitors. All
unit. Note that the keying jack in the 6146 cath- power leads are made with shielded wire, bonded
ode circuit is the open- circuit type. Removing at intervals to the chassis.
the key thus disables the 6146 stage, when the The side view shows the multiple crystal socket
first two stages are being used in this way. Sep- at the front of the chassis. Separate crystal
arate heater and filament switches on all units sockets may be used if desired. The oscillator and
A High-Power Rig 441
doubler tubes are in the foreground. The trap through ahole in the chassis from C11 over to 13 .
capacitors, C7 and C4,are adjacent to these tubes, Most of the parts visible in the chassis view can
while Co and C5,are between them, a bit off be identified from our description of the panel,
their center line. To the rear of the 5763 doubler rear, and topside layouts. The oscillator cathode
are C5 and C7.The grid tuning capacitor for the choke, RFC 1,can be seen mounted upright near
6146. C,, is just visible inside the amplifier com- the oscillator tube and crystal sockets. Both 5763
partment. sockets should be oriented so that Pins 4 and 5
A separate lead is provided for each power cir- are adjacent to the outside chassis wall. L, is
cuit. Fixed bias for the 6146 is brought in from visible between C1 and the oscillator tube socket.
the bias supply that is part of the high- power L, and L 3 run between this socket and that of
amplifier assembly. This bias is desirable to pre- the doubler. These coils are made from a single
vent the plate current from rising too high when length of Miniductor stock with the specified
the excitation is hacked off. If the exciter is number of turns removed to provide spacing be-
used alone, fixed bias is unnecessary. External tween them. The same applies to L, and L 7 .
meters can be connected in any of the circuits at These are to the left of the 6146 socket..L 4 is be-
the terminal strips. tween the doubler socket and C 4 . The trap coils
The sides, back and top of the amplifier cage are mounted with their axes vertical, to minimize
are Reynolds "Do-It- Yourself" perforated alu- coupling to the band-pass coils. L o is wound
minum sheet, now available in many hardware around and cemented to the bypassed end of L 5 .
stores. The pieces are joined together at the The power lead r.f. chokes are mounted be-
corners with lengths of 9'- inch aluminum angle tween single-terminal tie points on the rear lip
which can be bought or bent up from sheet stock. of the chassis and the feed-through capacitors.
The tuning and loading capacitors are mounted The disk ceramic bypasses are then applied to the
on the front of the cage, so this part should be a tie points. A single-terminal tie point mounted
piece of solid sheet stock rather than the perfo- under RFC, holds one end of the 3300-ohm
rated material. The dimensions of the cage are doubler screen resistor and the lead over to the
not critical. The original is 5 4 inches deep, 2Y8 terminal strip at the rear. A double tie point is
inches across, and 441 inches high. Make provi- mounted between the two 5763 sockets to support
sion for removing the top and outside sheets of the bypassed ends of L 2 and L 3 . Another over
perforated stock for convenience in servicing, nearer the rear of the chassis supports the cold
when the exciter is mounted against the amplifier end of L 5 and the bottom of the doubler grid re-
unit. Extension shafts and couplings bring out sistor.
the amplifier controls to the panel. Wiring will be simplified by the following pro-
Inside the cage, the 6146 can be seen with its cedure. Before mounting the crystal switch,
socket mounted above the chassis on V2- inch ground one terminal of each crystal socket
metal sleeves. The cathode and screen bypasses through a bus wire. Connect short lengths of
should connect to separate ground lugs on the tinned wire to the other terminal of each socket
top of the chassis, with the shortest
possible leads. This wiring can be done
conveniently before the socket is
mounted on the chassis if nuts are used
temporarily to hold the ground lugs in
place over the socket mounting screws.
The neutralizing adjustment, C5, is
mounted on the rear wall of the cage,
and wired to the 6146 plate clip and
the feed-through bushing with 34-inch
wide strips of thin copper. A ceramic
insulator mounted on the wall near the
6146 plate cap supports the junction of
RFC,, RFC,, and C9.An ordinary tie
point supports the other end of RFC 3
and the shielded power lead. The plate
coil, L o ,can be seen in back of the 5763
doubler tube, wired between the stators
of C1, and Cu .C 12 and RFC 4 are
mounted near C11 ,and hooked betweeri
its stator bar and aground lug. A short
length of RG-58/1] coax runs down

Fig. 17- 17—Side view of the exciter, with

cover removed. Band-pass coupling circuits
eliminate front- panel tuning controls except
for crystal switch and output stage tuning.
442 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS
DESLR
5763 5763

esv 63V. OSC. DBLR. DBLR. BIAS AMP.

-300v. 4.300v. GRID + 300V. -GRID METER + + 4.00V.
-400V

Fig. 17- 18— Schematic diagram of 48-54-Mc. exciter. All capacitances less than . 001 µf. are in 1.q.d. All .001-4.
capacitors are disk ceramic. All resistors ore Y2 watt unless otherwise specified.

C- 35-µ.µf. miniature trimmer ( Hammarlund 1,, L-6 turns No. 20, Y2-inch diam., 16 t.p.i. ( B & W
MAPC-35). Miniductor No. 3003). Make from one piece of
Co- 10-µµf. miniature variable ( Hammarlund MAC- 10). Miniductor with 3 turns removed between coils.
Cs, C.-20-µ0. miniature variable ( Hammarlund MAC. L-2 turns hookup wire wound around cold end of 4
20). and cemented in place.
C, - 50-µµf. miniature trimmer ( Hammarlund MAPC-50). L-4 turns No. 18, /
4 -
3 inch diam., 8 t.p.i. ( B & W Mini-
C.- 15-µµf. miniature trimmer ( Hammarlund MAPC-15). ductor No. 3010).
C.—. 001-µf. 3000- volt disk ceramic. .11, .1,, JO — Coaxial chassis fitting ( Amphenol 83-1R).
C,,,-35-µ4. miniature variable ( Hammarlund HF-
35). Jo—Open-circuit phone jack.
C”- 100-µµf. miniature variable ( Hammarlund MAPC- 12,- 25,000- ohm 4-watt pot.
100B). 12,-33,000-ohm 3-watt ( 3 100,000- ohm 1
-watt in
C,,- 100 - uf. 1000-volt mica. parallel).
feedthrough-type ceramic ( Centralab RFC,-2.5-mh. r.f. choke ( National R- 100S).
FT- 1000). RFC, RFC.- 7-µh. solenoid vhf, choke ( Ohmite
L-16 turns No. 24, %- inch diam., 32 t.p.i. ( B & W Mini- Z-50).
ductor No. 3008). RFCs-6 turns No. 22 tinned wire, / inch diam., spaced
4 -
1

L, L-12 turns each No. 20, %-inch diam., 16 t.p.i. one-wire diam.
(B & W Miniductor No. 3007). Make from one RFC,i—RFC,+-15 turns No. 24 enam. close-wound on
piece of Miniductor with 5 turns removed be- high-value 1-watt resistor.
tween coils. Cold ends are adjacent. S‘-2- pole 12- position miniature ceramic rotary ( Cen-
L-10 turns No. 20, /
2 -
1 inch diam., 16 t.p.i. ( B & W Mini- tralab PA-2005).
ductor No. 3003).

that will be under the switch. Then when the chassis. Wiring up the power leads should be
latter is installed, the wires can he run to the done before the r.f. chokes are mounted in place.
proper contacts and soldered in place. Note that
the front wafer of the switch is used for shorting THE 50- MC. AMPLIFIER
out REC i,while the crystal socket connections Though the exciter and amplifier are pictured
are made to the rear wafer, which is more ac- on a single panel, the possibility of using either
cessible. The v.f.o. input socket is connected to by itself should not be overlooked. The exciter
the proper switch contact with a length of RG- will make a fine low- powered transmitter, and
58/U coax. the final amplifier may be used with any exciter
In assembling the power lead filtering compo- delivering 15 watts or more.
nents at the rear of the chassis, the disk ceramic It will take up to the legal limit of power with
bypasses can most easily be mounted on the tie a 4-400.-\ tube, 750 watts with a 4-250A, or 400
points before the latter" are fastened inside the watts with a 4-125A.
A High- Power Rig 443
The plate circuit is alarger version of the one supplies. S2 applies a.c. to the filament trans-
used in the 6146 stage of the exciter, a shunt-fed former of the amplifier and starts the cooling fan.
pi-network. Operation is completely stable with- Above the switches on the panel are the amplifier
out neutralization, probably because the natural plate tuning and loading controls.
neutralized frequency of the tubes is close to 50 On the rear of the chassis, coaxial connectors
Mc. Provision was originally made for neutral- for r.f. input and output are mounted at either
ization, but it was found to be unnecessary. Para- end. Between them are the high-voltage con-
sitic suppression devices were not required, but nector for the plate supply, the cathode circuit
if the layout is varied appreciably from that jack, and a fitting for the remaining power and
shown, the builder should check for both types meter leads.
of instability with great care. Above the chassis, the 4-250A tube is seen near
The jack in the filament center-tap lead is for the front of the chassis. Note that its socket is
keying, or for insertion of agrid-bias modulator. mounted on , A- inch sleeves. Holes - inch in di-
A bias supply that delivers about 50 volts nega- ameter are drilled in the chassis directly under-
tive for the 6146 and 150 for the final amplifier neath those provided in the socket for the passage
is included in the final stage assembly. Filament of cooling air. Holes are also drilled adjacent to
transformers for the exciter and final are also the cathode, grid, and screen pins to pass their
part of this unit. Separate filament switches are leads. Bypassing of cathode and screen is done
included; one for the exciter and the other for the above the chassis. The heat radiating plate con-
final tube and the blower motor. Power leads, ex- nector for the 4-250A was cut down to four fins
cept the high voltage, are brought in on an 8-pin to reduce the over-all height requirement. The
plug. filament transformer, T3,and the screen modu-
lation choke, 1. 4,are also topside.
Building the Amplifier The amplifier plate circuit components are to
A 12 x 10 x 3-inch aluminum chassis is used the left of the tube. The tuning capacitor, C7,or-
for the amplifier unit. Thus, it may be combined iginally a neutralizing capacitor, is mounted on
with the exciter on a 10V2- inch rack panel, if de- the side wall of the shielding assembly. Two
sired. The amplifier controls mounted near the modifications should be made to the neutralizing
panel bottom are, left to right, the input link re- unit before mounting. The circular plates sup-
actance capacitor, C,; the grid tuning capacitor, plied should be replaced with larger ones, 3
C2 ;and S1 and S2.S 1 applies a.c. to the trans- inches in diameter, to increase the available tun-
former for the exciter heaters and to the bias ing range. The bearing assembly of the rotor
disk must be temporarily removed, and
astrap of copper run between the screw
holding the bearing in place and the
opposite ( grounded) end of the square
ceramic insulating pillar, grounding the
capacitor rotor. Two copper straps
must be inserted between the stator
disk and its insulator, to connect the
stator with the blocking capacitor, C5,
and with L3.
The blocking capacitor, the shunt-
feed r.f. choke, RFC 2,and the high-
voltage bypass, C6,are assembled into
one unit before mounting in the ampli-
fier. This is done with the aid of the
hardware supplied with the TV-type
high-voltage capacitors. The bypass
capacitor, on the bottom of the stack,
is equipped with one terminal threaded
and one tapped. The latter is on
the bottom end, for fastening the as-
sembly to the chassis. The threaded ter-
minal screws into the 2- inch ceramic
insulator upon which RFC2 is wound.

Fig. 1719— Bottom view of the

50•Mc. exciter, showing ba nd-
ims circuits and TVI protective
measures.
444 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS

Fig. 17-20— Interior of the

50-Mc, final amplifier.
Plate tuning capacitor is
modified neutralizing unit,
left.

,11,1•,e

The ends of the choke winding are secured Most of the under-chassis components are vis-
by lugs at each end of the insulator. Cs should ible in the bottom view. The grid circuit is near
be fitted with a threaded terminal at the lower the front edge of the chassis. Copper strap con-
end for screwing into the top of the insu- nects the tube socket grid pin with the stator of
lator. This also serves to fasten the 3.- inch wide C2.L2 then is soldered between this strap and a
strip of copper which runs up to the 4-250A tie point. L, is slid inside the cold end of L2,and
plate cap. Finally, the longer of the two copper cemented lightly in place.
strips coming from the stator of C7 is screwed The cooling fan sucks air in from the side of
to the top of C5.A / 12-
inch feedthrough bushing the amplifier near the back corner. The motor is
brings the high- voltage up to the hot side of C6. mounted on an aluminum bracket. The fan as
The loading capacitor, Cs,is mounted on the supplied will blow, rather than suck, so the
chassis directly underneath C7.The plate coil, blades must be bent back to reverse their pitch.
L3,gets rather warm when the rig is operated A small piece of aluminum window screening
at high power level, so both of its ends must be shields the hole cut in the chassis side for the
bolted in place rather than soldered. One end is fan.
bent around and fastened under a nut provided Bias supply components occupy the lower left
on the stator of C8.The other is bolted to the quarter of the bottom view. Layout and wiring
short length of copper strap previously fastened of this portion of the rig is anything but critical.
to the stator of C7.A length of RG-8/U coaxial Shielded wire was used for all power leads. By-
cable is run between Cs and J2.At the capacitor passing at the power connector should be done
end, this cable is connected to lugs under the with very short leads, and C14 should be mounted
stator and frame mounting screws. as close as possible to the high- voltage connector.
Solid sheet aluminum is used for the enclosure
of this unit, as it must be reasonably airtight ex- Adjustment and Operation
cept for holes directly above the tube itself. The An initial setting of the exciter controls can be
side that supports C7 must be of fairly heavy made before power is applied, if agrid-dip meter
stock for rigidity. Home-bent et- inch angle stock is available. The series traps, LiCi and L4C4,
was used to hold the assembly together. If the introduce varying amounts of reactance across
over-all height of the unit is kept to just about the tuned circuits when they are adjusted,
that of the 10 / 12- inch rack panel, there will be so some further adjustment will be needed
enough clearance above the tube plate connector. after these are set up finally, but the following
A High- Power Rig 445
AMPLIFIER
4-250A
C3

LI

BIAS FOR -H V. 6.3V. A.

C.
EXC I
TER FOR EXCITER A.
C.

Fig. 17- 21-- Schematic diagram and parts list for the 4-250A amplifier. All capacitors marked . 001 of. are 600- volt
disk ceramic.

Cm-50-µ0. miniature variable ( Hammarlund HF-

50). La-6 turns No. 12 tinned wire, 1- inch diam., spaced
Cm- 15-340. miniature variable, double-spaced ( Ham- twice wire diam.
marlund HF-
15X). 1.4-Filter choke, about 10-hy. 100-ma. (
Triad C- 10X).
Cm, CS, CIS. 1000-volt disk ceramic. Bi- Blower motor and fan (Allied cat. No. 72P7I5).
CS, CS, C11,-500-144. 20,000-volt ceramic (Cornell- R1-20,000 ohms, 10 watts.
Dubilier MM120T5)• R2-500 ohms 2 watts (2 1000-ohm 1-watt resistors in
Cm-Disk-type capacitor with 3-inch diam. plates (made parallel).
from Millen 15011). RFC, RFC3-7-3mh. solenoid choke (
Ohmite Z-50).
Cm-2501mA variable, double-spaced (Johnson 250- RFC2-Solenoid choke, 42 turns No. 24 d.c.c. close-
F20). wound on /2 -
1 inch diam., 21
2 -
/ inch long insulator
CS, CIO, Clle Cl2-12-0. 250-volt electrolytic. (National GS-2).
.11, Ji- Coaxial chassis fitting ( Amphenol 83-1R). SI, Si-Single-pole single-throw toggle switch.
is- Closed-circuit phone jack. Tm- Power transformer, 135 volts at 50 ma. ( Triad
CR1-65-ma, selenium rectifier ( Federal 1002A). R-30X).
CRm-20-ma, selenium rectifier ( Federal 1159). Tm- Filament transformer, 6.3 volts at 3 amp. (Triad
1.1-5 turns No. 24, /
2 -
1 inch diam., 32 t.p.i. ( B & W Mini- F- 16X).
ductor No. 3004). TS - Filament transformer, 5.2 volts c.t. at 15 am. ( Triad
6-4 turns No. 18, 34-inch diam., 8 t.p.i. ( B & W Mini- F- 11U).
ductor No. 3010).

procedure will result in .a close approximation. Connect asource of 6.3 volts a.c. at 2.5 amperes
Disconnect one end of L3,Fig. 17-18. Couple or more between the ground and heater termi-
the grid-dip meter to L 2 and tune it with C., to nals, and a low- range meter from the doubler
about 24.5 Mc. Leaving the setting of C 2 at that grid return terminal to ground. Insert crystals
position, lift one end of L 2 . Reconnect L 3 and for the desired frequency range. Apply about 200
resonate C3L., to about 25.5 Mc. Reconnect L 2 , volts d.c. to the oscillator plate- screen terminal
and the circuits should be set for operation on through a 50- or 100- ma. meter. Current should
48 to 52 Mc. For 50 to 54 Mc., the frequencies be 20 to 30 ma., and grid current in the following
should be 25.5 and 26.5 Mc. stage should be about 0.5 ma., when the voltage
Procedure for the second band-pass circuit is is increased to the normal 300 volts. Touch up
similar except for the frequencies involved. For the tuning of the band-pass circuit, if necessary,
48 to 52 Mc., disconnect L7 and tune C5L5 to 49 to get uniform response across the desired range.
Mc. Reconnect L 7 and disconnect L 5 ,tuning Li C6 The trap circuits can be adjusted at this point,
to 51 Mc. Reconnect L5.For the 50- to 54 Mc. tuning for minimum signal at the frequency to be
range these frequencies would be about 51 and 53 attenuated in each case. A receiver tuning to the
Mc. harmonic frequencies is helpful. These will be
446 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS
about 18 to 20.25 Mc. for the first trap and 56 to be adjusted by varying C11 ,returning C„ after
60 Mc. for the second, if they are for Channel 2. each movement of Cu .
A TV receiver on the channels to be protected Recheck for neutralization at this point, work-
may also be used, merely tuning the traps for ing for a setting of C, at which minimum plate
minimum TVI. Some slight readjustment of the current, maximum grid current, and maximum
band-pass circuit may be needed after the final output all occur at the same setting of the plate
trap tuning is done. tuning capacitor. C„. The input can be run up
Now remove the grid current meter and to about 65 watts with plate modulation and 35-
ground the metering terminal in the doubler grid 40 watts output should be obtained. Higher input
circuit. Connect a meter ( 0 to 5 ma. or more) can be run on c.w. Plate voltage should not ex-
between the terminals provided for measuring ceed about 400 with plate modulation, though it
the 6146 grid current. Set the screen potenti- can be somewhat more for c.w.
ometer, R1,to about the middle of its range and Now make a final check on the trap circuits,
apply about 200 volts to the doubler plate- screen if necessary. In case TVI is experienced, adjust
input terminal. Adjust the band-pass circuit, L5C5, the traps while someone watches the TV screen,
L7C, for nearly uniform response across the and see whether any improvement is possible.
desired range, using the 6146 grid current as the Remember that the traps shown were designed
output indication. There should be at least 2ma. primarily to reduce Channel 2 interference.
across a 4- Mc, range when the doubler plate Where the trouble is with other channels, the
voltage is raised to 300. Note that the screen traps can be modified to reduce the offending
potentiometer controls the input to the doubler, harmonic as required. A low-pass filter or a4th
and through it the excitation to the 6146. harmonic trap will be needed if there is harmonic
The 48- Mc, output coupling adjustment, L6C7, interference in Channels 11-13.
may be checked at this time. The line to a 144- The amplifier as shown furnishes heater volt-
Mc. tripler stage should be connected to / 2,and age and protective bias for the exciter. Hook
the series capacitor, C7,adjusted for maximum together the 6.3-volt and ground terminals of the
grid current in the driven stage. Recheck the ad- two units, and connect the bias output pin on the
justment of the band-pass circuit after this is amplifier to the 6146 grid return in the exciter.
done. Apply 115 volts a.c. to the appropriate pins on
The 6146 amplifier stage had to be neutralized the amplifier power plug. When S1,Fig. 17-21, is
for stable operation. Its adjustment was not crit- closed, the exciter heaters and the bias supplies
ical, however, and C, could be set anywhere near are energized. The bias voltages are about 50 and
minimum capacitance with good results. Start 150 negative for the driver and amplifier, respec-
out with its plates meshed about V8- inch. With tively. Closing S 2 lights the amplifier filament
grid drive applied but no plate or screen voltage, and starts the fan motor.
tune the 6146 plate circuit through resonance, For the initial testing of the amplifier discon-
trying various settings of C 8 until there is no nect its fixed bias supply, by lifting the connec-
grid current dip at resonance. tion between /21 and Ro, so that instability will
A load for the 6146 output circuit is now re- be more evident. Connect the output of the
quired. This can be a 40- or 60-watt lamp, with exciter through a length of coaxial cable to J.
a 50-12,Lf. capacitor in series to tune out its react- Hook a0-25- or 0-50- ma. meter to the terminals
ance. Adjust it for minimum reflected power, as provided for measuring grid current. Turn on
indicated on an s.w.r. bridge. With the load con- the exciter and adjust the driver output and am-
nected and grid drive on, apply 300 to 400 volts plifier input for maximum grid current. Set this
to the amplifier plate and screen terminal. Tune current between 10 and 15 ma, with the excita-
C„ for maximum indicated output. Loading can tion control, RI,in the exciter. To insure proper

Fig. 17-22— Bottom view of

50-Mc. exciter and amplifier.
Note that the two units are
built separately, though they
mount together on a single
panel. Amplifier unit includes
bias and filament supplies for
both.
A High-Power Rig 447
adjustment of the amplifier grid circuit, insert sion measures are in order. If it is in the 50- Mc.
an s.w.r. bridge unit such as aMicromatch in the region, neutralization will be required. These
coax connecting the driver and amplifier, and troubles are most common in multiband designs,
tune C1 and C 2 in the amplifier alternately for and unlikely in a layout of this sort. Neutraliza-
minimum reflected power. Adjust the driver tun- tion of the capacity-bridge type, like that in the
ing for maximum forward power. exciter, can be incorporated readily, and parasi-
Never apply screen voltage without having the tic suppression is covered in detail elsewhere in
plate voltage on also, and do not operate the this Handbook. Neutralization may require addi-
amplifier without load. Either will result in ex- tional grid-plate capacitance in some layouts.
cessive screen dissipation, and almost certain tube Provision was made for neutralization in the
failure if continued for any length of time. A original layout ( explaining the plugged hole in
usable dummy load for testing can be made by the front panel), but it was found to be un-
connecting two or more 100- watt lamps in necessary.
parallel. A variable series capacitor, 50 µµf. or When the amplifier is operating stably, the
more, will be helpful in making the lamp load plate and screen voltages may be increased in
something like 50 ohms, resistive, at this fre- accordance with the tube manufacturer's ratings,
quency. for the type of operation intended. Operating
It is well to start with something less than conditions are different for the three tubes which
maximum voltages in testing. If the plate volt- can be used and they should follow the manufac-
age is under 1000 and the screen voltage about turer's recommendations. This is not to say that
200 to 300 volts, little harm can result if some- variations from the published data are unsafe or
thing is not quite right. With the dummy load undesirable. Any of the values can be varied over
connected, apply plate and screen voltages. Set Cs quite a range if the maximum rating for each
near the middle of its range and tune C 7 for max- tube element concerned is not exceeded. In this
imum output. If this occurs at or close to the end connection, it is highly desirable to provide con-
of the tuning range of C 7, adjust the spacing of tinuous metering for the grid, screen, and plate
the turns in the plate coil accordingly. Adjust C 8 currents. This, with a knowledge of the applied
for maximum output, returning C 7 as required. voltages, will help insure proper operation and
If the grid current dropped below 10 ma. under make correct adjustment asimple matter.
load, increase the drive with the doubler screen
potentiometer in the exciter. A 144- MC. DRIVER- AMPLIFIER
Check now for stability. Briefly cut off the The unit shown in Figs. 17-23 through 17-28 is
drive and see if the amplifier grid current drops a three- stage tripler- driver-amplifier that may
to zero. If it doesn't, the amplifier either needs be used with the exciter just described. Driving
neutralization, or it has a parasitic oscillation. power at 48 Mc. may be taken from the doubler
If no grid current shows with drive removed, stage ( by connecting to 12 in Fig. 17-18) or from
note whether, when drive is applied and the am- the output stage, running at low power. Almost
plifier is tuned properly, maximum output, mini- any 50- Mc. transmitter of 3 to 5 watts output
mum plate current and maximum grid current could be used by substituting a suitable crystal
all occur at the same plate tuning. If they do, the and retuning the stages for operation at 48 to
amplifier is operating satisfactorily. 49.3 Mc. If a small 144- Mc. transmitter is avail-
If oscillation does show up, check its frequency. able, the tripler stage may be dispensed with, in
If it is much higher than the operating frequency which case about 5 watts of drive on 144 Mc. is
(probably over 150 Mc.) v.h.f. parasitic suppres- required.
This section of the station is
built in two parts. The tripler
and driver stages are in the small
portion at the right of Fig. 17-23,
with the final stage at the left. All
are push-pull stages, the tripler
and driver using dual tetrodes.
The tripler is an Amperex 6360,
followed by an RCA 6524
straight-through amplifier. This
drives a pair of 4-125As in the
final stage.

Fig. 17-23—The high- power 2- meter

rig, with shielding enclosures in place.
The small unit at the right houses the
tripler and driver stages.
448 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS
Input to the 4-125As can be up to 600 watts on efficient transfer of energy from the driver
a.m. phone, or 800 watts on c.w. or f.m. By suit- stage. The input capacitance of the large
able adjustment of screen and plate voltages the tetrodes is so high that a tuned grid circuit of
power can be dropped as low as 150 watts input conventional design cannot be used at 144 Mc., so
and still maintain good efficiency. Some means of ahalf-wave line is substituted, as shown in Figs.
reducing power is highly desirable, as most opera- 17-27 and 17-28. The input coupling link is series
tion on 144 Mc. can be carried on satisfactorily timed, permitting adjustment for minimum stand-
with low power. ing wave ratio on the coaxial line connecting it
to the driver stage output link. The grid
The Driver Portion line, LiL2,is made of 1 A-inch copper tubing, to
The tripler and driver stages, Figs. 17-25 and reduce heat losses.
17-26, both operate well below their maximum Maintaining the 4-125A screens and filament
ratings. Self-tuned grid circuits are used in each leads at ground potential for r.f. is necessary for
stage. This simplifies construction, and in the stability. To this end, the tube sockets are
case of the driver stage, reduces the possibility mounted above the chassis, rather than below.
of self-oscillation. With asurplus of drive avail- They are elevated only enough to allow the soc-
able, the grid circuit of the 6524 may be resonated ket contacts to clear the chassis, and are mounted
as low as 130 Mc. There is little tendency to corner to corner, with the inner corners almost
tuned-plate tuned-grid oscillation, therefore, and touching. The grid line is brought up through
neutralization is not required. -inch chassis holes and soldered directly to the
Tripler and driver are built on astandard 5X grid contacts. This determines the line spacing,
10 x 3-inch aluminum chassis, with the tripler at about PA- inches center to center.
the back. Its plate circuit is tuned from the front The inner filament terminals on each socket
panel by an extension shaft. Omission of the are grounded to the chassis. The others connect
screen bypass on the tripler is intentional as the to feedthrough bypasses with the shortest pos-
stage works satisfactorily without screen bypas- ible leads. These are joined under the chassis with
sing. a shielded wire and tied to the filament trans-
The 6524 is easily over-driven. This may be former. The r.f. chokes in the screen leads are
corrected by squeezing the driver grid coil turns under the chassis, their wire leads coming up
closer together, lowering the resonant frequency through Millen type 32150 feedthrough bushings
until the desired 2.5 to 3.5 ma. is obtained across inserted in chassis holes under the screen termi-
the band. The farther it can be resonated below nals. The two screen terminals on each socket
144 Mc. the less likelihood there is of self-oscilla- are strapped together with aY8- inch wide strip of
tion in the driver stage. flashing copper. The screen neutralizing capaci-
The 6524 is mounted horizontally, and holes tor is mounted as close to the sockets as possible
are drilled in the chassis under the tube to allow and still leave room for the shaft coupling on its
for air circulation. Plate leads are made of thin rotor. Leads to its stators are about one half inch
phosphor bronze or copper, bent into asemicircle, long.
connecting the butterfly capacitor and the heat- More compact and symmetrical design is
dissipating connectors. This allows the latter to possible if a modified single- section capacitor is
be removed for changing tubes, without putting used for C.,. It should be the type having sup-
undue strain on the plate pins. The connectors ports at both ends of the rotor shaft. The Millen
have to be sawed or filed down on the insides to 19140 and Hammarlund MC- 140 are suitable
fit on the 6524 pins. The coupling link at the units for the purpose. The stator bars are sawed
driver plate circuit is tuned, to provide efficient at each side of the center stator plate. The front
transfer of energy to the amplifier grids. rotor plate is removed, making a split- stator
Small feedthrough bypasses are used in the variable with 4plates on each stator and 8on the
driver screen circuit. C 5 is
mounted in the aluminum plate
that supports the 6524 socket, and
C e is in the chassis surface.

Amplifier Features
Design of the 4-125A grid cir-
cuit is important in achieving

Fig. 17-24—Rear view of the 4-125A

final stage. The split-stator capacitor
near the middle of the picture is the
screen neutralizing adjustment. The
plate line is tuned with a capacitor
made from parts of a neutralizing
unit, mounted on ceramic stand-offs.
Two-Meter Amplifier 449
DRIVER
TRIPLER

+300
— "R + 400

Fig. 17- 25— Schematic diagram of the tripler and driver stages of the high-powered 2-meter transmitter.
CI,C2-10.5 µif.- per-section butterfly variable ( Johnson L8 - 3 turns No. 14 enamel, /
4 -
3 inch diam., spaced Me
10LB15). inch center-tapped.
C8 - 25-124. screwdriver-adjustment variable ( Hammer- L.-2 turns No. 18 enamel, same as Lg, inserted at center.
lund APC-25). 1.1-2 turns No. 18 enamel, same as Le, inserted at
C.-25-/hµf. miniature variable ( Bud LC- 1642). center.
CS, Ce- 500-µµf. feed-through bypass ( Centrelab FT- I.-4 turns No. 14 enamel, /
2 -
1 inch diem., turns spaced
500). wire diameter.
R1-11,000 ohms 2 watts ( two 22,000-ohm 1-watt re- 1.7-2 turns No. 14 enamel, 1-inch diam., spaced 1
4-inch.
sistors in parallel). L.9-1 turn No. 14 enamel between turns of L7.

R2-50,000 ohms 2 watts ( two 100,000-ohm 1-watt re- J2—Coaxial fitting, female ( Amphenol 83-1R).
sistors in parallel). Jg, J., is— Closed-circuit jack. Insulate JSfrom panel and
1.1-2 turn insulated wire around center of Twist leads chassis.
to J, and Cg. MAI— External meter not shown in photo, 200 ma.
L2-13 turns No. 20, %-inch diem., 7
/8-
inch long, center Ss—Toggle switch.
tapped ( B & W Miniductor No. 3007). Ts—Filament transformer, 6.3 volts, 3 amp. ( UTC S-55).

rotor. This procedure may not be applicable to tached to the threaded shaft of the movable plate,
all 140-µµf. capacitors, but any method that re- and this is rotated with ashaft of insulating ma-
sults in abalanced unit having about 50 µW. per terial brought out to the front panel.
section should do. A word about the extension shafts is in order
Construction of the final plate circuit should at this point. If they are of metal they may have
be clear from Fig. 17-24. Tuning is done with a serious detuning effect in some circuits, even
parts of adisk-type neutralizing capacitor ( Mil- though they are connected through insulating
len 15011) mounted on ceramic stand-offs couplings. Bakelite rod is fine, but since the in-
inches high. These are made of one 1-inch and sulating qualities are of no importance, , À-inch
one 2/,,-inch stand off each, fastened together wooden doweling will do the job just as well.
with athreaded insert. Connection to the lines is Lucite or polystyrene rod will not stand the heat
made with copper or silver strap, inches from and should not be used.
the plate end. Silver plating of
all tank circuit parts is a worth- •
while investment, though it
should not be considered aneces-
sity. A shaft coupling designed • tr•lre-r.s . r

for high-voltage service is at- : : : : : ; : ;

Fig. 17- 26—Side view of the tripler

and driver stages. Coil adjacent to
the 6360 tripler tube is the grid coil
for the 6524 driver. Plate leads for
the driver tube are flexible copper
straps, to permit removal of the tube
from its socket. Screwdriver adjust-
ment at the lower right is the react- :::::
ance tuning capacitor for the tripler
input link.
D.C. 515
shunt across its terminals as shown in Fig.
21-1. Part of the current flows through the
shunt and part through the meter. Knowing
the meter resistance and the shunt resistance,
the relative currents can easily be calculated.
The value of shunt resistance required for a
given full-scale current range is given by
R.
n — 1
where R is the shunt, R. is the internal
resistance of the meter, and n is the factor by
which the original meter scale is to be multi- Fig. 21-4— Voltmeter method of measuring current. This
plied. The internal resistance of a milliam- method permits using relatively large values of resist-
meter is preferably determined from the ance in the shunt, standard values of fixed resistors fre-
manufacturer's catalog, but if this information quently being usable. If the multiplier resistance is 20
is not available it can be measured by the (or more) times the shunt resistance, the error in assum-
method shown in Fig. 21-3. Do not attempt to ing that all the current flows through the shunt will not
use an ohmmeter to measure the internal be of consequence in most practical applications.

otherwise, inserting the instrument will cause

the current to differ from its value with the
instrument out of the circuit. ( This may not
matter if the instrument is left permanently
in the circuit.) However, the resistance of
many circuits in radio equipment is quite high
and the circuit operation is affected little, if at
all, by adding as much as afew hundred ohms
in series. In such cases the voltmeter method
of measuring current, shown in Fig. 21-4, is
frequently convenient. A voltmeter — or low-
Fig. 21-3— Determining the internal resistance of a
range milliammeter provided with a multi-
milliammeter or microammeter. RIis an adjustable resis-
plier and operating as a voltmeter — having
tor having a maximum value about twice that necessary
a full-scale voltage range of a few volts, is
for limiting the current to full scale with R2 discon-
used to measure the voltage drop across a
nected; adjust it for exactly full-scale reading. Then
comparatively high resi=fance acting as a
connect R2and adjust it for exactly half-scale reading.
shunt. The formula previously given is used
The resistance of R2 is then equal to the internal resist-
for finding the proper value of shunt resist-
ance of the meter, and the resistor may be removed
ance for a given scale- multiplying factor, R.
from the circuit and measured separately. Internal re-
in this case being the multiplier resistance.
sistances vary from a few ohms to several hundred
ohms, depending on the sensitivity of the instrument. D.C. Power
Power in direct-current circuits is deter-
resistance of a milliammeter; the instrument
mined by measuring the current and voltage.
may be ruined by doing so.
When these are known, the power is equal
Homemade milliammeter shunts can be
to the voltage in volts multiplied by the cur-
constructed from any of the various special
kinds of resistance wire, or from ordinary
copper wire if no resistance wire is available.
The Copper Wire Table in this Handbook
gives the resistance per 1000 feet for various
sizes of copper wire. After computing the
resistance required, determine the smallest
wire size that will carry the full-scale current
(250 circular mils per ampere is a satisfactory
figure for this purpose). Measure off enough wire
to provide the required resistance. Accuracy can
be checked by causing enough current to flow Fig. 21-5— Measuring resistance with a voltmeter and
through the meter to make it read full scale milliammeter. If the approximate resistance is known
without the shunt; connecting the shunt should the voltage can be selected to cause the milliammeter,
then give the correct reading on the new range. MA, to read about half scale. If not, additional resist-
ance should be first connected in series with R to limit
Current Measurement with a Voltmeter the current to a safe value for the milliammeter. The
A current- measuring instrument should set-up then measures the total resistance, and the value
have very low resistance compared with the of R can be found by subtracting the known additional
resistance of the circuit being measured; resistance from the total.
Two-Meter Amplifier 451
In putting the rig on the air the stages are for testing a v.h.f. rig of this power level. The
fired up separately, beginning with the tripler. best load is probably an antenna. This can be an
A jack (.1 3,in Fig. 17-25) is provided on the indoor gamma- matched dipole, fed with coax.
front panel for measuring the 6360 grid current. Its series capacitor should be adjusted for a
About 1 ma. through the 150,000-ohm grid re- standing-wave ratio close to 1:1. The Micro-
sistor is plenty of drive. The series capacitor, match can be used in this operation, but adjust-
C-3, in the link can be used as adrive adjustment, ments should be made at less than full power.
if more than necessary js available. Watch for any sign of heating in the bridge unit.
Next plug the grid meter into the 6524 grid The position of the coupling loop, L6,should
current jack, J4,and tune the 6360 plate circuit be adjusted for maximum transfer of energy to
for maximum grid current. If it is .higher than 3 the antenna, keeping the coupling as loose as
to 4 ma. increase the inductance of the grid coil, possible. The series capacitor, C7,can be used as
L6,by squeezing its turns closer together. Now a loading adjustment thereafter. If the screen
apply plate and screen voltage to the 6524, and voltage is continuously variable it will be found
check for signs of self-oscillation. If the plate that there is an optimum value around 325 to
circuit is tuned down to the same frequency as 350 volts.
that at which the grid coil resonates with the Below are some conditions under which the
tube capacitance, the stage may oscillate, but if rig has been operated experimentally:
it is stable across the intended tuning range there Stage E Ip E•e Le
should be no operating difficulty resulting from a Tripler 300 v. 35 ma. 1.5 ma.
tendency to oscillate lower in frequency, and no Driver 400 v. 92 ma. 8ma. 3-4 ma.
neutralization should be needed. Final 1000 v. 300 ma. 400 v. 60 ma. 22 ma.
Connect acoaxial line between the driver out- Final 2000 v. 350 ma. 350 v. 45 ma. 20 ma.
Final 2500 v. 400 ma. 320 v. 40 ma. 18 ma.
put and the final grid input preferably with a
standing- wave bridge connected to indicate the The first and third conditions given for the
standing-wave ratio on this line. Tune the driver final stage represent extremes, both exceeding
plate circuit and its series- tuned link for maxi- the tubes' ratings in some way, so they are not
mum grid current in the final amplifier. Adjust recommended. At low plate voltages the screen
the final grid tuning, C' 1,for maximum grid cur- has to be run above recommended ratings to
rent, and the series capacitor, Ca,in the link for make the tubes draw their full rated plate cur-
minimum reflected power on the s.w.r. bridge. rent and operate efficiently. At high plate volt-
Adjust the coupling loop position for maximum ages the screen dissipation drops markedly. The
transfer of power, using the least coupling that use of 4-125As at a full kilowatt input exceeds
will achieve this end. the manufacturer's maximum ratings, and is done
Adjust the screen neutralizing capacitor, Cfp at the user's risk. To operate safely, the maxi-
for maximum final grid current, with the plate mum plate voltage for voice work at 144 Mc.
and screen voltages off. Do not attempt to run should probably not go over 2000. At this level
the final stage without load. With afixed screen the tubes will handle 600 watts input on voice,
supply the screen dissipation goes very high and 750 watts on c.w. easily.
when the plate load is removed or made too light.
It is important to meter the screen current at all Modulation and Keying
times. With 4-125As danger to the plates can be Keying is done in the screen circuit of the
detected by their color, but the screen current is driver stage, and in the screen and plate circuits
the only indication of possible damage to that of the tripler. Cathode keying of the driver
element. was attempted, but it caused instability troubles,
There is no suitable inexpensive dummy load so was abandoned. The screen method makes the

Fig. 17-28 Under-chassis view of the

2-meter transmitter. Tripler grid and
plate circuits are at the upper left.
Only two of the three jacks on the
front panel show in the lower left.
The half-wave line used in the 4-125A
grid circuit is the main item of inter-
est in the amplifier section. Both units
are fitted with bottom covers, to pro-
vide shielding and confine the flow
of cooling air to the desired areas.
452 V.H.F. TRANSMITTERS

Fig. 17- 29— Antenna couplers for 50 and 144 Mc. designed for use with the high- power transmitters
on the previous pages.

key hot, so an insulated key or a keying relay more. They were designed for use with the high-
must be used in the interest of safety. The keying power transmitters described previously, but
jack must be insulated from the panel. may be used at any power level.
Fixed bias for the final amplifier is provided
Construction
by the VR-tube method. When the tube ignites
grids. The effectiveness of this system requires a The two couplers are identical circuitwise.
at the application of drive, the capacitor They are built inside astandard 3by 4by 17- inch
charges. Removing excitation stops the flow aluminum chassis, with a bottom plate to com-
through the VR tube and leaves the negative plete the shielding. The panel is 3%2 inches high.
charge in the capacitor applied to the amplifier If only one coupler is required, a3by 4 by 6- inch
low- leakage capacitor for C5. utility box can be used. Terminals on the back of
Modulation is applied to the plates only. A the chassis include a coaxial input fitting and a
choke of about 10 henrys is connected in the two- post output fitting for each coupler. The cir-
screen lead, or the modulation can be supplied cuit diagram. Fig. 17-30, serves for both.
through a screen winding on the modulation The 50- Mc. coils are cut from commercially
transformer. The bypass value in the screen
circuit should be low enough to avoid affecting
the higher audio frequencies. Occasionally audio
resonance in the screen choke may cause a sing-
ing effect on the modulation. If this develops,
the choke may be shunted with a resistor. Use
the highest value that will stop the singing.
In neutralizing the 4-125As it may be found
Fig. 17- 30—Circuit and parts information for the v.h.f.
that what appears to be the best setting of the
antenna couplers.
screen capacitor will result in a very large drop
in grid current when plate voltage is applied. C- 100-µ,uf. variable for 50 Mc., 50-µgf. for 144 Mc.
The setting may be altered slightly, raising the (Hammarlund MC- 100 and MC-50).
full- load grid current, without adversely affecting Cs- 35-µµf. per-section split-stator variable, 0.07-inch
the stability of the amplifier. The final check for spacing ( Hammarlund MCD-35SX). Reduce to
neutralization is twofold. There should be no 4 stator and 4 rotor plates in each section in
oscillation when drive is removed; and maximum 144-Mc, coupler for easier tuning; see text.
grid current, minimum plate current and maxi-
J1—Coaxial fitting, female.
mum output should all show at one setting of
1,—Two- post terminal assembly ( National FWH).
the plate tuning capacitor. The latter condition
may be observed only when the amplifier is oper- 14-50 Mc.: 4 turns No. 18 tinned, 1inch diameter, 1,4.
ated with ut fixed bias. inch spacing ( Air- Dux No. 808T).
114 Mc.: 2 turns No. 14 enam., 1 inch diameter,
ANTENNA COUPLERS FOR /-
2
1 inch spacing. Slip over 1.2 before mounting.
50 AND 144 MC. I.2-50 Mc.: 7turns No. 14 tinned, 112 inch diameter, 1
/ /
2

The antenna couplers shown in Figs. 17-29, inch spacing ( Air Dux No. 1204). Tap 11
2 turns
/
and at the top of Fig. 17-15, can be used with 52- from each end.
ohm or 75-ohm coaxial line, and with balanced 144 Mc.: 5 turns No. 12 tinned, 1 2 inch diameter,
/
lines of any impedance from 200 to 600 ohms or Ye inch long. Tap Ph turns from each end.
Antenna Couplers 453
available stock, though they can be made by hand
if desired. The coupling winding, L1,is inserted Adjusting the Couplers
inside the tuned circuit. The polyethylene strips An antenna coupler can be adjusted properly
on which the coils are wound keep the two coils only if some form of standing- wave bridge is
from making electrical contact, so no support connected in the line between the transmitter
other than the wire leads in needed. and the coupler. If it is a power-indicating type,
Leads to L1 are brought out between the turns so much the better, as it then can be used for
of L 2,and are insulated from them by two sleeves adjusting the transmitter loading, and the work
of spaghetti, one inside the other. Do not use the can be done at normal transmitter power.
soft vinyl type of sleeving, as it will melt too With the bridge set to read forward power,
readily if, through an accident to the antenna adjust the coupler capacitors and the transmitter
system, the coil should run hot. In the 144- Mc. tuning roughly for maximum indication. Now
coupler the positions of the coils are reversed, set the bridge to read reflected power, and adjust
with the tuned circuit, L 2,at the center, and the the antenna coupler capacitors, first one and then
coupling coil outside it. the other, until minimum reflected power is
Similar tuning capacitors are used in both achieved. Unless the line input impedance is very
couplers, but some of the plates are removed highly reactive, it should be possible to get the
from the one in the 144- Mc. circuit. This pro- reflected power down to zero, or very close to it.
vides easier tuning, though it has little effect on Adjustment of the coupler is now complete.
the minimum capacitance, and therefore on the Tuning for maximum transfer of power from
size of the coil. the transmitter is done entirely at the transmitter.
 Chapter 18

V.H.F. Antennas

While the basic principles of antenna design gain over a dipole as asimilarly designed array
remain the same at all frequencies where con- for 144 Mc., but it will intercept only one-third
ventional elements and transmission lines are as much energy in receiving. Thus to be equal in
used, certain aspects of v.h.f. work call for communication, the 432- Mc, array must equal
changes in antenna techniques above 50 Mc. the 144- Mc, antenna in capture area, requiring
Here the physical size of arrays is reduced to three times as many elements, if similar element
the point where some form of antenna having configurations are used in both.
gain over a simple half wave dipole can be used
in almost any location, and the rotatable high- Polarization
gain directional array has become a standard Early v.h.f, work was done with simple an-
feature of all well-equipped v.h.f. stations. The tennas, and since the vertical dipole gave as good
importance of antenna gain in v.h.f. work can- results in all directions as its horizontal counter-
not be over- emphasized. By no other means can part offered in only two directions, vertical
so large a return be obtained- from a small in- polarization became the accepted standard. Later
vestment as results from the erection of agood when high-gain antennas came into use it was
directional array. only natural that these, too, were put up vertical
in areas where v.h.f. activity was already well
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS established.
At 50 Mc. and higher it is usually important When the discovery of various forms of long-
to have the antenna work well over all or most distance propagation stirred interest in v.h.f.
of the band in question, and as the bands are operation in areas where there was no previous
wider than at lower frequencies the attention of experience, . many newcomers started in with
the designer must be focused on broad fre- horizontal arrays, these having been more or less
quency response. This may be attained in some standard practice on frequencies with which
instances through sacrificing other qualities such these operators were familiar. As use of the
as high front-to-back ratio. same polarization at both ends of the path is
The loss in agiven length of transmission line necessary for best results, this lack of standard-
rises with frequency. V.h.f. feedlines should be ization resulted in a conflict that, even now, has
kept as short as possible, therefore. Matching of not been completely resolved.
the impedances of the antenna and transmission Tests have shown no large difference in re-
line should be done with care, and in open loca- sults over long paths though evidence points to
tions a high-gain antenna at relatively low a slight superiority for horizontal in certain
height may be preferable to a low- gain system kinds of terrain, but vertical has other factors in
at great height. Wherever possible, however, the its favor. Horizontal arrays are generally easier
to build and rotate. Where ignition noise and
DRIVEN ELEMENT
other forms of man-made interference are pres-
ent, horizontal systems usually provide better
signal-to-noise ratio. Simple 3- or 4-element
OREN -
WIRE LINE
arrays are more effective horizontal than verti-
OR BALUN OR MORE cal, as their radiation patterns are broad in the
plane of the elements and sharp in a plane per-
pendicular to them.
Vertical systems can provide uniform cover-
age in all directions, a feature that is possible
Fig. 18- 1—Combination tuning and matching stub for only with fairly complex horizontal arrays. Gain
v.h.f. arrays. Sliding short is used to tune out reac- can be built up without introducing directivity,
tance of the driven element or phasing system. Trans- an important feature in net operation, or in loca-
mission line, either balanced or coax, is connected at tions where the installation of rotatable systems
the point of lowest standing-wave ratio. Adjustment is not possible. Mobile operation is simpler with
procedure is outlined in text. vertical antennas. Fear of increased TVI has
kept v.h.f, men in some densely populated areas
v.h.f. array should be well above heavy foliage, from adopting horizontal as astandard.
buildings, power lines or other obstructions. The factors favoring horizontal have been
The physical size of a v.h.f, array is usually predominant on 50 Mc., and today we find it the
more important than the number of elements. A standard for that band, except for emergency
4-element array for 432 Mc. may have as much net operation involving mobile units. The slight

454
Matching 455
advantage it offers in DX work has accelerated move the shorting stub . a small amount and re-
the trend to horizontal on 144 Mc. and higher adjust the line connection for lowest s.w.r.
bands, though vertical polarization is still widely again. If the minimum s.w.r. is lower than at
used. The picture on 144, 220 and 420 Mc. is still the first point checked the short was moved in
confused, the tendency being to follow the local the right direction. Continue in that direction,
trend. The newcomer should check with local readjusting the line connection each time, until
amateurs to see which polarization is in general the s.w.r. is as close to 1:1 as possible. When
use in the area he expects to cover. Eventual adjustments are completed the portion of the
standardization should be amajor objective, and stub below the short can be cut off, if this is
to this end it is recommended that horizontal desirable mechanically.
polarization be established in areas where ac-
tivity is developing for the first time. TYPES OF V.H.F. ARRAYS
Directional antenna systems commonly used in
IMPEDANCE MATCHING amateur v.h.f. work are of three general types,
Because line losses increase with frequency it the collinear, the Yagi, and the plane reflector
is important that v.h.f. antenna systems be
matched to their transmission lines carefully.
Lines commonly used in v.h.f. work include
open-wire, usually 300 to 500 ohms impedance,
spaced 1/ to two inches; polyethylene-insulated
2
flexible lines, available in 300, 150 and 72 ohms
impedance; and coaxial lines of 50 to 90 ohms
impedance.
Fig. 18-2— Inserts for the ends of the elements in a
The various methods of matching antenna and v.h.f. array provide a means of adjustment of length
line impedance are described in detail in Chapter for optimum performance. Short pieces of the element
14. Matching devices commonly used in v.h.f. material are sawed lengthwise and compressed to fit
arrays fed with balanced lines include the folded inside the element ends.
dipole in its various forms, Fig. 14-42, the " T"
Match, Fig. 14-45, the " Q" section, Fig. 14-41, array. Collinear systems have two or more
and the adjustable stub, Fig. 18-1. The gamma driven elements end to end, fed in phase, usually
match, useful for feeding the driven element of backed up by parasitic reflectors. The Yagi has
a parasitic array with coaxial line, is shown in a single driven element, with one or more para-
schematic form in Fig. 14-45. Balanced loads sitic, elements in front and in back of the driven
such as a split dipole or a folded dipole can be element, all in the same plane. The plane- reflec-
fed with coax through a balun, as shown in tor array has a large reflecting surface in back
Fig. 14-46. Practical examples of the use of these of its driven element or elements. This may be a
devices are shown in the following pages. The sheet of metal, ametal screen, or closely spaced
principles upon which their operation depends rods or wires. The reflector may be aflat plane,
are explained in Chapter 14, with the exception or it can be bent into several forms, such as the
of the adjustable stub of Fig. 18-1. corner and the parabola.
Examples of all three types are described, and
The Corrective Stub each has points in its favor. The collinear sys-
The adjustable stub shown in Fig. 18-1 pro- tems such as the 12- and 16- element arrays of
vides a means of matching the antenna to the Figs. 18-14 and 18-15 require little or no adjust-
transmission line and also tuning out reactance ment and they present few feed problems. They
in the driven element. It is, in effect, a tuning work well over a wide band of frequencies.
device to which the transmission line may be Yagi, or parasitic, arrays, Figs. 18-5 to 18-10, de-
connected at the point where impedances match. pend on fairly precise tuning of their elements
Both the shorting stub and the point of connec- for gain, and thus work over a narrower fre-
tion are made adjustable, though once the proper quency range. They are simple mechanically,
points are found the connections may be made however, and usually offer more gain for agiven
permanent. number of elements than do the collinear sys-
For antenna experiments the stub may be tems. Plane- and corner-reflector arrays are
made of tubing, and the connections made with broadband devices, having broad forward lobes
sliding clips. In a permanent installation a stub and high front-to-back ratio. They are easily
of open- wire line, with all connections soldered, adjusted, but somewhat cumbersome mechani-
may be more satisfactory mechanically. The cally.
transmission line may be open- wire or Twin-
Lead, connected directly to the stub, or coaxial ELEMENT LENGTHS AND SPACINGS
line of any impedance, which should be con- Designing a v.h.f. array presents both me-
nected through abalun. chanical and electrical problems. The electrical
To adjust the stub start with the short at a problems are basic, and their solution involves
point about a half wavelength below the an- choosing the type of performance most desired.
tenna, moving the point of connection of the Mechanical design, on the other hand, can be
transmission line up and down the stub until the subject to almost endless variations, and the
lowest standing-wave ratio is achieved. Then form that the array will take can usually be
456 V.H.F. ANTENNAS
lengths should be altered according to the figures
TABLE 18-1 in the third line of the table.
Dimensions for V.H.F. Arrays in Inches Reflector elements are usually about 5per cent
longer than the driven element. The director
Freq. ( Mc.) 52* 146* 222.5* 435*
— -- nearest the driven element is 5per cent shorter,
Driven Element 106.5 38 24% 1234 and others are progressively shorter, as shown
Change per Mc.* 2 0.25 0.12 0.03 in the table. Parasitic elements should also be
adjusted according to Line 3of the table, if peak
Reflector 111 5
/2 40 26% 1334 performance is desired at some frequency other
1st Director 101% 36 23% 12% than midband.
Parasitic element lengths of Table 18-I are
2nd Director 99% 3534 23;4 12
based on element spacings of 0.2 wavelength.
3rd Director 97% 35 23 11% This is most often used in v.h.f. arrays, and is
1.0 Wavelength 234 81 53 27 suitable for up to 4 or 5 elements. Other spac-
ings can be used, however. If the element lengths
0.625 Wavelength 147 50% 3354 16;4 are adjusted properly there is little difference in
0.5 Wavelength 117 40% 26% 13.5 gain with reflector spacings of 0.15 to 0.25 wave-
length. The closer the reflector is to the driven
0.25 Wavelength 58% 20% 13 1
% 634

0.2 Wavelength 47 16 10% 5% Fig. 18-3—Omnidirec-

tional vertical array
0.15 Wavelength 35 12 8 4
for 144 Mc. Elements of
Balan loop ( coax) 76 26.5 17% 834 aluminum clothesline
*Dimensions given for element lengths are for
wire are mounted on
the middle of each hand. For other frequencies ceramic standoff insu-
adjust lengths as shown in the third line of table. lators screwed to a
Example: A dipole for 50.0 Mc. would be 106.5
wooden pole. Feedline
-I- 4 .-- 110.5 inches.
Apply change figure to parasitic elements as well. shown is 52-ohm coax,
For phasing lines or matching sections, and for with a balun at the
spacing between elements, the midband figures are feedpoint. Twin- Lead
sufficiently accurate. They apply only to open-
wire lines.
or other 300-ohm bal-
Parasitic- element lengths are optimum for 0.2 anced line may also
wavelength spacing. be used, but it should
be brought away
horizontally from the
decided by the materials and tools available. One supporting pole and
common source of materials for amateur arrays elements for at least
is commercially built TV antennas. They can a quarter wavelength.
often be revamped for the amateur v.h.f. bands Coax may be taped
with aminimum of effort and expense. to the support.
Dimensions for Yagi or collinear arrays and
their matching devices can be taken from Table element, the shorter it must be for optimum for-
18-I. The driven element is usually cut to the ward gain, and the greater will be its effect on
formula: the driven element impedance.
5540 Directors may also be spaced over a similar
Length (
in inches) — range. Closer spacing than 0.2 wavelength for
Freq. (Mc.)
arrays of two or three elements will require a
This is the basis of the lengths in Table 18-I, longer director than shown in Table 18-I. Thus
which are suitable for the tubing or rod sizes it can be seen that close- spaced arrays tend to
commonly used. Arrays for 50 Mc. usually have work over a narrower frequency range than
/2 to 1- inch elements. For 144 Mc. 1
1 4 to Va-inch wide- spaced ones, when they are tuned for best
stock is common. Rod or tubing 1 4 to 38 inch performance. They also result in lower driven-
in diameter is suitable for 220 and 420 Mc. Note element impedance, making them more difficult
that the element lengths in the table are for the to feed properly. Spacings less than 0.15 wave-
middle of the band concerned. For peaked per- length are not commonly used in v.h.f. arrays
formance at other frequencies the element for these reasons.

PRACTICAL DESIGNS FOR V.H.F. ARRAYS

The antenna systems pictured and described adjustment, a simple method is shown in Fig.
herewith are examples of ways in which the 18-2. With elements 1 A- inch or larger diameter
information in Table 18-1 can be used in arrays a piece of the element material can be used. It
of proven performance. Dimensions can be taken is sawed lengthwise and then compressed to
from the table, except where otherwise noted. If make atight fit inside the end of the element.
the builder wishes to experiment with element A readily available material often used for
Parasitic Arrays 457
plied to a 220- Mc, vertical collinear array, us-
ing the lengths for that band given in Table 18-I.

PARASITIC ARRAYS
/
6 SCREW
38" Single-bay arrays of 2to 5elements are widely
LAMP used in 50- Mc. work. These may be built in
many different ways, using the dimensions given
in the table. Probably the strongest and lightest
CERAMIC
STANDOFF structure results from use of aluminum or durai
tubing ( usually 11/4 to 1/ inches in diameter)
2
1
for the boom, though wood is also usable. If the
elements are mounted at their midpoints there is
, FEED WiTM no need to use inwlating supports. Usually the
SUPPORTS. 390.ORM LINE
OR COAXIAL BALUN elements are run through the boom and clamped
in place in a manner similar to that shown in
Fig. 18-12. Where a metal boom is used the
joints between it and the elements must be tight,
as any movement at this point will result in
noisy reception.

2-Element 50-Me. Array

The 2-element antenna of Fig. 18-5 was de-
signed for portable use, but it is also suitable
for fixed- station work with minor modification.
The 2-meter array above it is described later.
The elements are made in three sections, for
portability, using inserts similar to that shown
Fig. 18 -4— Dimensions and supporting method for the in Fig. 18-2. The driven element is gamma
144-Mc, vertical array. matched for coax feed, and the parasitic element
is a0.15- wavelength spaced director. Details of
elements in arrays for 144 Mc. and higher is
the gamma section, the boom and its supporting
aluminum clothesline wire. This is a stiff hard-
clamp are shown in Fig. 18-6. The arm is about
drawn wire about inch in diameter. It should
12 inches long, and the capacitor is a 50-ggf.
be used in preference to asimilar-appearing wire
commonly sold for TV grounding purposes. The
latter is too soft to make satisfactory elements
if the length is more than about two feet.

A Collinear Array for 144 Mc.

Where a vertically- polarized array having
some gain over adipole is needed, yet directivity
is undesirable, collinear half wave elements may
be mounted vertically and fed in phase, as shown
in Figs. 18-3 and 18-4. Such an array may have
3elements, as shown, or 5. The impedance at the
center is approximately 300 ohms, permitting it
to be fed directly with TV- type line, or through
a coaxial balun, as in the model shown. Either
52- or 72-ohm line may be employed without
serious mismatch.
The array is made from two piect.s of alutni-
ntim clothesline wire about 97 inches long over-
all. These are bent tu provide a38 - inch top sec-
tion, a folded-back 40- inch phasing loop, and a
19- inch center section. These elements ' are
mounted on ceramic pillars, which are fastened
to a round wooden pole. Small clamps of sheet
aluminum are wrapped around the elements and
screwed to the stand-offs. A cheaper but some-
what less desirable method of mounting is to
use TV screw- eye insulators to hold the ele- Fig. 18-5—Two-element 50-Mc. and four-element 144-
ments in place. Mc. arrays designed for portable use. Support is sec-
Feeding the array at the center with acoaxial tional TV masting clamped to car door handle. Ele-
balun makes aneat arrangement. The balun loop ments of 50-Mc, array ore made in three sections, for
may be taped to the vertical support, and the stowing in back of car. Antenna for 144 Mc. is cut-
coaxial line likewise taped at intervals down the down TV array. Both use gamma match, as shown in
mast. The same type of construction can be ap- Fig. 18-6.
458 V.H.F. ANTENNAS
drill through both element and casting with
a No. 36 drill, and tap with 6-32 thread. Suit-
able inserts for mounting the stand-offs can
be made by cutting the heads off 6-32 screws.
Taper the cut end of the screw slightly with a
file and it will screw into the standoff readily.
Cut the dipole length according to Table 18-I,
for the middle of the frequency range you ex-
pect to use most. The reflector and director will
be approximately 4per cent longer and shorter,
respectively. The closer spacing of the parasitic
elements ( 0.15 wavelength) makes this devia-
tion from the dimensions of the table desirable.
The single 3-element array has a feed im-
Fig. 18-6-- Details of the gamma match for the 50-Mc. pedance of about 200 ohms at its resonant fre-
portable array. In a permanent installation the quency. Thus it may be fed with 52-ohm coax
variable capacitor should be mounted in an inverted and abalun. A gamma- matched dipole may also
plastic cup or other device to protect it from the be used, as in the 2-element array. If the gamma
weather. The gamma arm is about 12 inches long for match and 72-ohm coax are used, a balun will
50 Mc., 5 inches for 144 Mc. convert to 300-ohm balanced feed, if Twin-Lead
or 300-ohm open- wire TV line feed is desired.
If the dimensions are selected for optimum
variable. Clean, tight connections between the performance at 50.5 Mc. the array will show
arm and element are important. Where the ar- good performance and fairly low standing- wave
ray is to be mounted permanently outdoors the ratio over the range from 50 to 51.5 Mc.
capacitor may be protected from the weather by A closeup of a mounting method for this or
mounting it in an inverted plastic cup or other any other array using around boom is shown in
covering. Fig. 18-8. Four TV-type U bolts clamp the
horizontal and vertical members together. The
3- Element Lightweight Array
metal plate is about 6 inches square. If 1 /-
4 inch
The 3- element 50- Mc, array of Fig. 18-7 sheet aluminum is available it may be used alone,
weighs only 5pounds. It uses the closest spacing though the photograph shows a sheet of 1/16-
that is practical for v.h.f. applications, in order inch stock backed up by a piece of wood of the
to make an antenna that could be used individu- same size for stiffening.
ally or stacked in pairs without requiring a
cumbersome support. The elements are half- inch High- Performance 4- Element Array
aluminum tubing of 1/16- inch wall thickness, at- The 4- element array of Fig. 18-9 was designed
tached to the 11 /-
4 inch durai boom with alumi- for maximum forward gain, and for direct feed
num castings made for the purpose. ( Dick's, 62 with 300-ohm balanced transmission line. The
Cherry Ave., Tiffin, Ohio, Type HASL.) By parasitic elements may be any diameter from
limiting the element spacing to 0.15 wavelength 2 to 1inch, but the driven element should be
/
1
the boom is only 6 feet long. Two booms for a made as shown in the sketch. The same general
stacked array ( Fig. 18-11) can thus be cut from arrangement may be used for a3-element array,
a single 12- foot length of tubing. except that the solid portion of the dipole should
The folded-dipole driven element
has No. 12 wire for the fed portions.
These are mounted on h- inch cone
standoff insulators and joined to the
outer ends of the main portion by
means of metal pillars and 6-32 screws
and nuts. When the wires are pulled up
tightly and wrapped around the screw,
solder should be sweated over the
nuts and screw ends to seal the whole
against weather corrosion. The same
treatment should be used at each stand-
off. Mount asoldering lug on the cer-
amic cone and wrap the end of the lug
around the wire and solder the whole
assembly together. These joints and
other portions of the array may be
sprayed with clear lacquer as an addi-
tional protection.
The inner ends of the folded dipole Fig. 18-7— Lightweight 3- element 50-Mc. array. Feedline is 52-ohm
are 11/ inches apart. Slip the dipole
2 coax, with a balun for connection to the folded- dipole driven ele-
into its aluminum casting, and then ment. Balun may be coiled as shown or taped to supporting pipe.
Parasitic Arrays 459

Fig. 18-9— Details of a 4-element 50- Mc, array de-

signed for 300-ohm balanced feed. Element lengths
and spacings were derived experimentally for optimum
performance over the first 1.5 megacycles of the band.

well over the first two megacycles of the band,

provided that the s.w.r. is adjusted for optimum
Fig. 18-8—Closeup photograph of the boom mounting at 51 Mc.
for the 50-Mc. array. A sheet of aluminum 6 inches
square is backed up by a piece of wood of the same Long Yogis for 50 Me.
size. TV-type U clamps hold the boom and vertical With boom lengths greater than about 12
support together at right angles. At the left of the feet and with more elements than 4, somewhat
mounting assembly is one of the aluminum castings for better performance can be obtained by using
holding the beam elements. gradually increasing spacing between the direc-
tors. The 6- element array in Fig. 18-10 is an
be 3d- inch tubing instead of 1- inch. With the example of this approach. It also employs a
element lengths given the array will give nearly variation of the gamma match that has mechani-
uniform response from 50 to 51.5 Mc., and usable cal advantages. The long boom and wide- spaced
gain to above 52 Mc. It may be peaked for any elements give a sharpness of horizontal pattern
portion of the band by using the information in that is not obtainable with the same number of
Table 18-I. elements in a stacked array.
If ashorter boom is desired, the reflector spac- The long Yagi is not a broadband device.
ing can be reduced to 0.15 wavelength and both This one works well over the first megacycle of
directors spaced 0.2 or even 0.15 wavelength, the band with the following dimensions. Sub-
with only aslight reduction in forward gain and
bandwidth.

5- Element 50-Me. Array

As aluminum or dural tubing is usually sold in
12- foot lengths this dimension imposes apracti-
cal limitation on the construction of a 50- Mc.
beam. A 5- element array that makes optimum
use of a 12- foot boom may be built according to
Table 18-I. If the aluminum casting method of
mounting elements shown for the 3-element
array is employed the weight of a 5-element
beam can be held to under 10 pounds. The
gamma match and coaxial line are recommended
for feeding such an array, though a balun and
72-ohm coax can be used for the rotating por-
tion of the line, converting to balanced feed at
the anchor point.
Elements should be spaced 0.15 wavelength,
or about 36 inches. With 5 or more elements,
good bandwidth can be secured by tapering the
element lengths properly. A dipole 110 inches
long, with a 116-inch reflector, and directors of
105, 103 and 101 inches respectively will work

Fig. 18-10—A 6-element long Yogi for 50 Mc. and a

16-element collinear array for 144 Mc. Both are all.
metal construction. Each has its own vertical member,
which is clamped to the rotating vertical pipe that runs
down through the tower bearing.
460 V.H.F. ANTENNAS
tract 2inches from each element for each mega- other is fitted tightly inside the main arm to
cycle higher. Reflector — 116 inches. Driven ele- act as a bearing. These can be made from
ment — 110.5. First director — 105.5. Second pieces of h-inch diameter polystyrene rod stock,
director — 104. Third director — 102.75. Fourth drilled to pass the ,
A- inch rod. A clip of sheet
director — 101.5. Spacings are, from back for- aluminum connects the rod and the driven ele-
ward: 36, 36, 42, 59 and 70 inches. If a longer ment. Be sure that a clean tight contact is made
array is to be built each additional director at this point.
should be 70 inches from the last.
Adjustment
Construction Matching requires an s.w.r. bridge. It can
The long Yagi is built similar to the 3-ele- be done properly in no other way. Mount the
ment array of Fig. 18-7 and 18-8, using those beam at least a half wavelength above ground
same castings for mounting the elements. The and clear of trees and wires by at least the
gusset plate for fastening the boom to the verti- same distance. Set the transmitter at a fre-
cal support is made larger, and four U bolts are quency in the middle of the range you want to
used on each member instead of two. The array work ( 50.3 is a good spot for low-end opera-
is mounted at its center of gravity, rather than tion) and adjust the position of the clip and
at its physical center. The boom is braced to the length of the rod outside the main arm for
prevent drooping, at points about 5 feet out minimum s.w.r. Move first one variable and
from the mounting point. Braces are aluminum then the other until zero reflected power is in-
tubing, flattened at the ends, and clamped to the dicated. Tighten the clip solidly, tape over the
boom and the vertical member. Suspension junction between the arm and the rod with
bracing, as shown in Fig. 18-10, provides waterproof tape, and the array is ready for use.
strength with lightweight supports.
The dimensions given require aboom slightly 144- MC. PARASITIC ARRAYS
more than 20 feet long. This was made up by The main features of the arrays described
splicing, but if a 20- foot length is available in above can be adapted to 144- Mc, antennas, but
one piece the spacings of the two forward direc- the small physical size of arrays for this fre-
tors can be made slightly less, in order to avoid quency makes it possible to use larger numbers
splicing. Element spacing is not particularly of elements with ease. Few 2-meter antennas
critical, but lengths are fairly so. have less than 4 or 5 elements, and most sta-
tions use more, either in a single bay or in
The Gamma Match stacked systems.
The gamma match is ideal for matching ar- Parasitic arrays for 144 Mc. can be made
rays fed with coax. The arrangement shown in readily from TV antennas for Channels 4, 5or
Fig. 18-11 combines the adjustable arm with 6. The relatively close spacing normally used
the series capacitor, and provides a rugged as- in TV arrays makes it possible to approximate
sembly that can be weather-proofed readily. the recommended 0.2 wavelength at 144 Mc.,
The main arm is cut from the same material as though the element spacing is not acritical fac-
the elements, 15 inches long. It is supported tor. A 4- element array for 144 Mc. made from
parallel to the driven element by means of two a Channel 6 TV Yagi is shown in Fig. 18-5. It
1- inch ceramic standoffs and sheet-aluminum is fed with a gamma match and 52-ohm coax,
clips. Its inner end is connected to the inner and was designed primarily for portable work.
conductor of a coaxial fitting, mounted on a As most TV antennas are designed for 300-ohm
small bracket screwed to the boom. feed the same feed system can be employed for
The series capacitor, for tuning out the re- the 2- meter array that is made from them.
actance of the matching arm and making con- If one wishes to build his own Yagi antennas
nection to the driven element, is t- inch rod or from available tubing sizes, the boom of a 2-
tubing 14 inches long. It is maintained coaxial meter antenna should be e4 to 1inch aluminum
with the main arm by two polystyrene bushings. or dural. Elements can be 5 /4 to -inch stock,
One is force-fitted to the end of the rod and the fastened to the boom as shown in Fig. 18-12.

Fig. 18-11 — Details of the

gamma match used on the 6-
element 50- Mc. array. Series
capacitor is formed by slid-
ing a rod or tube inside the
main arm.
Parasitic Arrays 461
signed for 300-ohm feed, are to be stacked a
half wavelength apart and fed at the midpoint
between them, the phasing line should have an
impedance of about 380 ohms. No. 12 wire
spaced one inch will do for this purpose. The
midpoint then can be fed either with 300-ohm
line, or with 72-ohm coax and a balun.
When a spacing of 54 wavelength between
bays is employed, the phasing lines can be coax.
(The velocity factor of coax makes a full
wavelength of line actually about 54 wavelength
physically.) The impedance at the midpoint be-
tween two bays is slightly less than half the
impedance of either bay alone, due to the
coupling between bays. This effect decreases
with increased spacing.
When two bays are spaced a full wavelength
Fig. 18- 12— Model showing method of assembling all- the coupling is relatively slight. The phasing
metal arrays for 144 Mc. and higher frequencies. line can be any open- wire line, and the im-
Dimensions of clamps are given in Fig. 18-16. pedance at the midpoint will be approximately
half that of the individual bays. Predicting
Recommended spacing for up to 6 elements is what it will be with agiven set of dimensions is
0.2 wavelength, though this is not too critical. difficult, as many factors come into play. It will
Gamma match feed is recommended for coax, usually be of a value that can be fed through
or a folded dipole and balun may he used. If the combination of a " Q" section and a trans-
balanced line is to be used the folded dipole is mission line of 300 to 450 ohms impedance. An
recommended, the 4 to 1 ratio of conductor adjustable " Q" section, or an adjustable stub
sizes being about right for most designs. like the one shown in Fig. 18-1, may be used
Very high gain can be obtained with long when the antenna impedance is not known.
Vagi - type arrays for 144 :\ lc. and higher fre- The stacked 3-over-3 for 50 Mc., Fig. 18-13,
quencies, though the bandwidth of such anten- uses a coaxial phasing line and an additional
nas is considerably narrower than for those section of coax to provide for the flexible por-
having up to 4 or 5 elements. The first two di-
rectors in long Vagis are usually spaced about
0.1 wavelength. The third is spaced about 0.2,
increasing to 0.4 wavelength or so for the for-
ward directors. Highest gain is obtained when
all directors are made the same length, but bet-
ter front- to- back ratio and lower side lobe con-
tent results if the director lengths are tapered
/
18 to V I inch per director. Tapering the element
lengths also widens the effective bandwidth.
There is more on long Vagis in QST for Janu-
ary and September, 1956.

STACKED YAGI ARRAYS

The gain ( in power) obtainable from asingle
Vagi array can be more than doubled by stack-
ing two or more of them vertically and feeding
them in phase. This refers to horizontal sys-
tems, of course. Vertically- polarized bays are
usually stacked side by side. The principles
to follow apply in either case.
The spacing between bays should be at least
one-half wavelength, and more is desirable. For
dipoles or Vagis of up to three elements opti-
mum spacing between bays is about 5 /3 wave-
length, but with longer Vagis the spacing can
be increased to one wavelength or more. Bays
of 5 elements or more, spaced one wavelength,
are commonly used in antennas for 144 Mc.
and higher frequencies. Optimum spacing for Fig. 18- 13— Stacked array for 50 Mc. using two of the
long Yagis is about two wavelengths. 3- element bays of Fig. 18-7. Phasing system and flexi-
Where half- wave stacking is to be employed, ble section for rotation are of coaxial line. A " Q" sec-
the phasing line between bays can be treated as tion matches this to 450- ohm open-wire line for run
a double " Q" section. If two bays, each de- to the station.
462 V.H.F. ANTENNAS
tion of the feedline. Each bay is fed with a length spacing. Dimensions may be taken from
balun and halfwave section of RG-8/U cable. Table 18-I, and figures for the middle of the
These are joined at the center between bays band will give good performance across either
with a Tee fitting. As each bay has an im- band.
pedance of 200 ohms, two 50-ohm leads are
paralleled at the center, resulting in an im-
pedance of about 20 ohms, when the coupling
effect between bays is included. A flexible sec-
tion of 50-ohm coax one wavelength long, with
a balun at the end, steps this up to about 80
ohms. A " Q" section of '/4- inch tubing Y4 inch
center to center steps this up to the point where
it can be fed with 450- ohm open- wire TV line.
30o-oleri bee
The " Twin -
Five" for 144 Mc.

A popular stacked array for 144- Mc, work

is the Twin- Five, originally developed by
W2PAU. 1 In this design two 5-element arrays
of standard design are stacked afull wavelength
apart. If the folded-dipole driven elements are
constructed so that the individual bays have a
feed impedance of about 400 ohms the midpoint Fig. 18- 14— Element arrangement and feed system of
of the open-wire phasing line can be fed with the 12-element array. Reflectors are spaced 0.15 wave-
52-ohm coax and a balun. Where open- wire length behind the driven elements.
line is desired, the impedances can be matched
through a "Q" section of about 300 ohms im- The supporting frame for either array may
pedance. If the constructor is in doubt as to the be made of wood or metal. Details of a metal
actual feed impedance to be matched, the stub support for the 12-element array are shown in
arrangement of Fig. 18-1 will take care of a Figs. 18-16 and 18-17. Note that all elements are
wide range of impedances and lines to be mounted at their midpoints, and that no insula-
matched. Dimensions can be taken from Table tors are used. The elements are mounted in
18-I. front of the supporting frame, to keep metal
An effective 20-element array can be made by out of the field of the array. This method is
using two of these arrays side by side, with preferable to that wherein mechanical balance
full- wave spacing horizontally also. The im- is maintained through mounting the driven ele-
pedance at the midpoint of the horizontal phas-
ing line will then be about 100 ohms, which is
still well within the range of "Q" sections of
practical dimensions.

LARGE COLLINEAR ARRAYS

FOR 144 MC. AND HIGHER
High gain and very broad frequency response
are desirable characteristics found in curtains
of half- wave elements fed in phase and backed
up by reflectors. The reflector can be made up
of parasitic elements, or it can be a screen ex-
tending approximately a quarter wavelength
beyond the ends of the driven elements. There
is not a large difference between the two types
of reflectors, except that higher front-to-back
ratio and somewhat broader frequency response
are achieved with the plane reflector.

12 -and 16- Element Arrays

Two collinear systems that may be used on

144, 220 or 420 Mc. are shown in Figs. 18-14
and 18-15. Either may be fed directly with 300-
ohm transmission line, or through coaxial line
and abalun. In the 12- element array, Fig. 18-14,
the reflectors are spaced 0.15 wavelength in back
of the driven elements, while the 16-element•
array, Figs. 18-15 and 18-10, uses 0.2 wave- Fig. 18- 15—Schematic drawing of a 16-element array.
A variable "Q" section may be inserted at the feed
Brown—"The Wide- Spread Twin-Five" CQ, March, point if accurate matching is desired. Reflector spacing
1950. is 0.2 wavelength.
Muitielement Ar rays 463
element array. This is done in the 420- Mc. array
of Fig. 18-18. The two midpoints are connected
through a phasing line one wavelength long,
and the center of this phasing line .fed through
a " Q" section. The impedance at the midpoint
is about 150 ohms, requiring a255-ohm "Q" sec-
tion for feeding with 450-ohm open- wire line.
Combination of collinear arrays may be car-
ried further. Pairs of 16-element systems fed in
phase are common, and even 64- element arrays
(4 16-element beams fed in phase) are used in
some leading stations on 144 Mc. Configurations
of 32 to 64 elements are not difficult to build
and support at 220 or 420 Mc. An example of
Bend on radius R
two 16-element beams mounted on the same sup-
Aoq:
port is pictured in Fig. 18-18.
C4
ARRAYS FOR 220 AND 420 MC.
The use of high- gain antenna systenp, is al-
Fig. 18- 16—Detail drawings of the clamps used to as- most a necessity if work is to be done over any
semble the all-metal 2-meter array. A, B and C are great distance on 220 and 420 Mc. Experimenta-
before bending into " U" shape. The right-angle bends tion with antenna arrays for these frequencies
should be made first, along the dotted lines as shown, is fascinating indeed, as their size is so small as
then the plates may be bent around a piece of pipe to permit trying various element arrangements
of the proper diameter. Sheet stock should be )I's-inch and feed systems with ease. Arrays for 420 Mc.,
or heavier aluminum. particularly, are convenient for study and dem-
onstration of antenna principles, as even high-
ments in front and the reflectors in back of the gain systems may be of table- top proportions.
supporting structure. Any of the arrays described previously may be
Two 12-element arrays may be mounted one used on these bands, but those having large
above the other and fed in phase, to form a 24- numbers of driven elements in phase are more
readily adjusted for maximum effectiveness.
A good example of a multielement array is
shown in Fig. 18-18. Here two 16-element arrays
(as in Fig. 18-15) are mounted 1% wavelengths
apart ( center to center). One- wavelength phas-
ing lines from each portion are brought to the
center and fed in parallel through an adjustable
Q section.
In some instances a good arrangement is ob-
tained by mounting beams "back to back" on a
single rotator. For example, a 16-element 220-
Mc. array might be mounted with a 24- element
420- Mc. array ( two 12-element assemblies
mounted one above the other) and fed with
separate transmission lines.
(For an example of stacking several com-
mercial 220-Mc, beams, see Tilton, "A 66-Ele-
ment Stacked-Yagi Array for 220 Mc.," QST,
January, 1959.)

MISCELLANEOUS ANTENNA SYSTEMS

Coaxial Ant

At v.h.f. the lowest possible radiation angle is

desirable, and the "coaxial antenna" was devel-
Fig. 18- 17—Supporting framework for a 12-element oped to eliminate feeder radiation. The center
144-Mc, array of all-metal design. Dimensions are as conductor of a 70-ohm concentric ( coaxial) line
follows: element supports ( 1) 34 by 16 inches; hori- is extended one-quarter wave beyond the end of
zontal members (2) ;4 by 46 Inches; vertical members the line, to act as the upper half of a half-wave
(3) 34 by 86 inches; vertical support ( 4) 11
2-
/ inch diam- antenna. The lower half is provided by the
eter, length as required; reflector-to-driven-element quarter-wave sleeve, the upper end of which is
spacing 12 inches. Parts not shown in sketch: driven connected to the outer conductor of the concen-
elements 1
4 by 38 inches; reflectors 1
4 by 40 inches; tric line. The sleeve acts as a shield about the
phasing lines No. 18 spaced 1 inch, 80 inches long, transmission line and very little current is in-
fanned out to 31
4 inches at driven elements (transpose duced on the outside of the line by the antenna
each half-wave section). field. The line is non-resonant, since its charac-
464 V.H.F. ANTENNAS
teristic impedance is the same as the center im- As the diameter- to-length ratio is increased,
pedance of the half-wave antenna. The sleeve end effects also increase, with the result that
may be made of copper or brass tubing of suit- the antenna must be made shorter than thin-
able diameter to clear the transmission line. The wire antenna resonating at the same frequency.
coaxial antenna is somewhat difficult to con- The reduction factor may be as much as 20 per
struct, but is superior to simpler systems in its cent with the tubing sizes commonly used for
performance at low radiation angles. amateur antennas at v.h.f.

Fig. 18- 18—Two 16-

element arrays spaced
% wavelength and fed
in phase.

Broadband Antennas Plane-Reflector Arrays

Certain types of antennas used in television At 220 Mc. and higher, where their dimen-
are of interest because they work across awide sions become practicable, plane- reflector arrays
band of frequencies with relatively uniform are widely used. Except as it affects the im-
response. At very-high frequencies an antenna pedance of the system, as shown in Fig. 18-19,
made of small wire is purely resistive only over the spacing between the driven elements and
avery small frequency range. Its Q, and there- the reflecting plane is not particularly critical.
fore its selectivity, is sufficient to limit its op- Maximum gain occurs around 0.1 to 0.15 wave-
timum performance to a narrow frequency length, which is also the region of lowest im-
range, and readjustment of the length or tun- pedance. Highest impedance appears at about
ing is required for each narrow slice of the 0.3 wavelength. A plane reflector spaced 0.22
spectrum. With tuned transmission lines, the wavelength in back of the driven elements has
effective length of the antenna can be shifted no effect on their feed impedance. As the gain
by retuning the whole system. However, in the of a plane- reflector array is nearly constant at
case of antennas fed by matched-impedance spacings from 0.1 to 0.25 wavelength, it may be
lines, any appreciable frequency change requires seen that the spacing may be varied to achieve
an actual mechanical adjustment of the system. an impedance match.
Otherwise, the resulting mismatch with the line An advantage of the plane reflector is that it
will be sufficient to cause significant reduction may be used with two driven element systems,
in power input to the antenna. one on each side of the plane, providing for
A properly designed and constructed wide- two- band operation, or the incorporation of
band antenna, on the other hand, will exhibit horizontal and vertical polarization in a single
very nearly constant input impedance over sev- structure. The gain of a plane- reflector array
eral megacycles. is slightly higher than that of a similar number
The simplest method of obtaining a broad- of driven elements backed up by parasitic re-
band characteristic is the use of what is termed flectors. It also has a broader frequency
a " cylindrical" antenna. This is no more than response and higher front- to-back ratio. To
a conventional doublet in which large- diameter achieve these ends, the reflecting plane must be
tubing is used for the elements. The use of a larger than the area of the driven elements,
relatively large diameter- to-length ratio lowers extending at least a quarter wavelength on all
the Q of the antenna. sides. Chicken wire on a wood or metal frame
R.F. Measurements 531
scale to be compressed at the low- current end taking appreciable power, and the relationship
and spread out at the high-current end. The between r.f. voltage and the reading of the
useful range of such an instrument is about 3 d.c. instrument should be as linear as possible
or 4 to 1; that is, an r.f. ammeter having a —that is, the d.c. indication should be directly
full-scale reading of 1ampere can be read with proportional to the r.f. voltage at all points
satisfactory accuracy down to about 0.3 am- of the scale.
pere, one having a full scale of 5amperes can All rectifiers show a variation in resistance
be read down to about 1.5 amperes, and so on. with applied voltage, the resistance being
No single instrument can be made to handle a highest when the applied voltage is small.
wide rangc of currents. Neither can the r.f. These variations can be fairly well " swamped
ammeter be shunted satisfactorily, as can be out" by using a high value of resistance in
done with d.c. instruments, because even a the d.c. circuit of the rectifier. A resistance of
very small amount of reactance in the shunt at least 10,000 ohms is necessary for reason-
will cause the readings to be highly dependent ably good linearity with a 0-1 milliammeter.
on frequency. High resistance in the d.c. circuit also raises
Fig. 21-28 shows a convenient way of using the impedance of the r.f. voltmeter and re-
duces its power consumption.
The basic voltmeter circuit is shown in Fig.
21-29. It is simply a half- wave rectifier with a
meter and a resistor, RI, for improving the
linearity. The time constant of CIRI should be
large compared with the period of the lowest
radio frequency to be measured — acondition
that can easily be met if R1 is at least 10,000
ohms and C1 is 0.001 µf. or more — so C1 will
stay charged near the peak value of the r.f.
Fig. 21-28—R.f. ammeter mounted for connecting into voltage. The radio- frequency choke may be
acoaxial line for measuring power. A "2- inch" instru- omitted if there is a low- resistance d.c. path
ment will fit into a2 X 4 X 4metal box. through the circuit being measured. C2 pro-
an r.f. ammeter for measuring current in aco- vides additional r.f. filtering for the d.c. circuit.
axial line. The instrument is simply mounted
in a metal box with a short lead from each I
N34
terminal to a coaxial fitting. The shunt ca-
pacitance of an ammeter mounted in this way CIRCUIT
has only a negligible effect on accuracy at UNDER
MEASUREMENT
frequencies as high as 30 Mc. if the instru-
ment has a bakelite case. Metal-cased meters
should be mounted on a bakelite panel which
in turn can be mounted behind a cut-out that Fig. 21-29—R.f. voltmeter circuit using acrystal rectifier
clears the meter case by g inch or so. and d.c. microommeter or 0-1 milliammeter.
R.F. VOLTAGE
The simple circuit of Fig. 21-29 is useful for
An r.f. voltmeter is a rectifier- type instru- voltages up to about 20 volts, a limitation im-
ment in which the r.f. is converted to d.c., posed by the inverse-peak voltage ratings of
which is then measured with a d.c. instru- crystal diodes. A dual range voltmeter circuit,
ment. The best type of rectifier for most ap- 0-20 and 0-100 volts, is shown in Fig. 21-30.
plications is a crystal diode, such as the 1N34
and similar types, because its capacitance is
so low as to have little effect on the behavior
of the r.f. circuit to which it is connected.
The principal limitation of these rectifiers is
their rather low value of safe inverse peak
voltage. Vacuum- tube diodes are considerably
better in this respect, but their size, shunt
capacitance, and the fact that power is re-
quired for heating the cathode constante se-
rious disadvantages in many applications.
One of the principal uses for such volt-
meters is as null indicators in r.f. bridges, as Fig. 21-30—Dual-range r.f. voltmeter circuit. Capaci-
described later in this chapter. Another useful tances ore in irpf.; capacitors are disk ceramic.
application is in measurement of the voltage CR,-1N34 or equivalent.
between the conductors of a coaxial line, to J2—Coaxial connectors, chassis-mounting type.
show when a transmitter is adjusted for op- R1-1000 ohms, 1watt.
timum output. In either case the voltmeter R2-3300 ohms, 2watts.
impedance should be high compared with that R3—App. 22,000 ohms (see text), ih watt.

of the circuit under measurement, to avoid SI—S.p.d.t. rotary switch (Centralab 1460).
 Chapter 19

Mobile and Portable-

Emergency Equipment
The amateur who goes in for mobile opera- directly. This permits a minimum length of
tion will find plenty of room for exercising his heavy-current battery circuit. Frequency within
individuality and developing original ideas in any of the phone bands sometimes is changed
equipment. Each installation has its special remotely by means of a stepping-switch system
problems to be solved. that switches crystals. In most cases, however,
Most mobile receiving systems are designed it is necessary to stop the car to make the sev-
around the use of ah.f. converter working into eral changes required in changing bands.
a standard car broadcast receiver tuned to Depending upon the size of the transmitter
1500 kc. which serves as the i.f, and audio unit, one of the following places may be found
amplifiers. The car receiver is modified to take convenient for mounting the transmitter.
a noise limiter and provide power for the
converter. In the glove compartment
While a few mobile transmitters may run an Under the instrument panel
input to the final amplifier as high as 100 watts In a unit in combination with or without
the converter, built to fit between the lower
or more, an input of about 30 watts normally is
edge of the instrument panel and the floor
considered the practical limit unless the car is
at the center
equipped with a special battery-charging sys-
On the ledge above the rear seat
tem. The majority of mobile operators use
phone. In the trunk
In contemplating amobile installation, the car Most mobile antennas consist of a vertical
should be studied carefully to determine the whip with some system of adjustable loading for
most suitable spots for mounting the equipment. the lower frequencies. Power supplies are of the
Then the various units should be built in a form vibrator, motor-generator, or transistor type
that will make best use of that space. The loca- operating from the car storage battery.
tion of the converter should have first consider- Units intended for use in mobile installations
ation. It should be placed where the controls can should be assembled with greater than ordinary
be operated conveniently without distracting care, since they will be subject to considerable
attention from the wheel. The following list vibration. Soldered joints should be well made
suggests spots that may be found suitable, de- and wire wrap-arounds should be used to
pending upon the individual car. avoid dependence upon the solder for mechan-
On top of the instrument panel ical strength. Self-tapping screws should be
Attached to the steering post used wherever feasible, otherwise lock- washers
Under the instrument panel should be provided. Any shafts that are nor-
In a unit made to fit between the lower lip mally operated at a permanent or semi-perma-
of the instrument panel and the floor at nent setting should be provided with shaft locks
the center of the car so they cannot jar out of adjustment. Where
wires pass through metal, the holes should be
The transmitter power control can be placed fitted with rubber grommets to prevent chafing.
close to the receiver position, or included in the Any cabling or wiring between units should be
converter unit. This control normally operates securely clamped in place where it cannot work
relays, rather than to switch the power circuit loose to interfere with the operation of the car.

NOISE ELIMINATION
Electrical-noise interference to reception in a ment of the car's electrical system will be
car may arise from several different sources. As necessary.
examples, trouble may be experienced with igni-
tion noise, generator and voltage-regulator hash, Ignition Interference
or wheel static. Fig. 19-1 indicates the measures that may be
A noise limiter added to the car broadcast re- taken to suppress ignition interference. The
ceiver will go far in reducing some types, espe- capacitor at the primary of the ignition coil
cially ignition noise from passing cars as well as should be of the coaxial type; ordinary types
your own. But for the satisfactory reception of are not effective. It should be placed as close to
weaker signals, some investigation and treat- the coil terminal as possible. In stubborn cases,

466
Noise Elimination 467

two of these capacitors with an r.f. choke be-

tween them may provide additional suppression.
The size of the choke must be determined ex-
perimentally. The winding should be made with
wire heavy enough to carry the coil primary
current. A 10,000-ohm suppressor resistor should
be inserted at the center tower of the distributor,
a 5000-ohm suppressor at each spark-plug tower
on the distributor, and a 10,000 ohm suppressor
at each spark plug. The latter may be built-in or
external. A good suppressor element should be Fig. 19- 2— The right way to install bypasses to reduce
molded of material having low capacitance.
interference from the regulator. A capacitor should
Several concerns manufacture satisfactory sup-
never be connected across the generator field lead
pressors. In extreme cases, it may be neces-
without the small series resistor indicated.
sary to use shielded ignition wire. Suppressor
ignition wire kits having the resistance dis-
tributed throughout the length of the wire are
available from some automobile supply dealers.
Distributed resistance of this type is somewhat quired for minimum radio noise. Alternator noise
will be caused by dirty collector rings, and the
superior to lumped resistance and may be used
if the lead lengths are right to fit your car. They rings and brushes should be cleaned every 10,000
miles for hest radio performance.
should not be cut, but used as they are sold.
Voltage- Regulator Interference

ROTOR GAP
apt
In eliminating voltage- regulator noise, the use
COAXIAL -

of two coaxial capacitors, and a resistor-mica-

100 0011 '
a VS000.11 capacitor combination, as shown in Fig.. 19-2,

r-17
IGNIT,ON
COIL o
are effective. A 0.1- to 0.25-
pf. coaxial capacitor
should be placed between the battery terminal

BREAKER
POINTS 100 00 /1SPAR KP LUG
SUPPRESSOR
of the regulator and the battery, with its case
well grounded. Another capacitor of the same
size and type should be placed between the gen-
SPARK PLuG2;t7 erator terminal of the regulator and the gener-
ator. A 0.002-µf. mica capacitor with a 4-ohm
carbón resistor in series should be connected
Fig. 19- 1— Ignition system with recommended suppres- between the field terminal of the regulator and
sion methods. ground. Never use a capacitor across the field
contacts or between field and ground without
the resistor in series, since this greatly reduces
Generator Noise the life of the regulator. In some cases, it may
Generator hash is caused by sparking at the be necessary to pull double-braid shielding over
commutator. The pitch of the noise varies with the leads between the generator and regulator.
the speed of the motor. This type of noise may It will be advisable to run new wires, grounding
be eliminated by using a 0.1- to 0.25 id. coaxial the shielding well at both ends. If regulator
capacitor in the generator armature circuit. This noise persists, it may be necessary to insulate
capacitor should be mounted as near the arma- the regulator from the car body. The wire
ture terminal as possible and directly on the shielding is then connected to the regulator case
frame of the generator. at one end and the generator frame at the other.
To reduce the noise at 28 Mc., it may be
Wheel Static
necessary to insert a parallel trap, tuned to the
middle of the band, in series with the generator Wheel static shows up as a steady popping
output lead. The coil should have about 8 turns in the receiver at speeds over about 15 m.p.h.
of No. 10 wire, space-wound on a 1-inch diam- on smooth dry streets. Front-wheel static col-
eter and should be shunted with a 3O-#'f. mica lectors are available on the market to eliminate
trimmer. It can be pretuned by putting it in the this variety of interference. They fit inside the
antenna lead to the home-station receiver tuned dust cap and bear on the end of the axle, effec-
to the middle of the band, and adjusting the tively grounding the wheel at all times. Those
trap to the point of minimum noise. The tuning designated particularly for your car are prefer-
may need to be peaked up after installing in the able, since the universal type does not always
car, since it is fairly critical. fit well. They are designed to operate without
Practically all of the new cars use alternators lubrication and the end of the axle and dust cap
(generators of a.c.) in conjunction with silicon- should be cleaned of grease before the installa-
diode rectifiers for battery charging. The system tion is made. These collectors require replace-
provides better battery charging and less head- ment about every 10,000 miles.
light-intensity variation at low engine speeds. Rear- wheel collectors have abrush that bears
However, normal care and maintenance is re- against the inside of the brake drum. It may be
 534 MEASUREMEKTS
UNKNOWN pacitance standards, since their rated toler-
INDUCTANCE
ance is ±- 5per cent. Equally good inductance
(A) STANDARD
GRID-DIP
standards can be made from commercial
CAPACITANCE
METER machine-wound coil material.
A single pair of standards will serve for
STANDARD measuring the L and C values commonly used
INDUCTANCE in amateur equipment. A good choice is 100
(8) UNKNOWN /yd. for the capacitor and 5 ph. for the coil.
GRID- DIP CAPACITANCE Based on these values the chart of Fig. 21-38
METER
will give the unknown directly in terms of
the resonant frequency registered by the
Fig. 21:36 — Setups for measuring inductance and grid- dip meter. In measuring the frequency
capacitance with the grid- dip meter. the coupling between the grid-dip meter and
resonant circuit should be kept at the
Fig. 21-36. With the unknown coil connected
to the standard capacitor, couple the grid- dip
meter to the coil and adjust the oscillator
frequency for the grid- current dip, using the
loosest coupling that gives a detectable indi-
cation. The inductance is then given by the
formula
25,330
L. C w. p me.

The reverse procedure is used for measur-

ing capacitance — that is, a coil of known
inductance is used as a standa;d as shown at
B. The unknown capacitance is
25,330
Cupt. Le.h.f2mo. Fig. 21-37--A convenient mounting, using binding- post
plates, for I. and C standards made from commercially-
The accuracy of this method depends on available parts. The capacitor is a 100-µµf. silver mica
the accuracy of the grid- dip meter calibration unit, mounted so the lead length is as nearly zero as
and the accuracy with which the standard possible. The inductance standard, 5 ph., is 17 turns of
values of L and C are known. Postage- stamp No. 3015 B & W Miniductor, 1- inch diameter,
silver-mica capacitors make satisfactory ca- 16 turns per inch.

D CB A
roc, io lO 1.0
900 9 9 0.9 MalaBaallan
lalMallanalaIIIIMMaaa1111MaKaallMalIMMIIIIMIMMM Balaa alalalaaaaalla
800 8 8 0.8 MBLIaalalaanaliMaanallaallalOalaIMILIMalaaaMM BUM IMMIMil
'1101MIMI iuuiuuuiuuuuu
700 70 7 0.7

400 60 6 0.6 111111111111111111113111MMI1111111110111MEMBBBINUM1111111131 MINIM

111111111111111111MMIIIIIIIIIIMIMUMMIIIMM111111111 C' 11111111
500 50 5 05 in1111111111110M11111111111M\MMEIEMEMM111111111111 1111111
UUUU MM&I
IMO MMMM MBE MIMMIM M
MUM M MMMM MIMM.
400 4 40.4 MUM
IBM BIM MMMMMMM MIIIIMI r um
MMMM 81111MMIR u..
ummummuuL una mum
ma zumun 11311. Ilaanallall•MallaL Mal imummum un
.•••..••u•• MUM BallalaalMallaMM IT' RIMINI Ma UM
IMMaillinailk Una MaaainalfflaBakei IMM MaallUaaarnak e Mini MN
$00 30 3 0.3 Malianainnak Nan
.... mmion`g ••
1111.111113MMIIMM' » RIM Malian
Mill•
M MMM
MMIB• Ma__ 0, IMIMM MMM
MIMMUIL 7. MI— MM MMM
250 2 2.5 025 111 • • MI MM.. MMMMM MMIMMMMIIIM• MIMM • m••••••
MMIBM Mann • so mum ma : MMM
MMIMM
OM.. . MIMMMIM 111•M MM MMM •s 'Mania»
MM. IIMIMM MM

MMM
IMMIMMI
200 20 0.2 MM.. MM l___ MIIMUMMI •...i
MUM MMMM 011.31•111MIIIMMMIMMIMIIIIM
BIM»
WaninailiaarnaaaliallaaalaaMalallaàalllIMIMIIMMUMainarnalanall
150 I 1.6 0.15

• 1001 lOI iI 0.1

2 25 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20
C B A1.5 FREQUENCY IN MEGACYCLES ,
25 30 40 50

Fig. 21- 38— Chart for determining unknown values of Land C in the range 0.1 to 100 µh.
and 2 to 1000 µµf., using standards of 100 µµf. and 5 µh.
A Converter 469

A MOBILE CONVERTER FOR 3.5 THROUGH 28 MC.

Figures 19-4 through 19-7 show a crystal- range of the system with any single crystal will
controlled converter covering 3.5 through 28 be restricted to 1 Mc. This is sufficient for all
Mc. without complex band switching or gang- except the 28- Mc. band. Two crystals are re-
tuned circuits. Plug-in coil assemblies provide quired to .cover the entire 10-meter band. The
rapid band changing and allow construction for first of these gives a tuning range of 28 to 28.9
either single-band or multiband operation. The Mc. and the second permits tuning 28.8 to 29.7
converter uses the car broadcast receiver as a Mc. An accompanying frequency chart lists the
tunable i.f. amplifier. crystal frequencies and the ranges over which
Plate power requirements for the converter the broadcast receiver must be tuned to cover
are approximately 20 milliamperes at 200 to 250 the amateur bands.
volts. This means that the unit can be supplied
Construction
from the car-receiver power pack without over-
loading it. The input-tuning capacitor, C1, the pilot lamp
The Circuit and the switch are :in line across the panel of .
The circuit diagram of the converter is shown the converter as shown in Fig. 19-4. Each of
in Fig. 19-5. A 6BZ6 is used in the r.f. amplifier, these components is centered 34 inch down from
and a 12AT7 operates as amixer-oscillator. The the top of the case and each is separated from
oscillator is crystal-controlled and works on the the other in horizontal plane by 194 inches. The
low- frequency side of the signal frequency. /1, male jacks for the grid, plate and oscillator
/2,and /3 are the antenna- input, mixer-output coils are below C1,/I and S, in that order.
and power jacks, respectively. S, performs the Each jack is centered 1r4 inches up from the
switching in changing over from ham-band to bottom of the cabinet.
broadcast input. S1A and SiB shift the antenna The chassis, shown in Fig. 19-7, may be made
from the converter input circuit to the car of thin aluminum sheet and should be fastened
receiver, and Sic is the heater on-off switch. to the side walls of the cabinet with homemade
Since the tuning of the converter is fixed, the brackets, or angle stock. The sockets for V1
circuits of the r.f. amplifier and the mixer must (at the right as seen in the rear view) and V2
be broadbanded to pass all frequencies in any are centered 15/8 inches in from the right and
ham band. A slug-tuned coil, 1. 3,is used in the left edges of the chassis, respectively. /3 is
amplifier plate circuit, and RFC, provides a centered on the rear wall of the chassis with /1
broad- band plate load for the mixer tube V2A . and /2 to the right and left.
The grid circuit of the amplifier also uses a A bottom view of the converter clearly shows
slug- tuned coil and includes a trimmer capac- the components mounted below deck.
itor, C1,that permits peaking the input for the The exterior and the interior of the coil box
antenna in use, or in tuning completely across are shown in Figs. 19-4 and 19-7. Wind the
a band: A slug- cored coil is used at L4 to antenna coupling coils, L1 in Fig. 19-5, around
facilitate resonating the circuit near the crystal the ground ends of the grid coils before the
frequency. latter are soldered in place. Wind the coupling
The frequency of the oscillator must differ coils rather snugly but not so tightly as to
from the frequency of the received signal by prevent adjustment of the coupling to L2 during
the frequency of the tunable i.f. amplifier. With testing of the converter.
the car broadcast receiver following the con-
verter, the i.f. range will be from approximately
550 to 1550 kc. Since the tunable i.f. range is
thus limited to a band 1000 kc. wide, the tuning

Fig. 19-4—The aluminum case for the converter meas-

ures 3 X 4 X 5 inches ( Bud CU-3005 or Premier
AMC- 1005). Amphenol type 86-CP4 male jacks mounted
on the front of the box mate with MIP 4- prong sockets
mounted on the rear of the coil compartment shown in
the foreground. Knobs for C1and S, ore to the left and
right, respectively, of the pilot lamp. The coil box meas-
ures 21/ X 21
4 /
4 X 5 inches ( Bud CU-3004 or Premier
AMC- 1004). Slug-adjustment screws for L2, L3 and L.
protrude through rubber grommets mounted on the
front wall of the plug-in coil assembly.
 470 MOBILE EQUIPMENT
O

CU
RG -58/U
RG -58/0
R.F AMP MIX ER
cj
OSC.
RG -58/ U
RG -58/U
100

7
6626 5 I
2AT 7 6
V2 .

RFC ,
12, 10 1011.
+150V

33IZ
VI

+230v
B
ANO
6- VOLT HEATER CI
RCU I
T
/47 — SEE TEXT

12 -VOLT HEATER CI
RCU I
T

Fig. 19-5— Circuit diagram of the crystal-controlled mobile converter. Unless other-
wise indicated, capacitances are in AeLf., resistances are in ohms, resistors are /
2 watt.

/
1

C-35-µ i
of, midget variable ( Hammarlund MAPC- 12,-180 ohms, 1
2watt.
C2,
35-B).
100-µ,uf . ceramic tubular.
Rz-22,000 ohms, /
I23-2200 ohms, Y2
2 watt.
1

watt.

Y2
C,, C7-1000./2,0. disk ceramic. R,-1 megohm, /
2 watt.
1

C.-0.01-0. disk ceramic. megohm, watt.

I,— Pilot- light assembly Johnson 147-503 with No. 44 Ro -33,000 ohms, Y2 watt.
(6-volt) or No. 1815 ( 12-volt) lamp]. RFC,-10-mh. r.f. choke ( National R-1005).
J3— Motorola- type shielded jack ( ICA 2378). Sr-3- pole 3- position ( used as 3 p.d.t.) selector switch
Js-4- prong male chassis connector ( Cinch-Jones P. ( Centralab PA- 1007).
304-AB). Y,— See text and frequency chart ( International Crystals
Lz, Is, L., — See coil chart. type FA-9).

An a.c. transformer may be used for the fila- position, and apply heater power. The receiver
ments while testing the converter. The plate need not be turned on at this time, and plate
supply should deliver 20 milliamperes at 200 to power for the converter does not have to be
250 volts. A modulated- signal generator cover- applied. Now, rotate C1 to approximately half
ing the bands for which the converter has been capacitance and then adjust L., to resonance
constructed is extremely helpful. To be most (use the grid- dip meter as the indicator) at the
effective, the generator should have a 50- ohm low end of the band. Move the grid- dipper over
output termination. A grid- dip meter for pre- to the plate circuit of the amplifier and peak
liminary adjustment of the slug- tuned coils is L3 at the center of the band. Next, couple the
useful, but not essential to alignment. If at all meter to L4 of the oscillator and tune the coil
possible, the car receiver that is to be used as to the frequency of the crystal in use.
the tuitable j. f• should be used (luring the testing.
After these initial adjustments, plate power
Using coaxial- cable leads, connect the signal may be applied to the converter and a fre-
generator and the broadcast receiver to . 1 and quency- indicating device used to detect oscilla-
/ 2 , respectively. Switch S1 to the ham- band tion of V2R .If the grid- dip meter is the self-
recti fying type it may be used for the check. An
absorption- type wavemeter with indicator or a

Fig. 19-6—A bottom view of the mobile converter. Th•

amplifier tube socket at the right is mounted with Pin
7 facing toward the rear wall of the chassis. R, and 12,,
are to the right and left of the socket, respectively.
The socket for V2 is mounted with Pins 4 and 5 facing
toward the rear of the unit. Cz is to the lower left of
and RFC, is mounted on the front wall of the housing.
C, and R., are to the left of the base of the choke. C,‘,
and R./ are to the right of RFC,. The output coupling
capacitor C., is supported between Terminal 4 of - Is
and Pin 6 of fl,e socket for V. R, and R- are partially
visible to the right and left, respectively,
of the V2 socket.
538 MEASUREMENTS
Fig. 21-42—A simple bridge circuit useful for imped-
ance-matching in coaxial lines.
C1, C2-0.005- or 0.01-Af. disk ceramic.
14-47-ohm composition, % watt.
122-52- or 75-ohm ( depending on line impedance) com-
position, 1
/ watt; precision type preferred.
2
R4- 1000-ohm composition, % watt.
is, .12—Coaxial connector.
The meter may be a 0-1 milliammeter or d.c. volt-
meter of any type having asensitivity of 1000 ohm per
volt or greater, and afull-scale range of 5to 10 volts.
Negative side of meter connects to ground.

ductances will balance. Leads should be kept

Bridge Construction
as short as possible.
A principal point in the construction of an
s.w.r. bridge is to avoid coupling between the Testing and Calibration
resistors forming the bridge arms, and be- In abridge intended for s.w.r. measurement
tween the arms and the voltmeter circuit. (Fig. 21-41) rather than simple matching, the
This can be done by keeping the resistance first check is to apply just enough r.f. voltage,
arms separated and at right angles to each at the highest frequency to be used, so that
other, and by placing the crystal and its con- the bridge voltmeter reads full scale with the
necting leads so that the loop so formed is load terminals open. Observe the input volt-
not in inductive relationship with any loops age, then short-circuit the load terminals and
formed by the bridge arms. Shielding between readjust the input to the same voltage. The
the bridge arms and the crystal circuit is bridge voltmeter should again register full
helpful in reducing such couplings, although scale. If it does not, the ratio arms, R1 and R 2 ,
it is not always necessary. The two resistors probably are not exactly equal. These two
forming the " ratio arms," R1 and R 2 , should resistors should be carefully matched, al-
have identical relationships with metal parts, though their actual value is not critical. If a
to keep the shunt capacitances equal, and also similar test at a low frequency shows better
should have the same lead lengths so the in- balance, the probable cause is stray induct-
ance or capacitance in one arm not balanced
by equal strays in the other.
After the " short" and "open" readings have
been equalized, the bridge should be checked
for null balance with a " dummy" resistance,
equal to the line impedance, connected to the
load terminals. It is convenient to mount a
half- or 1-watt resistor of the proper value
in a coax connector, keeping it centered in
the connector and using the minimum lead
length. The bridge voltmeter should read zero
at all frequencies. A reading above zero that
remains constant at all frequencies indicates
that the " dummy" resistor is not matched to
R 3 , while readings that vary with frequency
indicate stray reactive effects or stray cou-
pling between parts of the bridge.
When the operation is satisfactory on the
two points just described, the null should be
checked with the dummy resistor connected
to the bridge through several different lengths
of transmission line, to ensure that R 3 actually
matches the line impedance. If the null is not
complete in this test both the dummy resistor
and R 3 will have to be adjusted until a good
match is obtained. With care, composition re-
Fig. 21-43—An inexpensive bridge for matching ad- sistors can be filed down to raise the resist-
justments using the circuit of Fig. 21-42. It is built in a ance, so it is best to start with resistors some-
1% X 2% X 4-inch "Channel-lock" box. The standard what low in value. With each change in R 3 ,
resistor, Rs, bridges the two coax connectors. A pin jack adjust the dummy resistor to give a good null
is provided for connection to the d.c. meter, 0-1 ma. or when connected directly to the bridge, then
0-500 Aci.; the meter negative can be connected to the try it at the end of several different lengths
case or to one of the coax fittings. of line, continuing until the null is satis-
 472 MOBILE EQUIPMENT

"HYBRID" CRYSTAL-CONTROLLED CONVERTER

The converter shown in Figs. 19-8 and 19-9
the other half of the Minibox, the portion with
combines a 12-volt r.f. pentode and two transistors
the guide lips, be mounted under the dashboard
in a circuit that requires only a 12-volt d.c. source
of the car. It is then a simple matter to remove
for all power requirements. As a result, it is
or replace the "working" portion of the con-
admirably suited for use with any of the newer
verter. The crystals plug in at the back of the
hybrid receivers. (" Hybrid" receivers combine
box and are covered by a small aluminum box
tubes and transistors; the tubes are special in
that prevents their accidental damage and elim-
that they operate with only 12 volts on plate and inates a source of broadcast feedthrough.
screen.) The oscillator is crystal-controlled, and
Two 3- pole 5-position ceramic rotary switch
stations are tuned in by adjustment of the b.c.
sections provide all of the necessary switching.
receiver used as a tunable i.f. amplifier.
The poles 51A ,SiB and SIR make up the rear sec-
Referring to the circuit diagram, Fig. 19-8,
tion. The r.f. chokes used at L« and L7 mount
the r.f. stage uses a 12EK6 pentode with a fixed-
directly on the front section ( S ip and the others).
tune input circuit, L iL2,and a plate circuit tuned
from the panel through C1.Mixer and oscillator
stages both use the 2N274 transistor; the mixer
input is "tapped down" on the coupling circuit to Coil and Crystal Table for the Hybrid Converter

provide a good match and to maintain selectivity.

B.C.
In the oscillator section, crystals and plate coil Range Crystal Receiver Ls Ls
are switched. It will be noted that, for simplicity
in presenting the diagram, all of the coils at L 1 3.5- 2.5 M c. 1000- 3t. No. 28 68-130 µI
L
4.0 1500 (
Miller 4409)
and L2 and all of the taps on L3 are not shown.
Further, all of the crystals are not shown. How- 7.0- ¡ 6.0 Mc. 1000- 2t. No. 28 14.8-31 ish.
7.5 1500 (Miller 4407)
ever, after a little study it should be apparent to
anyone contemplating construction of the unit 14.0- 13.0 Mc. 1000- 134 t. No. 18 6.7-15 i.th.
where the missing coils, taps and crystals are 14.5 1500 (
Miller 4406)
connected.
21.0- 20.0 Mc. 1000- 1t. No. 18 3.1-6.8 rth.
All of the components fit comfortably in and 21.5 1500 (
Miller 4405)
on a 3 x 4 x 5-inch Minibox. Referring to Fig.
28.54- 28.0 Mc. 540- It. No. 18 1.5-3.2 µh.
19-9, the components are mounted on the 29.5
1500 (
Miller 4404)
U-shaped half of the Minibox. It is intended that

MIXER
2N274
100

Fig. 19-8—Circuit diagram of the hybrid crystal-controlled converter. Unless specified otherwise, capacitances are
in uf., resistances are in ohms, resistors are 1 2 watt.
/
CI- 10014d. midget variable ( Hammarlund HF- 100).
in —Phono jacks.
Miniductor). SHP taps 91 /
2 and 16 1
2 turns from
/
grounded end.
▪ I,— See table.
1..-25 jzh. r.f. choke ( Millen J300-25)
6-47 turns No. 20, 16 t.p.i., 1- inch diam. ( UM 3015
1.7- 100-)th. r.f. choke. ( Millen 34300-100)
Miniductor). taps 5, 7, 12 and 25 turns from
plate end; SID tops 4, 6, 11, 19 and 30 turns
S -position rotary ceramic switch, 3 poles
from plate end. per section. ( Centralab PA-5 sections on PA-301
index assembly. Sections spaced 1 / inch and 21
2 4
▪ r.f. choke (Millen 1300-1000).
inch from index.)
4-31 turns No. 20, 16 t.p.i., %-inch diam. ( B&W 3007
Ts-Ts—See crystal table.
Hybrid Converter 473
All of the input coils, Li/. 2,are mounted on the of necessity some wires will eventually interfere
rear apron, just above the tube socket. To min- with others. If the switched leads to L1 and L2
imize coupling from the coils to L3,L3 is mounted are wired before the shield and L3 are installed,
parallel to the front panel, supported at one end the construction will be easier than if the leads
by atie point and at the other by a1-inch ceramic to L1 and L2 were left to the last.
insulator. Further to isolate the coils, an alumi- With the 12EK6 removed from its socket, the
num shield is placed between L3 and the set of converter should not draw more than 3 ma. or
input coils. The remaining coil, L5,is mounted so. The oscillator can be checked for oscillation
alongside the switch. by listening for it on a communications receiver.
Tie points are used generously throughout the If the oscillator should fail to work on 15 or
converter, to support components that might 10 meters, the taps on L, may have to be moved.
otherwise vibrate loose. The transistor leads Replace the tube in its socket and adjust the
are all soldered to tie points. While soldering, input coils, L2,to resonance with a grid-dip
hold the wire in pliers or other form of "heat meter. With the car radio tuned to the middle of
sink," to minimize the heat that reaches the its range, touch up L2 on each band for maximum
transistor. noise. Peak C, for maximum gain while listen-
Note in Fig. 19-8 that some of the leads use ing to a weak signal, and once more check the
shielded wire. These include the plate lead of tuning of L2.On the higher frequencies it will be
the r.f. stage, the lead from SID to the base of possible to hear " image" signals on occasion.
the mixer transistor and the collector lead to the This is an inescapable result of using a low i.f.
oscillator transistor. In wiring the converter, it (the b.c. receiver) and not an indication that the
is advisable to plan the wiring in advance, since converter isn't working properly.

Fig. 19-9—The 12-volt hybrid crystal-controlled converter with the housing removed. The large coil ( center) is
the interstage coupling coil between r.f, tube and mixer transistor. The tube and crystals plug in at the rear,
and the input tuning slugs project out the rear. The antenna jack cannot be seen ; it is below the tube socket.
The only panel controls are interstage tuning and band switch.
474 MOBILE EQUIPMENT

CRYSTAL-CONTROLLED CONVERTERS FOR 50 AND 144 MC.

The mobile converters shown in Figs. 19-10 inch Minibox. All of the parts are mounted on
through 19-13 combine simplicity with good the bottom half of the box while the upper half
v.h.f. design practice. Although only two tubes (the one with lips) is fastened under the car
are used in each, the converters include a stage dash. The bottom half containing all the com-
of r.f. amplification plus crystal-controlled os- ponents can be slid in and out for easy servicing.
cillators. Ten meters was chosen as the i.f. be- Fig. 19-10 shows the placement of most of
cause when the broadcast receiver is used as the the components. The output peaking control C1
tunable i.f, for v.h.f. converters images are a and switch 5 -1 are mounted on one side of the
problem, and only 1 Mc. at a time could be chassis to form the front panel. The tubes,
tuned. The converters described here, there- slug-tuned inductances, crystal socket and an-
fore, are designed to work into a 10-meter con- tenna connectors are mounted directly opposite
verter or receiver. This can be a tunable con- on the back wall. Two tie-points are bolteçl to
verter which in turn works into the broadcast the base of the box for connecting and support-
receiver, or a complete self-contained 10-meter ing leads and components. When wiring, make
receiver. the r.f. leads as short and direct as possible.
The 50-Mc. Unit The 144-Mc. Unit
The circuit diagram for the 50- Mc, unit is The circuit diagram for the 144- Mc, converter
shown in Fig. 19-11. A 6AK5 is used as an r.f. is shown in Fig. 19-13. Two 6U8 tubes are used
amplifier. The same gain with lower noise can with the pentode section of one tube acting as
be obtained with a cascode-type dual-triode the r.f. amplifier followed by the triode- section
amplifier, but the performance of this pentode mixer. The other 6U8 is used as an overtone
stage is satisfactory and its design is consid- crystal oscillator and pentode frequency multi-
erably simpler than the triode amplifier. plier. By combining all the features of a 4-tube
The crystal oscillator makes use of a 22- Mc. crystal-controlled converter in a two- tube model
overtone crystal. A crystal on the required in- space-saving simplicity is achieved.
jection frequency eliminates the need for mul- The same basic circuit used in the 50- Mc.
tiplier stages, and makes possible the use of a model is followed in the 144- Mc, unit except
simple oscillator circuit. The 10-meter receiver for the addition of a multiplier stage following
or converter is tuned from 28 to 30 Mc. in cov- the crystal oscillator. The oscillator operates at
ering 50 to 52 Mc. If ageneral coverage receiver 38.666 Mc. and is multiplied to 116 Mc. in the
covering 26 to 30 Mc. is used, a 24- Mc, crystal tripler stage. As in the 50- Mc. converter, this
in the oscillator will allow tuning 50 to 54 Mc. unit is designed to work into a 10-meter receiver
However, any injection frequency may be used or converter. If the i.f. tunes from 27 to 30 Mc.,
to cover adesired portion of the band. the converter will tune from 144 to 147 Mc.
The pentode half of the 6U8 tube is used as However, any segment of the band may be
amixer. The oscillator and mixer sections are in tuned by choosing the proper crystal frequency.
the same tube envelope so there is enough stray Unlike the 50- Mc, converter, the oscillator-
coupling between the two for adequate oscilla- multiplier stages of the 144- Mc, converter are
tor injection. physically separated from the mixer stage. It is
The diagram shows the heaters connected for necessary, therefore, to couple the 116- Mc.
12 volts. If 6- volt operation is desired, the heat- energy from the multiplier stage to the grid of
ers are connected in parallel and R1 is disre- the mixer. Capacitor C2 is used for this purpose.
garded. It consists of a pair of twisted hook-up wires
The converters are built in a 5'4 X 3 X VA- with one end of one lead connected to the mixer

Fig. 19- 10—View of the 50-Mc. con-

verter. The inductances are from left
to right: ( bottom) L7, (
top) Lae, L
3L4,

L,L 3.The top of crystal Y1 can be seen

between the tubes. The 22-ohm 2-watt
resistor in the center of the chassis is
the heater current compensating re-
sistor, used for 12-voJt operation.
Input and output antenna connectors
are mounted on opposite ends of the
back wall. Power is fed to the unit
through the twisted power cable run-
ning in from the left side of the
photograph.
Converters 475
6AK5 6U6

RCVR

ANT

Fig. 19- 11—Schematic diagram fo the 50-Mc, mobile converter. All resistors Y. watt unless otherwise specified.
Capacitor values below 0.001 µf. are in µµf. All 0.001 µf. capacitors are disk ceramic.
Other fixed capacitors are tubular ceramic.
C1-35-Ppf. midget variable capacitor ( Hammarlund slug tuned coil form.
MAPC-35-B). Le- 2 turns No. 20 insulated wire, close- wound over
.1,, is— Automobile type antenna connectors, cold end of Ln.
turns No. 20 insulated wire, close-wound over 1.7-28 turns No. 30 enam. wire, close-wound on /
2 inch
1

cold end of L. slug tuned coil.

L.-9 turns No. 20 enam. wire, close-wound on /
2 inch
1 R,-22-ohm 2-watt resistor ( used for 12-volt heater
slug tuned coil, operation only).
L-16 turns No. 20 enam. wire, close-wound on /
2 inch
1 Si—Three- pole two- position rotary switch ( Centrolab
slug tuned coil form. PA-2007).
L-6 turns No. 20 insulated wire, close-wound over Y,-22 Mc. overtone crystal. ( International Crystal type
cold end of L FA-5 for miniature socket, FA-9 for standard
L-14 turns No. 20 enam. wire, close-wound on /
2 inch
1 socket).

grid and the end of the other lead connected to control C1 and the control switch S1 are mounted
the multiplier plate. on the front wall of the chassis while most of
The circuit diagram shows the heaters con- the remaining parts are secured to the rear sur-
nected for 12-volt operation. For 6 volts, the face. A single tie point is mounted on the bottom
heaters should be connected in parallel. of the chassis for connecting and supporting
The same basic outline of construction used various leads. The input and output antenna
in the 50- Mc, converter is followed in the 144- connectors are mounted at opposite ends of the
Mc. unit. Fig. 19-12 shows how output peaking back wall of the chassis.

Fig. 19- 12—View of the 144-Mc. converter.

The inductances from left to right are: ( top)
L3L4, La, (
bottom) L7 and L. All compo-
nents except S, and C, are mounted on the
back wall of the chassis. A single tie point in
the bottom of the channel supports various
leads and provides junctions for sundry con-
nections. The input and output antenna con-
nectors are placed near the bottom right
and left of the back panel. The crystal 1', is
between the two tubes. Converter power is
fed through the twisted cable which passes
through a hole and grommet in the back
wall of the chassis.
544 MEASUREMENTS
PATTERNS FRO RATIO found by counting the number of loops along
two adjacent edges. Thus in the third figure
from the top there are three loops along a
horizontal edge and only one along the ver-

oci
Fig. 21-53—Lissajous fig- tical, so the ratio of the vertical frequency
ures and corresponding to the horizontal frequency is 3to 1. Similarly,
frequency ratios for a 90- in the fifth figure from the top there are four
degree phase relationship loops along the horizontal edge and three
between the voltages ap- along the vertical edge, giving aratio of 4to 3.
plied to the two sets of Assuming that the known frequency is applied
deflecting plates. to the horizontal plates, the unknown fre-
3,1
quency is
n2
f2 —
nt
where fi = known frequency applied to hori-
3
zontal plates,
12 = unknown frequency applied to
vertical plates,
= number of loops along a vertical
4'3
edge, and
n2 = number of loops along a hori-
zontal edge.
An important application of Lissajous fig-
oscilloscope the resultant pattern depends on ures is in the calibration of audio- frequency
the relative amplitudes, frequencies and phase signal generators. For very low frequencies
of the two voltages. If the ratio between the the 60- cycle power-line frequency is held ac-
two frequencies is constant and can be ex- curately enough to be used as a standard in
pressed in integers a stationary pattern will most localities. The medium audio-frequency
be produced. This makes it possible to use range can be covered by comparison with the
the oscilloscope for determining an unknown 440- and 600- cycle modulation on the WWV
frequency, provided a variable frequency transmissions. An oscilloscope having both
standard is available, or for determining cali- horizontal and vertical amplifiers is desirable,
bration points for a variable- frequency oscil- since it is convenient to have a means for
lator if afew known frequencies are available adjusting the voltages applied to the deflec-
for comparison. tion plates to secure a suitable pattern size.
The stationary patterns obtained in this It is possible to calibrate over a 10- to- 1range,
way are called Lissajous figures. Examples both upwards and downwards, from each of
of some of the simpler Lissajous figures are the latter frequencies and thus cover the audio
given in Fig. 21-53. The frequency ratio is range useful for voice communication.

Fig. 21-54—Oscilloscope circuit for

modulation monitoring. Constants
are for 1500- to 2500-volt high-
voltage supply. For 1000 to 1500
volts, omit R5 and connect the bottom
3300 end of R7 to the top end of R9.
SIG. C1-Cs, inc.-3000-volt disk ceramic.
INPUT C#P—,
oÇt) R
I, Rs, R», Rai—Volume-control type,
linear taper.
V 3300 R3,R., R5, Re, R10.- 1
2 watt.
/
R1, R.,-1 watt.
V,— Electrostatic- deflection cathode-
ray tube, 2- to 5- inch. See
tube tables for base connec-
tions and heater ratings of
type chosen.

100 K 220 K
40-Watt Transmitter 477

A 40-WATT " EXTENDED- BAND" MOBILE TRANSMITTER

The mobile transmitter shown in Figs. 19-14 19-16, only two tubes are used in the r.f. sec-
through 19-20 is capable of 40 watts input on tion. The pentode portion of a 6CX8 is used
any band from 160 to 6 meters. It is not band- as a crystal-controlled oscillator which, on
switched; coil data are given for each band, and bands 160 through 40 meters, drives the 12GJ5
it is only a matter of a few minutes to unsolder output amplifier directly. On the higher fre-
the coils and substitute those for another hand. quency bands, the triode section of the 6CX8
This single- hand construction permits maximum is used as a frequency multiplier. To modify
efficiency with minimum expenditure. the diagram for low-frequency operation, break
Referring to the circuit diagram in Fig. the two plate leads at the points marked "x"

Fig. 19- 14— Front view

of the " extended- band"
mobile transmitter, re-
moved from its case. The
transmitter uses a trans-
istor modulator and a
separate semiconductor
power supply. Panel
controls, counterclock-
wise from the meter, are
meter switch, operating
switch, gain control,
power switch, grid tun-
ing, output loading and
plate tuning. An L-
shaped shield of perfo-
rated aluminum nor-
mally covers the center
(amplifier) compartment.

Fig. 19- 15— Rear view of the

transmitter with coils for 6.
meter operation in place. The
cast- aluminum transistor heat
sink, at bottom of photo-
graph, is a Cesco type HS- 4.
A slot is cut in the rear of the
cabinet to clear the heat sink.
All transistors are mounted
using mica spacers ( furnished
with transistors) smeared with
silicone heat- conducting
grease.
Controls 547
mitter stages, an operating position of this type is operation, a "push-to-talk" switch on the micro-
an advantage over one in which the operator phone is convenient, but hand-held microphones
must leave his position to change frequency. tie up the use of one hand and are not too de-
sirable, although they are widely used in mobile
Controls and portable work.
The operator has an excellent chance to exer- The location of other switches, such as those
cise his ingenuity in the location of the operat- used to control power supplies, filaments, phone/
ing controls. The most important controls in the c.w. change-over and the like, is of no particular
station are the receiver tuning dial and the importance, and they can be located on the unit
send- receive switch. The receiver tuning dial with which they are associated. This is not
should be located four to eight inches above the strictly true in the case of the phone/c.w. DX
operating table, and if this requires mounting man, who sometimes has need to change in a
the receiver off the table, a small shelf or hurry from c.w. to phone. In this case, the
bracket will do the trick. With the single ex- change- over switch should be at the operating
ception of the amateur whose work is almost table, although the actual change-over may
entirely in traffic or rag-chew nets, which re- be done by a relay controlled by the switch.
quire little or no attention to the receiver, it If a rotary beam is used the control of the
will be found that the operator's hand is on beam should be convenient to the operator. The
the receiver tuning dial most of the time. If direction indicator, however, can be located any-
the tuning knob is too high or too low, the where within sight of the operator, and does not
hand gets cramped after an extended period of have to be located on the operating table unless
operating, hence the importance of a properly it is included with the control.
located receiver. The majority of c.w. operators
tune with the left hand, preferring to leave the Frequency Spotting
right hand free for copying messages and han- In a station where a v.f.o. is used, or where a
dling the key, and so the receiver should be number of crystals are available, the operator
mounted where the knob can be reached by the should be able to turn on only the oscillator of
left hand. Phone operators aren't tied down this his transmitter, so that he can spot accurately
way, and tune the communications receiver with his location in the band with respect to other
the hand that is more convenient. stations. This allows him to see if he has any-
The hand key should be fastened securely to thing like aclear channel, or to see what his fre-
the table, in aline just outside the right shoulder' quency is with respect to another station. Such
and far enough back from the front edge of the a provision can be part of the " send- receive"
table so that the elbow can rest on the table. switch. Switches are available with acenter "off"
A good location for the semiautomatic or "bug" position, a "hold" position on one side, for turn-
key is right next to the hand-key, although some ing on the oscillator only, and a " lock" position
operators prefer to mount the automatic key in on the other side for turning on the transmitter
front of them on the left, so that the right fore- and antenna relay. If oscillator keying is used,
arm rests on the table parallel to the front edge. the key serves the same purpose, provided a
The best location for the microphone is di- "send- receive" switch is available to turn off
rectly in front of the operator, so that he doesn't the high-voltage supplies and prevent a signal
have to shout across the table into it, or run up going out on the air during adjustment of the
the speech-amplifier gain so high that all manner oscillator frequency.
of external sounds are picked up. If the micro- For phone operation, the telegraph key or
phone is supported by a boom or by a flexible an auxiliary switch can control the transmitter
"goose neck," it can be placed in front of the oscillator, and the " send- receive" switch can
operator without its base taking up valuable then be wired into the control system so as
table space. to control the oscillator as well as the other
In any amateur station worthy of the name, circuits.
it should be necessary to throw no more than
one switch to go from the "receive" to the Comfort
"transmit" condition. In phone stations, this Of prime importance is the comfort of the
switch should be located where it can be easily operator. If you find yourself getting tired after
reached by the hand that isn't on the receiver. a short period of operating, examine your sta-
In the case of c.w. operation, this switch is most tion to find what causes the fatigue. It may
conveniently located to the right or left of the be that the chair is too soft or hasn't a straight
key, although some operators prefer to have it back or is the wrong height for you. The key
mounted on the left-hand side of the operating or receiver may be located so that you assume
position and work it with the left hand while an uncomfortable position while using them. If
the right hand is on the key. Either location is you get sleepy fast, the ventilation may be at
satisfactory, of course, and the choice depends fault. ( Or you may need sleep!)
upon personal preference. Some operators use a
foot-controlled switch, which is a convenience POWER CONNECTIONS AND CONTROL
but doesn't allow too much freedom of position Following a few simple rules in wiring your
during long operating periods. power supplies and control circuits will make
If the microphone is hand-held during phone it an easy job to change units in the station. If
40-Watt Transmitter 479
illuminated ( by II,Fig. 19-
16). Depending upon the po- COIL TABLE
sition of the switch, however,
Band Li LII La Y1
the color of the illumination
changes. The switch offers a Not used, pentode 50-µh. choke 18 turns A,, , 1.8
160
number of colors; this par- tuned by CI (Millen 34300-50) 2-inch ferrite" Mc.
ticular one was set up to be 1.8
red on Prr ( push-to-talk), 24-µh. choke 14 turns A,
80 As above or
(Miller 4626) 1.A-inch ferrite 3.5
blue on sPor ( frequency set-
ting) and orange on TUNE. 3.5
In the SPOT position an exter- 10-gh. choke 11 turns A,
40 As above Or
(Miller 4612) 1- inch ferrite
nal receiver- muting relay is 7 Mc.
disabled along with the am- 7 Mc. : 20 µh. 3.5
2.4-µh. choke
plifier so that the oscillator 20 approx. 18 turns A or
can be heard in the receiver. (Miller 4407 (Miller 4606) 7 Mc.
In the TUNE position the am- 1.5-µh. choke 7
15 As above 12 turns A
plifier is cathode-biased by (Miller 4604) Mc.
R5 to limit the off-resonance
14 Mc. : 74 µh.
plate current and prevent the 10 approx. 0.75 -
ah. choke
9 turns Bs
7
(Miller 4592) Mc.
power supply from dropping (Miller 4406)
out of oscillation during mis-
25 Mc. : VA µh.
tuning conditions. 6 approx. 3 turns B
7 turns No. 12, 8.3
54 diam., 8 t.p.i. Mc.
The meter switch, S3, al- (Miller 4404)
lows the single meter to in-
dicate grid, cathode or mod- 1Material
A is No. 20 wound 16 t.p.i., % diam. ( B & W 3007).
'Ferrite rod is - inch diameter ( Lafayette Radio, N.Y.C.,
ulator current. With the MS- 333)
resistors shown, the full-scale 3Material B is No. 18 wound 8 t.p.i., \et diam. ( B & W 3010).
readings are 10 ma., 200 ma.
and 5 amperes, respectively.

Construction
The transmitter is built on
the aluminum chassis that is
included with the 47,4e X 91 %E Fig. 19- 17— Bottom view of the mobile transmitter. The binding posts at
X 74r- inch cabinet ( Califor- the rear of the unit are for the 12-volt connections (
Johnson III series).
nia Chassis LTC-464). The Shielded wire is used to the microphone connector and to the gain control.
amplifier section is enclosed
in a modified section of a
3 x 4 x 5- inch Minibox, as
shown in Figs. 19-14 and 19-
15. A 1 /4-
inch strip is re-
moved from the Minibox to
allow it to fit in the cabinet,
and acover of perforated alu-
minum is bolted in place at
the top and rear.
Fig. 19-15 shows the PA
/
8-inch strip of copper,
mounted on a 1- inch long ce-
ramic insulator, that serves as
a support for C7 and a tie-
point for Z1,RFC 1 and the
0.005 -pf. plate-blocking ca-
pacitor.
Referring to Fig. 19-14,
the grid tuning capacitor, C1,
is mounted on a small alu-
minum bracket. The capaci-
tor is insulated from the panel
shaft by a small shaft cou-
pling ( Millen 39001). "Hot"
r.f. leads passing through the
chassis, as the lead from K7B
to C, ( visible in Fig. 19-17),
were made with feed-through
bushings ( National TPB). 11HI
480 MOBILE EQUIPMENT

Fig. 19- 18— Coils used in the transmitter.

Ferrite rod used in coils on lower frequencies
raises inductance and Q without sacrificing

,e(yol
space.

table. Coils and padder capacitor should be se-

Testing lected from the table to suit the band to be used.
The power supply should deliver voltages of Coils L, and L2 can be resonated to the proper
approximately 375 and 180. If any difficulty is frequency with a grid-dip meter, or they can
experienced with lack of oscillation, check the be adjusted for maximum deflection on an ab-
wiring on the primary side of 7' 1 ( Fig. 19-20). sorption wavemeter with S in the Sl'OT po-
2

Recommended crystal frequencies for opera- sition. The amplifier should be resonated in the
tion in the various bands are given in the coil TUNE position with C., at maximum capacitance

and with grid drive applied. The

final can then be loaded in the
err condition to a cathode- cur-
rent condition of 1no to 120 ma.
The grid current should run
about 2 ma.
Under idling conditions the
modulator current should be
about '4 ampere, kicking up on
voice peaks to about 2 amperes.

Fig. 19- 19— Power supply for the 40-

watt mobile transmitter. The two
12-volt leads between the transmitter
and this supply ( in the homemade
4-wire connecting cable) should be
no smaller than No. 14. The home-
made cable is shielded by a length
of 518- inch copper braid ( Belden 8672)
and covered with plastic tubing. Each
end of the braid is connected to the
corresponding chassis through a
spade lug.

T Fig. 19- 20—Circuit diagram of

0 the power supply. Capacitances
are in /J., resistances are in
ohms.

214441
J1—Four-connector chassis
socket ( Cinch-Jones AB
S-304).
250 =-- To—Transistor power trans-
25v
former, 375 v.c.t. at 200
ma., 12-v. input ( Triad
TY-81).
250 V
Plugs on connecting cable
2N441 250 between power supply and
25v
transmitter are Cinch-Jones
CCT P-304 and CCT P-306.
Muting relay in receiver is
s.p.d.t. miniature, 12-v.d.c.
J, 3 4 2 coil ( Potter & Brumfield RS 5D).
65-Watt Transmitter 481

A 65-WATT MOBILE TRANSMITTER

The transmitter shown in Figs. 19-21 through multiplier that works " straight through" when
19-27 is a compact ( 14 inches wide, 11X deep the output frequency is 80 or 40 meters; it
and 31/ inches high) self-contained unit featur-
2 doubles to 40 meters when the output frequency
ing a transistorized modulator and power sup- is 20 or 15 meters, and it quadruples to 20 when
ply. The output stage is a plate-modulated 6883 the output band is 10 meters. A 6417 driver
(12.6-volt heater version of the 6146). When works " straight through" on all bands except
the transmitter is being used the front section 10 meters, when it is operated as a doubler.
drops down, as shown in Fig. 19-21, to reveal The output stage uses a Harrington Electronics
the panel controls. Latches on either side secure GP-50 tank circuit for coupling to the antenna;
the hinged section and prevent its rattling. this prefabricated unit is intended for use with
Referring to the circuit diagram, Fig. 19-24, a link coupling, but in this application a pi-
Nuvistor v.f.o. in the 160- meter band is fol- network circuit is used and the coupling link is
lowed by a 12BA6 stage driven at 80 meters. put to work with agermanium diode in an out-
This in turn is followed by a 12AU6 frequency put- indication circuit. The loading control
drives adual capacitor, and aloading switch, St.,
allows one or two sections of the variable to be
used or for additional fixed capacitors to be
connected.
In the modulator circuit, a two-stage speech
amplifier is used ahead of the 2N242 driver to
bring the carbon-microphone signal to a useful
level. The driver transformer, T1,is actually
a transistor output transformer, but it has the
right ratio to give proper push-pull drive for
the 2N441 modulators. The microphone jack
has provision for a push- to-talk switch on the
microphone; the push-to-talk circuit is used to
control a relay, K1, that doubles as antenna
changeover relay and power switch.
The power supply has two transistors that
oscillate at several hundred c.p.s.; this a.c. is

Fig. 19- 21— The 65-watt mobile transmitter has a

Nuvistor v.f.o., a 6146 output stage and transistors in
the modulator and power supply. In this view the
sheet- metal top and sides have been removed to show
the arrangement of parts. The panel carrying the meter
and switches ( see Fig. 19-23) is recessed in a 31
2 high
/
X 23
/
4 deep by 14- inch box; the box is hinged and
folds up when the transmitter is not in use. Major
chassis is built from /
4 -
1 inch wide by /
2 -
1 inch thick alu-
minum angle and a 9 X 14-inch sheet of aluminum.
A ventilation hole covered with cane metal is partially
visible below the 6146 ( center).
The 6883 socket is mounted on a 2 X 41
2 X 31
/ /4-
inch
miniature chassis ( Bud CB- 1625) that houses the multi-
plier and driver plate coils; see Fig. 19-26. Controls
(upper panel) from left to right are v.f.o, tuning, band. Fig. 19-22—The v.f.o. section is built in the U-shaped
switch ( upper) and driver tune, output loading switch, portion of a 3% X 21
/
2 X 1%- inch Minibox ( Bud
loading, plate tuning and plate bandswitch. Toggle CU-2101-A) mounted on a sheet of aluminum; the other
switch just visible under the plate tuning control is the half of the Minibox serves as the cover. The Nuvistor
on-off switch in the 12-volt line. socket and the oscillator coils are mounted on one side
Controls on the bottom panel, from left to right, are of the Minibox. Jack 11 is mounted on the other side of
gain ( above the microphone jack), tune switch, zero the Minibox and is visible between the two right-hand
switch, and meter switch above the key jack. tube sockets.
482 MOBILE EQUIPMENT
C1-25-igif. variable ( Hammarlund APC-25-B). Lis- Port of Harrington Electronics* GP-50 tank as-
Ce-200-
µ,uf. variable ( Part of Harrington Electronics* sembly.
GP-50 tank assembly). Ps- Phono plug
Ce- Dual variable capacitor, 365 pid. per section Its-One to two feet of heavy ( No. 12 or so) wire,
(Miller 2112). adjusted to give 10-ampere full-scale read-
CR1, CFL-600 p.i.v. 750- ma, silicon rectifier (Sarkes ing. See text.
Tarzian 1N2484). S1-3-pole 5- position rotary switch, two sections. (Made
Ji, Je- Phono jack. from two Centralab PA-3 sections and one
38 - chassis receptacle ( S0-239).
Coaxial PA-301 index assembly).
J.-Three-conductor phone jack. Se-Part of Harrington Electronics GP-50 tank assembly.
Ji-Closed-circuit phone jack. Sa - 10- position single pole, progressively unshorting
Ki-D.p.d.t. antenna relay, 12-volt coil (
Advance AH/ (Centralab PA- 13 section and PA-301 index
C2/12VD). assembly).
L1-40 eh. (Miller 4408, 30 to 69 µh.). S.-S.p.s.t. toggle switch.
Le- 16-24-ph. adjustable inductor (Miller 4507). Ss-Two- pole 6-position (4 used) rotary ceramic, non-
Le- 68- 130-ph, adjustable inductor (Miller 4409). shorting ( Centralab PA-2003).
L.-9- 16-ph, adjustable inductor ( Miller 4506). S8 - 15- ampere 125-volt toggle switch (Cutler-Hammer
1.,,-24-35µ11. adjustable inductor (Miller 4508). 7361 K5).
r.f. choke (Millen 34300-100). TI-48-ohm c.t. to 3. 2 /8 /16-ohm secondary. 3.2-ohm
le -0.9-1.614h. adjustable inductor (Miller 4403). tap used as center tap for secondary.
L.- 1.5-3.241h. adjustable inductor (Miller 4404). (Thordarson TR-61).
1.0-3.1-6.8-ph, adjustable inductor (Miller 4405). Ts-40-watt output transformer, 6-ohm c.t. primary to
L.- 15-3141h. adjustable inductor (Miller 4407). 6000-ohm secondary ( Triad TY-66A).
1.11-68- 130-ph, adjustable inductor (Miller 4409). Te- Toroidal power transformer, 12.6 v. input, 300/600
*Harrington Electronics, Box 189, Topsfield, Mass. v. at 200 ma. output (Triad TY-84).

stepped up through Ta and rectified in a dual When a transistor power supply is over-
circuit that provides 600- and 300- volt outputs. loaded it stops working. This means that under
To eliminate mechanical linkages, two band- normal conditions a transistor power supply
switches are used. One, St,switches a padding would not continue to function if the final
capacitor across the v.f.o. on all hands but 80 amplifier were off resonance, and tuning the
meters ( to restrict the tuning range) and also transmitter would be atouchy cut- and- try proc-
selects the proper coils for the multiplier and ess. To facilitate tune-up, a 500-ohm resistor is
driver plate circuits. The other hand switch, Soi cut into the 6883 cathode circuit when S, is
is part of the pre- fabricated tank circuit. Re- opened. This limits the off- resonance plate cur-
membering to turn two band switches when rent to a low value.
changing bands is no great trick. The cabinet for the transmitter is special and
The meter switch, S ,allows the 0-1 milliam- made from 34-inch- wide aluminum angle and
meter to be used as . a 0-10 milliammeter for 18- gauge ( 0.040) sheet stock. The cover and
measuring grid current and as a0-200 milliam- sides are not shown in any of the illustrations;
meter for measuring cathode current. The re- they are made from one piece of sheet stock
sistance of R1 was beyond the limits of measure- bent in the shape of a shallow U. The transmit-
ment of the lab equipment, but it was adjusted ter is hung under the instrument panel of the
to give a0-10 ampere range to the meter when car by two brackets that make up to the sides of
switched to the MOD position. If the builder the transmitter. Whether or not a ventilation
does not have access to an ammeter in this hole ( covered with cane metal) is placed in the
range, he can guess at the value of R1 and use cover will depend upon whether the car leaks.
anything that holds the meter on scale during The front compartment that drops down is
modulation peaks. also made of sheet stock and angle stock. The

Fig. 19-23- Rear view of the meter panel.

Leads from this unit terminate in the 11.
pin socket, which is mounted on the back
of the housing opposite this panel. A
jumper cable plugs into this socket and
into a similar socket in the bottom of the
major unit.
The first three stages of the speech.
amplifier section are mounted on a plastic
plate ( lower left) next to the gain con-
trol. Transformer T, can be seen at the
center of the panel.
 JaimwsunkL 44om-ç9
1N34A 22K RCVR,-

OS C. BUFFER MULTIPLIER DRIVER AMPLIFIER —005

6CW4 3.
7MC. 12BA6 3.7 „ 12AU 6 14 _7 _3 „c 100 6417 28 35MC 220 6883 6KV

1.75 -186 MC.

1.88-2.0 MC 47 2

ANT.

00K 7
5 2
.01
z 001
.
470
220

001

1000 TUNE
10K
5%

SPOT

REGULATOR
OB2 +380 1000 9100 K
2N44 1s
SPEECH AMP l000 DRIVER
2N1694 GAIN C.K722 2N242 11'.Q
AO N zO D
, O

5 1.0. 100/4,
10
TUNE

270
5 48 10K 100K
M
J4 12AU6
RCVR. 6C W4 12846 6417 6883
MUTE 0 spo+ 56 +600
10 2 3 /I4 • 5 7 2

.01
Si.. POWER SUPPLY
XM TR
2N44I's
.015 47
1000V 2W,
2 +600V.
8
450V
Y4 AMP 100K
8
450V.

100 4
1 AMP. +300V.
2W. ,T 450V.

Fig. 19-26—Circuit diagram of the mobile transmitter. Unless specified otherwise, capacitances are in µµf., decimal CO
values are in µf., resistances are in ohms, resistors are Yj watt. Cs)
484 MOBILE EQUIPMENT
Fig. 19-25—View underneath the v.f.o./multiplier sec-
tion. The plate is supported by four tapped pillars.
12BA6 socket at lower right; sockets on left, from the
MI111 MIM
top, are 6417, OB2 and 12AU6. Phone jack at upper
left receives cable from phono jack at upper right in
Fig. 19-22, carrying output of 6CW4 to 12BA6 grid.

"x" is shown in Fig. 19-24 in each lead that is

run through these plugs and sockets. The 1lth
lead is aground lead, not necessary when every-
éLe N
thing is bolted together but useful during the
testing stage.
Many of the sections of the transmitter can
be tested before their final placement in the unit,
and this will make the initial testing easier. The
power supply can be tested as a unit before
installation, as can the speech amplifier and
driver and modulator. The oscillator can be
tested out of the transmitter, but its final adjust-
ment must be made in the transmitter because
Pi and J must be connected. The high- frequency
range is adjusted first by setting Si to the 80-
meter position and setting C1 at minimum ca-
pacitance. The slug in L, is then set for a fre-
quency of 2.005 Mc. ( 4.010 Mc. if the receiver is
panel of this section makes up to angle stock on tuned to 75 meters). S1 is then switched to an-
the sides; Fig. 19-21 suggests the location of other band and C, is turned to maximum capaci-
these strips by the visible heads of screws on tance. The 25 - piaf. trimmer capacitance should
the right-hand end past the meter. then be set to give an oscillator frequency of
Also not visible in any of the pictures is the 1.745 Mc. ( 3.490 Mc.).
socket that picks up the leads from the dropped The cores of the various inductors are ad-
Panel ( see Fig. 19-23). This socket is located justed for maximum drive in the various bands;
under the two horizontally- mounted power tran- in some cases it may be found advantageous to
sistors at the rear center of the transmitter; the "stagger tune" two stages. In operation, the
socket is an Amplienol 77MIP11 and the mating 6883 is run with agrid current of 3to 4ma. and
cable plug is an Amphenol 86-PM11. A small acathode current of 120 ma.

Fig. 19-26—View into the 6883 socket housing; the

v.f.o. section has been removed. The short length of
Fig. 19-27— Power supply and modulator of the mobile
coaxial cable running from the front section of the
transmitter. The bridge- rectifier diodes, CR , through
switch is terminated in PI.Coils L., L and t, are visible
CR, are mounted on a plastic sheet above the power
between the two switch wafers; the other coils ore the
transformer T, ( left). Modulator transistors are mounted
driver plate-circuit inductors. The driver plate tuning
on vertical plate ( insulated by mica washers). The
capacitor is mounted on a small bracket.
entire section, including the modulation transformer
Planetary drive for the v.f.o. capacitor ( right) is
(right), is supported by tapped pillars.
English and distributed in the U.S. (Arrow Electronics).
Modulators 485

MOBILE MODULATORS
Vacuum-tube modulators for mobile operation that the transistors will not be subjected to ex-
are in general similar to those used in fixed- cessive heat.
station installations. Equipment shown in the There are two main constructional precau-
section on modulators may be modified for use tions to be observed when building a modulator
with almost any mobile transmitter. As in fixed for mobile work. The input circuits should be
stafion work, the mobile modulator must be ca- well-shielded and protected against r.f. pick-up
pable of supplying to the plate-modulated r.f. or audio feedback, and the chassis grounds should
stage sine-wave audio power equal to 50 per cent be arranged to avoid the possibility of introduc-
of the d.c. plate input for 100 per cent modula- ing power-supply noise into the microphone or
tion. low-level audio circuits. The second precaution
For several reasons atransistorized modulator is to locate the audio output transformer far
is the logical choice for mobile work. It will enough away from the audio input circuits to
work directly from the 12-volt car battery, with- insure the complete lack of audio feedback.
out the need for a high-voltage power supply. In any mobile installation, the modulator may
The overall efficiency is high because there is no be separated from the r.f. assembly by any con-
heater power demand, and the small size makes venient distance. The cable connecting the modu-
for a compact design. The major precaution in lator to the r.f. section should be made with in-
using a transistorized modulator is to be sure dividually shielded leads.

A 25- WATT TRANSISTOR MODULATOR

The circuit shown in Fig. 19-28 is that of a Either G.E. 2N190 or RCA 2N109 can be used
complete transistor modulator; it is a 12-volt for the input transistors. Although several other
25-watt Class-B modulator. The advantages of a types could be used for the output transistors,
transistor modulator of this type are the com- the specified 2N278 ( Delco DS-501) should be
pactness ( 25 watts of audio from aunit readily easier to obtain than some since it is sold as a
housed•in a 3 X 4 X 5-inch utility cabinet), replacement- in car-radio service.
high over-all efficiency, no warm-up time and low It is not likely that a0.1-ohm 1-watt resistor
idling current. Further, by requiring only the 12 (see Fig. 19-28) can be purchased at any radio
volts from the battery, it allows full use of the store. A satisfactory substitute is to wind asuit-
high-voltage supply by the r.f. section. The able length of resistance wire over a 2-watt
modulator will modulate an r.f. stage input of resistor used as a form, or three 0.33-ohm
between 45 and 50 watts, at an impedance level A-watt resistors can be wired in parallel to
1

of 4000 ohms with the output transformer listed obtain a value sufficiently close.
(about 450 volts and 110 ma.). Suitable 12-volt
Testing
heater tubes for the modulated output stage
include the 1625 ( similar to 807) and the 6883 After wiring and construction of the unit is
(similar to the 6146). The exciter portion of completed, testing for proper operation can be
the transmitter can be made up of 6417s ( simi- done in several ways. One method is simply to
lar to the 5763) or of 12V6-GTs or 12L6-GTs. connect a 4000-ohm 10-watt resistor across the
Maximum economy will be obtained with a modulation transformer output connections and
transistorized power supply. then place a d.c. ammeter in series with the 12-
For amodulation transformer the unit uses a volt line, and watch the current variation while
6.3-volt filament transformer, T 3 . To obtain a talking into the microphone. The idling current
true center tap for the driver transformer, a should be around 700 ma., kicking up to above 2
transformer having taps at 4 and 16 ohms is amperes on peaks. Do not, under any circum-
used. Since the impedance varies as the square stances, try to operate the unit without aload of
of the turns ratio, the 4-ohm tap provides a some sort on the output terminals as this may
center tap. damage the output transistors.
It may be found necessary to add an input Another method of testing is to place another
filter on the 12-volt line to prevent hash from 6.3-volt filament transformer back-to-back with
getting into the microphone circuit and adding the modulation transformer, to bring the im-
noise. pedance down to a low level, and then connect
a p.m. speaker tci the 6.3-volt winding.
Transistor Mounting A scope test can be made after the unit is
Because the collector connection is comm9n connected to the transmitter. The Class-C load
with the case of the transistor, mica spacers level can be adjusted for impedance matching.
must be used between the transistor cases and An Fl carbon microphone is suitable for use
ground. ( Insulator package No. 1221264). These with this unit. Although not shown in Fig. 19-
can be obtained in a special mounting kit from 28, the unit should be connected so that it is
Delco distributors. turned on only while the transmit- receive switch
Be careful to apply as little heat as possible is in the transmit position. An inexpensive 12-
when soldering any transistor connections. volt automobile-horn relay ( e.g., Echlin HR
486 MOBILE EQUIPMENT

TO CLASS C
LOAD

+ HV.

Fig. 19-28— Circuit of the 25-watt transistor modulator. Resistances are in ohms. Capacitors are electrolytic.

MK—Single- button carbon microphone. T2-400 ohms c.t. to 16 ohms, c.t. ( see text), Stancor
Qi, C1,- 2N190 ( GE) or 2N109 ( RCA). TA-41).
Q,- 2N278 ( Delco DS-501). 1
.8-15.3-volt ci., 3-amp, filament transformer used as
Ri- 100- ohm 2-watt potentiometer. modulation transformer (
see text) ( Stancor
T1-150 ohms c.t. ( c.t. not used) to 490 ohms c.t. (Thor- P-5014). 5-volt c.t. 3-amp. transformer for
darson TR-5). 6500- ohm load.

101), available at most filling stations or auto- convenient place to mount the unit but this space
mobile parts distributors, should be used to close is not adequately ventilated except possibly
and open the circuit. The relay arm and contact while the car is in motion. The most favorable
should be connected in the -I-12.6-volt lead from spot is on the fire wall in the passenger com-
the battery and fuse. If excessive sparking is partment, or under the front seat. These areas
noted at the relay contacts it may be reduced by are usually well ventilated, or at least cooler
moving the 50-µf. 25- volt capacitor to the fuse than any other enclosed section of the car. As in
side of the relay contacting circuit. any mobile installation where the modulator is
Concerning placement of the unit in the car: some distance from the r.f. section, good practice
Try to find alocation away from high- tempera- demands that the audio leads from the secondary
ture spots and in a well-ventilated area. The of the modulation transformer to the modulated
trunk is not recommended since there is little r.f. stage should be made with individually-
ventilation; this area can become quite hot in shielded leads.
the summertime and damage to the transistors (Original description appeared in QST for
could result. The engine compartment makes a November, 1959.)

THE MOBILE ANTENNA

For mobile operation in the range between 1.8
and 30 Mc., the vertical whip antenna is almost
universally used. Since longer whips present
mechanical difficulties, the length is usually lim- Fig. 19-29—The quarterwave
fA
ited to a dimension that will resonate as a whip at resonance will show
quarter- wave antenna in the 10-meter band. The a pure resistance at the
car body serves as the ground connection. This feed point X.
antenna length is approximately 8feet.
With the whip length adjusted to resonance in
the 10- meter band, the impedance at the feed
point, X, Fig. 19-29, will appear as a pure re-
sistance at the resonant frequency. This resist-
ance will be composed almost entirely of radia- capacitance, Ce, may range from about 150 ohms
tion resistance ( see index), and the efficiency at 21 Mc. to as high as 8000 ohms at 1.8 Mc.,
will be high. However, at frequencies lower while the radiation resistance, R., varies from
than the resonant frequency, the antenna will about 15 ohms at 21 Mc. to as low as 0.1 ohm at
show an increasingly large capacitive reactance 1.8 Mc. Since the resistance is low, considerable
and a decreasingly small radiation resistance. current must flow in the circuit if any appreciable
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 19-30. power is to be dissipated as radiation in the re-
For the average 8- ft. whip, the reactance of the sistance. Yet it is apparent that little current
Mobile Antennas 487
can be made to flow in the circuit so long as the Fig. 19-32 shows the circuit including all of
comparatively high series reactance remains. the elements mentioned above. Assuming CA
lossless and the loss resistance of the coil to be
represented by Rc, it is seen that the power out-
put of the transmitter is divided among three
resistances—Re, the coil resistance; Ro, the
ground- loss resistance; and RR, the radiation re-
sistance. Only the power dissipated in RR is
radiated. The power developed in Ro and Ro is
Fig. 19- 30— At frequencies below the resonant fre- dissipated in heat. Therefore, it is important that
quency, the whip antenna will show capacitive react- the latter two resistances be minimized.
ance as well as resistance. Rn is the radiation resist-
ance, and Ct represents the capacitive reactance. MINIMIZING LOSSES
There is little that can be done about the
nature of the soil. However, poor electrical con-
Eliminating Reactance
tact between large surfaces of the car body, and
The capacitive reactance can be canceled out especially between the point where the feed line
by connecting an equivalent inductive reactance, is grounded and the rest of the body, can add
LL, in series, as shown in Fig. 19-31, thus tuning materially to the ground- loss resistance. For
the system to resonance. example, the feed line, which should be grounded
as close to the base of the antenna as possible,
may be connected to the bumper, while the
Fig. 19-31 — The capacitive bumper may have poor contact with the rest of
reactance at frequencies the body because of rust or paint.
lower than the resonant fre-
Loading Coils
quency of the whip can be
canceled out by adding an The accompanying tables show the approxi-
equivalent inductive react- mate loading-coil inductance required for the
ance in the form of a loading
coil in series with the
antenna.
eDia.

CD.
Unfortunately, all coils have resistance, and
this resistance will be added in series, as indi-
cated at Re in Fig. 19-32. While alarge coil may Ph&

' 10 LS 20 23 30 IS 40 AS SO SI

ANTENNA CAPACITANCE
Fig. 19-32— Equivalent circuit of a loaded whip an-
tenna. CA represents the capacitive reactance of the Fig. 19-33—Graph showing the approximate capaci-
antenna, 1.1. an equivalent inductive reactance. Ro is tance of short vertical antennas for various diameters
the loading-coil resistance, lip the ground- loss resist- and lengths, at 3.9 Mc. These values should be ap-
ance, and Ra the radiation resistance. proximately halved for a center-loaded antenna.

radiate some energy, thus adding to the radiation various bands. The graph of Fig. 19-33 shows
resistance, the latter will usually be negligible the approximate capacitance of whip antennas of
compared to the loss resistance introduced. How- various average diameters and lengths. For 1.8,
ever, adding the coil makes it possible to feed 4and 7Mc., the loading-coil inductance required
power to the circuit. (when the loading coil is at the base) will be ap-
proximately the inductance required to resonate
Ground Loss in the desired band with the whip capacitance
Another element in the circuit dissipating taken from the graph. For 14 and 21 Mc., this
power is the ground- loss resistance. Fundamen- rough calculation will give more than the re-
tally, this is related to the nature of the soil in quired inductance, but it will serve as a starting
the area under the antenna. Little information point for final experimental adjustment that
is available on the values of resistance to be must always be made.
expected in practice, but some measurements Also shown in table 19-I are approximate
have shown that it may amount to as much as values of radiation resistance to be expected
10 or 12 ohms at 4 Mc. At the lower frequencies, with an 8- ft. whip, and the resistances of loading
it may constitute the major resistance in the coils — one group having a Q of 50, the other
circuit. a Q of 300. A comparison of radiation and coil
 488 MOBILE EQUIPMENT
TABLE 19-1

Approximate Values for 8-ft. Mobile Whip

Base Loading

Loading Re ( Q50) Re ( Q300) R, Feed R" Matching

he. Liu,. Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms Lab .

1800 345 77 13 0.1 23 3

3800 77 37 6.1 0.35 16 1.2

7200 20 18 3 1.35 15 0.6

14,200 4.5 7.7 1.3 5.7 12 0.28

21,250 1.25 3.4 0.5 14.8 16 0.28

29,000 • • • • .... .... .... 36 0.23

Center Loading

1800 700 158 23 0.2 34 3.7

3800 150 72 12 0.8 22 1.4

, 7200 40 36 6 3 19 0.7

14,200 8.6 15 2.5 11 19 0.35

21,250 2.5 6.6 1.1 27 29 0.29

Re .= Loading-coil resistance; Ra = Radiation resistance.

*Assuming loading coil Q = 300, and including estimated ground-loss
resistance.
Suggested coil dimensions for the required loading inductances are shown
in a following table.

resistances will show the importance of reducing ance.) However, the inductance of the loading
the coil resistance to a minimum, especially on coil must be approximately doubled over the
the three lower- frequency bands. value required at the base to tune the system to
To minimize loading-coil loss, the coil should resonance. For a coil of the same Q, the coil
have a high ratio of reactance to resistance, i.e., resistance will also be doubled. But, even if this
high Q. A 4- Mc, loading coil wound with small
wire on asmall-diameter solid form of poor qual-
ity, and enclosed in a metal protector, may have TABLE 19-11
aQ as low as 50, with aresistance of 50 ohms or
more. High- Q coils require a large conductor,
Suggested Loading- Coil Dimensions
"air-wound" construction, turns spaced, the
best insulating material available, a diameter Reg'd Wire Diam. Length Form or
Turns
not less than half the length of the coil ( not Len. Size In. In. B c5r W Type
always mechanically feasible), and a minimum 700 190 22 3 10 Polystyrene
of metal in the field. Such a coil for 4 Mc. may
345 135 18 3 10 Polystyrene
show a Q of 300 or more, with a resistance of
12 ohms or less. This reduction in loading-coil 150 100 16 23
/
4 10 Polystyrene
resistance may be equivalent to increasing the 77 75 14 23
/
4 10 Polystyrene
transmitter power by 3 times or more. Most 77 29 12 5 4/4
3 160T
low- loss transmitter plug-in coils of the 100- 40 28 16 23
/
4 2 80B less 7t.
watt size or larger, commercially produced, show 40 34 12 2.A 43
/
4 80T
a Q of this order. Where larger inductance 20 17 16 2/
4
3 1/
4
3 80B less 18 t.
values are required, lengths of low-loss space- 20 22 12 21/2 23
/
4 80T less 12 t.
wound coils are available. 8.6 16 14 2 2 40B less 4t.
8.6 15 12 2/
4
3 3 40T less 5 t.
Center Loading
4.5 10 14 2 1/
4
3 40B less 10 t.
The radiation resistance of the whip can be 4.5 12 12 23
/
4 4 40T
approximately doubled by placing the loading
2.5 8 12 2 2 15B
coil at the center of the whip, rather than at the 2.5 8 6 2/
4
3 4/
4
3 15T
base, as shown in Fig. 19-34. ( The optimum
1.25 6 12 1/
4
3 2 10B
position varies with ground resistance. The 1.25 6 6 23
41
/ 454 10T
center is optimum for average ground resist-
Mobile Antennas 489

Fig. 19-34— Placing the load-

ing coil at the center of the
whip antenna, instead of at
the base, increases the radia-
tion resistance, although a
larger coil must be used.

is the case, center loading represents a gain in

antenna efficiency, especially at the lower fre-
quencies. This is because the ground-loss re-
sistance remains the same, and the increased
radiation resistance becomes a larger portion of
the total circuit resistance, even though the coil
resistance also increases. However, as turns are
added to a loading coil ( other factors being
equal) the inductance ( and therefore the react- Fig. 19-35— The top- loaded 4-Mc, antenna designed by

ance) increases at a greater rate than the re- W6SCX. The loading coil is o B & W transmitting coil.
sistance, and the larger coil will usually have a The coil can be tuned by the variable link which is

higher Q. connected in series with the two halves of the coil.

Top Loading Capacitance

Since the coil resistance varies with the induct- cylinder, disk, or wheel structure as shown in
ance of the loading coil, the coil resistance can Fig. 19-35. This should be added to the capaci-
be reduced by reducing the number of turns. tance of the whip above the loading coil ( from
This can be done, while still maintaining reso- Fig. 19-33) in determining the approximate in-
nance, by adding capacitance to the portion of ductance of the loading coil.
the antenna above the coil. This capacitance can When center loading is used, the amount of
be provided by attaching a capacitive surface capacitance to be added to permit the use of the
as high up on the antenna as is mechanically same loading inductance required for base load-
feasible. Capacitive "hats," as they are usually ing is not great, and should be seriously con-
called, may consist of a light-weight metal ball, sidered, since the total gain made by moving the
coil to the center of the antenna may be quite
marked.
Tuning the Band
Especially at the lower frequencies, where the
resistance in the circuit is low compared to the
coil reactance, the antenna will represent a very
high- Q circuit, making it necessary to retune for
relatively small changes in frequency. While
many methods have been devised for tuning the
whip over aband, one of the simplest is shown in
Fig. 19-36. In this case, a standard B & W
plug-in coil is used as the loading coil. A length
of large-diameter polystyrene rod is drilled and
tapped to fit between the upper and lower sec-
tions of the antenna. The assembly also serves
to clamp a pair of metal brackets on each side

Fig. 19-36—W8AUN's adjustable capacity hat for tun-

ing the whip antenna over a band. The coil is a B & W
type B 160- meter coil, with a turn or two removed.
Spreading the rods apart increases the capacitance.
This simple top loader has sufficient capacitance to
permit the use of approximately the same loading-coil
inductance at the center of the antenna as would
normally be required for base loading.
Low-Pass Filters 565

(A)

(B)

Fig. 23-21—An inexpensive low-pass filter using silver.

mica postage-stamp capacitors. The box is a2by 4by
(C) 6aluminum chassis. Aluminum shields, bent and folded
at the sides and bottom for fastening to the chassis,
form shields between the filter sections. The diagonal
arrangement of the shields provides extra room for
Fig. 23-20— Right ( B) and wrong (A and C) ways to the coils and makes it easier to fit the shields in the
connect a coaxial line to the transmitter. In A or C, box, since bending to exact dimensions is not essential.
harmonic energy coupled by stray capacitance to the The bottom plate, made from sheet aluminum, extends
outside of the cable will flow without hindrance to the a half inch beyond the ends of the chassis and is pro-
antenna system. In B the energy cannot leave the vided with mounting holes in the extensions. It is held
shield and can flow out only through, not over, the on the chassis with sheet-metal screws.
cable.
L and C values. Technically, they are three- sec-
tetina if harmonic currents can flow over the out- tion filters having two full constant- k sections
side of the coax line. In Fig. 23-20, the arrange- and two m-derived terminating half- sections,
ment at either A or C will allow r.f. to flow and their attenuation in the 54-88-Mc. range
over the outside of the cable to the antenna varies from over 50 to nearly 70 db., depending
system. The proper way to use coaxial cable is on the frequency and the particular set of values
used. At high frequencies the ultimate attenua-
to shield the transmitter completely, as shown at
B, and make sure that the outer conductor of tion will depend somewhat on internal resonant
the cable is a continuation of the transmitter conditions associated with component lead
lengths. These leads should be kept as short as
shielding. This prevents r.f. inside the transmit-
ter from getting out by any path except the possible.
inside of the cable. Harmonics flowing through The power that filters using mica capacitors
acoax line can be stopped by an antenna coupler can handle safely is determined by the voltage
or low-pass filter installed in the line. and current limitations of the capacitors. The
power capacity is least at the highest frequency.
Low- Pass Filters The unit using postage- stamp silver mica ca-
pacitors is capable of handling approximately 50
A low-pass filter properly installed in acoaxial
line, feeding either amatching circuit ( antenna watts in the 28- Mc. band, when working into a
coupler) or feeding the antenna directly, will properly-matched line, but is good for about 150
provide very great attenuation of harmonics. watts at 21 Mc. and 300 watts at 14 Mc. and
When the main transmission line is of the par- lower frequencies. A filter with larger mica
allel- conductor type, the coax-coupled match- capacitors ( case type CM-45) will carry about
ing- circuit arrangement is highly recommended 250 watts safely at 21 Mc., this rating increasing
as ameans for using acoax low-pass filter. to 500 watts at 21 Mc. and a kilowatt at 14
A low-pass filter will transmit power at the .Mc. and lower. If there is an appreciable mis-
fundamental frequency without appreciable loss match between the filter and the line into which
if the line in which it is inserted is properly it works, these ratings will be considerably de-
terminated ( has a low s.w.r.). At the same time creased, so in order to avoid capacitor failure
it has large attenuation for all frequencies above it is highly essential that the line on the output
the "cut-off" frequency. side of the filter be carefully matched.
Low-pass filters of simple and inexpensive con- The power capacity of these filters can be in-
struction for use with transmitters operating be- creased considerably by substituting r.f. type
low 30 Mc. are shown in Figs. 23-21 and 23-23. fixed capacitors ( such as the Centralab 850
The former is designed to use mica capacitors series) or variable air capacitors, in which event
of readily available capacitance values, for com- the power capability will be such as to handle
pactness and low cost. Both use the sanie cir- the maximum amateur power on any band. The
cuit, Fig. 23-22, the only difference being in the construction can be modified to accommodate
566 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES

Fig. 23-22— Low-pass filter circuit. .

1, and .
13 are chassis.
type coaxial connectors. In the table below the letters
refer to the following:

A— Using 100- and 70-µµf. 500- volt silver mica capaci-

tors in parallel for C, and C3.

B— Using 70- and 50-µµf. silver mica capacitors in

Fig. 23- 23— Low-pass filter using variable air capacitors.
parallel for C.: and Ca.
The box is a 2 by 5 by 7 aluminum chassis, fitted with a
C— Using 100. and 50-Auf. mica capacitors, 1200-volt
bottom plate of similar construction to the one used in
(case- style CM- 45) in parallel for C, and C.,.
Fig. 23-21.
D and E— Using variable air capacitors, 500- to 1000.
volt rating, adjusted to values given. and adjust La to resonate at the frequency f 1 as

given by the table. Then remove La, install

L 2 and L, and adjust L 2 to make the cir-
A B C D E cuit formed by L 1,L2,C1 and C2 (without the
Zo 52 75 52 52 75 ohms
short across / 1) resonate at f 2 as given in the

lc 36 35.5 41 40 '40 Mc. table. Do the same with L4 for the circuit formed
f
oo 44.4 47 54 50 50 Mc. by L4,L5,C, and C4.Then replace L. 5 and check
25.5 25.2 29 28.3 28.3 Mc. with the grid- dip meter at any coil in the filter;
32.5 31.8 37.5 36.1 36.1 Mc. a distinct resonance should be found at or very
(,.C 4 50 40 50 46 32 44f. close to the cut-off frequency, f e.
(•,,C, 170 120 150 154 106 44f.
The filter constants suggested at D and E in
L. 52 6 4 5 6/12 turns.
8 11 7 7 9V2 turno*
Fig. 23-22 are based on the optimum design for
9 13 8 8 Va 11V2 turns* good impedance characteristics—that is, with
m = 0.6 in the end sections—and a cut-off fre-
quency below the standard i.f. for television re-
*No. 12 or No. 14 wire, /
2 -
1 inch inside diameter, 8 ceivers ( sound carrier at 41.25 Mc.; picture car-
turns per inch. rier at 45.75 Mc.). This is to avoid possible har-
monic interference from 21 Mc. and below to the
variable air capacitors as shown in Fig. 23-23. receiver's intermediate amplifier. The other de-
Using fixed capacitors of standard tolerances, signs similarly cut off at 41 Mc. or below, but m
there should be little difficulty in getting proper in these cases is necessarily based on the capaci-
filter operation. A grid-dip meter with an accu- tances available in standard fixed capacitors.
rate calibration should be used for adjustment of
the coils. First, wire up the filter without L2 and Filters for 50- and 144-Mc. Transmitters
1. 4.Short-circuit Ji at its inside end with ascrew- Since a low-pass filter must have acut-off fre-
driver or similar conductor, couple the grid-dip quency above the frequency on which the trans-
meter to L, and adjust the inductance of LI,by mitter operates, a filter for a v.h.f. transmitter
varying the turn spacing, until the circuit reson- cannot be designed for attenuation in all tele-
ates at fa as given in the table. Do the same thing vision channels. This is no handicap for v.h.f.
at the other end of the filter with L5.Then couple work but means that the filter will not be effec-
the meter to the circuit formed by L3,C2 and Ca, tive when used with lower- frequency transmit-

Fig. 23- 24— Low-pass filter for use with 50-Mc, transmitters at powers up to about 300 watts. The housing is a
2U- inches square by 5-inches long Minibox. Connections between the various sections of the filter are made
through 5/16- inch clearance holes cut in the centers of the shielding partitions.
 492 MOBILE EQUIPMENT
head screws that hold the plates to the inserts it must be tuned on- the- nose, or it will not work
are equipped with lock washers. The holes for properly. The only reliable method for adjusting
mounting the ceramic cone spacer are drilled di- a halo is to use a standing- wave bridge, making
rectly below the center, midway between the tuning and matching adjustments for minimum
center and the edge of the capacitor plates. reflected power. Using afield-strength meter and
The halo is set into a slot cut in the vertical attempting to adjust for maximum radiated
support. This slot should be just big enough to power can give confusing indications, and is
permit the halo to be forced into it. The halo almost certain to result in something less than
has to be stiffened, so cut it at the center and maximum effectiveness.
insert about 2 inches of aluminum rod, again The adjustment process with this design can
turned down on a lathe to fit tightly inside the be simplified if the halo is first resonated ap-
tubing. The two pieces of tubing are then pushed proximately to the desired frequency ranges with
together, over the insert, and drilled each side of the aid of agrid-dip meter. Set the clip at about
center to pass 6-32 screws. The halo and insert one inch in from the end of the arm, and the
are also drilled at the midpoint, to pass the series capacitor at the middle of its range. Check
mounting screw. This is an 8-32 screw, 1/ 2
1 the resonant frequency of the loop with the grid-
inches long. If lathe facilities are not available, dip meter, with the arinch spacer between the
the mounting of the capacitor plates and the capacitor plates. It should be close to 50 Mc. If
securing of the halo to the vertical support can the frequency is too low, trimming the corners
be handled with angle brackets. of the plates or putting shims under the ceramic
Mechanical stability is important so straps spacer will raise it somewhat. If the frequency
of aluminum 1 /2 inch wide are wrapped around is too high already, make new and slightly
the halo either side of the mounting post. These larger capacitor plates.
are bent at right angles and the ends pulled Next, insert an s.w.r. bridge between the an-
together with a bolt. tenna and the transmission line. Apply power
The matching arm is 14 , /2 inches long, of the and swing the capacitor through its range, not-
same material as the halo itself. It is mounted ing whether there is a dip in reflected power at
below the halo on two 34- inch cone standoffs. any point. If the reflected power will not drop
For convenience in detaching the feed line a to zero, slide the clip along the gamma arm and
coaxial fitting is mounted on an L bracket bolted retune the capacitor, until the lowest reading
to the vertical support. The stator bar of the possible is obtained. If this is still not zero, the
25-gpf. variable capacitor ( Johnson 167-2) is halo is not resonant. If the halo capacitance is
soldered directly to the coaxial fitting. The rotor on the low side, moving the hands near the
of the capacitor is connected to the gamma arm plates will cause the reflected power to drop.
through apiece of stiff wire. For further stiffen- Closer spacing of the plates, larger plates or a
ing an aluminum angle bracket is screwed to the longer halo loop are possible solutions.
lower mounting stud of the capacitor and the These adjustments should be made on a fre-
other end mounted under the screw that holds quency near the middle of the range you expect
the first cone standoff in place. Contact between to use. Adjusting for optimum at 50.25 Mc., for
the arm and the halo proper is made through a example, will result in usable operation over the
strap of 1/-
2 inch wide aluminum bent to form a first 500 kc. of the band, and a good match ( be-
sliding clip. Be sure that aclean tight contact is low 1.5 to 1) from 50.1 to 50.4. The s.w.r. will
made between the tubing and the clip, as high rise rapidly either side of this range.
current flows at this point. A poor or varying To tune up on 144 Mc., insert the 1 /-
2 inch cone
contact will ruin the effectiveness of the antenna. between the capacitor plates. Slide the clip back
on the gamma arm about 3to 4inches and repeat
Adjustment
the adjustment for minimum reflected power,
The capacity- loaded halo is ahigh- Q device so using afrequency at the middle of a2- Mc. range.

Fig. 19- 40-- The 2- band halo as it

appears when set up for 50- Mc.
operation. Changing to 144 Mc. in-
volves decreasing the plate spacing
by swapping cone insulators, and
resetting the gamma- matching clip
and series capacitor.
Field- Strength Meter 493
Tuning up at 145 Mc., for example, will give
Bibliography
quite satisfactory operation from the low end to
Swafford, " Improved Coax Feed for Low-Frequency
146 Mc., the halo being much broader in fre-
Mobile Antennas," QST, December, 1951.
quency response when it is operated on its third Roberge McConnell, " Let's Go High Hatt," QST, Janu-
harmonic. In this model the series capacitor in ary, 1952.
the gamma arm was at about the middle of its Belrose, " Short Antennas for Mobile Operation," QST,
September, 1953.
range for 50 Mc., and near minimum for 144 Dinsmore, " The ' Hot-Rod' Mobile Antenna," QST, Sep-
Mc. Slight differences in mechanical construction tember, 1953.
may change the value of capacitance required, Picken 8r Wambsganss, " Remote Mobile-Antenna Reso-
nating," QST. December. 1953.
so these settings should not be taken as im-
Webster, " Mobile Loop Antennas," QST, June, 1954.
portant. Tilton, " Have you Tried V.H.F. Mobile?" QST, Sep-
The photograph, Fig. 19-40, shows a method tember, 1954.
used to avoid running the chance that the sec- Hargrave, " Automatic Mobile Antenna Tuning," QST,
May, 1955.
ond ceramic cone would be missing when aband Morgan, " Tuning the Mobile Antenna from the Driver's
change was to be made. The head was cut from Seat," QST, October, 1955.
a 6-32 screw, leaving a threaded stud about / 12 Braschwitz, " Directional Antenna for the Transmitter
inch long. This is screwed into one of the ceramic Hunter," QST, April, 1956.
Tilton, " Polarization Effects in V.H.F. Mobile," QST,
cones. The other cone then serves as a nut, to December, 1956.
tighten down the capacitor plate. In changing Breetz, " A Simple Halo for 2- Meter Mobile Use," QST,
bands merely swap cones. ( Original description August, 1957.
Harris, " Continuously Loaded Whip Antennas," QST,
appeared in QST, Sept., 1958.) May, 1958.
Commercial versions of the one- and two-band Mellen and Milner, " Big Wheel on Two," QST, Sept.,
halo antennas are available. 1961. Also " Big Wheel Performance Tests," QST,
Oct., 1961.

A FIELD- STRENGTH METER FOR PORTABLE-MOBILE USE

The field- strength meter of Figs. 19-41 through
19-43 can be used in a mobile station as an
antenna- resonance indicator or as a continuous
output indicator showing that the transmitting
system is actually radiating. It is designed to be
inserted between the automobile broadcast re-
ceiving antenna, which acts as the r.f. pick-up,
and the broadcast receiver. Small magnets or

Fig. 19-43— Inside view of the meter. The back plate

shown in the photograph is used as acover for the box.

rubber suction cups on the back plate will hold

the meter securely on top of the car dash. Al-
though in this position the meter will be face
up in most cases, it can nevertheless usually be
Fig. 19-41—A front view of the field- strength meter. read from the driver position.
Sensitivity control R, is to the right of the 0-1 indicat-
ing meter. Antenna input and ouput connectors are s>,
c

mounted on the right end of the box. I

Fig. 19-42— Circuit of the field-strength meter.

CR. — Crystal diode ( 1N34A).
J.— Automobile type antenna connectors. I
000mul.

RFC,- 2.5 mh. r.f. choke.

12,-500 ohm potentiometer ( Mallory U-2).
S..—S.p.d.t. switch for above potentiometer.
 494 MOBILE EQUIPMENT
A handle can be mounted on the meter box so chassis. If asmaller meter is used, the box could
that the meter can easily be carried about for be reduced in size accordingly. However, in mo-
portable measurements. The same basic layout bile operation a large meter is more convenient
less the handle can be used if the box is to be to read while in motion. An illuminated meter
mounted under the dash or in the glove com- could be substituted for the one shown in the
partment. photograph for use at night. A switch, S1,is
The circuit for the field- strength meter is used in the circuit to switch the antenna to
shown in Fig. 19-42. The values shown are not the field- strength meter position or straight
critical. Nearly any type of crystal detector can through to the broadcast set. For portable or
be used and the meter movement can be any- temporary mobile operation, a short pick-up
thing from 100 pa. to 2 ma. or more, depending wire can be used instead of the automobile re-
upon the size and placement of the antenna and ceiving antenna. The pick-up antenna lead comes
the power output of the transmitter. All com- into aconnector mounted on one end of the box.
ponents, including the 3- inch indicating meter, There is a second connector for attaching the
are housed in a 2 X 6 x 4-inch aluminum lead to the broadcast receiver.

MOBILE POWER SUPPLY

By far the majority of amateur mobile in- Converter units, both in the vibrator and
stallations depend upon the car storage battery rotating types, are also available. These operate
as the source of power. The tube types used in at 6 or 12 volts d.c. and deliver 115 volts a.c.
equipment are chosen so that the filaments or This permits operating standard a.c.-powered
heaters may be operated directly from the equipment in the car. Although these systems
battery. High voltage may be obtained from have the advantage of flexibility, they are less
a supply of the vibrator-transformer- rectifier efficient than the previously mentioned systems
type, a small motor generator or a transistor- because of the additional losses introduced by
transformer- rectifier system operating from the the transformers used in the equipment.
car battery.
Filaments Mobile Power Considerations
Because tubes with directly heated cathodes Since the car storage battery is a low- voltage
(filament-type tubes) have the advantage that source, this means that the current drawn
they can be turned off during receiving periods from the battery for even a moderate amount
and thereby reduce the average load on the of power will be large. Therefore, it is impor-
battery, they are preferred by some for trans- tant that the resistance of the battery circuit
mitter applications. However, the choice of be held to a minimum by the use of heavy con-
types with direct heating is limited and the ductors and good solid connections. A heavy-
saving may not always be as great as antici- duty relay should be used in the line between the
pated, because directly heated tubes may re- battery and the plate-power unit. An ordinary
quire greater filament power than those of toggle switch, located in any convenient position,
equivalent rating with indirectly heated cath- may then be used for the power control. A
odes. In most cases, the power required for second relay may sometimes be advisable for
transmitter filaments will be quite small com- switching the filaments. If the power unit must
pared to the total power consumed. be located at some distance from the battery
Plate Power (in the trunk, for instance) the 6- or 12-volt
cable should be of the heavy military type.
Under steady running conditions, the vibra-
A complete mobile installation may draw
tor-transformer- rectifier system and the motor- 30 to 40 amperes or more from the 6- volt bat-
generator-type plate supply operate with ap- tery or better than 20 amperes from a 12-volt
proximately the same efficiency. However, for
battery. This requires a considerably increased
the same power, the motor-generator's over-all
demand from the car's battery-charging gen-
efficiency may be somewhat lower because it erator. The voltage-regulator systems on cars
draws a heavier starting current. On the other of recent years will take care of a moderate
hand, the output of the generator requires less increase in demand if the car is driven fair dis-
filtering and sometimes trouble is experienced
tances regularly at a speed great enough to
in eliminating interference from the vibrator. insure maximum charging rate. However, if
Transistor-transformer-rectifier plate supplies much of the driving is in urban areas at slow
currently available operate with an efficiency of speed, or at night, it may be necessary to
approximately 80 per cent. These compact, light-
modify the charging system. Special commu-
weight supplies use no moving parts ( vibrator nications- type generators, such as those used
or armature) or vacuum tubes, and draw no in police-car installations, are designed to
starting surge current. Most transistorized sup- charge at a high rate at slow engine speeds.
plies are designed to operate at 12 volts d.c. The charging rate of the standard system can
and some units deliver 125 watts or more. be increased within limits by tightening up
Power Supply 495
slightly on the voltage- regulator and current- current is avoided, but the cost of such a system
regulator springs. This should be done with cau- is rather high.
tion, however, checking for excessive generator Some mobile operators prefer to use a sep-
temperature or abnormal sparking at the com- arate battery for the radio equipment. Such a
mutator. The average 6-volt car generator has a system can be arranged with a switch that cuts
rating of 35 amperes, but it may be possible to the auxiliary battery in parallel with the car
adjust the regulator so that the generator will at battery for charging at times when the car
least hold even with the transmitter, receiver, battery is lightly loaded. The auxiliary battery
lights, etc., all operating at the same time. can also be charged at home when not in use.
If higher transmitter power is used, it may A tip: many mobile operators make a habit
be necessary to install an a.c. charging system. of carrying a pair of heavy cables five or six
In this system, the generator delivers a.c. and feet long, fittted with clips to make a connec-
works into a rectifier. A charging rate of 75 tion to the battery of another car in case the
amperes is easily obtained. Commutator trouble operator's battery has been allowed to run too
often experienced with d.c. generators at high far down for starting.

THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY

The success of any mobile installation depends A battery should not be left in a discharged
to a large extent upon intelligent use and main- condition for any appreciable length Cif time.
tenance of the car's battery. This is especially important in low temperatures
The storage battery is made up of units con- when there is danger of the electrolyte freezing
sisting of a pair of coated lead plates immersed and ruining the battery. A battery discharged to
in a solution of sulphuric acid and water. Cells, an s.g. of 1.100 will start to freeze at about 20
each of which delivers about 2 volts, can be degrees F., at about 5 degrees when the s.g. is
1.150 and at 16 below when the s.g. is 1.200.
connected in series to obtain the desired battery
voltage. A 6-volt battery therefore has three If a battery has been run down to the point
cells, and a 12- volt battery has 6 cells. The where it is nearly discharged, it can usually be
average stock car battery has a rated capacity fast-charged at a battery station. Fast-charging
of 600 to 800 watt-hours, regardless of whether rates may be as high as 80 to 100 amperes for a
it is a 6-volt or 12-volt battery. 6-volt battery. Any 6-volt battery that will ac-
cept acharge of 75 amperes at 7.75 volts during
Specific Gravity and the Hydrometer the first 3 minutes of charging, or any 12- volt
As power is drawn from the battery, the acid battery that will accept a charge of 40 to 45
content of the electrolyte is reduced. The acid amperes at 15.5 volts, may be safely fast-charged
content is restored to the electrolyte ( meaning up to the point where the gassing becomes so
that the battery is recharged) by passing a excessive that electrolyte is lost or the tempera-
current through the battery in a direction op- ture rises above 125 degrees.
posite to the direction of the discharge current. A normal battery showing an s.g. of 1.150
Since the acid content of the electrolyte varies or less may be fast- charged for 1 hour. One
with the charge and discharge of the battery, it showing an s.g. of 1.150 to 1.175 may be fast-
is possible to determine the state of charge by charged for 45 minutes. If the s.g. is 1.175
measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte. to 1.200, fast-charging should be limited to 30
An inexpensive device for checking the s.g. is minutes.
Care of the Battery
the hydrometer which can be obtained at any
The battery terminals and mounting frame
automobile supply store. In checking the s.g.,
enough electrolyte is drawn out of the cell and should be kept free from corrosion. Any corro-
into the hydrometer so that the calibrated bulb sive accumulation may be removed by the use of
floats freely without leaning against the wall of water to which some household ammonia or
baking soda has been added, and a stiff-bristle
the glass tube.
While the readings will vary slightly with bat- brush. Care should be taken to prevent any of
the corrosive material from falling into the cells.
teries of different manufacture, a reading of
1.275 should indicate full charge or nearly full Cell caps should be rinsed out in the same solu-
charge, while a reading below 1.150 should tion to keep the vent holes free from obstructing
indicate a battery that is close to the discharge dirt. Battery terminals and their cable clamps
point. More specific values can be obtained from should be polished bright with a wire brush, and
the car or battery dealer. coated with mineral grease.
Readings taken immediately after adding The hold-down clamps and the battery holder
water, or shortly after aheavy discharge period should be checked occasionally to make sure that
will not be reliable, because the electrolyte will they are tight so the battery will not be damaged
not be uniform throughout the cell. Charging by pounding when the car is in motion.
will speed up the equalizing, and some mixing Voltage Checks
can be done by using the hydrometer to with-
draw and return some of the electrolyte to the Although the readings of s.g. are quite reliable
as a measure of the state of charge of a normal
cell several times.
 496 MOBILE EQUIPMENT
battery, the necessity for frequent use of the tributor wire out to prevent the motor starting.
hydrometer is an inconvenience and will not
always serve as aconclusive check on adefective Electrolyte Level
battery. Cells may show normal or almost normal Water is evaporated from the electrolyte, but
s.g. and yet have high internal resistance that the acid is not. Therefore water must be added
ruins the usefulness of the battery under load. to each cell from time to time so that the plates
When all cells show satisfactory s.g. readings are always completely covered. The level should
and yet the battery output is low, service stations be checked at least once per week, especially
check each cell by an instrument that measures during hot weather and constant operation.
the voltage of each cell under a heavy load. Distilled water is preferred for replenishing,
Under a heavy load the cell voltages should but clear drinking water is an acceptable substi-
not differ by more than 0.15 volt. tute. Too much water should not be added, since
A load-voltage test can also be made by meas- the gassing that accompanies charging may force
uring the voltage of each cell while closing the electrolyte out through the vent holes in the
starter switch with the ignition turned off. In caps of the cells. The electrolyte expands with
many cars it is necessary to pull the central dis- temperature. ( From QST, August, 1955.)

EMERGENCY AND INDEPENDENT POWER SOURCES

Emergency power supply which operates in- for vibrator supplies. A 0.01-µf. 600-volt ( d.c.)
dependently of a.c. lines is available, or can be paper capacitor should be connected in shunt
built in a number of different forms, depending across the output of the dynamotor, followed by
upon the requirements of the service for which a 2.5-mh. r.f. choke in the positive high-voltage
it is intended. lead. From this point the output should be run to
The most practical supply for the average the receiver power terminals through a smooth-
individual amateur is one that operates from ing filter using 4- to 8-µf. capacitors and a 15- or
a car storage battery. Such a supply may take 30-henry choke having low d.c. resistance.
the form of asmall motor generator ( often called
a dynamotor), a rotary converter, a vibrator- Vibrator Power Supplies
transformer-rectifier combination, or transistor The vibrator type of power supply consists
supply. of a special step-up transformer combined with
Dynamotors a vibrating interrupter ( vibrator). When the
unit is connected to a storage battery, plate
A dynamotor differs from a motor generator power is obtained by passing current from the
in that it is a single unit having a double arma- battery through the primary of the transformer.
ture winding. One winding serves for the driving The circuit is made and reversed rapidly by the
motor, while the output voltage is taken from vibrator contacts, interrupting the current at
the other. Dynamotors usually are operated from regular intervals to give a changing magnetic
6-, 12-, 28- or 32-volt storage batteries and field which induces a voltage in the secondary.
deliver from 300 to 1000 volts or more at various The resulting square-wave d.c. pulses in the
current ratings. primary of the transformer cause an alternating
Successful operation of dynamotors requires voltage to be developed in the secondary. This
heavy direct leads, mechanical isolation to reduce high-voltage a.c. in turn is rectified, either by a
vibration, and thorough r.f. and ripple filtration. vacuum- tube rectifier or by an additional syn-
The shafts and bearings should be thoroughly chronized pair of vibrator contacts. The rectified
"run in" before regular operation is attempted, output is pulsating d.c., which may be filtered by
and thereafter the tension of the bearings should ordinary means. The smoothing filter can be a
be checked occasionally to make certain that no single-section affair, but the output capacitance
looseness has developed. should be fairly large — 16 to 32 if.
In mounting the dynamotor, the support Fig. 19-44 shows the two types of circuits. At
should be in the form of rubber mounting A is shown the nonsynchronous type of vibra-
blocks, or equivalent, to prevent the transmis- tor. When the battery is disconnected the reed
sion of vibration mechanically. The frame of is midway between the two contacts, touching
the dynamotor should be grounded through a neither. On closing the battery circuit the magnet
heavy flexible connector. The brushes on the coil pulls the reed into contact with one contact
high-voltage end of the shaft should be by- point, causing current to flow through the lower
passed with 0.002 pf. mica capacitors to a com-
half of the transformer primary winding. Simul-
mon point on the dynamotor frame, preferably taneously, the magnet coil is short-circuited, de-
to a point inside the end cover close to the brush energizing it, and the reed swings back. Inertia
holders. Short leads are essential. It may prove carries the reed into contact with the upper point,
desirable to shield the entire unit, or even to causing current to flow through the upper half of
remove the unit to a distance of three or four the transformer primary. The magnet coil again
feet from the receiver and antenna lead. is energized, and the cycle repeats itself.
When the dynamotor is used for receiving, a The synchronous circuit of Fig. 19-44B is
filter should be used similar to that described provided with an extra pair of contacts which
Power Supply 497
RFC, operating standard a.c. equipment from a 6- or
12-volt storage battery in power ratings up to
100 watts continuous or 125 watts intermittent

"Hash" Elimination
Sparking at the vibrator contacts causes r.f.
(A) interference ("hash," which can be distinguished
from hum by its harsh, sharper pitch) when
used with areceiver. To minimize this, r.f, filters
are incorporated, consisting of RFC 1 and C1 in
the battery circuit, and RFC 2 with Ca in the d.c.
output circuit.
Equally as important as the hash filter is
thorough shielding of the power supply and
(3) its connecting leads, since even a small piece of
wire or metal will radiate enough r.f. to cause
Fig. 19-44— Basic types of vibrator power- supply circuits. interference in a sensitive amateur receiver.
A—Nonsynchronous. B—Synchronous. The power supply should be built on a metal
chassis, with all unshielded parts underneath. A
rectifies the secondary output of the transformer, bottom plate to complete the shielding is advis-
thus eliminating the need for a separate rectifier able. The transformer case, vibrator cover and
tube. The secondary center-tap furnishes the the metal shell of the tube all should be grounded
positive output terminal when the relative polari- to the chassis. If aglass tube is used it should be
ties of primary and secondary windings are enclosed in atube shield. The battery leads should
correct. The proper connections may be deter- be evenly twisted, since these leads are more
mined by experiment. likely to radiate hash than any other part of a
The buffer capacitor, C2,across the trans- well-shielded supply. Experimenting with differ-
former secondary, absorbs the surges that occur ent values in the hash filters should come after
on breaking the current, when the magnetic field radiation from the battery leads has been re-
collapses practically instantaneously and hence duced to a minimum. Shielding the leads is not
causes very high voltages to be induced in the often found to be particularly helpful.
secondary. Without this capacitor excessive
UNIVERSAL POWER SUPPLY
sparking occurs at the vibrator contacts, shorten-
ing the vibrator life. Correct values usually lie A vibrator-type power supply may be designed
between 0.005 and 0.03 µf., and for 250-300-volt to operate from a storage battery only, or from
supplies the capacitor should be rated at 1500 to either abattery or 115 volts a.c. Most late-model
2000 volts d.c. The exact capacitance is critical, cars use 12-volt batteries, but there are still many
and should be determined experimentally. The cars with 6-volt systems in operation — a point
optimum value is that which results in least to consider where emergency operation is an
battery current for a given rectified d.c. output obj ective.
from the supply. In practice the value can be The circuit of a universal power supply for
determined by observing the degree of vibrator emergency, mobile, or home-station use is shown
sparking as the capacitance is changed. When in Fig. 19-45. The unit furnishes a d.c. output
the system is operating properly there should of 300 volts at 160 ma. and can be operated from
be practically no sparking at the vibrator con- any of the above-mentioned sources. Shifting
tacts. A 5000-ohm resistor in series with C2 Will from one power source to another is accom-
limit the secondary current to asafe value should plished by plugging P1 or P2,connected to the
the capacitor fail. selected source, into one of the two chassis con-
Vibrator-transformer units are available in a nectors J1 or 12.The vibrator-primary current is
variety of power and voltage ratings. Repre- 11.6 amperes with 6-volt input under loaded
sentative units vary from one delivering 125 to conditions, and 6.8 amperes with 12-volt input.
200 volts at 100 ma. to others that have a 400- To adapt equipment for optional 6- or 12-volt
volt output rating at 150 ma. Most units come operation, 6-volt tubes must be used with their
supplied with "hash" filters, but not all of them heaters in series-parallel. Fig. 19-46 shows a
have built-in ripple filters. The requirements for typical example of connections.
ripple filters are similar to those for a.c. supplies. Battery input connections are made through
The usual efficiency of vibrator packs is in the P5 which plugs into a cigar-lighter socket in
vicinity of 70 per cent, so a300-volt 200-ma, unit mobile service.
will draw approximately 15 amperes from a 6- For 6-volt operation P1 is plugged into J. For
volt storage battery. Special vibrator trans- 12-volt operation P1 is plugged into 12.For 115-
formers are also available from transformer volt a.c. operation P2 is plugged into 12.
manufacturers so that the amateur may build his Positive high-voltage output from the supply
own supply if he so desires. These have d.c. out- is fed to Pins 3on output connectors 18 and 14.
put ratings varying from 150 volts at 40 ma. to The three heater connections are made through
330 volts at 135 ma. Pins 1, 2 and 6. The cable for transmitter plug
Vibrator-type supplies are also available for P8 has provision for connecting to a transmit-
 Chapter 24

Operating a Station

The enjoyment of our hobby comes mostly hear stations engaged in communication on that
from the operation of our station once we have frequency, stand by until you are sure no inter-
finished its construction. Upon the station and ference will be caused by your operations, or
its operation depend the communication records shift to another frequency. No amateur or any
that are made. The standing of individuals as group of amateurs has any exclusive claim to any
amateurs and respect for the capabilities of the frequency in any band. We must work together,
whole institution of amateur radio depend to a each respecting the rights of others. Remember,
considerable extent on the practical communica- those other chaps can cause you as much inter-
tions established by amateurs, the aggregate of ference as you cause them, sometimes more!
all our station efforts. In this chapter we'll recount some fundamen-
An operator with a slow, steady, clean-cut tals of operating success, cover major procedures
method of sending has a big advantage over for successful general work and include proper
the poor operator. The technique of speaking in forms to use in message handling and other
connected thoughts and phrases is equally im- fields. Note also the sections on special activities,
portant for the voice operator. Good sending is awards and organization. These permit us all to
partly amatter of practice but patience and judg- develop through our organization more success
ment are just as important qualities of an opera- together than we could ever attain by separate
tor as agood "fist." uncoordinated efforts that overlook the precepts
Operating knowledge embracing standard pro- established through operating experience.
cedures, development of skill in employing c.w.
to expand the station range and operating effec- C.W. PROCEDURE
tiveness at minimum power levels and some net The best operators, both those using voice and
know-how are all essentials in achieving atrium- c.w., observe certain operating procedures re-
phant amateur experience with top station rec- garded as " standard practice."
ords, personal results, and demonstrations of 1) Calls. Calling stations may call efficiently
what our stations can do in practical communi- by transmitting the call signal of the station
cations. called three times, the letters DE, followed by
one's own station call sent three times. ( Short
OPERATING COURTESY AND
calls with frequent "breaks" to listen have proved
TOLERANCE
to be the best method.) Repeating the call of the
Normal operating interests in amateur radio station called four or five times and signing not
vary considerably. Some prefer to rag-chew, more than two or three times has proved excel-
others handle traffic, others work DX, others lent practice, thus: WOBY WOBY WOBY
concentrate on working certain areas, countries WOBY WfiBY DE W1AW W1AW W1AW
or states and still others get on for an occasional AR.
contact only to check a new transmitter or an- CQ. The general-inquiry call ( CQ) should be
tenna. sent not more than five times without interspers-
Interference is one of the things we amateurs ing one's station identification. The length of
have to live with. However, we can conduct our repeated calls is carefully limited in intelligent
operating in a way designed to alleviate it as amateur operating. ( CQ is not to be used when
much as possible. Before putting the transmitter testing or when the sender is not expecting or
on the air, listen on your own frequency. If you looking for an answer. Never send aCQ "blind."
Listen on the transmitting frequency first.)
The directional CQ: To avoid useless answers
and lessen QRM, every CQ call should be made
informative when possible. Respect, do not an-
swer, such calls not applicable to you.
Examples: A United States station looking
for any Hawaiian amateur calls: CQ KH6 CO
KH6 CQ KH6 DE W4IA W4IA W4IA K.
A Western station with traffic for the East
Coast when looking for an intermediate relay •
station calls: CQ EAST CQ EAST CQ EAST
DE W5IGW W5IGW W5IGW K. A station
with messages for points in Massachusetts
calls: CQ MASS CQ MASS CQ MASS DE
W7CZY W7CZY W7CZY K.

574
 Universal Power Supply 499
Fig. 19-47—Triple transistor power supply delivers
+600, + 250 and — 300 volts. Ribbed aluminum heat
sinks are standard item, were painted black after pic-
ture was taken. Tube sockets are used as jacks for
output and control circuits, tip jacks are voltage test
points. Two chassis are hinged on underside, locked
together on top by two tabs of aluminum and sheet-
metal screws.

replacement, but if the transistors are operated

within their electrical and thermal ratings, their
life expectancy is in terms of years rather than
hours.
In a transistor power supply, the transistors
operate as electronic switches to interrupt the
d.c. through the primary of the power trans-
former much like the mechanical vibrator does
in a vibrator supply.
When voltage is applied to the power supply
circuit, current will flow through the transis-
tors; however, since no two transistors are
precisely alike electrically, initially one will con-

J2
+600

Fig. 19-48—Circuit dia-

gram of the triple tran-
sistorized power supply.
Capacitances are in µf.,
resistors are /
2 watt unless
1

specified otherwise. Ca-

pacitors marked with po-
larity are electrolytic;
4 others are paper.
+12
12V. CONTROL
El K
( , RFC tL.jQQ !
ON D.
L- . . SWITCHED
+12
+250
r - 2
-2021-0;
-300

0 J5

220/10W 3/10W. ! 22

— • — - — - Sub Assent%

CR,—CR,-- 400 p.i.v. 350- ma. silicon rectifier (Inter- RFC1-20 turns No. 10 enamel close-wound on /
2 -
1 inch
national Rectifier 5E4). diameter.
CR,,—CR,, - 400 p.i.v. 600-ma, silicon rectifier (G. E. Ts—Toroid feedback transformer ( Osborne 2709).
1N1695). Ts— Power transformer with Hypersil core, 295 v.a.
Fs- 30-ampere fuse. Secondary tapped for 700, 650, 550 or 350
F2- 1
4 -
/ ampere fuse. volts. ( Osborne 16553-12).
F
s— Vs-ampere fuse.
To—Toroid feedback transformer (Osborne 716).
JI— Insulated terminal (Millen 37001). T— Power transformer with Hypersil core, 120 v.a.
J2, Ji— Tube socket. Secondary 550 v.c.t. ( Osborne 14572A-12).
Ja, .1
5, Jo— Insulated tip jack. (T s - Ts available from Osborne Transformer

K,—S.p.s.t. relay, 60-amp. contacts, 12-volt coil ( Potter Co., 3834 Mitchell, Detroit 7, Mich.)
& Brumfield MB3D).
 MOBILE EQUIPMENT
ated in the transistor power oscillator. Even
though the spikes arc of short duration they can
cause punch- through of the transistor junction
if the total voltage exceeds the transistor collec-
tor- to- emitter rating. The amplitudes of these
spikes can be held to asafe value if the primary
and secondary coils on the power transformer
are tightly coupled and alarge capacitor iS con-
nected across the low- voltage supply.
Transistor power transformers are available
in both conventional and toroidal construction,
with outputs ranging up to 150 watts. The sup-
ply shown in Figs. 19-47 and 19-49 has three
outputs: 590 volts at 120 ma. ( dropping to 570
volts at 225-ma. peaks), 250 volts at 125 ma.,
and a 300- volt negative supply for bias pur-
poses. The high- voltage section uses silicon di-
odes in series in a bridge rectifier circuit, and
the low- voltage section uses a center- tapped
transformer and silicon diodes in series in a
full- wave rectifier circuit. The transistors are
Fig. 19-49— Only electrical connections between the mounted on ribbed aluminum heat sinks ( Delco
two chassis are through fastenings and the + 12-volt 7270606).
lead (top center). Construction of the units is simpli- The wiring diagram, Fig. 19-48, is drawn with
fied by generous use of sub-assemblies ( outlined in a horizontal dashed line that separates the
dot-and-dash lines in Fig. 19-50). The sub-assemblies high- voltage supply from the other two. This
are made up on multiple tie-point strips, wired and dashed line also reprèsents the distribution of
put in place. Bridge rectifier section, C12, through Citu, the components between the two 5 X 91 / X 3-
4

is made on four tie- point strips arranged in a square inch aluminum chassis that make up the cabinet.
(lower left). The insulated terminal on the low-voltage A single heavy wire carries the + 12 volts from
supply ( upper right) receives the + 12 volts from one chassis to the other. Provision is included
the battery. for remote control of the power ( and + 12
volts) through the heavy-duty relay.
duct a little more current than the other. This It is very important to provide good heat
difference current or " starting" current will transfer from the mounting bases of the tran-
cause asmall voltage to be induced in the trans- sistors to the heat sinks, and asmall amount of
former winding connected to the hases of the silicone lubricant should be spread on the tran-
transistors. The polarity is such that the con- sistor when it is bolted to the sink.
ducting transistor is biased to conduct even Matched pairs of 2N278 transistors were used
more heavily while the base of the other tran- in the high-voltage supply. If matched pairs
sistor is biased to cutoff. This process continues were not used in parallel, it would be necessary
until the increasing current causes magnetic sat- to include 0.1-ohm current-equalizing resistors
uration of the transformer core, at which time in series with each emitter.
the induced voltage drops to zero and there is no Since heat is the prime limiting factor in
longer enough base bias to maintain the collec- transistor power supply operation, placement of
tor current. When this happens the current de- the unit in the car should have some special
creases, causing an induced voltage of opposite consideration. Try to find a location away from
polarity. The process then reverses so that the high- temperature spots and in a well-ventilated
previously nonconducting transistor starts to area.
conduct and the previously conducing transistor
becomes cut off. The result is an alternating GASOLINE- ENGINE DRIVEN
current of square-wave form through the trans-
GENERATORS
former primary. This in turn induces astepped-
up voltage in the h.v. secondary of the trans- For higher- power installations, such as for
former. communications control centers during emer-
The transistor supply is self- protecting gencies, the most practical form of independent
against overload because if a short circuit or power supply is the gasoline- engine driven
heavy overload occurs oscillations cease and generator which provides standard 115-volt
the input current drops to alow value. The out- 60-cycle supply.
put voltage regulation is extremely good making Such generators are ordinarily rated at a
the transistor supply especially useful as a minimum of 250 or 300 watts. They are avail-
source of plate or screen power for a single- able up to ten kilowatts, or big enough to handle
sideband mobile or portable rig. the highest- power amateur rig. Most are ar-
In a transistor power supply that has not ranged to charge automatically an auxiliary 6-
been properly designed, small spikes may appear or 12-volt battery used in starting. Fitted with
on the leading edges of the square wave gener- self-starters and adequate mufflers and filters,
Power Supply 501
The next step is to loosen the brush-holder
locks and slowly shift the position of the
brushes while checking for noise with the re-
ceiver. Usually a point will be found ( almost
always different from the factory setting)
where there is a marked decrease in noise.
From this point on, if necessary, bypass
capacitors from various brush holders to the
frame, as shown in Fig. 19-50, will bring the
hash down to within 10 to 15 per cent of its
Fig. 19-50—Connections used for eliminating interfer- original intensity, if not entirely eliminating it.
ence from gas-driven generator plants. C should be 1 Most of the remaining noise will be reduced
µf., 300 volts, paper, while C2 may be 1 µf. with a still further if the high- power audio stages
voltage rating of twice the d.c. output voltage de- are cut out and a pair of headphones is con-
livered by the generator. X indicates an added con- nected into the second detector.
nection between the slip ring on the grounded side
of the line and the generator frame. DRY CELL BATTERIES
they represent ahigh order of performance and Dry-cell batteries are a practical source of
efficiency. Many of the larger models are liquid- power for supplying portables or • equipment
cooled, and they will operate continuously at which must be transported on foot. However,
full load. they are costly and have limited current capa-
The output frequency of an engine-driven bility. The zinc-carbon cells lose their power
generator must fall between the relatively nar- even when not in use, if allowed to stand idle
row limits of 50 to 60 cycles if standard 60-cycle for periods of a year or more. This makes
transformers are to operate efficiently from this them uneconomical if not used more or less
source. A 60-cycle electric clock provides a continuously.
means of checking the output frequency with a The mercury cell has a much higher ratio of
fair degree of accuracy. The clock is connected ampere-hour capacity to volume at higher cur-
across the output of the generator and the sec- rent densities than are obtainable from the con-
ond hand is checked closely against the second ventional dry cell. Mercury batteries are well
hand of a watch. The speed of the engine is suited for emergency portable operation even
adjusted until the two second hands are in after many months of storage.
synchronism. Typical service life data for several types of
Output voltage should be checked with a zinc-carbon cells and batteries is given in Table
voltmeter since a standard 115-volt lamp bulb, 19-111. The figures show length of service time
which is sometimes used for this purpose, is before the cell terminal voltage drops to 1.0
very inaccurate. volt ( in B-batteries, when individual cells reach
1.0 volt).
Noise Elimination Mercury batteries and cells are available in
Electrical noise which may interfere with several sizes and shapes. Some may be oper-
receivers operating from engine-driven a.c. ated at current drains up in the ampere range
generators may be reduced or eliminated by and others are available in potentials in the
taking proper precautions. The most important hundreds of volts. A typical 1.35-volt mercury
point is that of grounding the frame of the cell measuring only 21 /$ X 2'4 X 234 inches,
generator and one side of the output. The has a capacity of 43 ampere hours ( maximum
ground lead should be short to be effective, current 3 amperes). Cells of this type would
otherwise grounding may actually increase the be useful for filament or heater applications. A
noise. A water pipe may be used if a short con- representative mercury B-battery has a voltage
nection can be made near the point where the of 67.5 volts and acapacity of 3.6 ampere hours
pipe enters the ground, otherwise a good sepa- (maximum current 250 ma.). It measures about
rate ground should be provided. 33'i X PA X 10 1 / inches.
4

TABLE 19- III

Service life of some typical zinc-carbon cells and batteries

Continuous 4hours per

Cell or Battery ASA Cell Size day service
service

ma. hrs. ma. hrs.

AA 30 14 20 33
1.5 v. penlite cell
D 160 9 130 21
1.5 v. flashlight cell
#6 500 43 500 80
1.5 v. ignition cell

F30 18 9 16 14
45 v., 67.5 v., 90 v.
F40 19 15 17 24
B-battery
F70 20 35 24 47
 Chapter 20

Construction Practices

It is an excellent idea for the amateur who

TOOLS AND MATERIALS does constructional work to add to his supply
While an easier, and perhaps a better, job of tools from time to time as finances permit.
can be done with a greater variety of tools Radio- supply houses, mail-order retail stores
available, by taking a little thought- and care and most hardware stores carry the various tools
it is possible to turn out a fine piece of required when building or servicing amateur
equipment with only a few of the common radio equipment. While power tools ( electric drill
hand tools. A list of tools which will be in- or drill press, grinding wheel, etc.) are very use-
dispensable in the contruction of radio equip- ful and will save a lot of time, they are not es-
ment will be found on this page. With these sential.
tools it should be possible to perform any of
the required operations in preparing panels Twist Drills
and metal chassis for assembly and wiring. Twist drills are made of either high-speed
steel or carbon steel. The latter type is more
common and will usually be supplied unless
INDISPENSABLE TOOLS specific request is made for high-speed drills.
Long-nose pliers, 6-inch. The carbon drill will suffice for most ordinary
Diagonal cutting pliers, 6- inch.
equipment construction work and costs less
\Vire stripper.
Screwdriver, 6- to 7-inch,'/4-inch blade. than the high-speed type.
Screwdriver, 4- to 5- inch, '/8-inch blade. While twist drills are available in anumber
Scratch awl or scriber for marking lines. of sizes, those listed in bold-faced type in
Combination square, 12- inch, for laying out work.
Hand drill, 4- ' inch chuck or larger, 2- speed type
Table 20-I will be most commonly used in
preferable. construction of amateur equipment. It is usu-
Electric soldering iron, 100 watts, 1 4-in. tip. ally desirable to purchase several of each of
Hack saw, 12-inch blades.
the commonly used sizes rather than a stand-
Center punch for marking hole centers.
Hammer, ball-peen, 1-16. head. ard set, most of which will be used infre-
Heavy knife. quently if at all.
Yardstick or other straightedge.
Carpenter's brace with adjustable hole cutter or Care of Tools
socket-hole punches ( see text).
Large, coarse, flat file. The proper care of tools is not alone a
Large round or rat-tail file, ,4- inch diameter. matter of pride to a good workman. He also
Three or four small and medium files—flat, round,
half- round, triangular.
realizes the energy which may be saved and
Drills, particularly '4- inch and Nos. 18, 28, 33, the annoyance which may be avoided by the
42 and 50. possession of a full kit of well-kept sharp-
Combination oil stone for sharpening tools.
edged tools.
Solder, rosin-core.
Medium-weight machine oil. Drills should be sharpened at frequent in-
tervals so that grinding is kept at a minimum
ADDITIONAL TOOLS
each time. This makes it easier to maintain
Bench vise, 4-inch jaws.
the rather critical surface angles required for
Tin shears, 10- inch, for cutting thin sheet metal.
Taper reamer, Vs- inch, for enlarging small holes. best cutting with least wear. Occasional
Taper reamer, 1- inch, for enlarging holes. oilstoning of the cutting edges of a drill
Countersink for brace. or reamer will extend the time between
Carpenter's plane, 8- to 12- inch, for woodworking.
Carpenter's saw, crosscut.
grindings.
Motor- driven emery wheel for grinding. The soldering iron can be kept in good
Phillips screwdriver. condition by keeping the tip well tinned with
Long-shank screwdriver with screw-holding clip
solder and not allowing it to run at full volt-
for tight places.
Set of - Spintite" socket wrenches for hex nuts. age for long periods when it is not being used.
Set of small, flat, open-end wrenches for hex nuts. After each period of use, the tip should be
Set of Allen wrenches. " removed and cleaned of any scale which may
Set of spline wrenches.
Wm! chisel, ! i -inch.
have accumulated. An oxidized tip may be
Cold chisel, '
4- inch. cleaned by dipping it in sal ammoniac while
Wing dividers, 8- inch, for scribing circles. hot and then wiping it clean with a rag. If
Set of machine- screw taps and dies. the tip becomes pitted it should be filed until
Dusting brush.
Socket punches, esp. %", ; 4", P/8" and 1W'. smooth and bright, and then tinned immedi-
ately by dipping it in solder.

502
Chassis Working 503

Useful Materials
TABLE 20-1
Small stocks of various miscellaneous ma-
Numbered Drill Sizes
terials will be required in constructing radio
Drilled for
apparatus, most of which are available from Diameter Will Clear Tapping Iron,
hardware or radio- supply stores. A repre- Number ( mils) Screw Steel or Brass*
sentative list follows:
1 228.0 _ -
2 221.0 12-24 -
Sheet aluminum, solid and perforated, 16 or 3 213.0 _ 14-24
4 209.0 12-20 -
18 gauge, for brackets and shielding.
5 205.0 - -
X - inch aluminum angle stock. 6 204.0 - -
4-inch diameter round brass or aluminum
1 7 201.0 - -
rod for shaft extensions. 8 199.0 - -
9 196.0 - -
Machine screws: Round- head and flat-head,
10 193.5 10-32 -
with nuts to fit. Most useful sizes: 4-36, 11 191.0 10-24 -
6-32 and 8-32, in lengths from V4 inch to 12 189.0 - -
1Y2 inches. ( Nickel- plated iron will be 13 185.0 - -
14 182.0 - -
found satisfactory except in strong r.f. 15 180.0 - -
fields, where brass should be used.) 16 177.0 - 12-24
Bakelite, lucite and polystyrene scraps. 17 173.0 - -
18 169.5 8-32 -
Soldering lugs, panel bearings, rubber
19 166.0 - 12-20
grommets, terminal- lug wiring strips, 20 161.0 - -
varnished- cambric insulating tubing. 21 159.0 - 10-32
Shielded and unshielded wire. 22 157.0 - - -

23 154.0 -
Tinned bare wire, Nos. 22, 14 and 12.
24 152.0 -
25 149.5 - 10-21
Machine screws, nuts, washers, soldering
26 147.0 - _
lugs, etc., are most reasonably purchased . in 27 144.0 - -
quantities of a gross. Many of the radio- supply 28 140.0 6-32 -
29 136.0 - 8-32
stores sell small quantities and assortments that
30 128.5 - -
come in handy. 31 120.0 - -
32 116.0 - -
CHASSIS WORKING 33 113.0 4-36, 4-40 -
34 111.0 - -
With a few essential tools and proper pro- 35 110.0 - 6-32
cedure, it will be found that building radio 36 106.5 - -
gear on a metal chassis is a relatively simple 37 104.0 -
38 101.5 -
matter. Aluminum is to be preferred to steel, not
39 099.5 3-48 -
only because it is a superior shielding material, 40 098.0 - -
but because it is much easier to work and to 41 096.0 - -
provide good chassis contacts. 42 093.5 - 4-36, 4-40
43 089.0 2-56 -
The placing of components on the chassis
44 086.0 - -
is shown quite clearly in the photographs in 45 082.0 - 3-48
this Handbook. Aside from certain essential 46 081.0 - -
dimensions, which usually are given in the 47 078.5 - -
48 076.0 - -
text, exact duplication is not necessary. 49 073.0 - 2-56
Much trouble and energy can be saved by 50 070.0 - -
spending sufficient time in planning the job. 51 067.0 - -
52 063.5 - -
When all details are worked out beforehand
53 059.5 - -
the actual construction is greatly simplified. 54 055.0 - -
Cover the top of the chassis with a piece of
• Use one size larger for tapping bakelite and
wrapping paper or, preferably, cross-section phenolics.

paper, folding the edges down over the sides

of the chassis and fastening with adhesive
tape. Then assemble the parts to be mounted
on top of the chassis and move them about
until a satisfactory arrangement has been
found, keeping in mind any parts which are
to be mounted underneath, so that interfer-
ences in mounting may be avoided. Place ca-
pacitors and other parts with shafts extending
Fig. 20- 1- Method of measuring the heights of capaci- through the panel first, and arrange them so
tor shafts, etc. If the square is adjustable, the end of that the controls will form the desired pattern
the scale should be set flush with the face of the head. on the panel. Be sure to line up the shafts
584 OPERATING A STATION
traffic activities. Supervises and promotes nets amateur radio, when organized into effective nets
and recruits ORSs.
interconnecting cities and towns.
SEC Section Emergency Coordinator. Promotes and
administers section emergency radio organiza- The successful operation of anet depends alot
tion. on the Net Control Station. This station should
EC Emergency Coordinator. Organizes amateurs of be chosen carefully and be one that will not hesi-
a community or other local area for emergency
radio service; maintains liaison with officials and tate to enforce each and every net rule and set
agencies served, also with other local communi- the example in his own operation.
cation facilities. Sponsors tests, recruits for A progressive net grows, obtaining new mem-
AREC and encourages alignment with RACES.
bers both directly and through other net mem-
bers. Bulletins may be issued at intervals to keep
STATION APPOINTMENTS in direct contact with the members regarding
ARRL's field organization has a place for general net activity, to keep tab on net procedure,
every active amateur who has a station. The make suggestions for improvement, keep track of
Communications Department organization ex- active members and weed out inactive ones.
ists to increase individual enjoyment and station A National Traffic System is sponsored by
effectiveness in amateur radio work, and we ex- ARRL to facilitate the over-all expeditious
tend a cordial invitation to every amateur to relay and delivery of message traffic. The system
participate fully in the activities, to report recognizes the need for handling traffic beyond
results monthly, and to apply to the SCM for one the section- level networks that have the popular
of the following station appointments. ARRL support of both phone and c.w. groups ( OPS and
membership and the General Class license or VE ORS) throughout the League's field organiza-
equivalent is prerequisite to appointments, except tion. Area and regional provisions for NTS are
OES is available to Novice/Technician grades. furthered by Headquarters correspondence. The
ARRL Net Directory, revised in December each
year, includes the frequencies and times of op-
eration of the hundreds of different nets operat-
ing on amateur band frequencies.
OPf g
SEC r at" Radio Club Affiliation
7444
- ARRL is pleased to grant affiliation to any
amateur society having ( 1) at least 51% of the
voting club membership as full members of the
League, and ( 2) at least 51% of members govern-
ment-licensed radio amateurs. In high school ra-
dio clubs bearing the school name, the first
above requirement is modified to require one
full member of ARRL in the club. Where asoci-
e ety has common aims and wishes to add strength
to that of other club groups and strengthen ama-
OPS Official Phone Station. Sets high voice operating teur radio by affiliation with the national ama-
standards and procedures, furthers phone nets
teur organization, a request addressed to the
and traffic.
ORS Official Relay Station. Traffic service, operates Communications Manager will bring the neces-
c.w. nets; noted for 15 w.p.m. and procedure sary forms and information to initiate the appli-
ability. cation for affiliation. Such clubs receive field-
OBS Official Bulletin Station. Transmits ARRL and
FCC bulletin information to amateurs. organization bulletins and special information at
OES Official Experimental Station. Collects and re. intervals for posting on club bulletin boards or
ports v.h.f.-u.h.f.-s.h.f. propagation data, may for relay to their memberships. A travel plan
engage in facsimile, TT, TV, work on 50 Mc.
providing communications, technical and secre-
and/or above. Takes part as feasible in vhf.
traffic work, reports same, supports v.h.f. nets, tarial contact from the Headquarters is worked
observes procedure standards. out seasonally to give maximum benefits to as
00 Official Observer. Sends cooperative notices to many as possible of the twelve hundred active
amateurs to assist in frequency observance, in-
sures high-quality signals, and prevents FCC
affiliated radio clubs. Papers on club work, sug-
trouble. gestions for organizing, for constitutions, for
radio courses of study, etc., are available on re-
Emblem Colors quest.
Members wear the ARRL emblem with black-
enamel background. A red background for an Club Training Aids
emblem will indicate that the wearer is SCM. One section of the ARRL Communications De-
SECs, ECs, RMs, and PAMs may wear the em- partment handles the Training Aids Program.
blem with green background. Observers and all This program is a service to ARRL affiliated
station appointees are entitled to wear blue em- clubs. Material is aimed at education, training
blems. and entertainment of club members. Interesting
quiz material is available.
SECTION NETS Training Aids include such items as motion-
Amateurs gain experience and pleasure and picture films, film strips, slides, audio tapes and
add much accomplishment to the credit of all of lecture outlines. Bookings are limited to ARRL-
Chassis Working 505
equate insulation should be used. Satisfactory edge of the sheet may become bent. A pair of
support for the shaft extension, as well as iron bars or pieces of heavy angle stock, as
electrical contact for safety, can be provided long or longer than the width of the sheet,
by means of a metal panel bearing made for to hold it in the vise will make the job easier.
the purpose. These can be obtained singly for "C" clamps may be used to keep the bars
use with existing shafts, or they can be from spreading at the ends. The rough edges
bought with a captive extension shaft in- may be smoothed up with a file or by placing
cluded. In either case the panel bearing gives a large piece of emery cloth or sandpaper on
a "solid" feel to the control. a flat surface and running the edge of the
The use of fiber washers between ceramic metal back and forth over the sheet.
insulation and metal brackets, screws or nuts Bends may be made similarly. The sheet
will prevent the ceramic parts from breaking. should be scratched on both sides, but not so
deeply as to cause it to break.

Finishing Aluminum
STANDARD METAL GAUGES
Gauge American U. S. Birmingham
Aluminum chassis, panels and parts may
No. or B. 6- S. I Standard , or Stubs , be given a sheen finish by treating them in a
caustic bath. An enamelled or plastic container,
1 . 2893 . 28125 . 300
2 . 2576 . 265625 . 284
such as a dishpan or infant's bathtub, should be
3 . 2294 .25 .259 used for the solution. Dissolve ordinary household
4 .2043 . 234375 .238 lye in cold water in a proportion of / 14 to
5 . 1819 . 21875 .220 can of lye per gallon of water. The stronger
6 . 1620 . 203125 . 203
7 . 1443 . 1875 . 180 solution will do the job more rapidly. Stir the
8 . 1285 . 171875 . 165 solution with a stick of wood until the lye
9 . 1144 . 15625 . 148 crystals are completely dissolved. Be very
10 . 1019 . 140625 . 134
11 .09074 . 125 . 120
careful to avoid any skin contact with the so-
12 . 08081 . 109375 . 109 lution. It is also harmful to clothing. Suffi-
13 . 07196 . 09375 . 095 cient solution should be prepared to cover the
14 . 06408 . 078125 . 083
piece completely. When the aluminum is im-
15 . 05707 .0703125 . 072
16 . 05082 . 0625 .065 mersed, a very pronounced bubbling takes
17 . 04526 . 05625 . 058 place and ventilation should be provided to
18 . 04030 . 05 . 049 disperse the escaping gas. A half hour to two
19 . 03589 .04375 . 042
20 . 03196 . 0375 . 035 hours in the solution should be sufficient,
21 . 02846 . 034375 . 032 depending upon the strength of the solution
22 . 02535 . 03125 . 028 and the desired surface.
23 . 02257 .028125 . 025
24 . 02010 . 025 .022
Remove the aluminum from the solution
25 . 01790 . 021875 . 020 with sticks and rinse thoroughly in cold water
26 . 01594 . 01875 . 018 while swabbing with a rag to remove the
27 . 01420 . 0171875 . 016
black deposit. Then wipe off with a rag
28 . 01264 . 015625 . 014
29 . 01126 . 0140625 .013 soaked in vinegar to remove any stubborn
30 . 01003 . 0125 . 012 stains or fingerprints.
31 . 008928 . 0109375 . 010
32 . 007950 . 01015625 . 009 Soldering
33 . 007080 . 009375 . 008
34 . 006350 .00859375 . 007 The secret of good soldering is in allowing
35 . 005615 . 0078125 . 005 time for the joint, as well as the solder, to
36 . 005000 . 00703125 . 004 attain sufficient temperature. Enough heat
37 .004453 . 006640626 ....
38 . 003965 . 00625 should be applied so that the solder will melt
39 . 003531 when it comes in contact with the wires being
40 . 003145 joined, without touching the solder to- the
Iused for aluminum, copper, brass and non- iron. Always use rosin-core solder, never acid-
ferrous alloy sheets, wire and rods. core.
2 Used for iron, steel, nickel and ferrous al-
loy sheets, wire and rods.
When soldering transistors, crystal diodes or
3 Used for seamless tubes; also by some manu-
small resistors, the lead should be gripped with
facturers for copper and brass. a pair of pliers up close to the unit so that the
heat will be conducted away. Overheating of a
transistor or diode while soldering can cause
permanent damage. Also, mechanical stress will
Cutting and Bending Sheet Metal
have a similar effect, so that a small unit should
If a sheet of metal is too large to be cut be mounted so that there is no appreciable me-
conveniently with a hack saw, it may be chanical strain on the leads.
marked with scratches as deep as possible When soldering to the pins of coil forms or
along the line of the cut on both sides of the male cable plugs, it helps to tin the insides of the
sheet and then clamped in a vise and worked pins first by flowing a non-corrosive flux-cored
back and forth until the sheet breaks at the solder into the pin with a hot iron. Then im-
line. Do not carry the bending too far until mediately clear the solder from the hot pin by
the break begins to weaken; otherwise the a whipping motion. Before inserting the wire in
506 CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
tion points. Strips of this type are also useful as
insulated supports for resistors, r.f. chokes and
capacitors. High- voltage wiring should have ex-
posed points held to aminimum, and those which
cannot be avoided should be rendered as inac-
WRONG cessible as possible to accidental contact or short-
(A) circuit.
Where shielded wire is called for and ca-
pacitance to ground is not a factor, Belden
type 8885 shielded grid wire may be used. If
capacitance must be minimized, it may be
necessary to use a piece of car- radio low-
capacitance lead-in wire, or coaxial cable.
RIGHT
(B) For wiring high- frequency circuits, rigid
wire is often used. Bare soft-drawn tinned
,<->...`[.<>\`• wire, sizes 22 to 12 ( depending on mechanical
requirements), is suitable. Kinks can be re-
z-y moved by stretching apiece 10 or 15 feet long
<
and then cutting into short lengths that can
'Ur
be handled conveniently. R.f. wiring should
RIGHT be run directly from point to point with
(C) a minimum of sharp bends and the wire
kept well spaced from the chassis or other
Fig. 20-3—Methods of lacing cables. The method shown
grounded metal surfaces. Where the wiring
at C is more secure, but takes more time than the
must pass through the chassis or a partition,
method of B. The latter is usually adequate for most
a clearance hole should be cut and lined with
amateur requirements.
arubber grommet. In case insulation becomes
necessary, varnished cambric tubing ( spa-
the pin, file the nickel plate from the tip. After ghetti) can be slipped over the wire.
soldering, round the solder tip off with a file. In transmitters where the peak voltage
A 60-40 or 63-37 solder is preferable to the does not exceed 2500 volts, the shielded grid
higher melting-temperature 50-50 solder. wire mentioned above should be satisfactory
When soldering to the pins of polystyrene for power circuits. For higher voltages, Bel-
coil forms, first clean the inside of each pin den type 8656, Birnbach type 1820, or shielded
with a suitable twist drill. Then hold the pin ignition cable can be used. In the case of fila-
to be soldered with a pair of heavy pliers, to ment circuits carrying heavy current, it may
form a " heat sink" and insure that the pin be necessary to use No. 10 or 12 bare or
does not heat enough in the coil form to enameled wire, slipped through spaghetti, and
loosen and become misaligned. then covered with copper braid pulled tightly
over the spaghetti. The chapter on TVI
Wiring
shows the manner in which shielded wire
The wire used in connecting up amateur should be applied. If the shielding is simply
equipment should be selected considering slid back over the insulation and solder flowed
both the maximum current it will be called into the end of the braid, the braid usually
upon to handle and the voltage its insulation will stay in place without the necessity for
must stand without breakdown. Also, from cutting it back or binding it in place. The
the consideration of TVI, the power wiring braid should be burnished with sandpaper or
of all transmitters should be done with wire a knife so that solder will take with a mini-
that has a braided shielding cover. Receiver mum of heat.
and audio circuits may also require the use R.f. wiring in transmitters usually follows
of shielded wire at some points for stability, the method described above for receivers with
or the elimination of hum. due respect to the voltages involved.
No. 20 stranded wire is commonly used for Where power or control leads tun together
most receiver wiring ( except for the high- for more than a few inches, they will present
frequency circuits) where the current does a better appearance when bound together
not exceed 2or 3amperes. For higher- current in a single cable. The correct technique is
heater circuits, No. 18 is available. Wire with illustrated in Fig. 20-3; both plastic and waxed-
cellulose acetate insulation is good for volt- linen lacing cords are available.
ages up to about 500. For higher voltages, To give a " commercial look" to the wiring
thermoplastic- insulated wire should be used. of any unit, run any cabled leads along the
Inexpensive wire strippers that make the re- edge of the chassis. If this isn't possible, the
moval of insulation from hook-up wire an cabled leads should then run parallel to an
easy job are available on the market. edge of the chassis. Further, the generous use
When power leads have several branches in of tie points ( mounted parallel to an edge of the
the chassis, it is convenient to use fiber-insulated chassis), for the support of one or both ends of
tie points or "lug strips" as anchorages or junc- a resistor or fixed capacitor, will add to the ap-
Coaxial Fittings 507
BNC Connectors 83-15P Plug
CABLE

1.—Cut end of ca-

1.—Cut end of cable
even.
ble even. Remove
vinyl jacket PA"— MOO
NUT don't nick braid.
JACKET

2.—Remove vinyl jac-

ket 1
/2"—don't nick braid. 2.—Bare 34" of
center conductor—
BRAID don't nick conductor.
Trim braided shield
3.—Push braid back and /is" and tin. Slide
1
remove %" of insulation coupling ring on
and conductor. cable.

4.—Taper braid. 3.—Screw the plug

assembly on cable.
Solder plug assembly
SLEEVE to braid through sol-
der holes. Solder
5.—Slide sleeve over
conductor to contact PLUC, ASSEMBLY
tapered braid. Fit inner
sleeve. COUPLING RING
shoulder or sleeve square-
SOLDER HOLE
ly against end of jacket.

4.— Screw coupling

ring on assembly.
6.—With sleeve in place
comb out braid, fold back
smooth as shown, and
trim %2".
83-15P Plug with Adapters

7.—Bare center conduc

tor /8"—don't nick con-
ductor. Lat
ADAPTER 32
COUPLING RING

8.—Tin center con- 1.—Cut end of cable even. Remove vinyl jacket 2½2"_
ductor of cable. Slip don't nick braid. Slide coupling ring and aclapter on cable
female contact in place
and solder. Remove FEMALE CONTACT
excess solder. Be sure
cable dielectric is not N\4,
heated excessively and o
swollen so as to pre-
vent dielectric entering
2.—Fan braid slightly and fold back over cable.
body.

9.—Push into body

BODY
as far as it will go.
Slide nut into body
and screw into place,
with wrench, until 3. Compress braid around cable. Position adapter to
it is moderately tight. dimension shown.Press braid down over body of adapter
Hold cable and shell to dimension shown. Press braid down over body of
rigidly and rotate adapter and trim.
nut.

I0.—This assembly
procedure applies to
BNC jacks. The as
sembly for plugs is 4.—Bare 7 4" of center conductor—don't nick conductor.
the same except for Pre- tin exposed center conductor.
the use of male con-
tacts and a plug
body. 5, 6.—Same as 3 and 4 under 83:1SP Plug.

Fig. 20- 4— Cable- stripping dimensions and assembly instructions for several popular coaxial- cable plugs. This
material courtesy Amphenol Connector Division, Amphenol-Borg Electronics Corp.
508 CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
number 10. Only two significant figures are
TABLE 20- II used. Table 20- II shows the preferred values
based on tolerance steps 20, 10 and 5per cent.
Standard Component Values
All other values are expressed by multiplying
20% 16% 5%
Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance
or dividing the base figures given in the table
10 10 10
by the appropriate power of 10. ( For example,
11 resistor values of 33,000 ohms, 6800 ohms, and
12 12 150 ohms are obtained by multiplying the
13 base figures by 1000, 100, and 10, respectively.)
15 15 15
16 "Tolerance" means that a variation of plus
18 18 or minus the percentage given is considered
20 satisfactory. For example, the actual resist-
22 22 22
24
ance of a "4700-ohm" 20- per-cent resistor can
27 27 lie anywhere between 3700 and 5600 ohms,
30 approximately. The permissible variation in
33 33 33 the same resistance value with 5-per-cent tol-
36
39 39 erance would be in the range from 4500 to
43 4900 ohms, approximately.
47 47 47 Only those values 'shown in the first column
51
56 56
of Table 20- II are available in 20- per-cent
62 tolerance. Additional values, as shown in the
68 68 68 second column, are available in 10-per-cent
75 tolerance; still more values can be obtained
82 82
91
in 5-per- cent tolerance.
100 100 100
Firstt
Mica capacitors- Black significant figure
• Second
eve. Pareacieje
pearance of the finished unit. In asimilar manner, significant figure
"dress" the small components so that they are

000
parallel to the panel or sides of the chassis.

Winding Coils
Close-wound coils are readily wound on the
specified form by anchoring one end of a
aaracferistic I L Dec/ma/multiplier
Tolerance
length of wire ( in a vise or to a doorknob) AWS and JAN fixed capacitors
and the other end to the coil form. Straighten
any kinks in the wire and then pull to keep
the wire under slight tension. Wind the coil
to the required number of turns while walk-
e).
L
First
ing toward the anchor, always maintaining a Significant figure
slight tension on the wire. multiplier
Second
To space-wind the coil, wind the coil simul- Significant figure
taneously with a suitable spacing medium
(heavy thread, string or wire) in the manner Second
described above. When the winding is com- Tht I significant figure
sant
rde beneel, rineet
plete, secure the end of the coil to the coil- 1t.
( significant figure
form terminal and then carefully unwind the
spacing material. If the coil is wound under
suitable tension, the spacing material can be 0 0 0
easily removed without disturbing the wind-
Decima/ m iplier
ing. Finish the space-wound coil by judicious
VoltageTolerance
applications of Duco cement, to hold the
turns in place.
first s,9nificant figure
The "cold" end of a coil is the end at or close
to chassis or ground potential. Coupling links B-Secondsignificant figure

should be wound on the cold end of a coil, to kmperature coefficient -Oecinuzl multiplier

minimize capacitive coupling. 0-Capacitance tolerance

COMPONENT VALUES
Values of composition resistors and small
capacitors ( mica and ceramic) are specified
throughout •this Handbook in terms of "pre-
ferred values." In the preferred- number sys-
tem, all values represent ( approximately) a
constant-percentage increase over the next
lower value. The base of the system is the
 592 OPERATING A STATION

P.A.Ii•h«1 rhe
Amateur Radio Emergency Cmps
by the An:mom limed Melee Meg . r
em e met, *remove.; ”. me, um

Operating an Amateur Radio Station covers Emergency Communications is the " bible" of
the details of practical amateur operating. In it the Amateur Radio Emergency Corps. Within its
you will find information on Operating Practices, eight pages are contained the fundamentals of
Emergency Communication, ARRL Operating Ac- emergency communication which every amateur
tivities and Awards, the ARRL Field Organization, interested in public service work should know, in-
Handling Messages, Network Organization, " Q" cluding a complete diagrammatical plan adapt-
Signals and Abbreviations used in amateur oper- able for use in any community, explanation of
ating, important extracts from the FCC Regula- the role of the American Red Cross and FCC's
tions, and other helpful material. It's a handy regulations concerning amateur operation in
reference that will serve to answer many of the emergencies. The Radio Amateur Civil Emergency
questions concerning operating that arise during Service ( RACES) comes in for special considera-
your activities on the air. tion, including a table of RACES frequencies on
the front cover.

The two publications described above

may be obtained without charge by
any Handbook reader. Either or
both will be sent upon request.

AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE

225 Main Street
Newington, Conn. 06111

Please send me, without charge, the following:

E OPERATING AN AMATEUR RADIO STATION
Li EMERGENCY COMMUNICATIONS

Name
(Please Print)

Address
510 CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
coding the body color has no significance.
PILOT-LAMP DATA Examples: A resistor of the type shown in
the lower drawing of Fig. 20-6 has the follow-
ing color bands: A, red; B, red; C, orange;
Lamp Bead Base Bulb RATING D, no color. The significant figures are 2, 2
No. Color (Miniature) Type Volts Amp. (22) and the decimal multiplier is 1000. The
value of resistance is therefore 22,000 ohms
and the tolerance is -±- 20%.
40 Brown Screw T- 3g 6-8 0.15 A resistor of the type shown in the upper
drawing has the following colors: body ( A),
40A 1 Brown Bayonet T- 3g 6-8 0.15
blue; end ( B), gray; dot, red; end ( D), gold.
41 White Screw T-354 2.5 0.5 The significant figures are 6, 8 ( 68) and the
42 Green Screw T-354 3.2 •• decimal multiplier is 100, so the resistance is
43 White Bayonet T-354 2.5 0.5 6800 ohms. The tolerance is ±-- 5%.

44 Blue Bayonet T- 3g 6-8 0.25

I.F. Transformers
45 • Bayonet T- 3g 3.2 ••
46 2 Blue Screw T-354 6-8 0.25 Blue- plate lead.
47 1 Brown Bayonet T-354 ,55. 0.15 Red -" B" -I- lead.
48 Pink Screw T-354 2.0 0.06 Green- grid (or diode) lead.
49 8 Pink Bayonet T-3 1
/
4 2.0 0.06 Black- grid (or diode) return.
49A 8 White Bayonet T- 3g 2.1 0.12 NOTE: If the secondary of the i.f.t. is center-
50 White Screw G-3 5
/2 6-8 0.2 tapped, the second diode plate lead is green-
51 2 White Bayonet G- 3g 6-8 0.2 and-black striped, and black is used for the
53 - Bayonet G-334 14.4 0.12 center-tap lead.
55 White Bayonet G-4 2
4 6-8 0.4
A.F. Transformers
292 5 White Screw T-3 34 2.9 0.17
292A 5 White Bayonet T- 3g 2.9 0.17 Blue- plate (finish) lead of primary.
1455 Brown Screw G-5 18.0 0.25 Red -" B" -F lead ( this applies whether the
1455A Brown Bayonet G-5 18.0 0.25 primary is plain or center- tapped).
1487 - Screw T-3 g 12-16 0.20 Brown - plate (start) lead on center-tapped
1488 - Bayonet T-3 34 14 0.15 primaries. ( Blue may be used for this lead if
1813 - Bayonet T- 3g 14.4 0.10 polarity is not important.)
1815 - Bayonet T- 3g 12-16 0.20 Green- grid (finish) lead to secondary.
Black - grid return ( this applies whether the
secondary is plain or center- tapped).
1 40A and 47 are interchangeable.
Yellow- grid (start) lead on center-tapped
2 Have frosted bulb.
a49 and 49A are interchangeable.
secondaries. ( Green may be used for this
5 Replace with No. 48. lead if polarity is not important.)
5 Use in 2.5-volt sets where regular bulb burns NOTE: These markings apply also to line-to-
out too frequently. grid and tube-to- line transformers.
• White in G.E. and Sylvania; green in Na-
tional Union, Raytheon and Tung- Sol. Power Transformers
•• 0.35 in G.E. and Sylvania; 0.5 in National
1) Primary Leads Black
Union, Raytheon and Tung- Sol.
If tapped:
Common Black
Tap Black and Yellow Striped
Fixed Composition Resistors
Finish Black and Red Striped
Composition resistors ( including small wire- 2) High-Voltage Plate Winding Red
wound units molded in cases identical with Center- Tap Red and Yellow Striped
the composition type) are color-coded as 3) Rectifier Filament Winding Yellow
shown in Fig. 20-6. Colored bands are used Center- Tap Yellow and Blue Striped
on resistors having axial leads; on radial- lead 4) Filament Winding No. 1 Green
resistors the colors are placed as shown in Center- Tap Green and Yellow Striped
the drawing. When bands are used for color 5) Filament Winding No. 2 Brown
Center-Tap....Brown and Yellow Striped
6) Filament Winding No. 3 Slate
TABLE 20-V Center- Tap Çlate and Yellow Striped
Capacitor Characteristic Code
TABLE 20-VI
Color Temperature Breaking Load (
Pounds) For Antenna Wire
Sixth Coefficient Capacitance
Hard Soft Copperweld
Dot p.p.m./deg. C. Drift
Drawn Drawn (40% conduct)
No. 18 85 150
Black d-.1000 ±-5% + 1 µid 16 135 250
Brown 500 3% + 1 PA 14 215 125 400
Red +200 ▪ 0.5% 12 335 200 710
Orange +100 0.3% 10 530 315 1130
Yellow -20 to + 100 ▪ 0.1% + 0.1 ggf. Breaking load for plastic clothesline is about
Green 0 to + 70 ± 0.05% + 0.1 µgf. 250 pounds.
 c e 22 a W; a % a 22g2 Na. 28 2 22 ne g : e e at. at. t. .i.
eeezetle.ee.Viee.meeee4UReeeze.L'a*mtzlmieneee-
agle.e. .4•=gAgge,geletLeeee...geeemwee 2
/ ggee4e.=z,""""'"'":
"P'
e'°

l!el 1
11
1le11111111leee111111111111lee5lillem1111111e1 1
11
lelem imiemeele llele ..› 1
- ' =ggg
e leel 1›lel l>.›1111111111111111leee151 1
Imiel -

••co!-, e • • • • eite
99 ` 1.1"Y"''' `'````' °`0"e• -`` 1°'' .Q```111 `° 1 - - - - 1 11 . ..... • • ...1.e.e. ....n...e 0.-e,e, .... ...e.... s.-,. $$$ 2 -...‘00.... ,. .
e e4 e44 gge.=NN....NNNNN=N.NNN
-M-gg ---- 'e"4-d''seeii'/8 eàieàeÎeÎiiggd::;2:eeitnaeeageegleinÉM::.=.=.::.N...N.Mg§hgggÎgeg
g 2 ÎN=.==..gÎggg==g..===mggg§g i

2
heeCeâd2eg2hgegîeMeà2hWgeeeeCgRîke edledeeeeIEhUAAECCareeâAeÈg.1 2eeattlge. 2 ee?e?àgîgàeeeeelg 2d

;4.1eleeeelleeleilllie11111111111111eillelieemelleellelimee111111111eleeeemelle1111111111111111111leeellelelleemieleelmeelemie
F..
E;
C F F. . .... ...... g . 0000 .
4 És e 4 • =
4 13915 glielellandlidejlandegiellli :- "A :
4AllaldEiteme2IL '
allggegirAdzié ej'
eeeee'eeee

eue. Nmer. e ux ›co 0.mm non œ u< U‹ e aXXX>o > 144-X

egeeepeeueteezgeeegeeeg!eegegeeegegegeegeeggggggeegeear/uemeceegeegeeugeeàgmggkeeaggeeegeaeeeue.Eeteueeefflgg
0 MOW .X.)424 , N2 2.4 2 02F XXX 22E. 220

eeleeeeeneeleemeeleelleeelleeleenceilleeeeeeeeeeeeeeemmelmeelemilemeellIIIIIIIIIIInciellIIIII 5e1111111111eeemeeeee
..
t.

at
.......
.I.• • •....
• . •< F.E. E
.(4 "
.
Zon '
e • e nj e
etgâilegf

e dg e
g ggigegghâledleelegag
e ........ ne
neOnnwœom ›•< g«W effleieele.

jee,m'eeegnZellOCeeeeZeeeeZegenr.Zeteneeeeiaegeegeeeegelgegi*??gggeleeegeeggealóggeeen ee ge
z,Nzooce ›. 0 oag.à 2,-,2220NX2 M00 0 0022 222edeE.2NE. 2 2E. MX00 CO * MM. al.greXX.cma » g>egge>emee Ng X›..z,gz %Jam w
n g e e e.gLege=raIeiggUeg

,e....... ..... • .
Vacuum-Tube Data

k± . . . . . ,< • . .
ees " • " . ......
*00 e
-nntteeenei-e;x›,zae ›e>exx›.:IgAneeteleleggâgg5Migidfillliktlegg hilkellgee leg een

lAiel eeeeagemeeegeghetgeev»gu-aeo—gelguehmegeggagedgekesdeeeeeemeâedeeliAlu 5
II II II III II II III 11111 II II II III II III II II III II III II IIII II II

.......... .,4g
›; E
t:„
c

"eiirffilliiiiitabigaiggiBiegiffiefirathieertraige4 d'neAAer Healeedee=lea.<<ri«.

I' '13° ° " * ee%hurze5e8ta
512 CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS USED IN CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

-7-

Single cell Multicell Electrolytic Fixed Variable Split - stator Feedthrough

ANTENNA BATTERIES CAPACITORS

Multiple, Coaxial ›-T-- Phono

Mole Movable Receptacle Jack

Fem. —<
Female Mole Phone Phone
230v.
Contacts Multiple,
Coaxial E
-T-- Kfic Jock Plug
Fixed Plug Jock
CONNECTORS

—101— 6?) [it

Air Core Iron Core Topped Adjustable

CRYSTAL Choke
QUARTZ FUSE GROUND HEADSET INDUCTORS

• Insert Appropriate Designations

C) Di—
A - Ammeter —
V - Voltmeter
MA-Milliammeter D=
etc.
Pilot Neon ( A.C.)
RECTIFIER,
KEY LAMPS METERS I MICROPHONE ANY

D.P. SPOT.

c›.L._+ ii PNP

t_
0—
Transistors
Zener Voltage
Fixed Tapped Adjustable Rectifier -ED NPN
Dependent
Capacitor
RELAYS RESISTORS SEMI CONDUCTORS

c
:je
(
( s)
00 c•—e`o Ci-e 2, OR o
L_ o
Shielded Shielded Coaxial S.P. S.T. D.T.
General Enclosure
Wire Multiconductor Coble Toggle Multipoint

SHIELDING SPEAKER SWITCHES

I
EI
Air Core Iron Core Adjustable Adjustable With Link
0

Terminal Crossing Conductors Conductors Chassis

Inductance Coupling not oined joined Connections

TRANSFORMERS VIBRATOR WIRING

n
Heater or
Filament
Indirectly
Heated Cathode
Cold
Cathode
Grid Plate
›—

Deflection
Plates
•
Gas
Filled PentodeVoltage
Iç5i
Regulator
ELECTRON TUBE ELEMENTS COMPLETE TUBES

Where it is necessary or desirable to identify of dielectr c), the curved line indicates the
the electrodes or capacitors, the curved ele- moving element ( rotor plates).
ment represents the outside electrode ( marked In the case of switches, jacks, etc., only the
"outside foil," "ground," etc.) in fixed paper- basic combinations are shown. Any combina-
and ceramic- dielectric capacitors, and the tion of these symbols may be assembled as
negative electrode in electrolytic capacitors. required, following the elementary forms
In variable or adjustable capacitors ( regardless shown.
 Chapter 21

Measurements

It is practically impossible to operate an useful. For these purposes there is available

amateur station without making measure- a wide assortment of instruments, both com-
ments at one time or another. Although quite plete and in kit form; the latter, particularly,
crude measurements often will suffice, more compare very favorably in cost with strictly
refined equipment and methods will yield home- built instruments and are frequently
more and better information. With adequate more satisfactory both in appearance and
information at hand it becomes possible to calibration. The home- built instruments
adjust a piece of equipment for optimum described in this chapter are ones having fea-
performance quickly and surely, and to de- tures of particular usefulness in amateur ap-
sign circuits along established principles plications, and not ordinarily available com-
rather than depending on cut-and- try. mercially.
Measuring and test equipment is valuable In using any instrument it should always
during construction, for testing components be kept in mind that the accuracy depends
before installation. It is practically indispen- not only on the inherent accuracy of the in-
sable in the initial adjustment of radio gear, strument itself ( which, in the case of com-
not only for establishing operating values but mercially built units is usually within a few
also for tracing possible errors in wiring. It per cent, and in any event should be speci-
is likewise needed for locating breakdowns fied by the manufacturer) but also the condi-
and defective components in existing equip- tions under which the measurement is made.
ment. Large errors can be introduced by failing to
The basic measurements are those of cur- recognize the existence of conditions that
.rent, voltage, and frequency. Determination affect the instrument readings. This is par-
of the values of circuit elements- resistance, ticularly true in certain types of r.f. measure-
inductance and capacitance — are almost ments, where stray effects are hard to eliminate,
equally important. The inspection of wave- and in the measurement of d.c. and a.c. voltages
form in audio- frequency circuits is highly across extremely high- impedance circuits.

VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND RESISTANCE

spread out at the high-current end of the scale.
D.C. MEASUREMENTS The same basic instrument is used for
A direct- current instrument — voltmeter, measuring either current or voltage. Good-
ammeter, milliammeter or microammeter — quality instruments are made with fairly high
is a device using electromagnetic means to sensitivity — that is, they give full-scale
deflect apointer over acalibrated scale in propor- pointer deflection with very small currents —
tion to the current flowing. In the D'Arsonval when intended to be used as voltmeters. The
type a coil of wire, to which the pointer is at- sensitivity of instruments intended for meas-
tached, is pivoted between the poles of a perma- uring large currents can be lower, but a
nent magnet, and when current flows through highly sensitive instrument can be, and fre-
the coil it causes a magnetic field that interacts quently is, used for measurement of currents
with that of the magnet to cause the coil to turn. much greater than needed for full-scale de-
The design of the instrument is usually such as flection.
to make the pointer deflection directly propor- Panel- mounting instruments of the
tional to the current. D'Arsonval type will give a smaller deflection
A less expensive type of instrument is the when mounted on iron or steel panels than
moving-vane type, in which a pivoted soft- when mounted on nonmagnetic material.
iron vane is pulled into a coil of wire by the Readings may be as much as ten per cent low.
magnetic field set up when current flows Specially calibrated meters should be ob-
through the coil. The farther the vane ex- tained for mounting on such panels.
tends into the coil the greater the magnetic
pull on it, for a given change in current, so VOLTMETERS
this type of instrument does not have " linear" Only a fraction of a volt is required for
deflection— the intervals of equal current are full-scale deflection of a sensitive instrument
crowded together at the low-current end and (1 milliampere or less full scale) so for meas-

513
514 MEASUREMENTS
the internal resistance of the meter should be
subtracted from the value so found, but this
is seldom necessary ( except perhaps for very
low ranges) because the meter resistance will
51-CiNT
be negligibly small compared with the multi-
plier resistance. An exception is when the
instrument is already provided with an in-
ternal multiplier, in which case the multiplier
resistance required to extend the range is
Fig. 21- 1— How voltmeter multipliers and milliammeter
shunts are connected to extend the range of a d.c. R = R.(ii — 1)
meter.
where R is the multiplier resistance, R. is the
total resistance of the instrument itself, and n
uring voltage a high resistance is connected is the factor by which the scale is to be multi-
in series with it, Fig. 21-1. Knowing the cur- plied. For example, if a 1000-ohms- per- volt
rent and the resistance, the voltage can easily voltmeter having a calibrated range of 0-10
be calculated from Ohm's Law. The meter volts is to be extended to 1000 volts, R. is
is calibrated in terms of the voltage drop 1000 X 10 = 10,000 ohms, nis 1000/10 = 100,
across the series resistor or multiplier. Prac- and R = 10,000(100 — 1) = 990.000 ohms.
tically any desired full-scale voltage range If a milliammeter is to be used as a volt-
can be obtained by proper choice of multiplier meter, the value of series resistance can be
resistance, and voltmeters frequently have found by Ohm's Law:
several ranges selected by a switch.
The sensitivity of the voltmeter is usually 1000E
expressed in " ohms per volt." A sensitivity of
1000 ohms per volt means that the resistance where E is the desired full-scale voltage and I
the full-scale reading of the instrument in
milliamperes.
100V
150K
250V Accuracy
MA
The accuracy of avoltmeter depends on the
calibration accuracy of the instrument itself
1000 '`./v METER READS APP 8IV
250V and the accuracy of the multiplier resistors.
20K ^/
v METER READS APP 98V
FULL Good- quality instruments are generally rated
SCALE
IIMEG METER READS APP 99V for an accuracy within plus or minus 2 per
cent. This is also the usual accuracy rating
of the basic meter movement.
When extending the range of a voltmeter
Fig. 21- 2— Effect of voltmeter resistance on accuracy of
or converting a low- range milliammeter into
readings. It is assumed that the d.c. resistance of the
avoltmeter the rated accuracy of the instrument
screen circuit is constant at 100 kilohms. The actual
is retained only when the multiplier resistance is
current and voltage without the voltmeter connected
precise. Precision wire- wound resistors are used
are 1 ma. and 100 volts. The voltmeter readings will
in the multipliers of high-quality instruments.
differ because the different types of meters draw differ-
These are relatively expensive, but the home con-
ent amounts of current through the 150-kilohm resistor.
structor can do quite well with 1% tolerance
composition resistors. They should be "derated"
of the voltmeter is 1000 times the full-scale when used for this purpose — that is, the actual
voltage, and by Ohm's Law the current re- power dissipated in the resistor should not be
quired for full-scale deflection is 1 milli- more than 44 to 4 1 the rated dissipation —
ampere. A sensitivity of 20,000 ohms per volt, and care should be used to avoid overheating
another commonly used value, means that the the body of the resistor when soldering to the
instrument is a 50- microampere meter. The leads. These precautions will help prevent
higher the resistance of the voltmeter the permanent change in the resistance of the
more accurate the measurements in high- unit.
resistance circuits. This is because the current Ordinary composition resistors are gener-
flowing through the voltmeter will cause a ally furnished in 10% or 5% tolerance ratings.
change in the voltage between the points If possible errors of this order can be ac-
across which the meter is connected, com- cepted, resistors of this type may be used as
pared with the voltage with the meter ab- multipliers. They should be operated below
sent, as shown in Fig. 21-2. the rated power dissipation figure, in the in-
terests of long-time stability.
Multipliers
The required multiplier resistance is found MILLIAMMETERS AND AMMETERS
by dividing the desired full-scale voltage by A microammeter or milliammeter can be
the current, in amperes, required for full- used to measure currents larger than its full-
scale deflection of the meter alone. Strictly, scale reading by connecting a resistance
D.C. 515
shunt across its terminals as shown in Fig.
21-1. Part of the current flows through the
shunt and part through the meter. Knowing
the meter resistance and the shunt resistance,
the relative currents can easily be calculated.
The value of shunt resistance required for a
given full-scale current range is given by
R.
n — 1
where R is the shunt, R. is the internal
resistance of the meter, and n is the factor by
which the original meter scale is to be multi- Fig. 21-4— Voltmeter method of measuring current. This
plied. The internal resistance of a milliam- method permits using relatively large values of resist-
meter is preferably determined from the ance in the shunt, standard values of fixed resistors fre-
manufacturer's catalog, but if this information quently being usable. If the multiplier resistance is 20
is not available it can be measured by the (or more) times the shunt resistance, the error in assum-
method shown in Fig. 21-3. Do not attempt to ing that all the current flows through the shunt will not
use an ohmmeter to measure the internal be of consequence in most practical applications.

otherwise, inserting the instrument will cause

the current to differ from its value with the
instrument out of the circuit. ( This may not
matter if the instrument is left permanently
in the circuit.) However, the resistance of
many circuits in radio equipment is quite high
and the circuit operation is affected little, if at
all, by adding as much as afew hundred ohms
in series. In such cases the voltmeter method
of measuring current, shown in Fig. 21-4, is
frequently convenient. A voltmeter — or low-
Fig. 21-3— Determining the internal resistance of a
range milliammeter provided with a multi-
milliammeter or microammeter. RIis an adjustable resis-
plier and operating as a voltmeter — having
tor having a maximum value about twice that necessary
a full-scale voltage range of a few volts, is
for limiting the current to full scale with R2 discon-
used to measure the voltage drop across a
nected; adjust it for exactly full-scale reading. Then
comparatively high resi=fance acting as a
connect R2and adjust it for exactly half-scale reading.
shunt. The formula previously given is used
The resistance of R2 is then equal to the internal resist-
for finding the proper value of shunt resist-
ance of the meter, and the resistor may be removed
ance for a given scale- multiplying factor, R.
from the circuit and measured separately. Internal re-
in this case being the multiplier resistance.
sistances vary from a few ohms to several hundred
ohms, depending on the sensitivity of the instrument. D.C. Power
Power in direct-current circuits is deter-
resistance of a milliammeter; the instrument
mined by measuring the current and voltage.
may be ruined by doing so.
When these are known, the power is equal
Homemade milliammeter shunts can be
to the voltage in volts multiplied by the cur-
constructed from any of the various special
kinds of resistance wire, or from ordinary
copper wire if no resistance wire is available.
The Copper Wire Table in this Handbook
gives the resistance per 1000 feet for various
sizes of copper wire. After computing the
resistance required, determine the smallest
wire size that will carry the full-scale current
(250 circular mils per ampere is a satisfactory
figure for this purpose). Measure off enough wire
to provide the required resistance. Accuracy can
be checked by causing enough current to flow Fig. 21-5— Measuring resistance with a voltmeter and
through the meter to make it read full scale milliammeter. If the approximate resistance is known
without the shunt; connecting the shunt should the voltage can be selected to cause the milliammeter,
then give the correct reading on the new range. MA, to read about half scale. If not, additional resist-
ance should be first connected in series with R to limit
Current Measurement with a Voltmeter the current to a safe value for the milliammeter. The
A current- measuring instrument should set-up then measures the total resistance, and the value
have very low resistance compared with the of R can be found by subtracting the known additional
resistance of the circuit being measured; resistance from the total.
516 MEASUREMENTS
rent in amperes. If the current is measured
with a milliammeter, the reading of the in-
strument must be divided by 1000 to convert
it to ampere.,
(A)
RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
Measurement of d.c. resistance is based on
measuring the current through the resistance
when a known voltage is applied, then using
Ohm's Law. A simple circuit is shown in Fig.
21-5. The internal resistance of the ammeter or
milliammeter, MA, should be low compared
with the resistance, R, being measured, since (B)
the voltage read by the voltmeter, V, is the
voltage across MA and R in series. The in-
struments and the d.c. voltage should be
chosen so that the readings are in the upper
half of the scale, if possible, since the percent-
age error is less in this region.
An ohmmeter is an instrument consisting
fundamentally of a voltmeter ( or milliam-
meter, depending on the circuit used) and a
small dry battery as a source of d.c. voltage,
(C)
calibrated so the value of an unknown resist-
ance can be read directly from the scale.
Typical ohmmeter circuits are shown in Fig.
21-6. In the simplest type, shown in Fig.21-6A,
Fig. 21-6— Ohmmeter circuits. Values are discussed in
the meter and battery are connected in series
the text.
with the unknown resistance. If a given de-
flection is obtained with terminals A-B
shorted, inserting the resistance to be meas- voltage drop across a reference resistor, R2,
ured will cause the meter reading to decrease. when the unknown resistor is connected so
When the resistance of the voltmeter is that current fl.tvcs through it, R2 and the bat-
known, the following formula can be applied: tery in series. By suitable choice of R2 ( low
values for low resistance, high values for
eR.
— — R„. high- resistance unknowns) this circuit will
give equally good results on all resistance
where R is the resistance under measurement, values in the range from one ohm to several
eis the voltage applied ( A- B shorted), megohms, provided that the voltmeter re-
E is the voltmeter reading with R con- sistance, R., is always very high ( 50 times or
nected, and more) compared with the resistance of R2.A
R. is the resistance of the voltmeter. 20,000-ohms- per-volt instrument ( 50-izamp.
The circuit of Fig. 21-6A is not suited to movement) is generally used. Assuming that
measuring low values of resistance ( below a the current through the voltmeter is negli-
hundred ohms or so) with a high- resistance gible compared with the current through R2,
voltmeter. For such measurements the circuit the formula for the unknown is
of Fig. 21-6B can be used. The milliammeter eR 2
R— — R2
should be a 0-1 ma. instrument, and R1 should E
be equal to the battery voltage, e, multiplied where R and R2 are as shown in Fig. 21-6C,
by 1000. The unknown resistance is e is the voltmeter reading with A-B
I.R„. shorted, and
— E is the voltmeter reading with R con-
where R is the unknown, nected.
R. is the internal resistance of the mil-
The "zero adjuster," RI,is used to set thé
liammeter,
voltmeter reading exactly to full scale when
is the current in ma. with R discon-
the meter is calibrated in ohms. A 10,000-ohm
nected from terminals A-B, and
variable resistor is suitable with a 20,000-
12 is the current in ma. with R con-
ohms-per- volt meter. The battery voltage is
nected.
usually 3 volts for ranges up to 100,000 ohms
The formula is approximate, but the error or so and 6 volts for higher ranges.
will be negligible if eis at least 3volts so that
R1 is at least 3000 ohms. A. C. Measurements
A third circuit for measuring resistance is Several types of instruments are available
shown in Fig. 21-6C. In this case a high- for measurement of low- frequency alternating
resistance voltmeter is used to measure the currents and voltages. The better-grade panel
Voltmeters 517
instruments for power- line frequencies are of — that is, the application of a voltage of re-
the dynamometer type. This compares with versed polarity will result in a small current
the D'Arsonval movement used for d.c. flow — and so CR 2 is used for eliminating the
measurements, but instead of a permanent effect of reverse current in the meter circuit.
magnet the dynamometer movement has a It does this by providing a low- resistance
field coil which, together with the moving path across CR i and the meter during the a.c.
coil, is connected to the a.c. source. Thus the alternations when CR i is not conducting.
moving coil is urged to turn in the same direc- Resistor R2 shunted across M 1 is used for
tion on both halves of the a.c. cycle. improving the linearity of the circuit. The
Moving-vane type instruments, described effective resistance of the rectifier decreases
earlier, also are used for a.c. measurements. with increasing current, leading to a calibra-
This is possible because the pull exerted on tion scale with nonuniform divisions. This is
the vane is in the same direction regardless overcome to a considerable extent by " bleed-
of the direction of current through the coil. ing" several times as much current through
The calibration of a moving-vane instrument R2 as flows through M 1 so the rectifier is al-
on a.c. will, in general, differ from its d.c. ways carrying a fairly large current.
calibration. Because of these expedients and the fact
that with half-wave rectification the average
current is only 0.45 times the r.m.s. value of
a sine wave producing it, the impedance of a
rectifier- type voltmeter is rather low com-
pared with the resistance of a d.c. voltmeter
using the same meter. Values of 1000 ohms
per volt are representative, when the d.c. in-
strument is a 0-200 microammeter.
Fig. 21- 7— Rectifier- type a.c, voltmeter circuit, with The d.c. instrument responds to the aver-
"linearizing" resistor and diode for back- current cor- age value of the rectified alternating current.
rection. This average current will vary with the shape
of the a.c. wave applied to the rectifier, and
For measurements in the audio- frequency so the meter reading will not be the same for
range, and in applications where high imped- different wave forms having the same maxi-
ance is required, the rectifier-type a.c. instru- mum values or the sanie r.m.s. values. Hence
ment is generally used. This is essentially a a " wave- form error" is always present unless
sensitive d.c. meter, of the type previously the a.c. wave is very closely sinusoidal. The
described, provided with a rectifier for con- actual calibration of the instrument usually
verting the a.c. to d.c. A typical rectifier- type is in terms of the r.m.s. value of a sine wave.
voltmeter circuit is shown in Fig. 21-7. The Modern rectifier- type a.c. voltmeters are
half- wave meter rectifier, CR 1, is frequently capable of good accuracy, within the wave-
of the copper-oxide type, but crystal diodes form limitations mentioned above, through-
can be used. Such a rectifier is not "perfect" out the audio- frequency range.

Fig. 21-8—Vacuum-tube voltmeter

circuit.

C1, Cs-0.002- to 0.005-µf. mica.

Cs-0.01 pf., 1000 to 2000 volts,
paper or mica.
C4-16 µf. electrolytic, 150 volts.
CR1-400 p.i.v. rectifier.
Rs- 1megohm, 1 /2 watt.
R2 to R5, inc.—To give desired voltage ranges, totaling R15-10 megohms.
10 megohms. R15.-3 MI2906112.
R5, R7-2 to 3 megohms. R17-10-megohm variable.
84- 10,000-ohm variable. Ts- 130-volt 15-ma. transformer (
only secondary shown).
R., Ri.-2000 to 3000 ohms. M-0-200 µamp. to 0-1 ma. range.
Ru-5000- to 10,000-ohm control. VI— Dual triode, 12AU7.
R12-10,000 to 50,000 ohms. Vs— Dual diode, 6AL5.
Rub Ris—App. 25,000 ohms. A 50,000-ohm slider- type
wire-wound can be used.
518 MEASUREMENTS
by potentiometer R11 , which takes care of
COMBINATION INSTRUMENTS— variations in the tube sections and in the
THE V.
O.M. values of cathode resistors R 9 and R10 .When
Since the same basic instrument is used for a positive d.c. voltage is applied to the left-
,measuring current, voltage and resistance, the hand grid the current through that tube sec-
three functions can readily be combined in tion increases, so the current balance is upset
one unit using asingle meter. Various models and the meter indicates. The sensitivity of the
of the "v.o.m." ( volt-ohm-milliammeter) are meter is regulated by 12 8,which serves to ad-
available commercially, both completely as- just the calibration. R 12 , common to the cath-
sembled and in kit form. The less expensive odes of both tube sections, is a feed back re-
ones use a 0-1 milliammeter as the basic in- sistor that stabilizes the system and makes
strument, providing voltmeter ranges at 1000 the readings linear. R 6 and C1 form a filter for
ohms per volt. The more elaborate meters of any a.c. component that may be present, and
this type use a microammeter-0-50 micro- R 6 is balanced by R 7 connected to the grid of
amperes, frequently—with voltmeter resist- the second tube section.
ances of 20,000 ohms per volt. With the more To stay well within the linear range of op-
sensitive instruments it is possible to make eration the scale is limited to 3 volts or less
resistance measurements in the megohms in the average commercial instrument. Higher
range. A.c. voltmeter scales also are fre- ranges are obtained by means of the voltage
quently included. divider formed by R1 to R 5 , inclusive. As many
The v.o.m., even avery simple one, is among ranges as desired can be used. Common prac-
the most useful instruments for the amateur. tice is to use 1 megohm at R1,and to make
Besides current and voltage measurements, it the sum of R 2 to R 5 , inclusive, 10 megohms,
can be used for checking continuity in cir- thus giving a total resistance of 11 megohms,
cuits, for finding defective components be- constant for all voltage ranges. R1 should be
fore installation — shorted capacitors, open at the probe end of the d.c. lead to minimize
or otherwise defective resistors, etc. — shorts capacitive loading effects when measuring
or opens in wiring, and many other checks d.c. voltages in r.f. circuits.
that, if applied during the construction of a Values to be used in the circuit depend con-
piece of equipment, save much time and siderably on the supply voltage and the sensi-
trouble. It is equally useful for servicing, tivity of the meter, M. R 12 ,and R13 -R14 ,should
when a component fails during operation. be adjusted by trial so that the voltmeter cir-
cuit can be brought to balance, and to give
THE VACUUM -
TUBE VOLTMETER full-scale deflection on M with about 3 volts
The usefulness of the vacuum-tube volt- applied to the left-hand grid. The meter con-
meter (v.t.v.m.) is based on the fact that a nections can be reversed to read voltages that
vacuum tube can amplify without taking are negative with respect to ground.
power from the source of voltage applied to
its grid. It is therefore possible to have a A.C. Voltage
voltmeter of extremely high resistance, and For measuring a.c. voltages up to 4Mc., the
thus take negligible current from the circuit rectifier circuit in the lower left of Fig. 21-8
under measurement, without using a d.c. in- is used. One diode of V 2 is a half- wave recti-
strument of exceptional sensitivity. fier and the other acts as a balancing device,
The v.t.v.m. has the disadvantage that it adjustable by R 17 , against contact potential
requires a source of power for its operation, effects that would cause aresidual d.c. voltage
as compared with a regular d.c. instrument. to appear at the v.t.v.m. grid.
Also, it is susceptible to r.f. pick-up when The rectifier output voltage is proportional
working around an operating transmitter, un- to the peak amplitude of the a.c. wave, rather
less well shielded and filtered. The fact that than to the average or r.m.s. values. Since the
one of its terminals is grounded is also disad- positive and negative peaks of a complex
vantageous in some cases, since a.c. readings wave may not have equal amplitudes, a dif-
in particular may be inaccurate if an attempt ferent reading may be obtained on such wave
is made to measure a circuit having both forms when the voltmeter probe terminals are
sides " hot" with respect to ground. Never- reversed. This " turnover" effect is inherent in
theless, the high resistance of the v.t.v.m. any peak-indicating device, but is not neces-
more than compensates for these disadvan- sarily a disadvantage. The fact that the read-
tages, especially since in the majority of ings are not the same when the voltmeter
measurements they do not apply. connections are reversed is an indication that
While there are several possible circuits, the wave form under measurement is unsym-
the one commonly used is shown in Fig. 21-8. metrical. In some measurements, as in audio
A dual triode, VI,is arranged so that, with amplifiers, apeak measurement is more useful
no voltage applied to the left-hand grid, equal than an r.m.s. or average-value measurement
currents flow through both sections. Under because amplifier capabilities are based on the
this condition the two cathodes are at the peak amplitudes.
same potential and no current flows through The scale calibration usually is based on the
M. The currents can be adjusted to balance r.m.s. value of a sine wave, R 8 being set so
Frequency Meters 519
that the same scale can be used either for a.c. extended readily by adding multipliers or a
or d.c. The r.m.s. reading can easily be con- voltage divider as appropriate.
verted to a peak reading by multiplying by Shunts for a milliammeter may be adjusted
1.41. by first using the meter alone in series with a
source of voltage and a resistor selected to
INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION limit the current to full scale. For example, a
When extending the range of a d.c. instru- 0-1 milliammeter may be connected in series
ment, calibration usually is necessary — al- with a dry cell and a 2000-ohm variable re-
though resistors for voltmeter multipliers sistor, the latter being adjusted to allow ex-
often can be purchased to close- enough tol- actly 1 milliampere to flow. Then the shunt
erances so that the new range will be ac- is added across the meter and its resistance
curately known. However, in calibrating an adjusted to reduce the meter reading by ex-
instrument such as av.t.v.m. aknown voltage actly the scale factor, n. If n is 5, the shunt
must be available to provide a starting point. would be adjusted to make the meter read 0.2
Fresh dry cells have an open- circuit terminal milliampere, so the full-scale current will be
voltage of approximately 1.6 volts, and one or 5 ma. Using the new scale, the second shunt
more of them may be connected in series to is added to give the next range, the same pro-
provide several calibration points on the low cedure being followed. This can be carried
range. Gas regulator tubes in apower supply, on for several ranges, but it is advisable to
such as the 0C3, OD3, etc., also provide a check the meter on the highest range against
stable source of voltage whose value is known a separate meter used as a standard, since
within afew per cent. Once afew such points the errors in this process tend to be cumu-
are determined the voltmeter ranges may be lative.

MEASUREMENT OF FREQUENCY
tent and change each others' tuning. Never-
ABSORPTION FREQUENCY METERS theless, the absorption frequency meter or
The simplest possible frequenc‘ - naa ,,uring "wavemeter" is a highly useful instrument.
device is a resonant circuit, tunable over the It is compact, inexpensive, and requires no
desired frequency range and having its tuning power supply. There is no ambiguity in its
dial calibrated in terms of frequency. It op- indications, as is frequently the case with the
erates by extracting asmall amount of energy heterodyne-type instruments.
from the oscillating circuit to be measured, When an absorption meter is used for
the frequency being determined by the tuning checking a transmitter, the plate current
setting at which the energy absorption is of the tube connected to the circuit being
maximum ( Fig. 21-9). checked can provide the necessary resonance
Such an instrument is not capable of very indication. When the frequency meter is
loosely coupled to the tank circuit the plate
current will give a slight upward flicker as
the meter is tuned through resonance. The
accuracy is greatest when the loosest possible
coupling is used.
A receiver oscillator may be checked by
tuning in a steady signal and heterodyning it
to give a beat note as in ordinary c.w. recep-
tion. When the frequency meter is coupled to
the oscillator coil and tuned through reson-
ance the beat note will change. Again, the
coupling should be made loose enough so that
a just-perceptible change in beat note is
Fig. 21-9— Absorption frequency meter and a typical
observed.
application. The meter consists simply of a calibrated
An approximate calibration for the meter,
resonant circuit LC. When coupled to an amplifier or
adequate for most purposes, may be obtained
oscillator the tube plate current will rise when the fre-
by comparison with acalibrated receiver. The
quency meter is tuned to resonance. A flashlight lamp
usual receiver dial calibration is sufficiently
may be connected in series at Xto give avisual indica-
accurate. A simple oscillator circuit covering
tion, but it decreases the selectivity of the instrument
the same range as the frequency meter will
and makes it necessary to use rather close coupling to
be useful in calibration. Set the receiver to a
the circuit being measured.
given frequency, tune the oscillator to zero
beat at the same frequency, and adjust the fre-
high accuracy, because the Q of the tuned cir- quency meter to resonance with the oscillator
cuit cannot be high enough to avoid uncer- as described above. This gives one calibration
tainty as to the exact dial setting and because point. When a sufficient number of such
any two coupled circuits interact to some ex- points has been obtained a graph may be
520 MEASUREMENTS
drawn to show frequency vs. dial settings on the frequency meter can be used as a monitor
the frequency meter. for modulated transmissions.

INDICATING FREQUENCY METERS Sensitive Wavemeter

The plain absorption meter requires fairly If a v.t.v.m. is available, its sensitivity can be
close coupling to the oscillating circuit in used to provide good resonance indications in a
order to affect the plate current of atube suf- wavemeter when very low power levels are in-
ficiently to give a visual indication. However, volved. At normal power levels very loose coup-
by adding a rectifier and d.c. microammeter ling will suffice for a good reading. A typical
or milliammeter, the sensitivity of the instru- circuit for this purpose is given in Fig. 21-11,
ment can be increased to the point where very and Fig. 21-12 shows most of the details of con-
loose coupling will suffice for agood reading. struction. By using manufactured stock B & W
A typical circuit for this purpose is given in "Miniductor") for the coils, it is possible to dupli-
Fig. 21-10. cate the wavemeter fairly closely and thus use
the same calibration. Starting with a few known
points, the calibration can be completed as har-
monics of an oscillator are identified.
The tuning capacitor, C1,is mounted in ahole
in the center of one end of the Minibox cover.
When the capacitor is installed, a small pointer
of wire or scrap aluminum should be put under
the mounting nut and adjusted to come just above
the edge of the tuning knob ( Johnson 116-222-1).
The knob should read "0" at minimum capaci-
Fig. 21- 10—Circuit of typical wavemeter with built-in
tance. A two-terminal screw- type strip ( screws
indicator. The circuit responds to the frequency for
spaced /i2 inch) is mounted at the center of the
which LiC Iis resonant; a small amount of energy is opposite end of the Minibox cover, raised above
coupled to L2, rectified by CR1 and indicated by the the cover by the thickness of a4-40 nut. The two
meter. By plugging in apair of headphones at ii, any terminal lugs pass through 5/16- inch clearance
modulation on the signal will be heard. holes; one is grounded to asoldering lug held by
1.1-1 to 2turns or 10 percent of L1, whichever is greater. one of the 4-40 screws that secure the strip, and
Wound adjacent to or over grounded end of the other is connected to the stator of C1 by a
MA—Microammeter or 0-1 milliammeter. piece of wire ( No. 24) unwound from the coil
The rectifier, a crystal diode, is coupled to stock. One end of the 1N34A diode is soldered
the tuned circuit LIC, through a coupling coil, to the appropriate terminal lug and the other is
L 2, having a relatively small number of turns. soldered to an insulated tie point located near the
The step-down transformer action from L1 to insulated terminal for the v.t.v.m., which is
L 2 provides for efficient energy transfer from mounted near the center of the large wall of the
the high-impedance tuned circuit to the low- Minibox cover.
impedance rectifier circuit. The number of The "plugs" for the coils ( except the highest-
turns on L 2 can be adjusted for maximum frequency range) are made from three-terminal
reading on the d.c. milliammeter; when doing tie points. By trimming two adjacent terminals,
this, use a fixed value of coupling between L1 as shown in Fig. 21-12, it will be found that the
and the source of energy. The proper number "plug" will just slip under the two screws of the
of turns for this purpose will depend on the strip used as a socket. One altered terminal fits
sensitivity of M 1.Less than optimum coupling is under one screw, and the other two terminals
preferable, in most cases, since heavy loading "straddle" the other screw. The coil ends are
lowers the Q of the tuned circuit LiCI and soldered to the two active terminals and, in the
makes it less selective. The coupling is re- case of the larger coils, the coils are cemented to
duced by reducing the number of turns on L 2 . the strip with Duco cement for additional sup-
The meter can be used with a pick-up loop port. The "hairpin" coil made from the paper
and coaxial line connected to /1. Energy clip has its ends bent past the active portion at
picked up by the loop is fed through the cable an angle of about 80 degrees, as can be seen in
to L 2 and thence coupled to LiCI.This is a Fig. 21-12.
convenient method of coupling to circuits IN34A
where it would be physically difficult to se-
cure inductive coupling to L1. The pick-up
cable should not be self-resonant, as a trans-
mission-line section, at any frequency within
the range in which it is to be used. A 5-foot
length of RG-58/U is useful up to about 30 Mc.;
a one-foot length is good to about 200 Mc. Fig. 21- 11—Circuit diagram of the simple wavemeter.
By plugging aheadset into the output jack, 12, C1-100-1.4. variable ( Hammarlund MC- 100-M).
(phones having 2000 ohms or greater resist- Li—Made from 1-inch diameter, No. 24 wire, 32 t.p.i.
ance should be used for greatest sensitivity) coil stock ( B&W 3016). See coil table.
Fig. 21- 12—This simple wavemeter is useful for check-
ing the frequency of a transmitter, to insure that it is
properly tuned in an amateur band. It also serves to
identify the correct harmonic when frequency-multiply-
ing in a transmitter or crystal-controlled converter.
Housed in a 4X2 1uX2ki-inch "Minibox" ( Bud CU-
3003A), the wavemeter has a range of 2.5 to 160 Mc.
through the use of five coils. The coils "plug" into a
2-contact screw-type terminal strip ; the "coil" shown
in place covers 50 to 160 Mc. and is made from apaper
clip. The other coils (two shown) use 3-terminal in-
sulated mounting strips for plugs and coil supports.
The v.t.v.m. indicator connects to the terminals on
the back wall: one is the screw holding the tie point,
and the other is an insulated terminal (Johnson 105-602
nylon tip jack).
When using the wavemeter, connect the sible to determine the band edges very ac-
v.t.v.m. to the two terminals and set the v.t.v.m. curately. This is an important consideration
to its lowest voltage range. Normally it will be in amateur frequency measurement, since the
necessary only to couple the wavemeter coil very only regulatory requirement is that an ama-
loosely to the circuit under test, if it is a trans- teur transmission be inside the assigned band,
mitter circuit; the wavemeter has sufficient sensi- not on a specific frequency.
tivity to measure the r.f. in a receiver oscillator
Frequency Standard with Harmonic
circuit.
Amplifier
With reasonable care, the frequency limits for
the various coils will fall within 5 per cent of The frequency standard circuit shown in
those given in the coil table. With this as a Fig. 21-13 includes a tuned amplifier to in-
starting point, it is a simple matter to find ad- crease the strength of the higher harmonics,
ditional ( and accurate) calibration points from and incorporates a crystal- diode sawtooth
receiver oscillators and crystal oscillators and generator to make the harmonic strength rea-
their harmonics. sonably uniform throughout the usable fre-
quency spectrum of the instrument. It will
produce useful calibration signals at 100-kc.
intervals up to about 60 Mc. The strength of
WAVEMETER COIL TABLE
a particular harmonic may be peaked up by
Ama- selecting the proper amplifier tuning range
Coil Range teur
(turns) 1 ( Mc.) Band Dial » with S 2 and adjusting C 4 .
The 100-kc. oscillator uses the triode sec-
64 2.35-6.1 80 40-53
tion of a 6AN8, while the amplifier uses the
21 4.9-13.0 40 37-39 pentode section of the same tube. Power re-
20 14-16 quired for the unit is 150 volts at 10 ma. and
6 12.5-33.0 15 51-53 6.3 volts at 0.45 amp. This may be taken from
10 78-84 the accessory socket of a receiver, or a spe-
.2 28.5 -81.0 6 54-60 cial supply easily can be made using a TV
Hairpin 3 49-160 2 89-91 "booster" transformer ( such as the Merit
P-3046 or equivalent).
1B&W 3016 coil stock plus lead length.
2 0-100 for 180-degree rotation. 100 = mini- The standard is built in a 4 X 5 X 6 inch
mum capacitance. chassis- type box ( Fig. 21-14). R 2 and S 2 are
3Made from paper clip. Active loop is % 8 inch
wide, 914 inch long. mounted on the panel, with the amplifier plate
coils mounted on S 2 . The remaining com-
ponents are mounted on the chassis, C 4 being
insulated from it because its plates are above
THE SECONDARY FREQUENCY ground for d.c. For the same reason, an insu-
STANDARD lated shaft extension is used for front-panel
The secondary frequency standard is a control of C 4 .
highly stable low- power oscillator generating a Connection between the standard and the
fixed frequency, usually 100 kc. It is nearly al- receiver can be made through awire from the
ways crystal-controlled, and inexpensive 100-kc. hot terminal of Ji to the antenna input post
crystals are available for the purpose. Since the on the receiver. Depending on how well the
harmonics are multiples of 100 kc. throughout the receiver is shielded, such a wire may not be
spectrum, some of them can be compared directly needed at the lower-frequency end of the
with the standard frequencies transmitted by range.
WWV.
Adjusting to Frequency
The edges of most amateur bands also are
exact multiples of 100 kc., so it becomes pos- The frequency can be adjusted exactly to
522 MEASUREMENTS
100 kc. by making use of the WWV trans- least one 100-kc. point in a given amateur
missions tabulated later in this chapter. Select band must be known, of course, but this is
the WWV frequency that gives a good signal generally an easy matter since the activity in
at your location at the time of day most con- amateur bands usually makes identification of
venient. Tune it in with the receiver b.f.o. off the band-edge "marker signal" quite simple.
and wait for the period during which the After one frequency is known, the consecu-
modulation is absent. Then switch on the 100- tive 100-kc. harmonic signals are simply
kc. oscillator and adjust its frequency, by counted off from it.
means of C1 until its harmonic is in zero beat Although the 100-kc. standard does not
with WWV. The exact setting is easily found make possible the exact measurement of a
by observing the slow pulsation in back- frequency, it is readily possible to determine
ground noise as the harmonic comes close to whether or not the signal is in a particular
zero beat, and adjusting to where the pulsa- 100-kc. segment. If the unknown signal tunes
tion disappears or occurs at a very slow rate. in between, say, 21,200 and 21,300 kc., as indi-
The pulsation can be observed even more cated by the marker signals in the receiver,
readily by switching on the receiver's b.f.o., its frequency obviously lies between those
after approximate zero beat has been secured, two figures. For purposes of complying with
and observing the rise and fall in intensity the amateur regulations it is usually sufficient
(not frequency) of the beat tone. For best to know that the signal is above, or below,
results the WWV signal and the signal from some specified 100-kc. point, since the edges
the 100-kc. oscillator should be about the of the amateur bands or sub- bands usually
same strength. It is advisable not to try to are at such points. If a closer measurement
set the 100-kc. oscillator during the periods is desired a fairly good estimate usually can
when the WWV signal is tone-modulated, be made by counting the number of dial divi-
since it is difficult to tell whether the har- sions between two 100-kc. points and dividing
monic is being adjusted to zero beat with the the number into 100 to find how many kilo-
carrier or with a sidehand. cycles there are per dial division.
In using the receiver to check one's own
Using the Standard transmitting frequency it is necessary to take
Basically, the 100-kc. standard provides a special precautions to reduce the strength of
means for indicating the exact receiver dial the signal from the transmitter to the point
settings at which frequencies that are multiples where it does not overload the receiver nor
of 100 kc. are to be found. The harmonics of create spurious responses that could be taken
the standard can thus be used to check the for the actual signal. This invariably means
dial calibration of a receiver, and many of that the receiving antenna must be discon-
the better- grade communications receivers nected from the receiver, and it may be neces-
either include a 100-kc. oscillator for this sary, in addition, to short-circuit the receiver's
purpose or have provision for installing one antenna input terminals. Try to reduce stray
as an accessory. The actual frequency of at pickup to such an extent that the transmit-

OSCILL ATOR 4MPL IC R

Fig. 21- 13—Circuit of the 100-kc. crystal calibrator. Unless otherwise indicated, capacitances are in µf.,
resistances are in ohms, resistors are % watt.

C2-50-Pµf. midget variable ( Hammarlund MAPC-50). 1.4-30-60 Mc., 0.22 ph.; 4turns No. 20 plastic-insulated
C2-100-/˵f. variable ( Hammarlund HF- 100). wire, %-inch diom.
CR2--1N34A. 14-5000-ohm potentiometer (Mallory U-14).
12— Phono jack. Ss—S.p.s.t., mounted on R2 (Mallory US-26).
I.2-3.5-7 Mc., 10 µh. (
National R-33 r.f. choke). S2- 1-section, 1- pole, 4-position miniature phenolic ro-
L2-6.5-14 Mc., 4.7 µh. ( IRC type CL- 1 r.f. choke). tary switch (Centrolab PA- 1000).
L-15-30 Mc., 1.0 ph. ( IRC type CL- 1 r.f. choke). Y1-1 00-k c. crystal.
Frequency and Time qv-m(1rings 523

STANDARD FREQUENCIES AND TIME SIGNALS

* ANNOUNGMENT
INTERVALS AS
AT RIGHT

The Central Radio Propagation Lab-

oratory of the National Bureau of Stand-
ards maintains two radio transmitting sta- WWVH transmissions are interrupted for
tions, WWV near Washington, D.C., and a 4-minute period beginning approximately
WWVH at Puunene, Hawaii, for broadcast- 15 minutes after the hour.
ing standard radio frequencies of high ac- WWVB and WWVL near Fort Collins,
curacy. WWV broadcasts are on 2.5, 5, 10, Colorado, transmit standard frequency sig-
15, 20 and 25 megacycles per second, and nals at 60 and 20 kc., respectively.
those from WWVH are on 5, 10, and 15 Transmitted frequencies are accurate to
Mc. The radio- frequency signals are mod- within 2 parts in 100 billion, according to
ulated by pulses at 1 cycle per second, the Bureau of Standards. The WWV
and also by standard audio frequencies al- transmissions are generally stable to 1part
ternating between 440 and 600 c.p.s. in a billion in any given day, although this
Transmissions are continuous, with the is not guaranteed. Frequencies are based
following exceptions: The WWV trans- on an atomic standard, and daily correc-
missions are interrupted for a 4-minute tions to the transmitted frequencies are
period beginning at approximately 45 min- subsequently published each month in the
utes after the hour, as indicated above; the Proceedings of the IEEE.

Time Signals U — Unstable conditions, but communication

possible with high power.
The 1-c.p.s. modulation is a 5-millisecond pulse at
N — No warning.
intervals of precisely one second, and is heard as The number designations apply to expected propaga-
a tick. The pulse transmitted by WWV consists tion conditions during the subsequent 12 hours and
of 5 cycles of 1000-cycle tone; that transmitted by have the following significance:
WWVH consists of 6 cycles of 1200-cycle tone. On 1— impossible; 2— very poor; 3— poor; 4— fair to
the WWV transmissions, the 440- or 600-cycle tone poor; 5— fair; 6— fair to good; 7— good; 8— very
is blanked out beginning 10 milliseconds before and
good; 9— excellent.
ending 25 milliseconds after the pulse. On the
WWVH transmissions, the pulse is superimposed Special IGY Transmissions
on the tone. The pulse on the 59th second is omitted,
The special broadcasts instituted during the Inter-
and for additional identification the zero-second pulse
national Geophysical Year may be continued through
is followed by another 100 milliseconds later. On
WWV during the minutes identified by coarse cross- part or all of 1964. These broadcasts include informa-
tion on IGY " Alerts" and " Special World Inter-
hatching ( above) a high-speed pulse code is trans-
vals." The broadcasts from WWV are at 44 and
mitted, giving the time of day and the accuracy of
34.A minutes past the hour and those from WWVH
the time. It sounds like an erratic "buzz."
are at 14 and 44 minutes past the hour. Each such
Propagation Notices transmission is preceded by the letters "AGI" in
During the announcement intervals at 19.4 and International Morse Code. The code used for the
49 minutes after the hour, propagation notices ap- information is as follows:
plying to transmission paths over the North Atlantic 5A's— State of alert.
are transmitted from WWV on 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 5E's — No state of alert.
25 Mc. Similar forecasts for the North Pacific are 5S's — Special World Interval begins at 00012 the
transmitted from WWVH during the announcement following day.
intervals at 9 and 39 minutes after the hour. 5T's — Special World Interval terminates at 23592.
These notices, in telegraphic code, consist of the 3long dashes — Special World Interval in progress.
letter N, W, or U followed by a number. The letter
designations apply to propagation conditions as of CHU
the time of the broadcast, and have the following CHU, the Canadian time-signal station, transmits
significance: on 3330.0, 7335.0 and 14,670.0 kc. Voice announcement
W — Ionospheric disturbance in progress or of the minute is made each minute; the 29th second
expected. time tick is omitted.
 a.c. and speaker leads where they leave the
chassis, to prevent energy picked up on these
leads from getting into the front end of the
receiver.

More Precise Methods

The methods described above are quite
adequate for the primary purpose of amateur
frequency measurements -- that is, determin-
ing whether or not a transmitter is operating
inside the limits of an amateur band, and the
approximate frequency inside the band. For
measurement of an unknown frequency to a
high degree of accuracy more advanced meth-
ods can be used. Accurate signals at closer
intervals can be obtained by using a multi-
vibrator in conjunction with the 100-kc.
standard, arid thus obtaining signals at inter-
vals of, say, 10 kc. or some other integral
divisor of 100. Temperature control is fre-
Fig. 21-14—A 100-kc. frequency standard
quently used on the 100-kc. oscillator to give
and harmonic amplifier. The crystal in this
a high order of stability ( Collier, " What Price
unit is in the metal-tube type envelope.
Precision?", QST, September and October,
Power and r.f. output connections are taken
1952). Also, the secondary standard can be
through the rear chassis lip.
used in conjunction with avariable- frequency
The crystal diodes, CR 2 and CR2, are
interpolation oscillator to fill in the standard
mounted on atie-point strip underneath the
intervals ( Woodward, " A Linear Beat- Fre-
chassis. The shaft of CIcan be seen in front
quency Oscillator for Frequency Measure-
of the vacuum tube.
ment," QST, May, 1951). An interpolation
ter's signal is no stronger than normal in- oscillator and standard can be combined in
coming signals at the regular gain-control one instrument to give signals throughout the
settings. With some receivers this may re- spectrum. One application of this type was de-
quire additional shielding around the signal- scribed in QST for May, 1949 ( Grammer, " The
frequency circuits, and perhaps filtering of the Additive Frequency Meter").

TEST OSCILLATORS AND SIGNAL GENERATORS

THE GRID- DIP METER

The grid- dip meter is a simple vacuum-tube of the type described in the chapter on TVI.
oscillator to which a microammeter or low- Since it is its own source of r.f. energy it does
range milliammeter has been added for reading not require the circuit being checked to be en-
the oscillator grid current. A 0-1 milliammeter ergized. In addition to resonance checks, the
is sensitive enough in most cases. The grid-dip grid-dip meter also can be used as a signal
meter is so called because if the oscillator is source for receiver alignment and, as described
coupled to a tuned circuit the grid current will later in this chapter, is useful in measurement
show a decrease or "dip" when the oscillator is of inductance and capacitance in the range of
tuned through resonance with the unknown cir- values used in r.f. circuits.
cuit. The reason for this is that the external The grid-dip meter shown in Fig. 21-15 is
circuit will absorb energy from the oscillator representative, although this particular unit has
when both are tuned to the same frequency; the a higher frequency limit than similar inexpen-
loss of energy from the oscillator circuit causes sive units. It uses the 6CW4 ( Nuvistor) triode
the feed-back to decrease and this in turn is for the oscillator, and it can be used with the
accompanied by adecrease in grid current. The power supply and metering circuit shown in
dip in grid current is quite sharp when the cir- Fig. 21-18.
cuit to which the oscillator is coupled has Referring to the circuit in Fig. 21-16, a re-
reasonably high Q. sistor, 1? 2, is plugged in with each coil ( the
The grid-dip meter is most useful when it resistor is mounted in the coil form). It forms
covers awide frequency range and is compactly a voltage divider with the normal grid leak, R1,
constructed so that it can be coupled to circuits and brings the metering circuit into the best
in hard-to- reach places such as in a transmitter range for the transistor booster.
or receiver chassis. It can thus be used to check The construction of the meter is straightfor-
tuning ranges and to find unwanted resonances ward; a small aluminum bracket supports the
Grid- Dip NIPtArc 525
The grid-dip meter may be used as an indi-
cating-type absorption wavemeter by shutting
off the plate voltage and using the grid and
cathode of the tube as a diode. However, this
type of circuit is not as sensitive as the crystal-
detector type shown earlier in this chapter, be-
cause of the high- resistance grid leak in series
with the meter.
In using the grid- dip meter for checking the
resonant frequency of a circuit the coupling
should be set to the point where the dip in grid
current is just perceptible. This reduces inter-
action between the two circuits to a minimum
and gives the highest accuracy. With too-close
Fig. 21- 15—Grid-dip meter covering the range 1.7 to coupling the oscillator frequency may be
275 Mc., with the 90-165 Mc. coil in place. The power "pulled" by the circuit being checked, in which
supply and transistor meter booster are a separate unit case different readings will be obtained when
(see Fig. 21-17). The split-stator tuning capacitor is resonance is approached from the high- frequen-
made from a single-stator variable. The Nuvistor tube cy side as compared with approaching from the
socket is mounted on a small bracket, and a tie point low side.
under the bracket supports associated capacitors and
resistors that aren't supported by socket and tuning.
capacitor terminals.

Nuvistor socket within the WI x 21 % x 4-inch

Minibox that is used as a housing. A 5-pin
socket ( Amphenol 78-S5S) is mounted at one
end of the Minibox, and the variable capacitor
stator leads are soldered directly to two of the
pins. Coils in the low- frequency ranges are
wound with enameled wire on et- inch diameter
forms. In the intermediate ranges coil stock Fig. 21- 16—Circuit diagram of the grid-dip meter.
(B&W Miniductor) is mounted inside the coil C1-50 Anf. per section (Johnson 167-11 with stator
forms, with one end of the coil close to the open bars sawed between 6th and 7th plates).
end of the form, for ease in coupling. The two Ca. C.- 100 -
µµf. ceramic.
highest-range coils are hairpin loops of No. 14 C., C5, C8-0.001-µf. disk ceramic.
wire, covered with insulation as a safety pre- PI-4-pin chassis plug (Amphenol 86-CP4).
caution. In every case the associated R 2 is Ri-47,000 ohms, % watt.
mounted in the coil form. The highest range Ri—See table below.
requires that only the base of the coil form be 10,000 ohms.
used, since he loop is shorter than the form.
Ronge L
j R2
The power supply for the grid-dip meter may
1.7-3.2 Mc. 195 turns No. 34 enam.* 680
be included with the oscillator, but since this
2.7-5.0 110 turns No. 30 enam.* 470
increases the bulk and weight a separate supply
4.4-7.8 51% turns No. 30 enam.* 470
is often desirable. The power supply shown in
7.5-13.2 24% turns No. 30 enam.* 470
Fig. 21-18 uses a miniature power transformer
12-22 31 t. No. 24 ( B&W 3004)** 1000
with asilicon rectifier and asimple filter to give
20-36 14 t. No. 24 ( B&W 3004)** 680
approximately 120 volts for the oscillator plate.
33-60 8% t. No. 20 ( B&W 3003)*** 680
It also uses a transistor booster for the meter
54-99 3% t. No. 20 ( B&W 3003)*** 1000
because it was designed for use with a u.h.f.
90-165 3%-inch loop No. 14, 1500
grid-dip meter. A supply to be used with only
%-inch separation
the unit of Fig. 21-15 could eliminate the tran-
150-275 1%-inch loop No. 14, 3300
sistor by using a0-1 milliammeter between lead
'Á-inch separation
3 of P1 and chassis ground. In this case R 2
could also be eliminated, and the B+ for pin 'Wound on 3-inch diameter polystyrene form ( Allied
Radio 71 H 723).
4 of P1 should be derived from the arm of a "*32 t.p.i. *** 16 t.p.i.
0.1-megohm potentiometer connected across the
power supply. The adjustable plate voltage
U.H.F. Grid- Dip Oscillator
source is necessary to bring the grid current
into the range of the meter. The range of the grid-dip meter shown in
The instrument may be calibrated by listening Fig. 21-17 is from 275 to 725 Mc., a higher
to its output with a calibrated receiver. The range than any' of the inexpensive meters now
calibration should be as accurate as possible, available. It is able to cover these high fre-
although " frequency-meter accuracy" is not re- quencies by virtue of the 6CW4 ( Nuvistor)
quired in the applications for which a grid-dip tube and the series-tuned circuit. Unfortunately
meter is useful. the series-tuned circuit becomes impractical with
 526 MEASUREMENTS

Fig. 21- 17—Grid-dip meter for the 300- to 700-Mc. range. The oscillator section is at the left in its own case, and the
power supply plus transistorized indicator is at the center and right. In the oscillator section, the 6CW4 (
Nuvistor)
socket is to the left of the tuning capacitor.

this tube at lower frequencies, and to cover the socket is mounted in one corner and the tuning
lower frequencies the circuit of Fig. 21-16 must capacitor is mounted a little above center. The
be used. The u.h.f. grid- dip oscillator uses a coil socket, a National CS-6, is mounted on the
transistor amplifier to amplify the changes end of the Minibox. The polystyrene sheet is
across the unusually-low value of grid resistor. supported by four 1- inch 6-32 screws, and the
The low value of grid resistor is required be- sockets and variable capacitor are positioned so
cause higher values will cause the oscillator to that direct connections can be made between
"squegg." plate pin and coil socket, capacitor rotor and
The grid-dip meter is built in a21 4 X 24 , coil socket, and capacitor stator and grid pin.
4-inch Minibox, and the power supply and meter The various resistors and r.f. chokes are sup-
circuit is built in asimilar enclosure. In use the ported at one end by a multiple- terminal tie
two Miniboxes are connected by a short length strip mounted on the polystyrene sheet and at the
of four-conductor cable. other end by the socket pins and other termi-
The " heart" of the meter is the oscillator nals.
section, which is built on a lg x 17A- inch piece The coils are made from No. 10 tinned copper
of - inch thick polystyrene. The Nuvistor wire; as a safety precaution they are covered

6CW4

115V
1
/
2
1

Fig. 21- 18— Circuit diagram of the u.h.f. grid- dip meter.
C,-8-µµf. midget variable ( Hammarlund MAC- 10 with R.-330 ohms, 1 watt.
one rotor plate removed). 1
2-47,000 ohms, 1
, /2 watt.

C2-150414. ceramic. R3-10,000 ohms.

C5 - 0.001-µf. ceramic. R.-22 ohms, V2 watt.
C4 - 20-4., 250-volt electrolytic. Rs- 10,000-ohm potentiometer.
CR. -400 p.i.v. rectifier ( Sarkes Tarzian 2F4). RFC,, r.f. choke ( Millen 34300-22).
tube socket. RFC 3,RFC,-0.82-41. r.f. choke ( Millen 34300-.82).
M.-0-500 microammeter. SIB—D.p.s.t., part of R. Switches should be open
P,- 4- pin plug ( Amphenol 86-CP4). when R. at maximum resistance.
Q5-2N1264 transistor. 73.-6.3- and 125-v. transformer ( Knight 61 G 410).
A. F. Oscillators 527

Fig. 21- 19— Details of the coils used in the u.h.f. grid-
dip meter. The material is No. 10 tinned-copper wire.
One turn in end of low-frequency coil.
Range Uimension
r41 6
271-324 Mc. 2%
31A,
312-378
372-463 2
413-519 1%
446-565 11
/4

544730 Li ° Fig. 21- 20— Bottom view of the audio oscillator, show-
*Shape closed end to be nearly square. ing the power-supply components and amplitude-control
lamp, h. The lamp is mounted by wires soldered to its
except at the tips by clear plastic insulation. base. The selenium rectifier is supported by a tie- point
Details are given in Fig. 21-19. strip. Placement of resistors, which are hidden by the
Frequency calibration of the meter can be other components, is not critical. The unit fits
started by reference to u.h.f. TV stations in the in a 4 X 5 X 6 inch box.
area, if any, or by reference to 420- Mc, ama-
teur gear. Three audio frequencies are available, approxi-
mately 200, 900 and 2500 cycles. These three
AUDIO -FRE Q UENCY OSCILLATORS frequencies are sufficient for testing the fre-
A useful accessory for testing audio- frequen- quency response of an amplifier over the range
cy amplifiers and modulators is an audio- fre- needed for voice communication.
quency signal generator or oscillator. Checks The circuit uses adouble triode as acathode-
for distortion, gain, and the troubles that occur coupled oscillator, the second section of the tube
in such amplifiers do not require elaborate providing the feedback necessary for oscillation
equipment; the principal requirement is asource through the common cathode connection. The
of one or more audio tones having a good sine 3- watt lamp in this feedback loop acts as a
wave form, at a voltage level adjustable from variable resistance to control the oscillation
a few volts down to a few millivolts so the amplitude and thus maintain the operating con-
oscillator can be substituted for the type of ditions at the point where the best wave form is
microphone to be used. generated. This operating point is set by the
An easily constructed oscillator of this type "oscillation control," RI.The frequency is de-
is shown in Figs. 21-20 to 21-22, inclusive. termined by the resistance and capacitance in

33K
.00ipf
--eVVV— •
270 J f

12 sIA °
s2,40,
H( 300 CBI-20-mo, selenium
o 'L'iHeCO rectifier.
snieg
R, 2550 1
1- 3- watt, 115- volt
•
1 • OUTPUT lamp ( G.E. 356).
OSC
CON)
FRe 01.
AT 1ENUATION L1-8 henrys, 40 ma.
CONT
x1c)
3w (Thordarson 20C-
ei5
52).
52 RI, R2 — Volume con-
OUTPUT
xi R2 trols.
500K
150 5- position
(3 used) rotary
1, switch.
1, Ss — S.p.d.t. toggle.
o 5s—S.p.s.t. toggle
(mounted on it,).
Fig. 21-21— Circuit diagram of the 11— Power transform-
1
3 audio oscillator. Capacitances below er, 150 volts, 25
0.001 /
If. are in µµf. Fixed resistors MO.; 6.3 volts 0.5
are 1
/2 watt unless otherwise indicated.
amp. ( Merit P-
3046).
 528 MEASUREMENTS
erator is a diode, either vacuum- tube or crystal,
with d.c. flowing through it. The current is also
made to flow through a load resistance which
usually is chosen to equal the characteristic
impedance of the transmission line to be con-
nected to the receiver's input terminals. The re-
sistance then substitutes for the line, and the
amount of r.f. noise fed to receiver input is con-
trolled by varying the d.c. through the diode.
The noise generator is useful for adjusting
the "front-end" circuits of a receiver for best
noise figure ( see Chapter Five), and it is actu-
ally more effective for this purpose than a
laboratory-type signal generator. A simple cir-
cuit using a crystal diode is shown in Fig.
21-23. The unit can be built into a small metal
box; the main consideration is that the circuit
from C1 through to P1 be as compact as pos-
sible. By mounting P1 at one end of the box,
the unit can be readily attached to the receiver
under test. A calibrated knob on R1 will permit

-ceS..:.12-U CR1
ir PI
h

Fig. 21- 22— Inside view of the audio oscillator. The a.c.
switch, is mounted on the OUTPUT control at the left
on the panel. The ceramic capacitors in the frequency.
determining circuits are mounted on the rotary switch, Fig. 21-23—Circuit of a simple crystal-diode noise
S,, at the right. S2 is above the tube, and T, is on the generator.
near edge of the chassis, which is a U-shaped piece of BT,— Dry-cell battery, any convenient type.
aluminum 31
/
2 inches deep with 11
2 -
/ inch lips. Ri is C1-500-µ0. ceramic, disk or tubular.
mounted on the near lip at the left. CRI— Silicon diode, 1N21 or 1N23. Diodes with " R"
suffix have reversed polarity. ( Do not use ordi-
the coupling circuit between the first- section nary germanium diodes).
plate and second-section grid. Various values PI—Coaxial fitting, cable type.
of capacitance can be selected by means of 12,- 50,000-ohm control, counterclockwise logarithmic
S1 to set the frequency. The actual frequencies taper.
measured in the unit shbwn in the photo- R2 - 51 or 75 ohms, /
2 -
1 watt composition.
graphs are given on the diagram. They may Si—S.p.s.t. toggle ( may be mounted on R1)•
be either increased or decreased by using
smaller or larger capacitances, respectively. resetting the generator to roughly the same spot
Output is taken from the cathode of the each time, for making comparisons. If the leads
second triode section. Either the full output, are short, the generator can be used through
1.5 volts, or approximately one- tenth of it, can the 144- Mc, band for receiver comparisons.
be selected by S2. On either of these two To use the generator, screw the coaxial fit-
ranges smooth control of output is provided ting on the receiver's input fitting, open S1,
by R 2. and measure the noise output of the receiver
The built-in power supply uses a small using an a.c. vacuum-tube voltmeter or sim-
transformer and a selenium rectifier to ilar a.f. voltage indicator. Make sure that the
develop approximately 150 volts. Hum is receiver's r.f. and audio gain controls are set
reduced to a negligible level by the filter well within the linear range, and do not use
consisting of the 8- henry choke and 20- pf. a.g.c. Then turn on the noise generator and
capacitors. set 12 1 for an appreciable increase in output,
An oscilloscope is useful for preliminary say twice the original noise voltage, and note
checking of the oscillator since it will show the dial setting. Receiver front-end adjust-
wave form. R, should be set at the point that ments may then be made with the object of
will ensure oscillation on all three frequencies attaining the same noise increase with the
when switching from one to the other. lowest possible direct current through the
diode—that is, with the largest possible re-
DIODE NOISE GENERATORS
sistance at R
A noise generator is a device for creating a While the simple crystal-diode noise genera-
controllable amount of r.f. noise ("hiss"- type tor is auseful device within the shack for evalu-
noise) evenly distributed throughout the spec- ating receiver performance, it does not permit
trum of interest. The simplest type of noise gen- good comparisons with other receivers measured
Diode Noise Generators 529

Fig. 21-24—Two diode noise generators and

(left) their power supply. Useful generator
range is ( right) 7 to 90 Mc. and ( center)
90 to 450 Mc.

with other noise generators. Diode

noise generators that allow the noise
figure to be measured are shown in
Figs. 21-24 and 21-26. Referring to
the circuit diagram in Fig 21-25, a5722
noise diode is used in place of the crystal
diode. A power supply that can be used with either nais, so that the receiver output can be moni-
generator unit ( which differ only in their filter- tored.
ing and plug connector) is shown in Fig. 21-27. An important part of the design of the noise-
The heart of the supply is aheavy-duty filament generator power supply is the resistor RI.This
rheostat, R 3, that is used to control the diode tapped resistor serves as an output load for the
filament temperature. With S2 in the N.F. po- receiver. With S1 in the or position, and S2 in
sition, the 0-1 milliammeter reads the current the OUT position, the receiver output is rectified
through the diode by measuring the voltage by the 1N34A and a suitable meter indication
across the 100-ohm resistor. Full-scale reading can be obtained by variation of the receiver
is 10 ma. or 50 ma., depending upon the position volume control. When S1 is switched to ON, only
of S3.The meter also serves as an output indi- a fraction of the receiver noise output is recti-
cator for the receiver when S2 is in the OUT fied and, at the same time, the diode noise gen-
position. Terminals are provided for connecting erator is turned on. If the meter now reads half
the power supply to the receiver speaker termi- the receiver output noise power, and the re-

R2
5600
s,„
100 OUT N
NOISE DIODE
SPKR o
000
1N34 A
1000
5722

AC °
10o
V TVM 1000
4505

1000

1000

cR, RFC, RFC 2

T
1
CLE -4

11T
Ac.

Fig. 21-25— Circuit diagram of the diode noise generators and power supply. Unless indicated otherwise, re-
sistances are in ohms, resistors are 1
2 -
/ watt, capacitances are in µf.

Ci-
C3-0.001-µf. disk ceramic in 7-90 Mc.; button R0—Approximately 5600 ohms. See text.
(Centralab ZA-102) in 90-450 Mc. R3 - 4-ohm 50-watt rheostat ( Ohmite 0311).

C‘, C5- 0.001 -µf. disk ceramic RFC,, RFC,-7-90 Mc.: Approximately 9 µh. 38 turns
No. 22 Nylclad on 1 2 -
/ inch diameter form
CR, - 400 p.i.v. silicon rectifier.
Fe— P1.-259 in 7-90 Mc.; UG-260B/U in 90-450 Mc. (Millen 69046), slug set for maximum inductance.
121-5-ohm 10-watt adjustable, tap set at about 31
2 ohms
/ 90-450 Mc.: 0.22 µh. ( Miller RFC-420).
to ground. See text. T1-125 volts at 50 ma., 6.3 v. at 2 a. ( Knight 61 G 411).
530 MEASUREMENTS

Fig. 21-26-- Each diode noise generator is

housed in a4 X 2% X 1%-inch "Mini-
box" ( Bud CU-2102-A). Power connec-
tions are made through double-pin male
receptacles (Amphenol 80 PC2M), and
the r.f. connection is made to the re-
ceiver or converter by a suitable plug.
The plug on the 7- to 90-Mc. generator
(left) is a PL-259 held to the face of the
"Minibox" by asmall copper plate and
aUG-176/U reducing adapter.

ceiver noise output has been doubled by the meter reading of 1/5 the reading when 5 3 is
noise from the diode noise generator, the meter closed. Check this for several points on the
reading will remain the same for either position meter, obtaining various values of current by
of S 2 . Since the meter needle will " wiggle" back changing the setting of R 3 .
and forth about amean reading, it is much easier To measure the noise figure of a receiver,
to match readings that are made at the same connect the applicable noise-diode unit to the
point on the meter scale than it is to "'read" input of the receiver to be checked. Connect the
the meter at two different points on the scale. output of the receiver to the SPKR terminals.
The tap on Ri is set to 70.7 per cent of the With Si in the OFF position, and S 2 in the our
full resistance. If the "5-ohm" resistor is ex- position, run the gain controls of the receiver
actly 5.00 ohms, the tap should be set to read up to get a suitable reading on the meter. A
3.54 ohms ( 0.707 x 5.00 = 3.54) to ground. "suitable" reading is one that is somewhat less
The resistor R 2 may not have a value of ex- than the maximum that can be obtained; it is
actly 5.6K, as shown in Fig. 21-25. It should be very important that the receiver be operated at
considered as an adjustment of the voltmeter all times well below any overload or limiting
multiplier for the meter in the N.F. position. By point. Note the reading of the meter and throw
proper selection of R 2 , opening S 3 will give a Si to ON. Slowly decrease the value at R 3 and
watch the meter. When the meter reading
matches the previous reading ( when Si was at
OFF), flip S 2 to read the diode current. It is
good practice to do this the first time with S 3 at
50x, to avoid possible injury to the meter. When
the process has been repeated several times, and
a reasonably " firm" figure for the diode current
has been obtained, the noise figure can be found
from
Noise figure = 20IR
where I = diode current in amperes
R = generator resistance in ohms
Thus if the diode current is 5 ma. and the re-
sistance is 50 ohms, the noise figure is 5.0 ( 20 X
0.005 X 50 = 5.0). The noise figure is often ex-
pressed in db. above a perfect receiver; in the
example it would be 7 db. ( 10 log 5 = 10 X 0.7
=7).
It should be appreciated that the current
through the 100-ohm resistor must be measured
Fig. 21-27— Power supply for the noise generators is with a reasonable degree of accuracy, and the
housed in a 7-inch wide sloping-panel cabinet ( Bud accuracy of this circuit should be confirmed by
AC- 1613). Switches, from left to right, are ( referring comparison with another meter or by the use of
to Fig. 21-25) Ss, Sl and S2. low-tolerance components.

R.F. MEASUREMENTS
heated by aresistance wire through which the
R.F. CURRENT
r.f. current flows, and since the d.c. voltage
R.f. current- measuring devices use athermo- developed is proportional to the heating, which
couple in conjunction with an ordinary d.c. in turn is proportional to the power used by
instrument. The thermocouple is made of two the heating element, the deflections of the d.c.
dissimilar metals which, when heated, gener- instrument are proportional to power rather
ate a small d.c. voltage. The thermocouple is than to current. This causes the calibrated
R.F. Measurements 531
scale to be compressed at the low- current end taking appreciable power, and the relationship
and spread out at the high-current end. The between r.f. voltage and the reading of the
useful range of such an instrument is about 3 d.c. instrument should be as linear as possible
or 4 to 1; that is, an r.f. ammeter having a —that is, the d.c. indication should be directly
full-scale reading of 1ampere can be read with proportional to the r.f. voltage at all points
satisfactory accuracy down to about 0.3 am- of the scale.
pere, one having a full scale of 5amperes can All rectifiers show a variation in resistance
be read down to about 1.5 amperes, and so on. with applied voltage, the resistance being
No single instrument can be made to handle a highest when the applied voltage is small.
wide rangc of currents. Neither can the r.f. These variations can be fairly well " swamped
ammeter be shunted satisfactorily, as can be out" by using a high value of resistance in
done with d.c. instruments, because even a the d.c. circuit of the rectifier. A resistance of
very small amount of reactance in the shunt at least 10,000 ohms is necessary for reason-
will cause the readings to be highly dependent ably good linearity with a 0-1 milliammeter.
on frequency. High resistance in the d.c. circuit also raises
Fig. 21-28 shows a convenient way of using the impedance of the r.f. voltmeter and re-
duces its power consumption.
The basic voltmeter circuit is shown in Fig.
21-29. It is simply a half- wave rectifier with a
meter and a resistor, RI, for improving the
linearity. The time constant of CIRI should be
large compared with the period of the lowest
radio frequency to be measured — acondition
that can easily be met if R1 is at least 10,000
ohms and C1 is 0.001 µf. or more — so C1 will
stay charged near the peak value of the r.f.
Fig. 21-28—R.f. ammeter mounted for connecting into voltage. The radio- frequency choke may be
acoaxial line for measuring power. A "2- inch" instru- omitted if there is a low- resistance d.c. path
ment will fit into a2 X 4 X 4metal box. through the circuit being measured. C2 pro-
an r.f. ammeter for measuring current in aco- vides additional r.f. filtering for the d.c. circuit.
axial line. The instrument is simply mounted
in a metal box with a short lead from each I
N34
terminal to a coaxial fitting. The shunt ca-
pacitance of an ammeter mounted in this way CIRCUIT
has only a negligible effect on accuracy at UNDER
MEASUREMENT
frequencies as high as 30 Mc. if the instru-
ment has a bakelite case. Metal-cased meters
should be mounted on a bakelite panel which
in turn can be mounted behind a cut-out that Fig. 21-29—R.f. voltmeter circuit using acrystal rectifier
clears the meter case by g inch or so. and d.c. microommeter or 0-1 milliammeter.
R.F. VOLTAGE
The simple circuit of Fig. 21-29 is useful for
An r.f. voltmeter is a rectifier- type instru- voltages up to about 20 volts, a limitation im-
ment in which the r.f. is converted to d.c., posed by the inverse-peak voltage ratings of
which is then measured with a d.c. instru- crystal diodes. A dual range voltmeter circuit,
ment. The best type of rectifier for most ap- 0-20 and 0-100 volts, is shown in Fig. 21-30.
plications is a crystal diode, such as the 1N34
and similar types, because its capacitance is
so low as to have little effect on the behavior
of the r.f. circuit to which it is connected.
The principal limitation of these rectifiers is
their rather low value of safe inverse peak
voltage. Vacuum- tube diodes are considerably
better in this respect, but their size, shunt
capacitance, and the fact that power is re-
quired for heating the cathode constante se-
rious disadvantages in many applications.
One of the principal uses for such volt-
meters is as null indicators in r.f. bridges, as Fig. 21-30—Dual-range r.f. voltmeter circuit. Capaci-
described later in this chapter. Another useful tances ore in irpf.; capacitors are disk ceramic.
application is in measurement of the voltage CR,-1N34 or equivalent.
between the conductors of a coaxial line, to J2—Coaxial connectors, chassis-mounting type.
show when a transmitter is adjusted for op- R1-1000 ohms, 1watt.
timum output. In either case the voltmeter R2-3300 ohms, 2watts.
impedance should be high compared with that R3—App. 22,000 ohms (see text), ih watt.

of the circuit under measurement, to avoid SI—S.p.d.t. rotary switch (Centralab 1460).
 532 MEASUREMENTS
The unit shown in Figs. 21-32 and 21-34
and schematically in Fig. 21-33 is similar in
circuitry to most of the conventional peak-
indicating, shunt- type commercial r.f. probes.
However, it can be constructed for consider-
ably less than the cost of a commercial unit.
If all parts, including the shielded wire, alli-
gator clip, tie point, resistor, phone plug, tube
socket, tube shield, capacitor. and diode are
purchased new, the total cost of the unit is
approximately $2.25.

Fig. 21- 32— The r.f. probe is used in conjunction with a

Fig. 21-31— Dual- range r.f. voltmeter for use in coaxial vacuum-tube voltmeter. The case of the probe is con-
line, using a 0-1 d.c. milliammeter. The voltage-divider structed from a 7- pin ceramic tube socket and a 21
4 -
/
resistors, R, and R., ( Fig. 21-30) are at the center in the inch tube shield. A half- inch grommet at the top of the
lower compartment. The bypass capacitors and R,, are tube shield prevents the output lead of the probe from
mounted on a tie-point strip at the right. The unit is chafing. The flexible copper- braid grounding lead and
built in a 4 X 6 X 2 inch aluminum chassis, with an alligator clip provide a low- inductance return path
aluminum partition connecting the two sides of the box from the test circuit. The d.c. output of the probe goes
to form a shielded space. A bottom plate, not shown, is to the phone plug, which plugs into the d.c. input jack
used to complete the shielding. of the v.t.v.m.

A voltage divider, R,R 2,is used for the higher

range. An instrument using this circuit is
shown in Fig. 21-31. It is designed for con-
nection into a coaxial line. The principal con-
structional precautions are to keep leads short,
and to mount the components in such a way
as to minimize stray coupling between them
and to keep them fairly well separated from
metal surfaces.
For accurate calibration ( the power method
described below may be used) R 3 should be
adjusted, by selection of resistors or using
two in series to obtain the desired value, so
that the meter reads full scale, with S, set for
the low range, with 20 volts r.m.s. on the line. The isolation capacitor, crystal diode, and
A frequency in the vicinity of 14 Mc. should resistor are mounted on a bakelite 5- lug ter-
be used. Then, with S, set for the high range, minal strip, as shown in Fig. 21-35. One end
various resistors should be tried at R, or R 2 lug should be rotated 90 degrees so that it
until with the same voltage the meter reads extends off the end of the strip. All other lugs
20 per cent of full scale. The resistance varia- should be cut off flush with the edge of the
tions usually will be within the range of 10 strip. Where the inner conductor connects
per cent tolerance resistors of the values spe- to the terminal lug, unravel the shield three-
cified. The readings at various other voltages quarters of an inch, slip a piece of spaghetti
should be observed in order to check the over it, and then solder the braid to the
linearity of the scale. ground lug on the terminal strip. Remove the
spring from the tube shield, slide it over the
Calibration
cable, and crimp it to the remaining quarter
Calibration is not necessary for purely com- inch of shield braid. Solder both the spring
parative measurements. A calibration in actual and a 12- inch length of flexible copper braid
voltage requires a known resistive load and to the shield.
an r.f. ammeter. The setup is the same as for Next, cut off the pins on a seven-pin minia-
r.f. power measurement as described later. ture ceramic or mica shield- base tube socket.
Use a socket with a cylindrical center post,
V.T.V.M. R.F. PROBE
R.f. up to about 30 volts peak and a fre-
4.7 MEG.
quency of 200 Mc. is most conveniently meas-
ured with a v.t.v.m. ( Fig. 21-8) and an r.f. R.F.
probe. An r.f. probe is merely a rectifier that INPUT I
N34A o
PHONE
uses a v.t.v.m. to indicate the magnitude of " o PLUG
the rectified voltage. The resultant d.c. volt-
age is very nearly equal to the peak value of
the r.f. voltage.
Fig. 21-33—The r.f. probe circuit.
Inductance and Capacitance 533
The accuracy of the probe is approximately
-± 10 per cent from 50 kc. to 250 Mc. For
example, if the error of the v.t.v.m. used with
the probe is -± 5 per cent, then the over-all
error of the measuring system is ± 15 per
cent. At low values of input voltage, below
a volt or so, the accuracy of the probe is
somewhat poorer because of the nonlinearity
of the 1N34A crystal diode. At these lower in-
put voltages the output of the probe more
closely approaches a square- law relationship
Fig. 21-34—Close-up of the inside of the probe. The d
than a linear one.
1N34A crystal diode rectifier, calibrating resistor, and
The approximate input impedance of a
input capacitor are mounted tight to the terminal strip
probe of this type is 6000 ohms shunted by
with shortest leads possible. Spaghetti tubing is placed
1.75 1pf. ( at 200 Mc.), and the amount of
on the diode leads to prevent accidental short circuits.
error introduced because of circuit loading by
The tube-shield spring and Rexible-copper grounding
the probe is dependent on the impedance of
lead are soldered to the cable braid (the cable is RG-
the source of the a.c. voltage being measured.
58/1.1 coax). The tip can be either a phone tip or a
If peak values are desired rather than r.m.s.,
short pointed piece of heavy wire.
the r.m.s. values can be multiplied by 1.41 or
the peak scales on the v.t.v.m. can be read
such as the Johnson 120-277. Crimp the ter- directly if so calibrated.
minal lug previously bent out at the end of
the strip and insert it into the center post of
R.F. POWER
the tube socket from the top. Insert the end
Measurement of r.f. power requires a re-
of a phone tip or a pointed piece of heavy
sistive load of known value and either an
wire into the bottom of the tube socket center
r.f. ammeter or a calibrated r.f. voltmeter.
post, and solder the lug and tip to the center
The power is then either / 2R or E2/R, where
post. Insert ahalf-inch grommet at the top of
R is the load resistance in ohms.
the tube shield, and slide the shield over the
The simplest method of obtaining a load of
cable and flexible braid down onto the tube
known resistance is to use an antenna system
socket. The spring should make good contact
with coax-coupled matching circuit of the
with the tube shield to insure that the tube
type described in the chapter on transmission
shield ( probe case) is grounded. Solder an
lines. When the circuit is adjusted, by means
alligator clip to the other end of the flexible
of an s.w.r. bridge, to bring the s.w.r. down to
braid and mount aphone plug on the free end
1 to 1 the load is resistive and of the value
of the shielded wire.
for which the bridge was designed ( 52 or 75
Mount components close to the terminal
strip, to keep lead lengths as short as possible ohms).
and minimize stray capacitance. Use spaghetti The r.f. ammeter should be inserted in the
over all wires to prevent accidental shorts. line in place of the s.w.r. bridge after the
When soldering the crystal diode, hold the matching has been completed, and the trans-
mitter then adjusted — without touching the
end to be soldered with a pair of long-nose
pliers, to conduct damaging heat away from matching circuit — for maximum current. A
0-1 ammeter is useful for measuring the ap-
the diode.
proximate range 5-50 watts in 52-ohm line, or
The a.c. input voltage that the probe can
7.5-75 watts in 75-ohm line; a 0-3 instrument
handle safely is limited to about 21 volts
r.m.s. or 30 volts peak, as a result of the 60- can be used for 13-450 watts in 52-ohm line
volt peak-inverse rating of the 1N34A crystal and 20-675 watts in 75-ohm line. The accuracy
diode. The phone plug on the probe cable is usually greatest in the upper half of the
plugs into the d.c. input jack of the v.t.v.m., scale.
and r.m.s. voltages are read on the vacuum- An r.f. voltmeter of the type described in
tube voltmeter's negative d.c. scale. When us- the preceding section also can be used for
ing the probe be sure that any d.c. voltage on power measurement in a similar setup. It
the circuit being checked does not exceed the has the advantage that, because its scale is
d.c. voltage rating of C1. substantially linear, a much wider range of
powers can be measured with one instrument
COVER WITH
TIP SPAGHETTI INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE
CONNECTS 1N34A
HERE The ability to measure inductance and ca-
pacitance saves time that might otherwise be
spent in cut-and- try. A convenient instrument
for this purpose is the grid-dip oscillator, de-
TUBE SHIELD
SPRING
scribed earlier in this chapter.
For measuring inductance, use is made of a
Fig. 21- 35— Component mounting details. capacitance of known value as shown at A in
 534 MEASUREMEKTS
UNKNOWN pacitance standards, since their rated toler-
INDUCTANCE
ance is ±- 5per cent. Equally good inductance
(A) STANDARD
GRID-DIP
standards can be made from commercial
CAPACITANCE
METER machine-wound coil material.
A single pair of standards will serve for
STANDARD measuring the L and C values commonly used
INDUCTANCE in amateur equipment. A good choice is 100
(8) UNKNOWN /yd. for the capacitor and 5 ph. for the coil.
GRID- DIP CAPACITANCE Based on these values the chart of Fig. 21-38
METER
will give the unknown directly in terms of
the resonant frequency registered by the
Fig. 21:36 — Setups for measuring inductance and grid- dip meter. In measuring the frequency
capacitance with the grid- dip meter. the coupling between the grid-dip meter and
resonant circuit should be kept at the
Fig. 21-36. With the unknown coil connected
to the standard capacitor, couple the grid- dip
meter to the coil and adjust the oscillator
frequency for the grid- current dip, using the
loosest coupling that gives a detectable indi-
cation. The inductance is then given by the
formula
25,330
L. C w. p me.

The reverse procedure is used for measur-

ing capacitance — that is, a coil of known
inductance is used as a standa;d as shown at
B. The unknown capacitance is
25,330
Cupt. Le.h.f2mo. Fig. 21-37--A convenient mounting, using binding- post
plates, for I. and C standards made from commercially-
The accuracy of this method depends on available parts. The capacitor is a 100-µµf. silver mica
the accuracy of the grid- dip meter calibration unit, mounted so the lead length is as nearly zero as
and the accuracy with which the standard possible. The inductance standard, 5 ph., is 17 turns of
values of L and C are known. Postage- stamp No. 3015 B & W Miniductor, 1- inch diameter,
silver-mica capacitors make satisfactory ca- 16 turns per inch.

D CB A
roc, io lO 1.0
900 9 9 0.9 MalaBaallan
lalMallanalaIIIIMMaaa1111MaKaallMalIMMIIIIMIMMM Balaa alalalaaaaalla
800 8 8 0.8 MBLIaalalaanaliMaanallaallalOalaIMILIMalaaaMM BUM IMMIMil
'1101MIMI iuuiuuuiuuuuu
700 70 7 0.7

400 60 6 0.6 111111111111111111113111MMI1111111110111MEMBBBINUM1111111131 MINIM

111111111111111111MMIIIIIIIIIIMIMUMMIIIMM111111111 C' 11111111
500 50 5 05 in1111111111110M11111111111M\MMEIEMEMM111111111111 1111111
UUUU MM&I
IMO MMMM MBE MIMMIM M
MUM M MMMM MIMM.
400 4 40.4 MUM
IBM BIM MMMMMMM MIIIIMI r um
MMMM 81111MMIR u..
ummummuuL una mum
ma zumun 11311. Ilaanallall•MallaL Mal imummum un
.•••..••u•• MUM BallalaalMallaMM IT' RIMINI Ma UM
IMMaillinailk Una MaaainalfflaBakei IMM MaallUaaarnak e Mini MN
$00 30 3 0.3 Malianainnak Nan
.... mmion`g ••
1111.111113MMIIMM' » RIM Malian
Mill•
M MMM
MMIB• Ma__ 0, IMIMM MMM
MIMMUIL 7. MI— MM MMM
250 2 2.5 025 111 • • MI MM.. MMMMM MMIMMMMIIIM• MIMM • m••••••
MMIBM Mann • so mum ma : MMM
MMIMM
OM.. . MIMMMIM 111•M MM MMM •s 'Mania»
MM. IIMIMM MM

MMM
IMMIMMI
200 20 0.2 MM.. MM l___ MIIMUMMI •...i
MUM MMMM 011.31•111MIIIMMMIMMIMIIIIM
BIM»
WaninailiaarnaaaliallaaalaaMalallaàalllIMIMIIMMUMainarnalanall
150 I 1.6 0.15

• 1001 lOI iI 0.1

2 25 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20
C B A1.5 FREQUENCY IN MEGACYCLES ,
25 30 40 50

Fig. 21- 38— Chart for determining unknown values of Land C in the range 0.1 to 100 µh.
and 2 to 1000 µµf., using standards of 100 µµf. and 5 µh.
Field Strength 535
smallest value that gives a definite indication. is relatively little need for measurement of
A correction should be applied to measure- r.f. resistance in amateur practice. Also, meas-
ments of very small values of L and C to in- urement of resistance by fundamental meth-
clude the effects of the shunt capacitance of ods is not practicable with simple equipment.
the mounting for the coil, and for the induc- Where such measurements are made, they are
tance of the leads to the capacitor. These usually based on known characteristics of
amount to approximately 1 NI L and 0.03 available resistors used as standards.
ph., respectively, with the method of mount- Most types of resistors have so much in-
ing shown in Fig. 21-37. herent reactance and skin effect that they do
not act like "pure" resistance at radio fre-
Coefficient of Coupling quencies, but instead their effective resistance
The same equipment can be used for meas- and impedance vary with frequency. This is
urement of the coefficient of coupling between especially true of wire-wound resistors. Com-
two coils. This simply requires two measure- position ( carbon) resistors of 25 ohms or
ments of inductance ( of one of the coils) with more as a rule have negligible inductance for
the coupled coil first open-circuited and then frequencies up to 100 Mc. or so. The skin
short-circuited. Connect the 100-ped. standard effect also is small, but the shunt capacitance
capacitor to one coil and measure the induct- cannot be neglected in the higher values of
ance with the terminals of the second coil these resistors, since it reduces their imped-
open. Then short the terminals of the second ance and makes it reactive. However, for
coil and again measure the inductance of the most purposes the capacitive effects can be
first. The coefficient of coupling is given by considered to be negligible in composition
resistors of values up to 1000 ohms, for fre-
1, quencies up to 50 to 100 Mc., and the r.f.
k••• — —11
LI resistance of such units is practically the
same as their d.c. resistance. Hence they can
where k = coefficient of coupling
Li = inductance of first coil with terminals of be considered to be practically pure resistance
second coil open in such applications as r.f. bridges, etc., pro-
1.,= inductance of first coil with terminals of vided they are mounted in such a way as to
second coil shorted.
avoid magnetic coupling to other circuit com-
R.F. RESISTANCE ponents, and are not so close to grounded
Aside from the bridge methods used in metal parts as to give an appreciable increase
transmission- line work, described later, there in shunt capacitance.

ANTENNA AND TRANSMISSION- LINE MEASUREMENTS

Two principal types of measurements are Field-strength measurements preferably
made on antenna systems: ( 1) the standing- should be made at adistance of several wave-
wave ratio on the transmission line, as a lengths from the transmitting antenna being
means for determining whether or not the tested. Measurements made within a wave-
antenna is properly matched to the line ( al- length of the antenna may be misleading, be-
ternatively, the input resistance of the line cause of the possibility that the measuring
or antenna may be measured); ( 2) the com- equipment may be responding to the com-
parative radiation field strength in the vicinity bined induction and radiation fields of the
of the antenna, as a means for checking the antenna, rather than to the radiation field
directivity of a beam antenna and as an aid alone. Also, if the pick-up antenna has dimen-
in adjustment of element tuning and phasing. sions comparable with those of the antenna
Both types of measurements can be made under test it is likely that the coupling be-
with rather simple equipment. tween the two antennas will be great enough
to cause the pick-up antenna to tend to be-
FIELD- STRENGTH MEASUREMENTS come part of the radiating system and thus
The radiation intensity from an antenna is result in misleading field- strength readings.
measured with a device that is essentially a A desirable form of pick-up antenna is a
very simple receiver equipped with an indi- dipole installed at the same height as the
cator to give a visual representation of the antenna being tested, with low- impedance
comparative signal strength. Such a field- line such as 75-ohm Twin- Lead connected at
strength meter is used with a "pick-up an- the center to transfer the r.f. signal to the
tenna" which should always have the same field- strength meter. The length of the dipole
polarization as the antenna being checked — need only be great enough to give adequate
e.g., the pick-up antenna should be horizontal meter readings. A half-wave dipole will give
if the transmitting antenna is. Care should be high sensitivity, but such length will not be
taken to prevent stray pickup by the field- needed unless the distance is several wave-
strength meter or by any transmission line that lengths and a relatively insensitive meter is
may connect it to the pickup antenna. used.
536 MEASUREMENTS
is connected in a bridge arrangement so the
Field-Strength Meters residual current can be balanced out. This is
The crystal-detector wavemeter described accomplished, in the absence of any signal
earlier in this chapter may be used as a field- input to the transistor base, by adjusting R1
strength meter. It may be coupled to the so that the voltage drop across it is equal to
transmission line from the pick-up antenna the voltage drop from collector to emitter in
through the coaxial-cable jack, /1. the transistor. R2 and R 3 , being of the same
The indications with a crystal wavemeter resistance, have equal voltage drops across
connected as shown in Fig. 21-10 will tend to them and so there is no difference of poten-
be " square law" — that is, the meter reading tial across the meter terminals until the col-
will be proportional to the square of the r.f. lector current increases because of current
flow in the base-emitter circuit.
The collector current in a circuit of this
type is not strictly proportional to the base
current, particularly for low values of base
current. The meter readings are not directly
proportional to the field strength, therefore,
but tend toward " square law" response just
as in the case of a simple diode with little
or no resistance in its d.c. circuit. For this
reason the d.c. meter, M /, should not have
too- high sensitivity if reasonably linear re-
sponse is desired. A 0-1 milliammeter will be
Fig. 21-39—Transistor d.c. amplifier applied to the satisfactory.
wavemeter of Fig. 21-10 to increase sensitivity. Com- The zero balance should be checked at
ponents not listed below are the same as in Fig. 21-10. intervals while the instrument is in use, since
Bi—Small flashlight cell. the residual current of the transistor is sen-
M1-0-1 d.c. milliammeter (see text). sitive to temperature changes.
Gh-2N107, CK722, etc.
14- 10,000-ohm control. IMPEDANCE AND STANDING -
WAVE
RATI O
voltage. This exaggerates the effect of rela- Adjustment of antenna matching systems
tively small adjustments to the antenna sys- requires some means either of measuring the
tem and gives a false impression of the im- input impedance of the antenna or transmis-
provement secured. The meter reading can sion line, or measuring the standing- wave
be made more linear by connecting a fairly ratio. " Bridge" methods are suitable for either
large resistance in series with the milliam-
measurement.
meter ( or microammeter). About 10,000 ohms There are many varieties of bridge circuits,
is required for good linearity. This consider- the two shown in Fig. 21-40 being among the
ably reduces the sensitivity of the meter, but most popular for amateur purposes. The simple
the lower sensitivity can be compensated for resistance bridge of Fig. 21-40A consists es-
by making the pick-up antenna sufficiently
sentially of two voltage dividers in parallel
large.
across a source of voltage. When the voltage
Transistorized Wavemeter and drop across R1 equals that across R8 the
Field-Strength Meter drops across R2 and RL are likewise equal and

A sensitive field- strength meter can be

made by using a transistor as a d.c. amplifier
following the crystal rectifier of a wavemeter. FOR V = 0
A circuit of this type is shown in Fig. 21-39. (A) RL Rs
Depending on the characteristics of the par-
ticular transistor used, the amplification of
current may be 10 or more times, so that a
0-1 milliampere d.c. instrument becomes the
equivalent of a sensitive microammeter.
The circuit to the left of the dashed line in
Fig. 21-39 is the same as the wavemeter cir- FOR V eo
cuit of Fig. 21-10, and the transistor amplifier (B) 8
R -
Ci
— R
e2 S
can easily be accommodated in the case RL
housing the wavemeter.
The transistor is connected in the common-
emitter circuit with the rectified d.c. from the Fig. 21-40— Basic bridge circuits. (A) Resistance bridge;
crystal diode flowing in the base- emitter cir- (B) resistance-capacitance bridge. The latter circuit is
cuit. Since there is a small residual current used in the "Micromatch," with R. avery low resistance
in the collector circuit with no current flow- (1 ohm or less) and the ratio Ci/C2 adjusted accord-
ing in the base-emitter circuit, the d.c. meter ingly for adesired line impedance.
S.W.R. Bridges 537
there is no difference of potential between reflected voltage is measured with RL con-
points A and B. Hence the voltmeter reading nected, the load on the source of voltage E
is zero and the bridge is said to be "balanced." is different in the two measurements. If the
If the drops across R1 and Rs are not equal, regulation of the voltage source is not perfect,
points A and B are at different potentials and the voltage E will not remain the same under
the voltmeter will read the difference. The these two conditions. This can lead to large
operation of the circuit of Fig. 21-40B is sim- errors. Such errors can be avoided by using
ilar, except that one of the voltage dividers is a second voltmeter to maintain a check on
capacitive instead of resistive. the voltage applied to the bridge, readjusting
Because of the characteristics of practical the coupling to the voltage source to main-
components at radio frequencies, the circuit tain constant applied voltage during the two
of Fig. 21-40A is best suited to applications measurements. Since the "input" voltmeter is
where the ratio Ri/R 2 is fixed; this type of simply used as a reference, its linearity is
bridge is particularly well suited to measure- not important, nor does its reading have to
ment of standing-wave ratio. The circuit of bear any definite relationship to that of the
Fig. 21-40B is well adapted to applications "bridge" voltmeter, except that its range has
where a variable voltage divider is essential to be at least twice that of the latter.
(since C1 and C2 may readily be made vari- A practical circuit incorporating these fea-
able) as in measurement of unknown values tures is given in Fig. 21-41.
of RL.

S.W.R. Bridge IN
R3 J2 our

In the circuit of Fig. 21-40A, if R1 and R 2 1534 R, 11,134

are made equal, the bridge will be balanced
when RL = Rs.This is true whether RL is an
C,
actual resistor or the input resistance of aper- C3 1
1
,2
R4
fectly matched transmission line, provided R 2
is chosen to equal the characteristic imped-
ance of the line. Even if the line is not prop-
C4 c
a
erly matched, the bridge will still be balanced
for power traveling outward on the line, since
outward- going power sees only the Zo of the
line until it reaches the load. However, power
INPUT BRIDGE
reflected back from the load does not " see" VM VM
a bridge circuit and the reflected voltage reg-
isters on the voltmeter. From the known rela- Fig. 21- 41— Bridge circuit for s.w.r. measurements. This
tionship between the outgoing or " forward" circuit is intended for use with a d.c. voltmeter, range
voltage and the reflected voltage, the s.w.r. is
5 to 10 volts, having a resistance of 10,000 ohms
easily calculated: per volt or greater.
Cs, C2, C2, C.,-0.005- or 0.01-trf, disk ceramic.
"
RI, 122- 47- ohm composition, 1/2 or 1watt.
R3-52- or 75- ohm ( depending on line impedance)
where V. is the forward voltage and V, is the
composition, 1/2 or 1 watt; precision type pre-
reflected voltage. The forward voltage is
ferred.
equal to E/2 since R s and RL (the Zo of the
IL, R2-10,000 ohms, /
2 watt.
1
line) are equal. It may be measured either by
J2— Coaxial connectors.
disconnecting RL or shorting it.
Meter connects to either " input" or " bridge" posi-

Measuring Voltages tion as required.

For the s.w.r. formula above to apply with

reasonable accuracy ( particularly at high If the bridge is to be used merely for an-
standing- wave ratios) the current taken by tenna adjustment, where the object is to se-
the voltmeter must be inappreciable compared cure the lowest possible s.w.r. rather than to
with the currents through the bridge "arms." measure the s.w.r. accurately, the voltmeter
The voltmeter used in bridge circuits employs requirements are not stringent. In this case
a crystal diode rectifier ( see discussion earlier the object is to get as close to a "null" or
in this chapter) and in order to meet the balance ( that is, zero reading) as possible.
above requirement — as well as to have linear At or near exact balance the voltmeter im-
response, which is equally necessary for cali- pedance is not important. Neither is it neces-
bration purposes— should use a resistance of sary to maintain constant input % oltage to
at least 10,000 ohms in series with the milli- the bridge. This simplifies the bridge circuit
ammeter or microammeter. considerably, Fig. 21-42 being a practical ex-
Since the voltage applied to the line is ample. The construction of a bridge of this
measured by shorting or disconnecting RL type suitable for antenna and transmission
(that is, the line input terminals), while the line adjustments is shown in Fig. 21-43.
538 MEASUREMENTS
Fig. 21-42—A simple bridge circuit useful for imped-
ance-matching in coaxial lines.
C1, C2-0.005- or 0.01-Af. disk ceramic.
14-47-ohm composition, % watt.
122-52- or 75-ohm ( depending on line impedance) com-
position, 1
/ watt; precision type preferred.
2
R4- 1000-ohm composition, % watt.
is, .12—Coaxial connector.
The meter may be a 0-1 milliammeter or d.c. volt-
meter of any type having asensitivity of 1000 ohm per
volt or greater, and afull-scale range of 5to 10 volts.
Negative side of meter connects to ground.

ductances will balance. Leads should be kept

Bridge Construction
as short as possible.
A principal point in the construction of an
s.w.r. bridge is to avoid coupling between the Testing and Calibration
resistors forming the bridge arms, and be- In abridge intended for s.w.r. measurement
tween the arms and the voltmeter circuit. (Fig. 21-41) rather than simple matching, the
This can be done by keeping the resistance first check is to apply just enough r.f. voltage,
arms separated and at right angles to each at the highest frequency to be used, so that
other, and by placing the crystal and its con- the bridge voltmeter reads full scale with the
necting leads so that the loop so formed is load terminals open. Observe the input volt-
not in inductive relationship with any loops age, then short-circuit the load terminals and
formed by the bridge arms. Shielding between readjust the input to the same voltage. The
the bridge arms and the crystal circuit is bridge voltmeter should again register full
helpful in reducing such couplings, although scale. If it does not, the ratio arms, R1 and R 2 ,
it is not always necessary. The two resistors probably are not exactly equal. These two
forming the " ratio arms," R1 and R 2 , should resistors should be carefully matched, al-
have identical relationships with metal parts, though their actual value is not critical. If a
to keep the shunt capacitances equal, and also similar test at a low frequency shows better
should have the same lead lengths so the in- balance, the probable cause is stray induct-
ance or capacitance in one arm not balanced
by equal strays in the other.
After the " short" and "open" readings have
been equalized, the bridge should be checked
for null balance with a " dummy" resistance,
equal to the line impedance, connected to the
load terminals. It is convenient to mount a
half- or 1-watt resistor of the proper value
in a coax connector, keeping it centered in
the connector and using the minimum lead
length. The bridge voltmeter should read zero
at all frequencies. A reading above zero that
remains constant at all frequencies indicates
that the " dummy" resistor is not matched to
R 3 , while readings that vary with frequency
indicate stray reactive effects or stray cou-
pling between parts of the bridge.
When the operation is satisfactory on the
two points just described, the null should be
checked with the dummy resistor connected
to the bridge through several different lengths
of transmission line, to ensure that R 3 actually
matches the line impedance. If the null is not
complete in this test both the dummy resistor
and R 3 will have to be adjusted until a good
match is obtained. With care, composition re-
Fig. 21-43—An inexpensive bridge for matching ad- sistors can be filed down to raise the resist-
justments using the circuit of Fig. 21-42. It is built in a ance, so it is best to start with resistors some-
1% X 2% X 4-inch "Channel-lock" box. The standard what low in value. With each change in R 3 ,
resistor, Rs, bridges the two coax connectors. A pin jack adjust the dummy resistor to give a good null
is provided for connection to the d.c. meter, 0-1 ma. or when connected directly to the bridge, then
0-500 Aci.; the meter negative can be connected to the try it at the end of several different lengths
case or to one of the coax fittings. of line, continuing until the null is satis-
S.W.R. Bridges 539
factory under all conditions of line length to couple it to a low-power driver stage
and frequency. rather than to the final amplifier. Alterna-
With ahigh-impedance voltmeter, the s.w.r. tively, the plate voltage and excitation for
readings will closely approximate the theo- the final amplifier may be reduced to the
retical curve of Fig. 21-44. The calibration can point where the power output is of the order
of a few watts. Then connect the load and
100 observe the voltmeter reading. For matching,
80 adjust the matching network until the best
60 possible null is obtained. For s.w.r. measure-
ment, note the r.f. input voltage to the bridge
4o
after adjusting for full-scale with the load ter-
30
minals open or shorted, then connect the load
:î 2. and readjust the transmitter for the same
input voltage. The bridge voltmeter then indi-

I cates the standing- wave ratio as given by

Fig. 21-44.
Antenna systems are in general resonant
systems and thus exhibit a purely-resistive
i's! 4
6
impedance at only one frequency or over a
3
small band of frequencies. In making bridge
measurements, this will cause errors if the
r.f. energy used to operate the bridge is not
free from harmonics and other spurious com-
ponents, such as frequencies lower than the
02 0.9 0.6
METER READING
08 LO
desired operating frequency that may be fed
through the final amplifier from a frequency-
Fig. 21- 44— Standing- wave ratio n terms of meter read- doubler stage. When a good null cannot be
ing ( relative to full scale) after setting forward voltage secured in, for example, the course of adjust-
to full scale. ing a matching section for 1- to- 1 s.w.r., a
check should be made to ensure that only the
be checked by using composition resistors as desired measurement frequency is present. An
loads. Adjust the transmitter coupling so that indicating- type absorption frequency meter
the bridge voltmeter reads full scale with the coupled to the load usually will show whether
output terminals open, and then check the energy on undesired frequencies is present in
input voltage. Connect various values of re- significant amounts. If so, additional selectiv-
sistance across the output terminals, making ity must be used between the source of power
sure that the input voltage is readjusted to and the measuring circuit.
be the same in each case, and note the reading
with the meter in the bridge position. This IMPEDANCE BRIDGE
check should be made at a low frequency
such as 3.5 Mc. in order to minimize the effect The bridge shown in Figs. 21-45 to 21-47,
of reactance in the resistors. The s.w.r. is inclusive, uses the basic circuit of Fig. 21-37B
given by and incorporates a " differential" capacitor to
RL R obtain an adjustable ratio. When a resistive
S.W. R. = 0— oro
load of unknown value is connected in place
of RL,the Cl/C 2 ratio may be varied to attain
where Ro is the line impedance for which the
a balance, as indicated by a null reading. The
bridge has been adjusted to null, and RL is
capacitor settings can be calibrated in terms
the resistance used as a load. Use the formula
of resistance at RL,so the unknown value can
that places the larger of the two resistances
be read off the calibration.
in the numerator. If the readings do not
correspond exactly for the same s.w.r. when The differential capacitor consists of two
identical capacitors on the same shaft, ar-
appropriate resistors above and below the
line impedance for which the bridge is de- ranged so that when the shaft is rotated to
signed are used, a possible reason is that the increase the capacitance of one unit, the
current taken by the voltmeter is affecting capacitance of the other decreases. The prac-
the measurements. tical circuit of the bridge is given in Fig.
21-46. Satisfactory operation hinges on ob-
Using the Bridge serving the same constructional precautions
The operating procedure is the same as in the case of the s.w.r. bridge. Although a
whether the bridge is used for matching or high-impedance voltmeter is not essential,
for s.w.r. measurement. Apply power with since the bridge is always adjusted for a null,
the load terminals either open or shorted, and the use of such a voltmeter is advisable be-
adjust the input until the bridge voltmeter cause its better linearity makes the actual
reads full scale. Because the bridge operates null settings more accurately observable.
a very low power level it may be necessary With the circuit arrangement and capacitor
 540 MEASUREMENTS
described earlier in connection with the s.w.r.
bridge is connected to the load terminals. The
bridge may be calibrated by using a number
of - watt 5% tolerance composition resistors
of different values in the 5-400 ohm range as
loads, in each case balancing the bridge by
adjusting C1 for a null reading on the meter.
The leads between the test resistor and .12
should be as short as possible, and the cali-
bration preferably should be done in the 3.5-
Mc. band where stray inductance and capaci-
tance will have the least effect.

Using the Bridge

Strictly speaking, asimple bridge can meas-
ure only purely resistive impedances. When
the load is a pure resistance, the bridge can
be balanced to a good null ( meter reading
zero). If the load has a reactance component
the null will not be complete; the higher the
ratio of reactance to resistance in the load the
poorer the null reading. The operation of the
bridge is such that when an exact null cannot
be secured, the readings approximate the re-
Fig. 21-45— An RC bridge for measuring unknown val- sistive component of the load for very low
ues of impedance. The bridge operates at an r.f, input values of impedance, and approximate the
voltage level of about 5 volts. The aluminum box is total impedance at very high values of im-
3 by 4 by 5 inches. pedance. In the mid- range the approximation

shown, the useful range of the bridge is from

about 5ohms to 400 ohms. The calibration is
such that the percentage accuracy of reading
is approximately constant at all parts of the
scale. The midscale value is in the range 50-75
ohms, to correspond to the Zo of coaxial cable.
The reliable frequency range of the bridge
includes all.amateur bands from 3.5 to 54 Mc.

Checking and Calibration

A bridge constructed as shown in the pho-
tographs should show a complete null at all
frequencies within the range mentioned above
when a 50-ohm " dummy" load of the type

RF
LOAD
INPuT

Fig. 21-47 — All components except the meter are

mounted on one of the removable sides of the box. The
variable capacitor is mounted on an L-shaped piece of
aluminum ( with half- inch lips on the inner edge for
bolting to the box side) 2 inches wide, 2%1 inches high
and 23.'s inches deep, to shield the capacitor from the
other components. The terminals project through holes
Fig. 21-46—Circuit of the impedance bridge. Resistors as shown, with associated components mounted directly
are composition, 1/2 watt except as noted. Fixed capaci- on them and the load connector, it. Since the rotor of
tors are ceramic. C, must not be grounded, the capacitor is operated by
CI— Differential capacitor, 11-161 µµf. per section ( Mil- an extension shaft and insulated coupling.
len 28801). The lead from 1, to C,, should go directly from the
CR, — Germanium diode ( 1N34, 1N48, etc.). input connector to the capacitor terminal ( lower right)
.1,, .1—Coaxial connectors, chassis type. to which the 68- ohm resistor is attached. The 4700-ohm
microammeter. resistor is soldered across
I"' % A/
J. VV
F5 J
UillÀ
I —
541
to either is poor, for loads having consider-
able reactance.
In using the bridge for adjustment of
matching networks C1 is set to the desired TO

value (usually the Zo of the coaxial line) and BRIDGE

the matching network is then adjusted for the

best possible null. Fig. 21-49—Tuned balun for coupling between balanced
and unbalanced lines. LI and L2 should be built as a
PARALLEL-CONDUCTOR LINES bifilar winding to get as tight coupling as possible
Bridge measurements made directly on par- between them. Typical constants are as follows:
allel-conductor lines are frequently subject
Freq., Mc. C, Cr
to considerable error because of "antenna" Ll, L2

currents flowing on such lines. These cur- 28 3 turns each on 2- 4µO. 420
rents, which are either induced on the line by inch form, equally
the field around the antenna or coupled into spaced over K6
the line from the transmitter by stray capaci- inch, total.
tance, are in the same phase in both line
wires and hence do not balance out like the 14 Same as 28 Mc. 39 µAL 0.0015 pf.
true transmission- line currents. They will
nevertheless actuate the bridge voltmeter, 7 8 turns of 150-ohm None 0.001 µf.
causing an indication that has no relationship Twin- Lead, no
to the standing-wave ratio. spacing between
turns, on 23
/-
4 inch
S.W.R. Measurements dia. form.
The effect of " antenna" currents on s.w.r. 3.5 Same as 7 Mc. 62 Nif. 0.0045 4.
measurements can be largely overcome by
using a coaxial bridge and coupling it to the
parallel- conductor line through a properly Capacitors in unit shown in Fig. 21-50 are NPO disk
designed impedance- matching circuit. A suit- ceramic. Units may be paralleled to obtain proper
able circuit is given in Fig. 21-48. An antenna capacitance.
coupler can be used for the purpose. In the
balanced tank circuit the "antenna" or parallel
components on the line tend to balance out adjust the r.f. input until the bridge volt-
and so are not passed on to the s.w.r. bridge. meter reads full scale. Remove the short-
It is essential that 1. 1 be coupled to a "cold" circuit and test resistor, and connect the regu-
point on L 2 to minimize capacitive coupling, lar transmission line. The bridge will then
and also desirable that the center of L 2 be indicate the standing-wave ratio on the line.
grounded to the chassis on which the circuit The circuit requires rematching, with
is mounted. Values should be such that L2C2 the test resistor, whenever the frequency is
can be tuned to the operating frequency and changed appreciably. It can, however, be used
that L1 provides sufficient coupling, as de- over a portion of an amateur band without
scribed in the transmission- line chapter. The readjustment, with negligible error.
measurement procedure is as follows:
Connect a noninductive ('A- or 1-watt car- Impedance Measurements
bon) resistor, having the same value as the Measurements on parallel-conductor lines
characteristic impedance of the parallel- con- and other balanced loads can be made with
ductor line, to the " line" terminals. Apply r.f. the impedance bridge previously described by
to the bridge, adjust the taps on L 2 (keeping using abalun of the type shown schematically in
them equidistant from the center), while vary- Fig. 21-49. This is an autotransformer having a
ing the capacitance of C1 and C 2 , until the 2- to- 1 turns ratio and thus provides a 4- to- 1
bridge shows anull. After the null is obtained, step-down in impedance from abalanced load
do not touch any of the circuit adjustments. to the output circuit of the bridge, one side
Next, short-circuit the " line" terminals and of which is grounded. L1 and L 2 must be as
tightly coupled as possible, and so should be
constructed as a bifilar winding. The circuit
is resonated to the operating frequency by
TO COAX COA C1, and C 2 serves to tune out any residual
SOURCE —C., ee BRIDGE reactance that may be present because the
OF RF
coupling between the two coils is not quite
perfect.
Fig. 21-48—Circuit for using coaxial s.w.r. bridge for Fig. 21-50 shows one method of construct-
measurements on parallel-conductor lines. Values of ing such a balun. The two interwound coils
circuit components are identical with those used for the are made as nearly identical as possible, the
similar "antenna-coupler" circuit dscussed in the chap- "finish" end of the first being connected to
ter on transmission lines. the " start" end of the second through a short
542 MEASUREMENTS

Fig. 21-50 — Balun construction

(W2ZE). 150- ohm Twin- Lead may
be used for the bifilar winding in
place of the ordinary wire shown.
Symmetrical construction with
71; tight coupling between the two
coils is essential to good per-
formance.

lead running under the winding inside the with a grid- dip meter. ( For further details,
form. The center of this lead is tapped to give see QST for August, 1955.)
the connection to the shell side of the coax With the balun in use the bridge is oper-
connector. C1 should be chosen to resonate ated in the same way as previously described,
the circuit at the center of the band for which except that all impedance readings must be
the balun is designed with Ji open, and C2 multiplied by 4. The balun also may be used
should resonate the circuit to the same fre- for s.w.r. measurements on 300-ohm line in
quency with both J1 and the " load" terminals conjunction with a resistance bridge designed
shorted. The frequency checks may be made for 75-ohm coaxial line.

THE OSCILLOSCOPE
The cathode-ray oscilloscope gives a visual which fluoresces, or gives off light at the point
representation of signals at both audio and where the beam strikes. A beam of moving
radio frequencies and can therefore be used electrons can be moved laterally, or deflected,
for many types of measurements that are not by electric or magnetic fields, and since its
possible with instruments of the types dis-
weight and interia are negligibly small, it
cussed earlier in this chapter. In amateur can be made to follow instantly the variations
work, one of the principal uses of the scope
in periodically-changing fields at both audio
is for displaying an amplitude-modulated sig-
and radio frequencies.
nal so a phone transmitter can be adjusted
The electrode arrangement that forms the
for proper modulation and continuously mon-
electrons into a beam is called the electron
itored to keep the modulation precentage gun. In the simple tube structure shown in
within proper limits. For this purpose a very
Fig. 21-51, the gun consists of the cathode,
simple circuit will suffice, and a typical circuit
grid, and anodes Nos. 1and 2. The intensity
is described later in this section.
of the electron beam is regulated by the grid
The versatility of the scope can be greatly
in the same way as in an ordinary tube.
increased by adding amplifiers and linear
Anode No. 1 is operated at a positive poten-
deflection circuits, but the design and adjust-
tial with respect to the cathode, thus acceler-
ment of such circuits tends to be complicated
ating the electrons that pass through the grid,
if optimum performance is to be secured,
and is provided with small apertures through
and is somewhat outside the field of this sec- which the electron stream passes. On emerg-
tion. Special components are generally re- ing from the apertures the electrons are trav-
quired. Oscilloscope kits for home assembly
eling in practically parallel straight-line paths.
are available from anumber of suppliers, and
The electrostatic fields set up by the poten-
since their cost compares very favorably with
tials on anode No. 1 and anode No. 2 form
that of a home- built instrument of compa-
an electron lens system which makes the
rable design, they are recommended for se-
electron paths converge or focus to a point
rious consideration by those who have need
at the fluorescent screen. The potential on
for or are interested in the wide range of
anode No. 2 is usually fixed, while that on
measurements that is possible with a fully-
anode No. 1is varied to bring the beam into
equipped scope.
focus. Anode No. 1is, therefore, called the focus-
ing electrode.
CATHODE-RAY TUBES
Electrostatic deflection, the type generally
The heart of the oscilloscope is the cathode- used in the smaller tubes, is produced by de-
ray tube, a vacuum tube in which the elec- flecting plates. Two sets of plates are placed
trons emitted from a hot cathode are first at right angles to each other, as indicated in
accelerated to give them considerable ve- Fig. 21-51. The fields are created by applying
locity, then formed into a beam, and finally suitable voltages between the two plates of
allowed to strike a special translucent screen each pair. Usually one plate of each pair is
Oscilloscopes 543

Vertteal
Hied. - voltage anode deflecting
Healer Cathode (Ana2e Nee) plates

Electron bea,n.

/2/(122retten.i •SCreen

Controtelectrode Focusing, Hprizonlal 6/ass

(Grid Hal) rode eitveLces
a;,r
ie ef
i
(lewd* No.1)

Fig. 21-51—Typical construction for a cathode-ray tube of the electrostatic-deflection type.

connected to anode No. 2, to establish the with a linear sweep it is less brilliant than
polarities of the vertical and horizontal fields the pattern, because the spot is moving much
with respect to the beam and to each other. more rapidly during the fly- back time than
during the time of the main trace.
Formation of Patterns The linear sweep shows the shape of the
When periodically-varying voltages are ap- wave in the same way that it is usually rep-
resented graphically. If the period of the a.c.
plied to the two sets of deflecting plates, the
path traced by the fluorescent spot forms a voltage applied to the vertical plates is con-
pattern that is stationary so long as the am- siderably less than the time taken to sweep
plitude and phase relationships of the voltages horizontally across the screen, several cycles
remain unchanged. Fig. 21-52 shows how one of the vertical or "signal" voltage will appear
in the pattern.
such pattern is formed. The horizontal sweep
voltage is assumed to have the " sawtooth"
waveshape indicated. With no voltage applied
to the vertical plates the trace simply sweeps
from left to right across the screen along the
horizontal axis X—X' until the instant H is
reached, when it reverses direction and snaps
back to the starting point. The sine-wave
X
voltage applied to the vertical plates similarly
would trace a line along the axis Y— Y' in the
absence of any deflecting voltage on the hori-
zontal plates. However, when both voltages
are present the position of the spot at any
Fig. 21-52—A.c.-
instant depends upon the voltages on both
voltage waveshape
sets of plates at that instant. Thus at time
as viewed on an
B the horizontal voltage has moved the spot
oscilloscope screen,
a short distance to the right and the vertical
showing the forma-
voltage has similarly moved it upward, so
tion of the pattern
that it reaches the actual position B' on the
from the horizontal
screen. The resulting trace is easily followed
(sawtooth) and ver-
from the other indicated positions, which are
tical sweep voltages.
taken at equal time intervals. HORIZONTAL

Y.
Types of Sweeps
A sawtooth sweep-voltage wave shape, such For many amateur purposes a satisfactory
as is shown in Fig. 21-52, is called a linear horizontal sweep is simply a 60- cycle voltage
sweep, because the deflection in the horizontal of adjustable amplitude. In modulation moni-
direction is directly proportional to time. If toring ( described in the chapter on amplitude
the sweep were perfect the fly-back time, or modulation) audio- frequency voltage can be
time taken for the spot to return from the taken from the modulator to supply the
end ( H) to the beginning ( I or A) of the horizontal sweep. For examination of audio-
horizontal trace, would be zero, so that the frequency wave forms, the linear sweep is
line HI would be perpendicular to the axis essential. Its frequency should be adjustable
Y— Y'. Although the fly-back time cannot be over the entire range of audio frequencies to
made zero in practicable sweep-voltage gen- be inspected on the oscilloscope.
erators it can be made quite small in com-
Lissajous Figures
parison to the time of the desired trace AH,
at least at most frequencies within the audio When sinusoidal a.c. voltages are applied
range. The line H'I' is called the return trace; to the two sets of deflecting plates in the
Vacuum-Tube Data V13

Bottom views are shown. Terminal designations on sockets and • meaning are given on page VS.

9LY 9M 9MS

a,
G,

9NZ 9PB

IC

NC

90 9R
9PM

9V 9Y
9S

IIA 11B IIC IIJ IIL

92

NC

IIN IIS IIT

IIM

KT.

12BF 12BJ 12BM 1280

G,

G;

12BY I2CA 12E

I2BW

I4A 14B
I2F I2FB I2J 121
Oscilloscopes 545

Basic Oscilloscope Circuit

R. E TO VERT.
The essential oscilloscope circuit is shown PL ATES
INPUT
in Fig. 21-54. The minimum requirements are ico,upt.
supplying the various electrode potentials,
plus controls for focusing and centering the
spot on the face of the tube and adjusting the
spot intensity. The circuit of Fig. 21-54 can
be used with electrostatic-deflection tubes
from two to five inches in face diameter, with
voltages up to 2500. This includes practically
all the types popular for small oscilloscopes. H
O
The circuit has provision for introducing AUDIO TO MOR.
INPUT
signal voltages to the two sets of deflecting PLATES

plates. Either set of deflecting electrodes

(D iD2,or D3D4) may be used for either hori-
zontal or vertical deflection, depending on
how the tube is mounted.
The high voltage may be taken from a
transmitter power supply if desired. The cur-
rent is only a milliampere or so. The voltage
115v A C
preferably should be constant, such as is ob-
tained from a supply having a constant load Fig. 21- 55— Circuits for supplying r.f., audio, and a.c.
— e.g., the supply for the Class C amplifier voltages to oscilloscope deflection plates for modula-
in an a.m. transmitter. tion monitoring.
In the circuit of Fig. 21-54 the centering C; - 100 -ited. variable, receiving type.
controls are at the full supply voltage above 14-1.75 Mc.: 30 enam. close- wound on 1 -inch form,
ground and therefore should be carefully in- coil length 34inch.
sulated by being mounted on bakelite or sim- 3.5-8 Mc.: 30 turns No. 22 enam., close-wound on
ilar material rather than directly on a metal 1-inch form.
panel or chassis. Insulated couplings or ex- 13-30 Mc.; 7turns No. 22, spread to 34 inch length
tension shafts should be used. The focusing on 1-inch form.
control is also several hundred volts above I.2-2 or more turns, as required for sufficient coupling,
ground and should be similarly insulated. at cold end of 1.1.
The tube should be protected from stray RI—Volume control, 0.25 megohm or more.
magnetic fields, either by enclosing it in an Si—D.p.d.t. switch.
iron or steel box or by using one of the special Ti—Interstage audio transformer, any type. Use second-
c.r. tube shields available. If the heater trans- ary-to-primary turns ratio of 1-to- 1to 2-to- 1.
former ( or other transformer) is mounted in the
same cabinet, care must be used to place it so the
Frequency Limitations of Oscilloscopes
stray field around it does not deflect the spot.
The spot cannot be focussed to a fine point when Most commercial or kitted oscilloscopes
influenced by atransformer field. include vacuum- tube amplifiers between the
input terminals and the deflection plates, to
Modulation Monitoring increase the sensitivity and usefulness of the
The addition of Fig. 21-55 to the basic cir- instrument. Depending upon the construction
cuit of Fig. 21-54 provides all that is necessary of the amplifiers, their useful frequency range
for modulation checking. The r.f. from the may be only as high as several hundred kc.,
transmitter is applied to the vertical plates although more expensive instruments will in-
through a tuned circuit L/Ci and link L2. clude amplifiers that work in the megacycle
When adjusted to the transmitter operating range. The operator should acquaint himself
frequency the tuned circuit furnishes ample with the frequency limitations of the ' scope
deflection voltage even from a low-power through study of the specifications, since
transmitter, and C1 can be used to control the attempts to pass, e.g., a 450-kc. i.f. signal
pattern height. through an amplifier that cuts off at 100 kc.
Deflection voltage for the horizontal plates are doomed to failure. No such frequency
can be taken from the modulation trans- limits apply when the connection is made
former secondary of an a.m. transmitter, or directly to the deflection plates, and conse-
60- cycle deflection can be used to give a quently r.f. at 20 to 30 Mc. can be applied
wave- envelope type pattern. In either case a by the method shown in Fig. 21-55. A prac-
maximum of about 200 volts r.m.s. will give tical limitation will be found when r.f. from
full-width deflection. This voltage is almost the vertical plates is ( stray) capacitively
independent of the size of c.r. tube used. coupled to the horizontal-deflection plates;
Methods of using such a scope for modulation this will show as a thickening of the trace.
checking are described in the chapter on In some instances it can be reduced by r.f.
amplitude modulation. bypassing of the horizontal deflection plates.
 Chapter 22

Assembling a
Station
The actual location inside the house of the enough space left over for the logbook, a pad
"shack"— the room where the transmitter and and pencil, and perhaps a large ash tray. Suit-
receiver are located — depends, of course, on able space should be included for radiogram
the free space available for amateur activities. blanks and a call book, if these accessories are
Fortunate indeed is the amateur with a separate in frequent use. If the table is small, or the
room that he can reserve for his hobby,eor the number of pieces of equipment is large, it is
few who can have a special small building sep- often necessary to build a shelf or rack for the
arate from the main house. However, most ama- auxiliary equipment, or to mount it in some less
teurs must share a room with other domestic convenient location in or under the table. If one
activities, and amateur stations will be found has the facilities, a semicircular "console" can
tucked away in a corner of the living room, a be built of wood, or a simpler solution is to
bedroom, or even in alarge closet! A spot in the use two small wooden cabinets to support a
cellar or the attic can almost be classed as a table top of wood or Masonite. A flush- type
separate room, although it may lack the " finish" door will make an excellent table top. Home-
of a normal room. built tables or consoles can be finished in any
Regardless of the location of the station, how- of the available oil stains, varnishes, paints or
ever, it should be designed for maximum operat- lacquers. Many operators use a large piece of
ing convenience and safety. It is foolish to have plate glass over part of their table, since it
the station arranged so that the throwing of sev- furnishes a good writing surface and can cover
eral switches is required to go from " receive" to miscellaneous charts and tables, prefix lists,
"transmit," just as it is silly to have the equip- operating aids, calendar, and similar accessories.
ment arranged so that the operator is in an If the major interests never require frequent
uncomfortable and cramped position during his band changing, or frequency changing within a
operating hours. The reason for building the band, the transmitter can be located some dis-
station as safe as possible is obvious, if you are tance from the operator, in a location where
interested in spending a number of years with the meters can be observed from time to time. If
your hobby! frequent band or frequency changes are a part
of the usual operating procedure, the trans-
CONVENIENCE mitter should be mounted close to the oper-
Titc tirq consideration in any amateur station ator, either along one side or above the re-
is the operating position, which includes the ceiver, so that the controls are easily accessible
operator's table and chair and the pieces of without the need for leaving the operating
equipment that are in constant use ( the receiver, position.
send- receive switch, and key or microphone). A compromise arrangement would place the
The table should be as large as possible, to v.f.o. or crystal- switched oscillator at the op-
allow sufficient room for the receiver or receiv- erating position and the transmitter in some
ers, transmitter frequency control, frequency- convenient location not adjacent to the oper-
measuring equipment, monitoring equipment, con- ator. Since it is usually possible to operate over
trol switches, and keys and microphones, with a portion of a band without retuning the trans-

Here is a station that is completely home.

built. At the left is a linear amplifier and
power supply in a floor- mounted rack. On
the console, at the left, are an antenna patch
box and t.r. switch and the station control
panel. In center of the console Is a three-
tiered rack containing a ham- bands only re-
ceiver at the bottom, a sideband exciter in
the middle, and above that a converter for
frequencies outside the ham bands. At the
far right is a frequency meter and monitor.
The console is also home- built, in a shape
that provides good operating convenience.
(W2TBZ/4, Springfield, Va.)
Controls 547
mitter stages, an operating position of this type is operation, a "push-to-talk" switch on the micro-
an advantage over one in which the operator phone is convenient, but hand-held microphones
must leave his position to change frequency. tie up the use of one hand and are not too de-
sirable, although they are widely used in mobile
Controls and portable work.
The operator has an excellent chance to exer- The location of other switches, such as those
cise his ingenuity in the location of the operat- used to control power supplies, filaments, phone/
ing controls. The most important controls in the c.w. change-over and the like, is of no particular
station are the receiver tuning dial and the importance, and they can be located on the unit
send- receive switch. The receiver tuning dial with which they are associated. This is not
should be located four to eight inches above the strictly true in the case of the phone/c.w. DX
operating table, and if this requires mounting man, who sometimes has need to change in a
the receiver off the table, a small shelf or hurry from c.w. to phone. In this case, the
bracket will do the trick. With the single ex- change- over switch should be at the operating
ception of the amateur whose work is almost table, although the actual change-over may
entirely in traffic or rag-chew nets, which re- be done by a relay controlled by the switch.
quire little or no attention to the receiver, it If a rotary beam is used the control of the
will be found that the operator's hand is on beam should be convenient to the operator. The
the receiver tuning dial most of the time. If direction indicator, however, can be located any-
the tuning knob is too high or too low, the where within sight of the operator, and does not
hand gets cramped after an extended period of have to be located on the operating table unless
operating, hence the importance of a properly it is included with the control.
located receiver. The majority of c.w. operators
tune with the left hand, preferring to leave the Frequency Spotting
right hand free for copying messages and han- In a station where a v.f.o. is used, or where a
dling the key, and so the receiver should be number of crystals are available, the operator
mounted where the knob can be reached by the should be able to turn on only the oscillator of
left hand. Phone operators aren't tied down this his transmitter, so that he can spot accurately
way, and tune the communications receiver with his location in the band with respect to other
the hand that is more convenient. stations. This allows him to see if he has any-
The hand key should be fastened securely to thing like aclear channel, or to see what his fre-
the table, in aline just outside the right shoulder' quency is with respect to another station. Such
and far enough back from the front edge of the a provision can be part of the " send- receive"
table so that the elbow can rest on the table. switch. Switches are available with acenter "off"
A good location for the semiautomatic or "bug" position, a "hold" position on one side, for turn-
key is right next to the hand-key, although some ing on the oscillator only, and a " lock" position
operators prefer to mount the automatic key in on the other side for turning on the transmitter
front of them on the left, so that the right fore- and antenna relay. If oscillator keying is used,
arm rests on the table parallel to the front edge. the key serves the same purpose, provided a
The best location for the microphone is di- "send- receive" switch is available to turn off
rectly in front of the operator, so that he doesn't the high-voltage supplies and prevent a signal
have to shout across the table into it, or run up going out on the air during adjustment of the
the speech-amplifier gain so high that all manner oscillator frequency.
of external sounds are picked up. If the micro- For phone operation, the telegraph key or
phone is supported by a boom or by a flexible an auxiliary switch can control the transmitter
"goose neck," it can be placed in front of the oscillator, and the " send- receive" switch can
operator without its base taking up valuable then be wired into the control system so as
table space. to control the oscillator as well as the other
In any amateur station worthy of the name, circuits.
it should be necessary to throw no more than
one switch to go from the "receive" to the Comfort
"transmit" condition. In phone stations, this Of prime importance is the comfort of the
switch should be located where it can be easily operator. If you find yourself getting tired after
reached by the hand that isn't on the receiver. a short period of operating, examine your sta-
In the case of c.w. operation, this switch is most tion to find what causes the fatigue. It may
conveniently located to the right or left of the be that the chair is too soft or hasn't a straight
key, although some operators prefer to have it back or is the wrong height for you. The key
mounted on the left-hand side of the operating or receiver may be located so that you assume
position and work it with the left hand while an uncomfortable position while using them. If
the right hand is on the key. Either location is you get sleepy fast, the ventilation may be at
satisfactory, of course, and the choice depends fault. ( Or you may need sleep!)
upon personal preference. Some operators use a
foot-controlled switch, which is a convenience POWER CONNECTIONS AND CONTROL
but doesn't allow too much freedom of position Following a few simple rules in wiring your
during long operating periods. power supplies and control circuits will make
If the microphone is hand-held during phone it an easy job to change units in the station. If
548 ASSEMBLING A STATION

4),$ _,.K
* )
9lug into
us-vo/t wall
Outlet
Outlets R S.r switch
as required if desired
(A)

Ant. loy
o To we/out/et
Power or special
-.Y-Ireen Pilot Lamp
Relay* -
ils-rog line
o
Outlets for filament DP S7: switch
To send-receive transformers, as refuireel
switch if desired
(Send-Receive switch
(Poor tor push-to-talk) (B)

4) 4
° To we/lout/et or
special /4s Cil'230 volt Una
o
Outlets as requinsci for DPSrre/ay
plate-tionsforneer primaries
or switch ( C)
Re To power- relay
Pilot lamp outlet in B abord

Fig. 22- 1— Power circuits for a high- power station. A shows the outlets for the receiver, monitoring equip-
ment, speech amplifier and the like. The outlets should be mounted inconspicuously behind or under the operat-
ing table. Multiple-outlet strips and boxes are available through electrical supply houses. B shows the trans-
mitter filament circuits and control-relay circuits, if the latter are used. C shows the plate-transformer primary
circuits, controlled by the power relay. A heavy-duty switch can be used instead of the relay, in which case the
antenna relay would be connected in circuit C. If 115-volt pilot lamps are used, they can be connected as
shown. Lower-voltage lamps must be connected across suitable windings on transformers. With "push-to-talk"
operation, the "send-receive" switch can be a d.p.d.t. affair, with the second pole controlling the "on-off"
circuit of the receiver.

the station is planned in this way from the start, special one has been installed for the station.
or if the rules are recalled when you are re- The third circuit is the one that furnishes
building, you will find it asimple matter to revise power to the plate-supply transformers for the
your station from time to time without amajor r.f. stages and for the modulator. ( See chapter
rewiring job. on Power Supplies for high- power considera-
It is neater and safer to run a single pair of tions.) When it is opened, the transmitter is
wires from the outlet over to the operating table disabled except for the filaments, and the trans-
or some central point, rather than to use anum- mitter should be safe to work on. However, one
ber of adapters at the wall outlet. always feels safer when working on the trans-
mitter if he has turned off every power source.
Inter ctions With these three circuits established, it be-
The wiring of any station will entail two or comes a simple matter to arrange the station
three common circuits, as shown in Fig. 22-1. The for different conditions and with new units.
circuit for the receiver, monitoring equipment Anything on the operating table that runs all
and the like, assuming it to be taken from awall the time ties into the first circuit. Any new
outlet, should be run from the wall to an incon- power supply or r.f. unit gets its filament power
spicuous point on the operating table, where it from the second circuit. Since the third circuit is
terminates in a multiple outlet large enough to controlled by the send- receive switch ( or relay),
handle the required number of plugs. A single any power- supply primary that is to be switched
switch between the wall outlet and the receptacle on and off for send and receive connects to
will then turn on all of this equipment at one circuit C.
time.
Break-In and Push-To-Talk
The second common circuit in the station is
that supplying voltage to rectifier- and trans- In c.w. operation. " break-in" is any system
mitter-tube filaments, bias supplies, and anything that allows the transmitting operator to hear
else that is not switched on and off during trans- the other station's signal during the "key-up"
mit and receive periods. The coil power for con- periods between characters and letters. This
trol relays should also be obtained from this allows the sending station to be "broken" by the
circuit. The power for this circuit can come from receiving station at any time, to shorten calls,
a wall outlet or from the transmitter line, if a ask for " fills" in messages, and speed up opera-
Safety 549
tion in general. With present techniques, it re- economy. Switches rated at 20 amperes at 125
quires the use of a separate receiving antenna volts will handle the switching of circuits at the
or a " t.r. box" and, with high power, some kilowatt level, but the small toggle switches
means for protecting the receiver from the trans- rated 3amperes at 125 volts should be used only
mitter when the key is "down." Several methods, in circuits up to about 150 watts.
applicable to high- power stations, are described When relays are used, the send- receive switch
in Chapter Eight. If the transmitter is low- closes the circuits to their coils. The energized
powered ( 50 watts or so), no special equipment relays close the heavy-duty relay contacts. Since
is required except the separate receiving antenna the relay contacts are in the power circuit being
and a receiver that " recovers" fast. Where controlled, the switch handles only the relay-coil
break-in operation is used, the output stage current. As a consequence, this switch can have
should he disabled when adjusting the oscillator alow current rating.
to a new frequency, to avoid radiating an un-
neCessary signal. SAFETY
"Push- to- talk" is an expression derived from Of prime importance in the layout of the
the "PUSH" switch on some microphones, and it station is the personal safety of the operator
means a phone station with a single control for and of visitors, invited or otherwise, during
all change-over functions. Strictly speaking, it normal operating practice. If there are small
should apply only to a station where this single children in the house, every step must be taken
send- receive switch must be held in place during to prevent their accidental contact with power
transmission periods, but any fast- acting switch leads of any voltage. A locked room is a fine
will give practically the same effect. A control idea, if it is possible, otherwise housing the trans-
switch with a center "OFF" position, and one mitter and power supplies in metal cabinets is an
"Hun" and one "Locx" position, will give more excellent, although expensive, solution. Lacking
flexibility than a straight " push" switch. The a metal cabinet, a wooden cabinet or a wooden
one switch must control the transmitter power framework covered with wire screen is the next-
supplies, the receiver "on-off" circuit and, if best solution. Many stations have the power sup-
one is used, the antenna change-over relay. The plies housed in metal cabinets in the operating
receiver control is necessary to disable its out- room or in acloset or basement, and this cabinet
put during transmit periods, to avoid acoustic or entry is kept locked — with the key out of
feedback. A "foot switch" on the floor at the reach of everyone but the operator. The power
operating position is a convenient control. leads are run through conduit to the transmitter,
using ignition cable for the high-voltage leads. If
Switches and Relays the power supplies and transmitter are in the
It is dangerous to use an overloaded switch same cabinet, a lock- type main switch for the
in the power circuits. After it has been used for incoming line power is a good precaution.
some time, it may fail, leaving the power on the A simple substitute for alock-type main switch
circuit even after the switch is thrown to the is an ordinary line plug with a short connecting
"OFF" position. For this reason, large switches, wire between the two pins. By wiring a female
or relays with adequate ratings, should be used receptacle in series with the main power line in
to control the plate power. Relays are rated by the transmitter, the shorting plug will act as the
coil voltages ( for their control circuits) and by main safety lock. When the plug is removed and
their contact current and voltage ratings. Any hidden, it will be impossible to energize the trans-
switch or relay for the power- control circuits of mitter, and astranger or child isn't likely to spot
an amateur station should be conservatively or suspect the open receptacle.
rated; overloading aswitch or relay is very poor An essential adjunct to any station is ashort-
ing stick for discharging any high voltage to
ground before any work is done in the transmit-
ter. Even if interlocks and power-supply bleeders
are used, the failure of one or more of these

This neat " built-in" installation features separate

finals and exciters for each band, along with room
for receiver, frequency meter, oscilloscope, Q multi-
plier and v.h.f. converter. All units are mounted on
the three large panels; the panels are hinged at the
bottom so that they con be lowered for service work
on the individual units. A common power supply is
used, and band-changing consists of turning on the
filaments in the desired r.f. section.
(W90110, Sturgeon Bay, Wisc.)
550 ASSEMBLING A STATION
components may leave the transmitter in adan- erating table to the transmitter, as is generally
gerous condition. The shorting stick is made by the case, a single piece of rubber- or vinyl-
mounting asmall metal hook, of wire or rod, on covered multiconductor cable will always look
one end of adry stick or bakelite rod. A piece of neater than several pieces of rubber-covered
ignition cable or other well- insulated wire is then lamp cord, and it is much easier to sweep around
run from the hook on the stick to the chassis or or dust.
common ground of the transmitter, and the stick The antenna Wires always present a problem,
is hung alongside the transmitter. Whenever the unless coaxial- line feed is used. Open- wire line
power is turned off in the transmitter to permit from the point of entry of the antenna line should
work on the rig, the shorting stick is first used to always be arranged neatly, and it is generally best
touch the several high-voltage leads ( plate r.f. to support it at several points. Many operators
choke, filter capacitor, tube plate connection, etc.) prefer to mount any antenna- tuning assemblies
to insure that there is no high voltage at any of right at the point of entry of the feedline, to-
these points. This simple device has saved many gether with an antenna changeover relay ( if one
alife. Use it! is used), and then the link from the tuning as-
sembly to the transmitter can be made of incon-
Fusing spicuous coaxial line. If thé transmitter is
A minor hazard in the amateur station is the mounted near the point of entry of the line, it
possibility of fire through the failure of a com- simplifies the problem of " What to do with the
ponent. If the failure is complete and the com- feeders?"
ponent is large, the house fuses will generally
blow. However, it is unwise and inconvenient to Lightning and Fire Protection
depend upon the house fuses to protect the lines The National Electrical Code ( NFPA No. 70)
running to the radio equipment, and every power adopted by the National Fire Protection Asso-
supply should have its primary circuit individu- ciation, although purely advisory as far as the
ally fused, at about 150 to 200 per cent of the NFPA is concerned,•is of interest because it is
maximum rating of the supply. Circuit breakers widely used in law and for legal regulatory pur-
can be used instead of fuses if desired. poses. Article 810 deals with radio and television
equipment, and Section C treats specifically ama-
Wiring teur transmitting and receiving stations. Perti-
Control-circuit wires running between the op- nent paragraphs are reprinted below:
erating position and atransmitter in another part
810-11. Material. Antenna and lead-in conductors
of the room should be hidden, if possible. This shall be of hard-drawn copper, bronze, aluminum alloy,
can be done by running the wires under the floor copper-clad steel or other high- strength, corrosion- resistant
or behind the base molding, bringing the wires material. Soft-drawn or medium-drawn copper may be
used for lead-in conductors where the maximum span be-
out to terminal boxes or regular wall fixtures. tween points of support is less than 35 feet.
Such construction, however, is generally only 810-12. Supports. Outdoor antenna and lead-in con-
possible in elaborate installations, and the aver- ductors shall be securely supported. They shall not
be attached to poles or similar structures carrying
age amateur must content himself with trying to
electric light or power wires or trolley wires of more
make the wires as inconspicuous as possible. If than 250 volts between conductors. Insulators sup-
several pairs of leads must be run from the op- porting the antenna conductors shall have sufficient

A neat operating bench can be built from wood and covered with linoleum. There is enough room on the
table shown here to house the transmitter, receiver, and numerous adjuncts and accessories. Interconnecting
wiring is run behind the units or underneath the table. ( W3AON, York, Pa )
Electric Code 551
mechanical strength to safely support the conductors. Exception No. 1. When protected by a continuous
Lead-in conductors shall be securely attached to the metallic shield which is permanently and effectively
antenna. grounded.
810-13. Avoidance of Contacts with Conductors of Exception No. 2. Where the antenna is permanently
Other Systems. Outdoor antenna and lead-in conduc- and effectively grounded.
tors from an antenna to a building shall not cross 810-21. Grounding Material. The grounding conduc-
over electric light or power circuits and shall be kept tor shall, unless otherwise specified, be of copper,
well away from all such circuits so as to avoid the aluminum, copper-clad steel, bronze, or other cor-
possibility of accidental contact. Where proximity to rosion- resistant material.
electric light and power service conductors of less 810-22. Insulation. The grounding conductors may
than 250 volts between conductors cannot be avoided, be uninsulated.
the installation shall be such as to provide a clearance 810-23. Supports. The grounding conductors shall
of at least two feet. It is recommended that antenna be securely fastened in place and may be directly at-
conductors be so installed as not to cross under elec- tached to the surface wired over without the use of
tric light or power conductors. insulating supports. Where proper support cannot be
810-14. Splices. Splices and joints in antenna span provided the size of the grounding conductor shall
shall be made with approved splicing devices or by be increased proportionately.
such other means as will not appreciably weaken the 810-24. Mechanical Protection. The grounding con-
conductors. ductor shall be protected where exposed to physical
Soldering may ordinarily be expected to weaken the damage or the size of the grounding conductor shall
conductor. Therefore, the joint should be mechanically be increased proportionately to compensate for the
secure before soldering. lack of protection.
810-15. Grounding. Masts and metal structures sup- 810-25. Run in Straight Line. The grounding con-
porting antennas shall be permanently and effectively ductor shall be run in as straight a line as practicable
grounded, without intervening splice or connection. from the antenna mast and/or lightning arrestor to
810-52. Size of Antenna. Antennas for amateur the grounding electrode.
transmitting and receiving stations shall be of a size 810-26. Grounding Electrode. The grounding con-
not less than given in Table 810-52. ductor shall be connected to a metallic underground
water piping system. Where the building is not
supplied with a ( suitable) water system (one buried
deeper than ten feet) the connection shall be made to
Table 810-52 the metal frame of the building when effectively
Size of Amateur-Station Outdoor Antenna grounded or to a grounding electrode. At a pent-
Conductors house or similar location the ground conductor may
be connected to a water pipe or rigid conduit.
Minimum Size of 810-27. Grounding Conductor. The grounding con-
Conductors ductor may be run either inside or outside the build-
ing.
When Maximum Open 810-59. Size of Protective Ground. The protective
Span Length Is ground conductor for transmitting stations shall be
Less than Over as large as the lead-in, but not smaller than No. 10
Material 150 feet 150 feet copper, bronze or copper-clad steel.
Hard- drawn copper 14 10 810-60. Size of Operating Grounding Conductor.
Copper-clad steel, bronze The operating grounding conductor for transmitting
or other high-strength stations shall be not less than No. 14 copper or its
material 14 12 equivalent.
810-70. Clearance from Other Conductors. All con-
ductors inside the building shall be separated at least
810-53. Size of Lead-In Conductors. Lead-in con- 4 inches from the conductors of other light or signal
ductors for transmitting stations shall, for various circuit unless separated therefrom by conduit or some
maximum span lengths, be of a size at least as great firmly fixed non-conductor such as porcelain tubes
as that of conductors. for antenna specified in 810-52. or flexible tubing.
810-54. Clearance on Building. Antenna conductors 810-71. General. Transmitters shall comply with the
for transmitting stations, attached to buildings, shall following:
be firmly mounted at least 3 inches clear of the sur- (a) Enclosing. The transmitter shall be enclosed
face of the building on nonabsorptive insulating sup- in a metal frame or grille, or separated from the
ports, such as treated pins or brackets, equipped with operating space by a barrier or other equivalent
insulators having not less than 3-inch creepage and means, all metallic parts of which are effectually con-
airgap distances. Lead-in conductors attached to nected to ground.
buildings shall also conform to these requirements, (b) Grounding of Controls. All external metallic
except when they are enclosed in a continuous metal handles and controls accessible to the operating per-
shield which is permanently and effectively grounded. sonnel shall be effectually grounded.
In this latter case the metallic shield may also be No circuit in excess of 150 volts between conduc-
used as a conductor. tors should have any parts exposed to direct contact.
810-55. Entrance to Building. Except where pro- A complete dead-front type of switchboard is pre-
tected with a continuous metal shield which is per- ferred.
menently and effectively grounded, lead-in conductors (c) Interlocks on Doors. All access doors shall
for transmitting stations shall enter building by one be provided with interlocks which will disconnect
of the following methods: all voltages in excess of 350 volts between conductors
(a) Through a rigid, noncombustible, nonalmorp- when any access door is opened.
tive insulating tube or bushing. (d) Audio Amplifiers. Audio amplifiers which are
(b) Through an opening provided for the purpose located outside the transmitter housing shall be suit-
in which the entrance conductors are firmly secured ably housed and shall be so located as to be readily
so as to provide a clearance of at least 2 inches. accessible and adequately ventilated.
(c) Through a drilled window pane.
810-56. Protection • Against Accidental Contact. If coaxial line is used, compliance with 810-57
Lead-in conductors to radio transmitters shall be so above is readily achieved by grounding the shield
located or installed as to make accidental contact
of the coax at the point where it is nearest to the
with them difficult.
810-57. Lightning Arrestors—Transmitting Stations. ground outside the house. Use a heavy wire —
Each conductor of a lead-in for outdoor antenna shall the aluminum wire sold for grounding TV anten-
be provided with a lightning arrestor or other suit-
nas is good. If the cable can be run underground,
able means which will drain static charges from the
antenna system. one or more grounding stakes should be located
552 ASSEMBLING A STATION
at the point where the cable enters the ground, No. 4or larger wire. The gaps can be made from
at the antenna end. A grounding stake, to be 4
, X Y2-inch flat brass rod shaped as shown,
effective in soils of average conductivity, should and the gaps should be set sufficiently far apart
to prevent flash-over during normal operation
of the transmitter. Depending upon the power of
the transmitter and the s.w.r. pattern on the
line, the gap may run anything from 1/32 to
3/16 inch. It may spark intermittently when a
thunderstorm is building up or is in the general
area.
Rotary beams using aT or gamma match and
with each element connected to the boom will
usually be grounded through the supporting
metal tower. If the antenna is mounted on a
wooden pole or on the top of the house, aNo. 4
or larger wire should be connected from the
beam to the ground by the shortest and most
direct route possible, using insulators where the
wire comes close to the building. From a light-
SAME SPACING AS FEEDERS
ning-protection standpoint, it is desirablc tu run
Fig. 22-2—A simple lightning arrester made from
the coaxial and control lines from abeam down
a metal tower and underground to the shack. If
three stand-off or feed- through insulators and sec-
tions of brass or copper strap. It should be installed
the tower is well grounded and the antenna is
in the open- wire or Twin- Lead line at the point where
higher than any surrounding objects, the com-
it is nearest the ground outside the house. The heavy
bination will serve well as a lightning rod.
The sole purpose of lightning rods or grounded
ground lead should be as short and
roofs is to protect abuilding in case a lightning
direct as possible.
stroke occurs; there is no accepted evidence that
any form of protection can prevent astroke.*
be not less than 8 feet long. Galvanized 34- inch Experiments have indicated that a high verti-
iron pipe is acceptable, as is h- inch steel rod or cal conductor will generally divert to itself direct
V2- inch non-ferrous rod. Making connection to hits that might otherwise fall within a cone-
the outside of the outer conductor of the coaxial shaped space of which the apex is the top of the
line will normally have no effect on the s.w.r. in conductor and the base acircle of radius approx-
the line, and consequently it can be done at any imately two times the height of the conductor.
point or points. A commercial model of a light- Thus aradio mast may afford some protection to
ning arrester for coaxial line is available. low adjacent structures, but only when low-
Open-wire or Twin- Lead transmission lines impedance grounds are provided.
can comply with 810-57 above through the use of
•See " Code for Protection Against Lightning," Na-
aspark gap such as the one sketched in Fig. 22-2. tional Bureau of Standards Handbook 46, for sale by
The center contact should be grounded with a the Superintendent of Documents, Washington 25, D.C.

This homemade console,

built of plywood and fin-
ished with light tan
speckled spray paint, ef-
fectively conceals all
power and antenna leads.
The top of the console
lifts off for access to the
equipment.
Cherry-finished Formica
is used for the desk top;
there is a wooden top at
the same height behind
the console fare, and the
receiver and transmitters
rest on wooden runners
that elevate the equip-
ment for greater conven-
ience. A central control
unit ( behind the micro-
phone) carries power
switches, pilot lamps and
beam- heading indicator.
(K3NCN, Philadelphia,
Pa.)
 Chapter 23

INTERFERENCE WITH
OTHER SERVICES
Every amateur has the obligation to make
Act Promptly
sure that the operation of his station does not,
because of any shortcomings in equipment, The average person will tolerate a limited
cause interference with other radio and audio amount of interference, but the sooner you take
services. It is unfortunately true that much of the steps to eliminate it, the more agreeable the
interference that amateurs cause to broadcast and listener will be; the longer he has to wait for
television reception is directly the fault of b.c. you, the less willing he will be to cooperate.
and TV receiver construction. Nevertheless, the
Present Your Story Tactfully
amateur can and should help to alleviate inter-
ference even though the responsibility for it When you interfere, it is natural for the com-
does not lie with him. plainant to assume that your transmitter is at
Successful handling of interference cases re- fault. If you are certain that the trouble is not
quires winning the listener's cooperation. Here in your transmitter, explain to the listener that
are a few pointers on how to go about it. the reason lies in the receiver design, and that
some modifications may have to be made in the
Clean House First receiver if he is to expect interference- free
The first step obviously is to make sure that reception.
Arrange for Tests
the transmitter has no radiations outside the
bands assigned for amateur use. The best check Most listeners are not very competent ob-
on this is your own a.m. or TV receiver. It is servers of the various aspects of interference.
always convincing if you can demonstrate that If at all possible, enlist the help of another
you do not interfere with reception in your own amateur and have him operate your transmit-
home. ter while you see for yourself what happens at
the affected receiver.
Don't Hide Your Identity
In General
Whenever you make equipment changes — or
shift to ahitherto unused band or type of emis- In this "public relations" phase of the prob-
sion — that might be expected to change the lem a great deal depends on your own attitude.
interference situation, check with your neigh- Most people will be willing to meet you half
bors. If no one is experiencing interference, so way, particularly when the interference is not
much the better; it does no harm to keep the of long standing, if you as a person make a
neighborhood aware of the fact that you are good impression. Your personal appearance is
operating without bothering anyone. important. So is what you say about the re-
Should you change location, announce your ceiver — no one takes kindly to hearing his pos-
presence and conduct occasional tests on the sessions derided. If you discuss your interfer-
air, requesting anyone whose reception is being ence problems on the air, do it in aconstructive
spoiled to let you know about it so steps may way — one calculated to increase listener co-
be taken to eliminate the trouble. operation, not destroy it.

INTERFERENCE WITH STANDARD BROADCASTING

Interference with a.m. broadcasting usually asitics. Very often parasitics show up only as
falls into one or more rather well-defined cate- transients, causing key clicks in c.w. transmit-
gories. An understanding of the general types ters and "splashes" or "burps" on modulation
of interference will avoid much cut-and-try in peaks in a.m. transmitters. Methods for detect-
finding a cure. ing and eliminating parasitics are discussed in
the transmitter chapter.
Transmitter Defects In c.w. transmitters the sharp make and
Out-of-band radiation is something that must break that occurs with unfiltered keying causes
be cured at the transmitter. Parasitic oscilla- transients that, in theory, contain frequency
tions are a frequently unsuspected source of components through the entire radio spectrum.
such radiations, and no transmitter can be con- Practically, they are often strong enough in the
sidered satisfactory until it has been thoroughly immediate vicinity of the transmitter to cause
checked for both low- and high- frequency par- serious interference to broadcast reception. Key

553
554 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES
clicks can be eliminated by the methods detailed at definite frequencies on the receiver dial, it is
in the chapter on keying. possible to choose operating frequencies that
A distinction must be made between clicks will avoid putting such aresponse on top of the
generated in the transmitter itself and those broadcast stations that are favored in the vicin-
set up by the mere opening and closing of the ity. While your signal may still be heard when
key contacts when current is flowing. The the receiver is tuned off the local stations, it will
latter are of the sanie nature as the clicks heard at least not interfere with program reception.
in a receiver when a wall switch is thrown to There is little that can be done to most re-
turn alight on or off, and may be more trouble- ceivers to cure interference of this type except
some nearby than the clicks that actually go to reduce the amount of signal getting into the
out on the signal. A filter for eliminating them set through the a.c. line. A line filter such as is
usually has to be installed as close as possible shown in Fig. 23-1 often will help accomplish
to the key contacts. this. The values used for the coils and capaci-
Overmodulation in a.m. phone transmitters tors are in general not critical. The effectiveness
generates transients similar to key clicks. It of the filter may depend considerably on the
can be prevented either by using automatic ground connection used, and it is advisable to
systems for limiting the modulation to 100 use a short ground lead to a cold-water pipe if
per cent, or by continuously monitoring the at all possible. The line cord from the set should
modulation. Methods for both are described be bunched up, to minimize the possibility of
in the chapter on amplitude modulation. pick-up on the cord. It may be necessary to in-
BCI is frequently made worse by radiation stall the filter inside the receiver, so that the
from the power wiring or the r.f. transmission filter is connected between the line cord and the
line. This is because the signal causing the in- set wiring, in order to get satisfactory operation.
terference, in such cases, is radiated from wir-
ing that is nearer the broadcast receiver than Cross-Modulation
the antenna itself. Much depends on the method With phone transmitters, there are occasion-
used to couple the transmitter to the antenna, a ally cases where the voice is heard whenever the
subject that is discussed in the chapters on trans- broadcast receiver is tuned to ab.c. station, but
mission lines and antennas. If it is at all possible there is no interference when tuning between
the antenna itself should be placed so that it is stations. This is cross-modulation, a result of
not in close proximity to house wiring, tele- rectification in one of the early stages of the re-
phone and power lines, and similar conductors. ceiver. Receivers that are susceptible to this
trouble usually also get a similar type of inter-
Image and Oscillator-Harmonic Responses ference from regular broadcasting if there is a
Most present-day broadcast receivers use a strong local b.c. station and the receiver is tuned
built-in loop antenna as the grid circuit for the to some other station.
mixer stage. The selectivity is not especially The remedy for cross-modulation in the re-
high at the signal frequency. Furthermore, an ceiver is the same as for images and oscillator-
appreciable amount of signal pick-up usually harmonic response — reduce the strength of the
occurs on the a.c. line to which the receiver is amateur signal at the receiver by means of a
connected, the signal so picked up being fed to line filter.
the mixer grid by stray means. The trouble is not always in the receiver,
As a result, strong signals from nearby trans- since cross modulation can occur in any nearby
mitters, even though the transmitting frequency rectifying circuit — such as a poor contact in
is far removed from the broadcast band, can water or steam piping, gutter pipes, and other
force themselves to the mixer grid. They will conductors in the strong field of the transmit-
normally be eliminated by the i.f. selectivity, ting antenna — external to both receiver and
except in cases where the transmitter frequency transmitter. Locating the cause may be difficult,
is the image of the broadcast signal to which and is best attempted with a battery-operated
the receiver is tuned, or when the transmitter portable broadcast receiver used as a "probe"
frequency is so related to a harmonic of the to find the spot where the interference is most
broadcast receiver's local oscillator as to pro- intense. When such a spot is located, inspection
duce a beat at the intermediate frequency. of the metal structures in the vicinity should
These image and oscillator-harmonic re- indicate the cause. The remedy is to make a
sponses tune in and out on the broadcast re- good electrical bond between the two conductors
ceiver dial just like a broadcast signal, except having the poor contact.
that in the case of harmonic response the
tuning rate is more rapid. Since most receivers Audio-Circuit Rectification
use an intermediate frequency in the neighbor- The most frequent cause of interference from
hood of 455 kc., the interference is a true image operation at 21 Mc. and higher frequencies is
only when the amateur transmitting frequency rectification of asignal that by some means gets
is in the 1800-kc. band. Oscillator-harmonic into the audio system of the receiver. In the
responses occur from 3.5- and 7-Mc, transmis- milder cases an amplitude-modulated signal will
sions, and sometimes even from higher fre- be heard with reasonably good quality, but is
quencies. not tunable — that is, it is present no matter
Since images and harmonic responses occur what the frequency to which the receiver dial
Causes of BC1 555
is set. An unmodulated carrier may have no ob- critical) resistor is connected between the grid
servable effect in such cases beyond causing a pin on the tube socket and all other grid con-
little hum. However, if the signal is very strong nections. In combination with the input capac-
there will be a reduction of the audio output itance of the tube this forms a low-pass filter
level of the receiver whenever the carrier is to prevent r.f. from reaching the grid. In some
thrown on. This causes an annoying "jumping" cases, simply bypassing the heater of the de-
of the program when the interfering signal is tector/first audio tube to chassis with a0.001-µf.
keyed. With phone transmission the change in or larger capacitor will suffice. In all cases,
audio level is not so objectionable because it check to see that the a.c. line is bypassed to
occurs at less frequent intervals. Rectification chassis; if it is not, install bypass capacitors
ordinarily gives no audio output from a fre- (0.001 to 0.01 µf.).
quency-modulated signal, so the interference
Handling BC' Cases
can be made almost unnoticeable if f.m. or p.m.
is used instead of a.m. Assuming that your transmitter has been
checked and found to be free from spurious
radiations, get another amateur to operate your
station, if possible, while you make the actual
check on the interference yourself. The follow-
ing procedure should be used.
A.C. TO SET
LINE Tune the receiver through the broadcast band,
to see whether the interference tunes like a
regular b.c. station. If so, image or oscillator-
harmonic response is the cause. If there is in-
terference only when a b.c. station is tuned in,
GND
but not between stations, the cause is cross
Fig. 23- 1—" Brute-force" a.c. line filter for receivers. modulation. If the interference is heard at all
The values of C., C., and C. are not generally critical; settings of the tuning dial, the trouble is pickup
capacitances from 0.001 to 0.01 tif. can be used. 1. 1
in the audio circuits. In the latter case, the re-
and L can be a 2- inch winding of No. 18 enameled
ceiver's volume control may or may not affect
wire on a half- inch diameter form. In making up such
the strength of the interference, depending on
the means by which your signal is being rectified.
a unit for use external to the receiver, make sure that
there are no exposed conductors to offer a shock
Having identified the cause, explain it to the
set owner. It is a good idea to have a line filter
hazard.
with you, equipped with enough cord to replace
the set's line cord, so it can be tried then and
Interference of this type usually results from there. If it does not eliminate the interference,
a signal on the power line being coupled by explain to the set owner that there is nothing
some means into the audio circuits, although the further that can be done without modifying the
pickup also may occur on the set wiring itself. A receiver. Recommend that the work be done by
"brute- force" line filter as described above may a competent service technician, and offer to ad-
or may not be completely effective, but in any vise the service man on the cause and remedy.
event is the simplest thing to try. If it does not Don't offer to work on the set yourself, but it
do the job, some modification of the receiver you are asked to do so use your own judgment
will be necessary. This usually takes the form about complying; set owners sometimes com-
of a simple filter connected in the grid circuit plain about the over-all performance of the
of the tube in which the rectification is occur- receiver afterward, often without justification.
ring. Usually it will be the first audio amplifier, If you work on it, take it to your station so the
which is commonly a diode-triode type tube. effect of changes you make can be seen. Return
Filter circuits that have proved to be effective the receiver promptly when you have finished.
are shown in Fig. 23-2. In A, the value of the
MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF •
grid leak in the combined detector/first audio
tube is reduced to 2 to 3megohms and the grid INTERFERENCE
is bypassed to chassis by a 250-Nif. mica or The operation of amateur phone transmitters
ceramic capacitor. A somewhat similar method occasionally results in interference on telephone
that does not require changing the grid resistor lines and in audio amplifiers used in public-ad-
is shown at B. In C, a 75,000-ohm ( value not dress work and for home music reproduction.

DETECTOR- AK AUDIO DETECTOR- 10 AUDIO DETECTOR-Ist AUDIO

Fig. 23- 2—Methods of elimi-

nating r.f. from the grid of a 75 K

combined detector first- audio

INSERT BETWEEN
stage. At A, the value of the CHANGE GRID AND ALL OTHER
TO GRID CONNECTIONS
ADD
grid leak is reduced to 2 or 2 ORS 250µuE
WEGOINA
BYPASS
3 megohms, and a bypass
capacitor is added. At B, both TO
CHASSIS
grid and cathode are
(A) (S) (C)
bypassed.
 556 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES
The cause is rectification of the signal in an up are the a.c. line or a line from the power
audio circuit. amplifier to aspeaker. All amplifier units should
be bonded together and connected to a good
Telephone Interference ground such as a cold-water pipe. Make sure
Telephone interference can be cured• by con- that the a.c. line is bypassed to chassis in each
necting a bypass capacitor ( about 0.001 µf.) unit with capacitors of about 0.01 pf. at the
across the microphone unit in the telephone point where the line enters the chassis. The
handset. The telephone companies have capaci- speaker line similarly should be bypassed to
tors for this purpose. When such acase occurs, the amplifier chassis with about 0.001 µf.
get in touch with the repair department of the If these measures do not suffice, the shield-
phone company, giving the particulars. Section ing on the amplifiers may be inadequate. A
C38.025 of the Bell System Practices Station shield cover and bottom pan should be installed
Operations Manual gives detailed instructions. in such cases.
Do not try to work on the telephone yourself. The spot in the system where the rectification
is occurring often can be localized by seeing if
Hi -
Fi and P. A. Systems
the interference is affected by the volume con-
In interference to public-address and "hi-fi" trol setting; if not, the cause is in a stage
installations the principal sources of signal pick- following the volume control.

TELEVISION INTERFERENCE (
s.. also Chap. 17)

Interference with the reception of television vision channels. These spurious radiations cause
signals usually presents amore difficult problem interference that ordinarily cannot be elimi-
than interference with a.m. broadcasting. In nated by anything that may be done at the re-
BCI cases the interference almost always can ceiver, so must be prevented at the transmitter
be attributed to deficient selectivity or spurious itself.
responses in the b.c. receiver. While similar de- The over-all situation is further complicated
ficiencies exist in many television receivers, it is by the fact that television broadcasting is in
also true that amateur transmitters generate three distinct bands, two in the v.h.f. region
harmonics that fall inside many or all tele- and one in the u.h.f.

V.H.F. TELEVISION
For the amateur who does most of his trans- nel ( channels 11, 12 and 13). However, a trans-
mitting on frequencies below 30 Mc. the TV mitter for any amateur v.h.f. band may cause in-
band of principal interest is the low v.h.f. band terference if it has multiplier stages either oper-
between 54 and 88 Mc. If harmonic radiation ating in or having harmonics in one or more of
can be reduced to the point where no inter- the v.h.f. TV channels. The r.f. energy on such
ference is caused to Channels 2 AMATEUR HARMONICS AMATEUR HARMONIC S
to 6, inclusive, it is almost certain ServIce 28 MC. 21 MC. w Mc Sernce 28 MC 21 MC.
that any harmonic troubles with 174
— ,—
channels above 174 Mc. will dis- " TV 4 TV 6
2 2
appear also. _
—,
— 7 --,

The relationship between the 60 .— — ea — —

v.h.f. television channels and har- TV " TV
monics of amateur bands from 14 — 3
—
3 — 8

through 28 Mc. is shown in Fig. 66 — .--. es — —

23-3. Harmonics of the 7- and ." TV
' TV ,--
3.5- Mc. bands are not shown be- _ 4 — -
9
cause they fall in every television 72 _ 5
,-- 192 — — 9
channel. However, the harmonics 1—
/2
— T9. —
above 54 Mc. from these bands 10
70 — --.
are of such high order that they
P813 — --
are usually rather low in ampli- ' TV
— 5
tude, although they may be strong ' TV.
82 — _ II
enough to interfere if the tele- 7
— --,
vision receiver is quite close to — TV
4
6 6
the amateur transmitter. Low- — —
— TV
3
order harmonics — up to about 86 — 12 —

the sixth — are usually the most Fig. 23- 3— Relationship of amateur- band 210 — --. ,--,

difficult to eliminate. harmonics to v.h.f. TV channels. Harmonic — TV 10

Of the amateur v.h.f. bands, interference from transmitters operating _ 13

only 50 Mc. will have harmonics below 30 Mc. is most likely to be serious 218
falling in av.h.f. television chan - in the low- channel group ( 54 to 88 Mc.).
Causes of TV! 557
SOUND
PICTURE
CARRIER
CARRIER
025
1.25 Mc. 7 s
iAtc.

MODERATE MILD
r

O 1 2 3 4 5 6
MEGACYCLES FROM LOW EDGE OF TV CHANNEL

Fig. 23- 4— Location of picture and sound carriers in a monochrome television channel, and
relative intensity of interference as the location of the interfering signal within the channel is
varied without changing its strength. The three regions are not actually sharply defined as
shown in this drawing, but merge into one another gradually.

frequencies can be radiated directly from the this frequency has to be about 100 times as
transmitting circuits or coupled by stray means to strong as at 56,020 kc. to cause effects of equal
the transmitting antenna. intensity. Thus an operating frequency that puts
a harmonic near the picture carrier requires
Frequency Effects about 40 db. more harmonic suppression in
The degree to which transmitter harmonics or order to avoid interference, as compared with
other undesired radiation actually in the TV an operating frequency that puts the harmonic
channel must be suppressed depends principally on near the upper edge of the channel.
two factors, the strength of the TV signal on the For a region of 100 kc. or so either side of
channel or channels affected, and the relationship the sound carrier there is another " Severe"
between the frequency of the spurious radiation region where a spurious radiation will interfere
and the frequencies of the TV picture and with reception of the sound program, and this
sound carriers within the channel. If the TV region also should be avoided. In general, a
signal is very strong, interference can be elim- signal of intensity equal to that of the picture
inated by comparatively simple methods. How- carrier will not cause noticeable interference if
ever, if the TV signal is very weak, as in its frequency is in the " Mild" region shown in
"fringe" areas where the received picture is Fig. 23-4, but the same intensity in the " Severe"
visibly degraded by the appearance of set noise region will utterly destroy the picture.
or " snow" on the screen, it may be necessary to
Interference Patterns
go to extreme measures.
In either case the intensity of the interference The visible effects of interference vary with
depends very greatly on the exact frequency of the type and intensity of the interference. Com-
the interfering signal. Fig. 23-4 shows the place- plete "blackout," where the picture and sound
ment of the picture and sound carriers in the disappear completely, leaving the screen dark,
standard TV channel. In Channel 2, for ex- occurs only when the transmitter and receiver
ample, the picture carrier frequency is 54 -I- 1.25 are quite close together. Strong interference
= 55.25 Mc. and the sound carrier frequency is ordinarily causes the picture to be broken up,
60 — 0.25 = 59.75 Mc. The second harmonic of leaving a jumble of light and dark lines, or
28,010 kc. ( 56,020 kc. or 56.02 Mc.) falls 56.02 — turns the picture " negative" — the normally
54 = 2.02 Mc. above the low edge of the chan- white parts of the picture turn black and the
nel and is in the region marked " Severe" in Fig. normally black parts turn white. " Cross-hatch-
23-4. On the other hand, the second harmonic of ing" — diagonal bars or lines in the picture —
29,500 kc. ( 59,000 kc. or 59 Mc.) is 59 — 54 = 5 accompanies the latter, usually, and also repre-
Mc. from the low edge of the channel and falls sents the most common type of less- severe in-
in the region marked "Mild." Interference at terference. The bars are the result of the beat
between the harmonic frequency and the picture
carrier frequency. They are broad and relatively
few in number if the beat frequency is com-
paratively low — near the picture carrier — and
are numerous and very fine if the beat fre-
quency is very high — toward the upper end of
the channel. Typical cross-hatching is shown in
Fig. 23-5. If the frequency falls in the " Mild"
region in Fig. 23-4 the cross-hatching may be
so fine as to be visible only on close inspection
of the picture, in which case it may simply cause
the apparent brightness of the screen to change
when the transmitter carrier, is thrown on and
off.
Fig. 23-5—" Cross- hatching," caused by the beat be- Whether or not cross-hatching is visible, an
tween the picture carrier and an interfering signal amplitude- modulated transmitter may cause
inside the TV channel. "sound bars" in the picture. These look about
 558 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES
ing to prevent them from being radiated. Har-
400011000111.4 monic radiation from the transmitter itself or
from its associated wiring obviously will cause
interference just as readily as radiation from
the antenna, so measures taken to prevent har-
monics from reaching the antenna will not re-
duce TVI if the transmitter itself is radiating
harmonics. But once it has been found that the
transmitter itself is free fToni harmonic radia-

'
111M21W
tion, devices for preventing harmonics from
reaching the antenna can be expected to produce
results.

Fig. 23-6--"Sound bars" or " modulation bars" accom- REDUCING HARMONIC GENERATION
panying amplitude modulation of an interfering signal. Since reasonably efficient operation of r.f.
In this case the interfering carrier is strong enough to power amplifiers always is accompanied by har-
destroy the picture, but in mild cases the picture is monic generation, good judgment calls for oper-
visible through the horizontal bars. Sound bars may ating all frequency-multiplier stages at a very
accompany modulation even though the unmodulated low power level — plate voltages not exceeding
carrier gives no visible cross-hatching. 250 or 300. When the final output frequency is
reached, it is desirable to use as few stages as
as shown in Fig. 23-6. They result from the possible in building up to the final output power
variations in the intensity of the interfering sig- level, and to use tubes that require a minimum
nal when modulated. Under most circumstances of driving power.
modulation bars will not occur if the amateur
transmitter is frequency- or phase-modulated. Circuit Design and Layout
With these types of modulation the cross-hatch- Harmonic currents of considerable amplitude
ing will "wiggle" from side to side with the flow in both the grid and plate circuits of r.f.
modulation. power amplifiers, but they will do relatively
Except in the more severe cases, there is little harm if they can be effectively bypassed to
seldom any effect on the sound reception when the cathode of the tube. Fig. 23-7 shows the
interference shows in the picture, unless the fre- paths followed by harmonic currents in an am-
quency is quite close to the sound carrier. In plifier circuit; because of the high reactance of
the latter event the sound may be interfered the tank coil there is little harmonic current in
with even though the picture is clean. it, so the harmonic currents simply flow through
Reference to Fig. 23-3 will show whether or the tank capacitor, the plate ( or grid) blocking
not harmonics of the frequency in use will fall capacitor, and the tube capacitances. The lengths
in any television channels that can be received of the leads forming these paths is of great
in the locality. It should be kept in mind that importance, since the inductance in this circuit
not only harmonics of the final frequency may will resonate with the tube capacitance at some
interfere, but also harmonics of any frequencies frequency in the v.h.f. range ( the tank and
that may be present in buffer or frequency-mul- blocking capacitances usually are so large com-
tiplier stages. In the case of 144- Mc, transmit- pared with the tube capacitance that they have
ters, frequency-multiplying combinations that little effect on the resonant frequency). If such
require a doubler or tripler stage to operate on a resonance happens to occur at or near the
a frequency actually in a low-band v.h.f. chan- same frequency as one of the transmitter har-
nel in use in the locality should be avoided. monics, the effect is just the same as though a
harmonic tank circuit had been deliberately in-
Harmonic Suppression troduced; the harmonic at that frequency will
Effective harmonic suppression has three sep- be tremendously increased in amplitude.
arate phases: Such resonances are unavoidable, but by keep-
1) Reducing the amplitude of harmonics ing the path from plate to cathode and from
generated in the transmitter. This is a matter
of circuit design and operating conditions.
2) Preventing stray radiation from the
transmitter and from associated wiring. This
requires adequate shielding and filtering of all
circuits and leads from which radiation can
take place.
3) Preventing harmonics from being fed Fig. 23-7--A v.h.f, resonant circuit is formed by the
into the antenna. tube capacitance and the leads through the tank and
It is impossible to build atransmitter that will blocking capacitors. Regular tank coils are not shown,
not generate some harmonics, but it is obviously since they have little effect on such resonances. C, is
advantageous to reduce their strength, by cir- the grid tuning capacitor and C. is the plate tuning
cuit design and choice of operating conditions, capacitor. C and C, are the grid and plate blocking
by as large afactor as possible before attempt- or bypass capacitors, respectively.
Preventing Radiation 559
grid to cathode as short as is physically possible, tank coil, if the center of the coil is not
the resonant frequency usually can be raised grounded. Under such circumstances the even
above 100 Mc. in amplifiers of medium power. harmonics can be coupled to the output circuit
This puts it between the two groups of tele- through stray capacitance between the tank and
vision channels. coupling coils. This does not occur in a single-
It is easier to place grid-circuit v.h.f. reson- ended amplifier having an inductively coupled
ances where they will do no harm when the tank, if the coupling coil is placed at the cold
amplifier is link-coupled to the driver stage, end, or with a pi-network tank.
since this generally permits shorter leads and Harmonic Traps
more favorable conditions for bypassing the
harmonics than is the case with capacitive coup- If aharmonic in only one TV channel is par-
ling. Link coupling also reduces the coupling ticularly bothersome— frequently the case when
between the driver and amplifier at harmonic the transmitter operates on 28 Mc. — a trap
frequencies, thus preventing driver harmonics tuned to the harmonic frequency may be in-
from being amplified. stalled in the plate lead as shown in Fig. 23-8.
The inductance of leads from the tube to the At the harmonic frequency the trap represents
tank capacitor can be reduced not only by short- a very high impedance and hence reduces the
ening but by using flat strip instead of wire amplitude of the harmonic current flowing
through the tank circuit. In the push-pull circuit
conductors. It is also better to use the chassis as
the return from the blocking capacitor or tuned both traps have the same constants. The L/C
circuit to cathode, since achassis path will have ratio is not critical but ahigh-C circuit usually
less inductance than almost any other form of will have least effect on the performance of the
plate circuit at the normal operating frequency.
connection.
The v.h.f. resonance points in amplifier tank Since there is a considerable harmonic volt-
circuits can be found by coupling a grid-dip age across the trap, radiation may occur from
meter covering the 50-250 Mc. range to the grid the trap unless the transmitter is well shielded.
and plate leads. If a resonance is found in or Traps should be placed so that there is no cou-
pling between them and the amplifier tank
near a TV channel, methods such as those
described above should be used to move it well circuit.
out of the TV range. The grid- dip meter also A trap is a highly selective device and so is
should be used to check for v.h.f. resonances in useful only over a small range of frequencies.
the tank coils, because coils made for 14 Mc.
and below usually will show such resonances.
In making the check, disconnect the coil entirely
from the transmitter and move the grid-dip
meter coil along it while exploring for adip in TANK
CIRCUIT
the 54-88 Mc. band. If aresonance falls in aTV
channel that is in use in the locality, changing
the number of turns will move it to a less-
troublesome frequency.

Operating Conditions SINGLE- ENDED

Grid bias and grid current have an important
effect on the harmonic content of the r.f. cur-

o
rents in both the grid and plate circuits. In
general, harmonic output increases as the grid
bias and grid current are increased, but this is lr
c
TAW
CIRCUIT

not necessarily true of a particular harmonic. RFC

The third and higher harmonics, especially, will

go through fluctuations in amplitude as the grid
current is increased, and sometimes a rather cr
high value of grid current will minimize one
harmonic as compared with a low value. This
characteristic can be used to advantage where LW
a particular harmonic is causing interference,
PUSH- PULL
remembering that the operating conditions that
Fig. 23-8—Harmonic traps in an amplifier plate circuit.
minimize one harmonic may greatly increase
L and C should resonate at the frequency of the har-
another.
monic to be suppressed. C may be a 25- to 50-PIA.
For equal operating conditions, there is little
or no difference between single-ended and push- midget, and L usually consists of 3 to 6 turns about /
2
1

pull amplifiers in respect to harmonic generation. inch in diameter for Channels 2 through 6. The in-
Push-pull amplifiers are frequently trouble- ductance should be adjusted so that the trap resonates
at about half capacitance of C before being installed
makers on even harmonics because with such
amplifiers the even-harmonic voltages are in in the transmitter. The frequency may be checked with
phase at the ends of the tank circuit and hence a grid-dip meter. When in place, the trap should be

appear with equal amplitude across the whole adjusted for minimum interference to the TV picture.
 560 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES
A second- or third-harmonic trap on a 28- Mc. inch) and the shield and a " hot" point in the
tank circuit usually will not be effective over circuit are not in close proximity, any of these
more than 50 kc. or so at the fundamental fre- metals will be satisfactory. Greater separation
quency, depending on how serious the interfer- should be used with steel shielding than with
ence is without the trap. Because they are crit- the other materials not only because it is con-
ical of adjustment, is is better to prevent TVI siderably poorer as a shield but also because it
by other means, if possible, and use traps only will cause greater losses in near-by circuits than
as alast resort. would copper or aluminum at the same distance.
Wire screen or perforated metal used as a
PREVENTING RADIATION FROM
shield should also be kept at some distance from
THE TRANSMITTER
high-voltage or high-current r.f. points, since
The extent to which interference will be there is considerably more leakage through the
caused by direct radiation of spurious signals mesh than through solid metal.
depends on the operating frequency, the trans- Where two pieces of metal join, as in forming
mitter power level, the strength of the televi- acorner, they should overlap at least ahalf inch
sion signal, and the distance between the trans- and be fastened together firmly with screws or
mitter and TV receiver. Transmitter radiation bolts spaced at close-enough intervals to main-
can be a very serious problem if the TV signal tain firm contact all along the joint. The con-
is weak, if the TV receiver and amateur trans- tact surfaces should be clean before joining, and
mitter are close together, and if the trans- should be checked occasionally— especially steel,
mitter is operated with high power. which is almost certain to rust after aperiod of
time.
Shielding
The leakage through agiven size of aperture
Direct radiation from the transmitter circuits in shielding increases with frequency, so such
and components can be prevented by proper points as good continuous contact, screening of
shielding. To be effective, a shield must com- large holes, and so on, become even more im-
pletely enclose the circuits and parts and must portant when the radiation to be suppressed is
have no openings that will permit r.f. energy in the high band — 174-216 Mc. Hence 50- and
to escape. Unfortunately, ordinary metal boxes 144- Mc, transmitters, which in general will
and cabinets do not provide good shielding, have frequency-multiplier harmonics of rela-
since such openings as louvers, lids, and holes tively high intensity in this region, require spe-
for running in connections allow far too much cial attention in this respect if the possibility of
leakage. interfering with achannel received locally exists.
A primary requisite for good shielding is that
all joints must make agood electrical connection Lead Treatment
along their entire length. A small slit or crack ENten very good shielding can be made com-
will let out a surprising amount of r.f. energy; pletely useless when connections are run to ex-
so will ventilating louvers and large holes such ternal power supplies and other equipment from
as those used for mounting meters. On the other the circuits inside the shield. Every such con-
hand, small holes do not impair the shielding ductor leaving the shielding forms a path for
very greatly, and alimited number of ventilating the escape of r.f., which is then radiated by the
holes may be used if they are small — not over connecting wires. Hence a step that is essential
4 inch in diameter. Also, wire screen makes
1

quite effective shielding if the wires make good

electrical connection at each crossover. Perfo-
rated aluminum such as the "do-it-yourself" sold
at hardware stores also is good, although not
very strong mechanically. If perforated mate-
rial is used, choose the variety with the smallest
openings. The leakage through large openings
can be very much reduced by covering such
openings with screening or perforated alumi-
num, well bonded to all edges of the opening.
The intensity of r.f. fields about coils, capaci-
tors, tubes and wiring decreases very rapidly
with distance, so shielding is more effective,
from a practical standpoint, if the components
and wiring are not too close to it. It is advis-
able. to have a separation of several inches, if
possible, between "hot" points in the circuit and Fig. 23-9— Proper method of bypassing the end of o
the nearest shielding. shielded lead using disk ceramic capacitor. The 0.001.
For a given thickness of metal, the greater pf. size should be used for 1600 volts or less; $00 i.q.tf.
the conductivity the better the shielding. Copper at higher voltages. The leads are wrapped around the
is best, with aluminum, brass and steel follow- inner and outer conductors and soldered, so that the
ing in that order. However, if the thickness is lead length is negligible. This photograph is about
adequate for structural purposes ( over 0.02 four times actual size.
 TABLE II- METAL RECEIVING TUBES- Continued
Characteristics given in this table apply to all tubes having type numbers shown, including
V21
matai tubes, glass tubes with "G" suffi:, and bantam tubes with "GT" suffie.
For "G" and "GT"tubes not listed (net having metal counterparts), see Tables III, V, Vi and VIII.

Output :
Fi. or Capacitances

Res. Ohms

ductance”
Transcon-
Heater Pt a*. .C'

[
Name Rasa a..

Screen
TYPo

Screen
sii °

Watts
31

Plate
Volts
1Bias
Grid
V. Amp.

ia.
Cis CMl Ce, 2 j.,
rT. N ic a. cc
A, Amp.'.' 250 -20 20" - 31/34 2.6K 2600 6.8 4K 0.85
350 730' 132" - 50/60 - - - I010 9
AB, Amp.I. '
350 -38 123" - 4892 - - - 6K , 13
IR Pwr. Amp. Pent. A, Amp. , 75 6.3 0.7 6.5 13 0.2 250 -16.5 250 6/11 34 36 80K 2500 - 7K 3.2
285 -20 285 713 38 40 78K 2500 - 7K 4.8
375 -26 250 5, 20 34 82 - - 82 ,, 1010 18.5
AB, Amp. ,
375 340. 250 8/18 54, 77 - - 94 ,, 10K , 19
815 Medium-0Triode 8C1 6.3 0.3 3.4 3.6 3.4 250 -8 - - 9 7.7K 2600 20 - -
Sharp Cut- A, Amp. 250 -3 100 0.5 2 Imeg. 1225 - - -
6.17 IR 6.3 0.3 7 12 0.005
off Pent. Biased Detector 250 10K• 100 Zero sign Icathode current - 0.43 ma. 0.5 me
Variable- 0 8.1. Amp. 0.035 250 -3 125 2.6 10.5 600K 1650 990 - -
111(1 7E 6.3 0.3 7 12
Pent. Mixer 250 -10 100 Osc. peak volts - 7
Triode - Hexode BK 6. 3 0. 3 - - 250 -3 100 6 2.
5 600 K 350 - - -
SKI Hexode Cone. Triode 100 50K , - - 3.8 le (Osc.) - 0.15 ma.
A, Amp. ,• , 250 -20 20" - 40/44 I.7K 4700 8 5K 1.4
A, Amp. , 250 167. 250 5.4/7.2 75 78 - - 14" 2.5K 6.5
Self Bias 300 218. 200 3/4.6 51, 55 - - 12.7" 4.5K 6.5
A, Amp. , 250 -14 250 5/7.3 72 79 22.5K 6000 14" 2.5K 6.5
Fixed Bias 350 -18 250 2.5/7 54 '66 33K 5200 18" 4.2K 10.8
A, Amp. , 250 125. 250 10/15 120 130 - - 35.6" 5K' 13.8
B eam Self Bias 270 125. 270 11/17 134 145 - - 28.2u 5K , 18.5
ILII•GIP 7AC 63 0.9 11.5 95 0.9
For. Amp. A, Amp. , 250 -16 250 10;16 120, 140 24.5, 5500, 32" 5K" 14.5
Fixed Bias 270 -17.5 270 11/17 134/155 23.5, 5700, 35" 5K , 17-1
AB, Amp. , Self Bias 360 270. 270 5/17 88/100 - - 40.6" 9K , 24.5
AB, Amp. , 360 -22.5 270 5/ 11 88/140 - - 45" 3.810 18
Fixed Bias 360 -22.5 270 5/15 88/ 132 - - 45u 6.61V 26.5
Al3 aAmp. , 360 -18 225 3.5/11 78 / 142 - 52" 6K , 31
Fixed Bias 360 -22.5 270 5/16 88 205 - - 72" 3.810 47
el 6.5 5.3 600K 1100 -3" - -
BU Pentagrid - A' Amp. 71 6.3 0.3 - - 250 -3
Mixer Amp. Mixer 250 -6 150 9.2 3.3 1meg. 350 -15" - -
Class- B BAmp., 300 0 - - 35 /70 - - 82" 8K' 10
6147GT SB 6.3 0.8 - - 3100 - - -
Twin Triode A, Amp." 250 -5 - - 6 11.3K
607 Dual Diode - High• 0 Triode 71/' 6.3 0.3 5 3.8 1.4 250 -3 - - 1 58K 1200 70 - -
681 Dual Diode- Triode 7V , 6.3 0.3 4.8 3.8 2.4 250 -9 - - 9.5 8.56 1900 16 106 0.28
6SA1GT Pentagrid Cone. Illt , 6.3 0.3 9.5 12 0.13 250 0, 100 8 3.4 800K Grid No. 1 esistor 20K.
100 -I 100 10.2 3.6 50K 903 - - -
6567Y Pentagrid Cone. ilit 6.3 0.3 9.6 9.2 0.13 250 -1 103 10 3.8 1meg. 950 - - -
250 22K , 12K , 12/13 6.8/6.5 Osc. Section in 88-108 Mc. Service.
6SCI High- 0 Dual Triode , OS 6.3 0.3 2 3 2 250 -2 - - 2 53K 1325 70 - -
6SF5 High -,iTriode 60,8 2 6.3 0.3 4 3.6 2.4 250 -2 - - 0.9 66K 1500 100 - -
6SF1 Diode - Variable- 0 Pent 7AZ 6.3 0.3 5.5 6 0.004 250 -I 100 3.3 12.4 7001( 2050 - - -
6507 HI. Amp. Pent. 88K 6.3 0.3 8.5 7 0.083 250 -2.5 150 3.4 9.2 1 meg. 4000 - - -
65H7 Hi Amp. Pent 88K 6.3 0.3 8.5 7 0.033 250 -1 150 4.1 10.8 9001( 4900 - - -
8511 , Sharp Cut-off Pent. IIN 6.3 0.3 6 7 0.005 250 -3 103 0.8 3 Imeg. 1650 - - -
65 KI Variable-0Pent. IN 6.3 0.3 6 7 0.003 250 -3 100 2.6 9.2 8COK 2000 - - -
6S117GT Dual Diode - High- 0 Triode 80 6.3 0.3 3.2 3 1.6 250 -2 - - 0.9 9IK 1100 100 - -
6SR7 Dual Diode - Triode BQ 6.3 0.3 3.6 2.8 2.4 250 -9 - - 9.5 8.5K 1900 16 - -
180 -8.5 180 3/4 29 30 50K 3700 8.5" 5.5K 2
A, Amp. , 250 -12.5 250 4.5/7 45, 47 50K 4100 12.5 ,, 5K 4.5
6V6GTA Beam For. Amp. In 6.3 0.45 IO II 0.3 315 -13 225 2.2/6 34 35 80K 3750 13" 8.5K 5.5
250 -15 250 5/13 70,79 60K 3750 30" 1014 , 10
AB, Amp. , 285 -19 285 4/13.5 70/92 70K 3600 38" 8K , 14
1620 Sharp Cut-off Pent 7R 6.3 0.3 7 12 0.035 250 -3 100 0.5 2 1meg. 1225 - - -
5693 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 8N 6.3 0.3 5.3 6.2 0.005 250 -3 100 0.85 3 Imeg. 1650 - - -
•Cath de resistor-ohms. 1 Also type 6517Y. ,Osc. grid leak - Sc, . res. Micr mhos.
Screen tied to plate. ,Values are for single tube or sec ion. ,Va uno for two units. "Unless otherwise noted.
No connection to Pin No. 1for 6L6G, 6Q7G, 6RGT/G, ,Values are for two tubes in push-pull. " Peak s.f. grid voltag . "G, vItage.
6S7G, 6SA7GT/G and 65F5-GT. Plate-to- plate value. ', Peak a.f. G-Gvoltage. "Unit connect din parallel.
'Grid bias - 2volts if separate oscillator excitation is used.

TABLE III - 6.3-VOLT GLASS TUBES WITH OCTAL BASES

(For "G" and "GT"-type tubes not listed here, see «luiraient type ln Tables II and VIII; characteristics and connections will besimilar)

' Fil or Capacitances e

Transcon-
ductance°

Heater pl. 1
.à'' e 1 à
Output

Name Base
Screen

l'YI*
Factor

Watts
Amp.

2. 2
Ma.

P. Amp.
ri
Cie Colot Cep

Outer edge of ny oft ethree iuminaled areas di placed V, in. min outward with + 5
BALIGT Electron- Ray I
ndicator - 8614 6.3 0.15 - - - volts to its electrode. Smilar inward disp with - 5volts. No pattern with - 6volts grid.
Dual Diode - ICK 6.3 0.3 2.8 3.2 3 250 -2 - - 2. 40 K - -
SADIST- 3 1600 70
High- 0 Triode
SARI Beam Pent. - 850 6.3 1.2 II 7 0.55 250 -22.5 250 5 77 2IK 5400 - - -
Dual Diode - - 10E 6.3 0.3 5.5 7.5 0.003 250 -2 100 1.8 7 1.2 meg. 2500 - - -
611117GT Remote Pent.
 562 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES
Meters that are mounted in an r.f. unit should
be enclosed in shielding covers, the connections Shieid or
Chassis wall
being made with shielded wire with each lead
bypassed as described above. The shield braid INSIDE 1 OUTSIDE

should be grounded to the panel or chassis im-

mediately outside the meter shield, as indicated
in Fig. 23-14. A bypass may also be connected
across the meter terminals, principally to pre-
vent any fundamental current that may be pres-
ent from flowing through the meter itself. As
an alternative to individual meter shielding the Bond all
Bond
around
meters may be mounted entirely behind the
panel, and the panel holes needed for observa-
tion may be covered with wire screen that is Fig. 23- I3— The best method of using the " Hypass"
carefully bonded to the panel all around the hole. type feed-through capacitor. Capacitances of 0.01 to
Care should be used in the selection of shielded 0.1 pf. are satisfactory. Capacitors of this type are
wire for transmitter use. Not only should the useful for high- current circuits, such as filament and
insulation be conservatively rated for the d.c. 115-volt leads, as a substitute for the r.f. choke shown
in Fig. 23-11, in cases where additional lead filtering
is needed.

the external connecting leads. A situation such

RFC
as is shown in Fig. 23-15, where the leads in the
c, T r.f. chassis have been shielded and properly fil-
tered but the chassis is mounted in a large
cHAssis shield, simply invites the harmonic currents to
travel over the chassis and on out over the leads
outside the chassis. The shielding about the r.f.
RFC
circuits should make complete contact with the
chassis on which the parts are mounted.

Checking Transmitter Radiation

A check for transmitter radiation always
should be made before attempting to use low-
pass filters or other devices for preventing har-
Fig. 23- 12— Additional lead filtering for harmonics or monics from reaching the antenna system. The
other spurious frequencies in the high v.h.f. TV band only really satisfactory indicating instrument is
(174-216 Mc.)
a television receiver. In regions where the TV
C,-0.001-,af. disk ceramic.
signal is strong an indicating wavemeter such
CR
-0.001-µf. feed-through bypass ( Erie Style 326)• as one having acrystal or tube detector may be
useful; if it is possible to get any indication at
(For 500- 2000-volt lead, substitute Plasticon
all from harmonics either on supply leads or
Glass mike, I.SG-251, for Ca.)
RFC- 14 inches No. 26 enamel close-wound on 3f6-
inch
diam. form or resistor. Paitei

voltage in use, but the insulation should be of afouftd

material that will not easily deteriorate in solder- r
."
— meter

ing. The r.f. characteristics of the wire are not

especially important, except that the attenuation
of harmonics in the wire itself will be greater
if the insulating material has high losses at
radio frequencies; in other words, wire intended
for use at d.c. and low frequencies is preferable 0. 00/ Disc

to cables designed expressly for carrying r.f. ceramic

The attenuation also will increase with the
1
length of the wire; in general, it is better to 1
1
make the leads as long as circumstances permit 1
rather than to follow the more usual practice of 1
using no more lead than is actually necessary.
Where wires cross or run parallel, the shields Bond to panel or meter
should be spot- soldered together and connected slueld here
to the chassis. For high voltages, automobile Fig. 23- 14— Meter shielding and bypassing. It is essen-
ignition cable covered with shielding braid is tial to shield the meter mounting hole since the meter
recommended. will carry r.f. through it to be radiated. Suitable
Proper shielding of the transmitter requires shields can be made from 21 2 - or
/ 3- inch diameter
that the r.f. circuits be shielded entirely from metal cans or small metal chassis boxes.
Preventing Radiation 563
not necessarily an increase — in the intensity of
the interference, the presence of harmonics at
that point is indicated. The location of such
"hot" spots usually will point the way to the
remedy. If the TV receiver and the transmitter
can be operated side-by- side, a length of wire
connected to one antenna terminal on the re-
ceiver can be used as a probe to go over the
transmitter enclosure and external leads. This
device will very quickly expose the spots from
which serious leakage is taking place.
As a final test, connect the transmitting an-
Fig. 23-15—A metal cabinet can be an adequa eshield,
tenna or its transmission line terminals to the
but there will still be radiation if the leads inside can
outside of the transmitter shielding. Interfer-
pick up r.f. from the transmitting circuits.
ence created when this test is applied indicates
around the transmitter itself, the harmonics are that weak currents are on the outside of the
probably strong enough to cause interference. shield and can be conducted to the antenna when
However, the absence of any such indication the normal antenna connections are used. Cur-
does not mean that harmonic interference will rents of this nature represent interference that
not be caused. If the techniques of shielding and is conducted over low-pass filters, and hence can-
lead filtering described in the preceding section not be eliminated by such filters.
are followed, the harmonic intensity on any
PREVENTING HARMONICS FROM
external leads should be far below what any
REACHING THE ANTENNA
such instruments can detect.
Radiation checks should be made with the The third and last step in reducing har-
transmitter delivering full power into adummy monic TVI is to keep the spurious energy gen-
antenna, such as an incandescent lamp of suit- erated in or passed through the final stage from
able power rating, preferably installed inside the traveling over the transmission line to the
shielded enclosure. If the dummy must be ex- antenna. It is seldom worthwhile even to at-
ternal, it is desirable to connect it through acoax- tempt this until the radiation from the trans-
matching circuit such as is shown in Fig. 23-16. mitter and its connecting leads has been reduced
Shielding the dummy antenna circuit is also de- to the point where, with the transmitter deliver-
sirable, although it is not always necessary. ing full power into a dummy antenna, it has
Make the radiation test on all frequencies that been determined by actual testing with a televi-
are to be used in transmitting, and note whether sion receiver that the radiation is below the
or not interference patterns show in the re- level that can cause interference. If the dummy
ceived picture. ( These tests must be made while antenna test shows enough radiation to be seen
a TV signal is being received, since the beat in a TV picture, it is a practical certainty that
patterns will not be formed if the TV picture harmonics will be coupled to the antenna system
carrier is not present.) If interference exists, no matter what preventive measures are taken.
its source can be detected by grasping the var- In inductively coupled output systems, some
ious external leads ( by the insulation, not the harmonic energy will be transferred from the
live wire!) or bringing the hand near meter final amplifier through the mutual inductance
faces, louvers, and other possible points where between the tank coil and the output coupling
harmonic energy might escape from the trans- coil. Harmonics of the output frequency trans-
mitter. If any of these tests cause a change— ferred in this way can be greatly reduced by
providing sufficient selectivity between the final
OUTPUT STAGE tank and the transmission line. A good deal of
selectivity, amounting to 20 to 30 db. reduction
of the second harmonic and much higher reduc-
tion of higher-order harmonics, is furnished by
a matching circuit of the type shown in Fig.
23-16 and described in the chapter on transmis-
sion lines. An "antenna coupler" is therefore a
worthwhile addition to the transmitter.
Fig. 23- 16— Dummy-antenna circuit for checking har- In 50- and 144- Mc. transmitters, particularly,
monic radiation from the transmitter and leads. The harmonics not directly associated with the out-
matching circuit helps prevent harmonics in the output put frequency — such as those generated in low-
of the transmitter from flowing back over the trans- frequency early stages of the transmitter — may
mitter itself, which may occur if the lamp load is simply get coupled to the antenna by stray means. For
connected to the output coil of the final amplifier. See example, a 144- Mc, transmitter might have an
transmission- line chapter for details of the matching oscillator or frequency multiplier at 48 Mc., fol-
circuit. Tuning must be adjusted by cut-and-try, as the lowed by a tripler to 144 Mc. Some of the 48-
bridge method described in the transmission- line chap- Mc. energy will appear in the plate circuit of
ter will not work with lamp loads because of the the tripler, and if passed on to the grid of the
change in resistance when the lamps are hot. final amplifier will appear as a 48-Mc. modula-
V24 TABLE VIII - EQUIVALENT TUBES- Continued

Type Equivalent and Table Bast Type Equivalent and Table Base Et ,
SSU7GTT 6SL7GT III 'ID 6.3 0.3 1401 6SA7 II SAL 12.6 0.15
61.6GT 6Y6GA III IS 6.3 1.25 19CL8A 6CL8A 9FX 18.9 0.15
1A4 615 II SAC 6.3 0.3 25h OIGA 68Q6GTB III BAN 25 0.3
7A8 696 II 7AJ 6.3 0.15 2580601 68Q6GTB III BAN 25 0.3
7A7 6S67 II 118 6.3 0.3 25106G18: 68Q6GTB III SAM 25 0.3
784 6SF5 II SAC 6.3 0.3 25C5 5005 VIII 7CV 25 0.3
785 6K6GT III SAE 6.3 0.4 25C6GA 50C6GA VIII IS 25 0.3
1811 65Q7 II SW 6.3 0.3 25CA5 6CA5 7CV 25 0.3
188 6A8 II IX 6.3 0.3 25106G 6CD6GA III 25 0.6
716 686 II SAA 6.3 0.45 25CD6GA0 60D6GA III 581 25 0.6
7E860 6EY6 III 7AC 7.2 0.6 25CD6G11.7 6CD6GA III SIT 25 0.6
7F1 6SL7GT III SAC 6.3 0.3 25CU6 6CU6 II SAN 25 0.3
1H7 6SG7 II 81i 6.3 0.3 25006: 6096 III SIT 25 0.6
7N7 6SNIGT III SAC 6.3 0.6 25EC60 25CD6GB VIII 5111 25 0.6
6SA7 II SAL 6.3 0.3 25EH5 6E05 /CV 25 0.3
10E880 6E88 9DX 10.5 0.45 25L6GT 1216GT VI 15 '25 0.3
12A8GT 6A8 II 8A 12.6 0.15 25SA/GT 6SA7GT II SAD
12A15 6AL5 SIT 12.6 0.15 25W6GT 6W6GT III 75 25 0.3
12AT6 6816 711T 12.6 35C5 3585 ICY 35 0.15
12* 86 6AU6A 78K 12.6 0.15 35L6GT 3585 75 35 0.15
12AY5GA: 6AV5GT III 6CK 12.6 0.6 41 666GT III 68 6.3 0.4
12* VS 6AV6 751T 12.6. 0.15 42 6F6 II 611 6.3 0.7
1284 1284AV 1 SAG 12.6 0.3 50A5 121161 VI 611A 50
128A6 6866 18K 12.6 0.15 5011K5 6865 980 50 0.15
128117 6BA7 ICI 12.6 0.15 5005 50135 ICY 50 0.15
12806 6806 78K 12.6 0.15 5006G 50C6GA VI 75 50 0.15
128E6 68E6 7CH 12.6 0.15 50L651 12L6GT VI 7AC 50 0.15
128F6 68F6 1 181 12.6 0.15 75 6SQ7 II 60 6.3 0.3
128K5: 6865 980 12.6 0.6 78 667 II OF 6.3 0.3
128K6 6866 78T 12.6 1221 617 II 6F 6.3 0.3
12806 6806 /DE 12.6 1223 617 II 7R 6.3 0.3
128088/17 68Q6GT8 III SAM 12.6 0.6 1631 616G8 II 711C 12.6 0.45
121106GT: 68Q6GT8 III SAM 12.6 0.6 1632 121611 VI 75 12.6 0.6
128060187 68Q6GTE1 III SAM 12.6 0.6 1634 6SC7 II 8S 12.6 0.15
12878 61316 71IT 12.6 0.15 5591 6AK5 78D 6.3 0.15
128U6 6006 78T 12.6 0.15 5654 6665 1 711D 6.3 0.175
128W4 6I3W4 X 12.6 0.45 5610 2051 ICi 6.3 0.35
12887 12BY7AI , 98F 12.6 0.3 5678 696 II 7CX 6.3 0.15
128267 6816 /CM 12.6 0.15 5691 6SL7GT III 880 6.3 0.6
12C57 5085 ICY 12.6 0.6 5692 6SNIGT III 880 6.3 0.6
12C8 688 II 8E 12.6 0.15 5725 6AS6 7CM 6.3 0.175
12C1150 6CA5 ?CV 12.6 0.6 5726 6AL5 688 6.3 0.3
12G MG 6CM6 SCE 12.6 0.225 5749 6866 7BK 6.3 0.3
12G RS 60R6 7EA 12.6 0.15 68E6 7CH 6.3 0.3
120550 6CS5 9CK 12.6 0.6 5751 , 12AX7 9A 12.6 0.175
12CS6 6CS6 7CH 12.6 0.15 5111411 , I2SN7GT VIII 9A 12.6 0.175
121157 6CU5 1CY 12.6 0.6 5871 6V6GTA II 7AC 6.3 0.9
12CU8 60U6 III SAM 12.6 0.6 5881 616G8 II 7AC 6.3 0.9
120857 6085 9GR 12.6 0.6 5910 1U4 6AR 1.4 0.05
120F7 , 12AX7 9A 12.6 0.15 5915 6886 7CH 6.3 0.3
12006A0 6DQ6B III SAM 12.6 0.6 5963 , 126576 SA 12.6 0.15
12085 6915 INN 12.6 0.6 5964 6368 18F 6.3 0.45
12018 6918 90E 12.6 0.15 5965 , 12AV7 1 9A 12.6 0.225
12DW50 6DW5 9CK 12.6 0.6 6046 121611 VI 7AC 25 0.3
6EF6 III 75 12.6 0.45 6051 , I2AX7 9A 12.6
1204 615 II 680 12.6 0.15 6058 6AL5 SIT 6.3 0.3
126E5 6GE5 VII 1281 12.6 0.6 6059 617 II 98C 6.3 0.15
12G WI 6GW6 III SAM 12.6 0.6 6060 , 12817 9A 12.6 0.15
12H6 656 II 10 12.6 0.15 6061 6V6GTA II SAM 6.3 0.45
1115GT 615 II 80 12.6 0.15 6064 6AM6 708 6.3 0.3
12J7GT 617 II 7R 12.6 015 6065 6806 6.3 0.2
12K7GT 667 II 7R 12.6 0.15 6066 6816 781 6.3 0.3
1260 668 II 8K 12.6 0.15 6067 , I2AU7A 9A 12.6 0.15
12SIGT 6S8GT III 11C8 12.6 0.15 6080 6ASIG III 8EID 6.3 2.5
12SA7 6SA7 II 80 12.6 0.15 6101 616A 18F 6.3 0.45
125C1 6.507II IS 12.6 0.15 6132 6006 98A 6.3 0.75
125F5 6SF5 II 12.6 0.15 6136 6AU6A 78K 6.3 0.3
12SF7 6SF7 II 1A2 12.6 6186 6AG5 6.3 0.3
125G/ 6SG7 II 88K 12.6 0.15 6201 , 12617 SA 12.6 0.15
125 HI 6SH7 II Ilk 12.6 0.15 6265 6906 7CM 6.3 0.175
12517 6S17 II 8N 12.6 0.15 6350 , 12BH7A 9CZ 12.6 0.3
12SK7 &SKI II 8N 12.6 0.15 6485 6AH6 78K 6.3 0.45
125 LIST 651701 III 880 12.6 0.15 6827 082 IX 580
12SN7GT 6SN7GT8 III 12.6 0.3 6660 6BA6 7CC 6.3 0.3
12SN7GTA 6SN7GTB III 880 12.6 0.3 6661 6806 7CM 6.3 0.15
125137 6SQ7 II 80 12.6 0.15 6862 6816A 7CM 6.3 0.15
12507 6SR7 II 80 12.6 0.15 6663 6AL5 SIT 6.3 0.3
12W6GT: 6W6GT III IS 12.6 06 6664 6684 5CE 6.3 0.15
14A7 6S67 II 88 12.6 0.15 6669 6AQ5A 782 6.3 0.45
14AF7 7AF7 IV SAC 12.6 0.15 6876 6C86A 7CM 6.3 0.3
1488 6SQ7 II 8W 12.6 6611 6016 6.3 0.65 -
14F7 6SL7GT III SAC 12.6 6678 60067 SAE 6.3 0.45
14N7 6SN7GT8 III 811C 12.6 0.6 6679 , 12617 9A 12.6
Low-Pass Filters 565

(A)

(B)

Fig. 23-21—An inexpensive low-pass filter using silver.

mica postage-stamp capacitors. The box is a2by 4by
(C) 6aluminum chassis. Aluminum shields, bent and folded
at the sides and bottom for fastening to the chassis,
form shields between the filter sections. The diagonal
arrangement of the shields provides extra room for
Fig. 23-20— Right ( B) and wrong (A and C) ways to the coils and makes it easier to fit the shields in the
connect a coaxial line to the transmitter. In A or C, box, since bending to exact dimensions is not essential.
harmonic energy coupled by stray capacitance to the The bottom plate, made from sheet aluminum, extends
outside of the cable will flow without hindrance to the a half inch beyond the ends of the chassis and is pro-
antenna system. In B the energy cannot leave the vided with mounting holes in the extensions. It is held
shield and can flow out only through, not over, the on the chassis with sheet-metal screws.
cable.
L and C values. Technically, they are three- sec-
tetina if harmonic currents can flow over the out- tion filters having two full constant- k sections
side of the coax line. In Fig. 23-20, the arrange- and two m-derived terminating half- sections,
ment at either A or C will allow r.f. to flow and their attenuation in the 54-88-Mc. range
over the outside of the cable to the antenna varies from over 50 to nearly 70 db., depending
system. The proper way to use coaxial cable is on the frequency and the particular set of values
used. At high frequencies the ultimate attenua-
to shield the transmitter completely, as shown at
B, and make sure that the outer conductor of tion will depend somewhat on internal resonant
the cable is a continuation of the transmitter conditions associated with component lead
lengths. These leads should be kept as short as
shielding. This prevents r.f. inside the transmit-
ter from getting out by any path except the possible.
inside of the cable. Harmonics flowing through The power that filters using mica capacitors
acoax line can be stopped by an antenna coupler can handle safely is determined by the voltage
or low-pass filter installed in the line. and current limitations of the capacitors. The
power capacity is least at the highest frequency.
Low- Pass Filters The unit using postage- stamp silver mica ca-
pacitors is capable of handling approximately 50
A low-pass filter properly installed in acoaxial
line, feeding either amatching circuit ( antenna watts in the 28- Mc. band, when working into a
coupler) or feeding the antenna directly, will properly-matched line, but is good for about 150
provide very great attenuation of harmonics. watts at 21 Mc. and 300 watts at 14 Mc. and
When the main transmission line is of the par- lower frequencies. A filter with larger mica
allel- conductor type, the coax-coupled match- capacitors ( case type CM-45) will carry about
ing- circuit arrangement is highly recommended 250 watts safely at 21 Mc., this rating increasing
as ameans for using acoax low-pass filter. to 500 watts at 21 Mc. and a kilowatt at 14
A low-pass filter will transmit power at the .Mc. and lower. If there is an appreciable mis-
fundamental frequency without appreciable loss match between the filter and the line into which
if the line in which it is inserted is properly it works, these ratings will be considerably de-
terminated ( has a low s.w.r.). At the same time creased, so in order to avoid capacitor failure
it has large attenuation for all frequencies above it is highly essential that the line on the output
the "cut-off" frequency. side of the filter be carefully matched.
Low-pass filters of simple and inexpensive con- The power capacity of these filters can be in-
struction for use with transmitters operating be- creased considerably by substituting r.f. type
low 30 Mc. are shown in Figs. 23-21 and 23-23. fixed capacitors ( such as the Centralab 850
The former is designed to use mica capacitors series) or variable air capacitors, in which event
of readily available capacitance values, for com- the power capability will be such as to handle
pactness and low cost. Both use the sanie cir- the maximum amateur power on any band. The
cuit, Fig. 23-22, the only difference being in the construction can be modified to accommodate
566 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES

Fig. 23-22— Low-pass filter circuit. .

1, and .
13 are chassis.
type coaxial connectors. In the table below the letters
refer to the following:

A— Using 100- and 70-µµf. 500- volt silver mica capaci-

tors in parallel for C, and C3.

B— Using 70- and 50-µµf. silver mica capacitors in

Fig. 23- 23— Low-pass filter using variable air capacitors.
parallel for C.: and Ca.
The box is a 2 by 5 by 7 aluminum chassis, fitted with a
C— Using 100. and 50-Auf. mica capacitors, 1200-volt
bottom plate of similar construction to the one used in
(case- style CM- 45) in parallel for C, and C.,.
Fig. 23-21.
D and E— Using variable air capacitors, 500- to 1000.
volt rating, adjusted to values given. and adjust La to resonate at the frequency f 1 as

given by the table. Then remove La, install

L 2 and L, and adjust L 2 to make the cir-
A B C D E cuit formed by L 1,L2,C1 and C2 (without the
Zo 52 75 52 52 75 ohms
short across / 1) resonate at f 2 as given in the

lc 36 35.5 41 40 '40 Mc. table. Do the same with L4 for the circuit formed
f
oo 44.4 47 54 50 50 Mc. by L4,L5,C, and C4.Then replace L. 5 and check
25.5 25.2 29 28.3 28.3 Mc. with the grid- dip meter at any coil in the filter;
32.5 31.8 37.5 36.1 36.1 Mc. a distinct resonance should be found at or very
(,.C 4 50 40 50 46 32 44f. close to the cut-off frequency, f e.
(•,,C, 170 120 150 154 106 44f.
The filter constants suggested at D and E in
L. 52 6 4 5 6/12 turns.
8 11 7 7 9V2 turno*
Fig. 23-22 are based on the optimum design for
9 13 8 8 Va 11V2 turns* good impedance characteristics—that is, with
m = 0.6 in the end sections—and a cut-off fre-
quency below the standard i.f. for television re-
*No. 12 or No. 14 wire, /
2 -
1 inch inside diameter, 8 ceivers ( sound carrier at 41.25 Mc.; picture car-
turns per inch. rier at 45.75 Mc.). This is to avoid possible har-
monic interference from 21 Mc. and below to the
variable air capacitors as shown in Fig. 23-23. receiver's intermediate amplifier. The other de-
Using fixed capacitors of standard tolerances, signs similarly cut off at 41 Mc. or below, but m
there should be little difficulty in getting proper in these cases is necessarily based on the capaci-
filter operation. A grid-dip meter with an accu- tances available in standard fixed capacitors.
rate calibration should be used for adjustment of
the coils. First, wire up the filter without L2 and Filters for 50- and 144-Mc. Transmitters
1. 4.Short-circuit Ji at its inside end with ascrew- Since a low-pass filter must have acut-off fre-
driver or similar conductor, couple the grid-dip quency above the frequency on which the trans-
meter to L, and adjust the inductance of LI,by mitter operates, a filter for a v.h.f. transmitter
varying the turn spacing, until the circuit reson- cannot be designed for attenuation in all tele-
ates at fa as given in the table. Do the same thing vision channels. This is no handicap for v.h.f.
at the other end of the filter with L5.Then couple work but means that the filter will not be effec-
the meter to the circuit formed by L3,C2 and Ca, tive when used with lower- frequency transmit-

Fig. 23- 24— Low-pass filter for use with 50-Mc, transmitters at powers up to about 300 watts. The housing is a
2U- inches square by 5-inches long Minibox. Connections between the various sections of the filter are made
through 5/16- inch clearance holes cut in the centers of the shielding partitions.
Low-Pass Filters 567
5111- 67 MC. 47 MC 127 MC 67 MC
7511-66.75 MC. 47 3 MC 130 MC 66 75 MC
L3
L5 p L4
_rrry-1_ ,C4

c,
TT" je c,
1<

Fig. 23-25—Circuit of the 6-meter low-pass filter. See table for capacitance and inductance values. C1, Ce, Ce,
C4, Ce, CT-6000-volt disk ceramic ( Centralab DD60, Sprague 60GA, Erie HD6 or similar). C5-45-ud. ceramic
trimmer (Centralab 822BN)..11, J2— Chassis-mounting coax receptacle ( S0-239). Resonant frequencies refer to the
following independent combinations: LiCi, L2Ces, laCaCee and LC/.

ground lug. The only stand-off insulators are

Capacitance (
1.4.) and Inductance (µh.) the two supporting Ls,C4 and C5.Leads should
Values fOr the 6-Meter Low- Pass Filter be centered in the middle of the holes through the
50 ohms 75 ohms shields, and excess solder resin cleaned from
C1, CD, C7 68 47 capacitor bodies and stand-off insulators.
82 56 The filter will have about 0.3 db. attentuation
cl

Ct 100 68 up to 51 Mc. and about 3 to 4db. at 53 Mc. At

7-45 7-45 55.25 and above the attenuation should never be
CI
ce 39 25 less than 25 or 30 db.
LI, L. 0.0825 0.121 A filter for low- power 144- Mc. transmitters is
0.3 0.441 shown in Fig. 23-26. It is designed for maximum
L.
L. 0.0622 0.0915 attenuation in the 190-215 Mc. region to suppress
the spurious radiations in that range that fre-
Coil Dimensions (Ail No. 16 Wire) quently occur with 144- Mc. transmitters, but also
L(iA.) Turns I.D. Turns Spacing has good attenuation for all frequencies above
0.441 7 /
2
1 inch Mo inch 170 Mc. Optimum capacitance values are given
0.3 5 2 inch
/
1 Mo inch in Fig. 23-27. If possible, several units of the
0.121 4 % inch %2 inch nearest standard values available should be meas-
0.0915 4 2 inch
/
1 1turn ured and those having values closest to the opti-
0.0825 4 Y4 inch %6 inch mum used. Adjust the filter as follows:
0.0622 3 rAo inch 1 turn First, mount L, and C1,short J1 temporarily at
its inner terminals, and adjust L1 until the com-
bination resonates at 200 Mc. as shown by agrid-
ters, unless it happens that no local TV channels dip meter. Next, remove the short from Ji and
fall inside the pass band of the filter. connect L2 and C2,adjusting L2 until the circuit
Fig. 23-24 shows a filter for 50- or 75-ohm formed by LiL2C1C2 resonates at 144 Mc. Then
coax suitable for a 50- Mc. transmitter of any disconnect L2 and mount L3 between C2 and Cs.
power up to about 300 watts. The circuit diagram Adjust L3 until the circuit L3C2C3 resonates at
is given in Fig. 23-25. If the values of inductance 112 Mc. Next, disconnect L3 and follow asimilar
and capacitance can be measured, the components procedure starting from the other end with L5
can be preset and assembled without further and C4.Finally, reconnect all coils; a check at
adjustment. Alternatively, the grid- dip meter any point in the filter should show resonance at
method described earlier may be used. The reso- 160 Mc.
nant frequencies are checked for the following
combinations ( see Fig. 23-25) :L1C1,L2C2C2 Filter Installation
(L 3 and associated capacitors lifted), L3C3C6 To be effective, a low-pass filter must be in-
(L 2 lifted from C3,L4 lifted from Ce,C4 and C5 stalled so that all the output of the transmitter
lifted), and L4C7.Coil turns are spread apart flows through it. If harmonic currents are per-
or squeezed together during adjustment. When mitted to flow on the outside of the connecting
sections have been resonated, the filter is recon- coaxial cables, they will simply flow over the
nected and, with a suitable terxnination, C5 is filter and on up to the antenna, and the filter does
adjusted for minimum response at 55.25 Mc. not have an opportunity to stop them.
In constructing the filter, the coils are sup- Fig. 23-28 shows the proper way to install
ported by the coax connectors and by the short a filter between a shielded transmitter and a
capacitor leads, one of which is soldered to a matching circuit. The coax, together with the
Fig. 23-26—A 52-ohm
low-pass filter for 144-
Mc. Transmitters. Case
is made from flashing
copper and is 114
inches square by 7'4
y
r inches long. Cover
slips on flanges folded
out at the bottom;
ends are folded down
and soldered.
 V30 TABLE XII - TETRODE AND PENTODE TRANSMITTING TUBES

Maximum Ratings Cathode Capacitances Typical Operation

or S'
o•
pation Watts .4 15.0
,Plate Dissi-
• :..?- xi xi
Type a* .r . Co, Cy. Coot , E
o E E o 48 E ry

Amperes
r
Ba" • 3 -c • 3
eg ,..,.ei g.
g Ec :to ze pi. pi. Pi. g ,
2.2 ..e.
, .1.. e_ e III ,E et_
.. o
11 t.
g ..
el'

1
: : t,,I,
Li à
-a à
-e. e.: e•: z.-
im r':.3 xr". Je ii g
- r1.3 JJ ii0 Zie Z3 ág:
7717 Z 180 0.5 180 - 6.3 0.2 4.5 0.03 3 7EW C•P 125 80 -- -1 10
6.3 0.75 CT 200 200 - -20 60 13 2 1.0 - 7.5
6939 3 7.5 275 3 200 500 6.6 0.15 1.55 Fig. 13 C•P 180 180 -- -20 55 11 .5 1.7 1.0 - 6
12.6 0.375
CM 200 190 - 686 1 46 10 2.2 0.9 - -
7701 9 350 3.5 300 175 13.6 0.16 1 0.15 3.6 9MS C•P 250 250 - -12.5 28
2E30 10 250 2.5 250 160 CT 250 200 - -50 50 10 2.5 0.2 - -
6 0.65 10 0.5 4.5 700
AB,' 250 250 - -30 40 120 4 20 2.3' 0.2 3.86 17
CT 300 185 - -39 60 4 2.2 1.0 - 7
7905 10 300 1.5 300 175 6.3 0.65 8.5 5.5 0.14 9PB C•P 250 250 - -70 60 2.5 2.1 1.0 - 63
CM 300 215 - -80 50 3.4 1.5 0.5 - 3.5
837 12 500 8 300 20 12.6 CT 500 200 40 -70 80 15 4 0.4 - 28
0.7 16 0.2 10 6BM
C•P 400 140 40 -40 45 20 5 0.3 - 11
7551 12.6 0.38 CT 300 250 - -55 80 5.1 1 6 1 5 - 10
12 300 2 250 175 10 0.15 55 9LK
. .
7558 6.3 0.8C•P 250 250 - -75 70 3.0 2.3 1.0 - 7.5
CT 350 250 - -28.5 48.5 6.2 1.6 0.1 - 14
5763 6.3 0.75 C•P 300 250 - -42.5 50 6 2.4 0.15 - 10
135 350 2 250 50 9.5 0.3 4.5 9K
6417 . 12.6 0.375C•11.1 8 300 250 - -15 40 4 I 0.6 - 2.1
C.M. 300 235 - -100 35 5 I 0.6 - 1.3
2E24 13.5 600 2.5 200 125 6.3 8 0.65 CR 500 180 - -45 54 8 2.5 0.16 - 18
8.5 0.11 6.5 7CL
CT 600 195 - -50 66 10 3 0.21 - 27
2E26" CT 600 185 - -45 66 10 3 0.17 - 27
6.3 0.8
13.5 600 2.5 200 125 12.5 0.2 7 7CK C•P 500 180 - -50 54 9 2.5 0.15 - 18
6893 12.6 0.4
AB,' 500 125 - -15 22 150 32 , - 0.36' 86 54
CT 300 200 - -45 100 3 3 0.2 - 18.5
6360' 14 300 2 200 200 6.3 0.82 C.111 200 100 - 1510 86 3.1 3.3 0.2 - 9.8
6.2 0.1 2.6 Fig. 13
12.6 0.41CM" 300 150 -- -100 65 3.5 3.8 0.45 - 4.8
AB, 300 200 - -21.5 30100 1111.4 64 8 0.04 6.516 17.5
C•T•0 450 250 - -45 75 15 3 0.4 - 24
2E25 15 450 4 250 125 6 0.8 8.5 0.15 6.7 581 C•P 400 200 - -45 60 12 3 0.4 - 16
AB? 450 250 - -30 44 150 10 40 3 0.9' 6K 40
6.3 1.6 CT 750 200 - -65 48 15 2.8 0.19 - 26
832A 3 15 750 5 250 200 8 0.07 3.8 7BP
12.6 0.8 C•P 600 200 - -65 36 16 2.6 0.16 - 17
CT 600 250 - -60 140 14 4 2.0 - -
A
62g10 3 20 750 4 300 300 63 13 6.5 - 2.5 Fig. 7 CR 500 250 - -80 100 12 3 4.0 - -
12.6 0.65
e 500 250 - -26 25 73 0.7 16 52 8 - 20K 23.5
CT 450 250 - -45 100 8 2 0.15 - 31
1614 25 450 3.5 300 80 6.3 0.9 10 0.4 12.5 MC C•P 375 250 - -50 93 7 2 0.15 - 24.5
ABC 530 340 - -36 60 160 20' - - 7.216 50
6.3 C•T•0 500 200 - -45 150 17 2.5 0.13 - 56
815 3 25 500 4 200 125 1.6
13.3 0.2 8.5 8BY CR 400 175 - -45 150 15 3 0.16 - 45
12.6 0.8
AB, 500 125 - -15 22 150 32' - 0.36' 8K 54
CT 600 300 - -60 90 10 5 0.43 - 35
1624 25 600 3.5 300 60 2.5 2 11 0.25 7.5 Flg. 66 C•18 500 275 - -50 75 9 3.3 0.25 - 24
AB,. 600 300 - -25 42 180 515 06 8 1.2' 7.5K 72
4604 25 750 3 250 60 6.3 0.65 11 0.24 8.5 701 CT 400 190 - -60 150 II 2 4.5 - 30
6146" 500 170 - -66 135 9 2.5 0.2 - 48
6146A 6.3 1.25 CT
750 160 - -62 120 II 3.1 0.2 - 70
8032
CT" 400 190 - -54 150 10.4 2.2 3.0 - 35
611113 25 750 3 250 60 12.6 0.625 400 150 - -87 112 7.8 3.4 0.4 - 32
13 0.24 8.5 ICK C•111
600 150 - -87 112 7.8 3.4 0.4 - 52
600 190 - -48 28 270 1.2 20 2' 0.3 56 113
A13,''
6159 26.5 0.3 750 165 - -46 22 240 0.3 20 2.6' 0.4 7AK 131
AB,' 750 195 - -50 23 220 126 00 , 0 8K 120
6524 3 UT 600 200 - -44 120 8 3.7 0.2 - 56
6.3 1.25
25 600 300 100 7 0.11 3.4 Flg. 76 CR 500 200 - -61 100 7 2 .5 0.2 - 40
6850 12.6 0.625
AB, 500 200 - -26 20 116 0.1 10 2.6 0.1 11.1K 40
807" CT 750 250 - -45 100 6 3.5 0.22 - 50
807W 6.3 0.9 SAW C•P 600 275 - -90 100 6.5 4 0.4 - 42 .5
5933 30 750 3.5 300 60 12 0.2 7
AB,. 750 300 - -32 60 240 510 92 8 0.2' 6.956 120
1625 13 12.6 0.45 SAZ B18 750 - - 0 15 240 - . 55 8 5.3' 6.65K 120
2E22 30 750 10 250 - 6.3 1.5 13 0.2 8 51 C.T.0 750 250 Z2.5 -60 100 16 6 0.55 - 53
CT 750 200 - -11 160 10 2.7 0.3 - 85
61468 / 35
8298A 750 3 250 30 6.3 1.125 13 0.22 8.5 7C K C•P 600 175 - -92 140 9.5 3.4 0.5 - 62
Alii i 750 200 - -48 25 125 6.3 - - 3.66 61
AA.
6.3 1.8 CT 600 250 - -80 200 16 2 0.2 - 80
9903' 40 600 7 250 250 6.7 0.08 2.1 Fig. 7
5894A 12.6 0.
9 CR 600 250 - -100 200 24 8 1.2 - 85
8296 3 C•T
- 500 200 - -45 240 32 12 0.7 - 83
6.3 2.25
40 750 7 240 200 14.5 0.12 7 7BP C18 425 200 - -60 212 35 II 0.8 - 63
3E 12.6 1.125
e
293
500 200 - -18 27 230 - 56 8 0.39 4.86 76
3024 45 2oce 10 400 125 6.3 3 6.5 2000 375 - - 300 90 20 10 4.0 - 140
0.2 2.4 Fig. 75 CT0
1500 375 - - 300 90 22 10 4.0 - 105
12.6 1.6 750 1 300 - - 100 240 26 12 1.5 - 135
4022 25.2 0.8 Fig. 16 CT
600 300 - - 100 215 30 10 1.25 - 100
50 750 14 350 60 28 0.27 600 - - - 100
1
C.18 220 28 10 1.25 - 100
4032 6.3 3.75 Fig. 27 550 - - - 100 175 17 6 0.6 - 70
AB,' 600 250 - -25 100 365 26' 70 8 0.45' 3K 125
vice aooreviations.
TV Receiver Deficiencies 569
generated outside the transmitter. These result from harmonics actually radiated by the trans-
from rectification of fundamental- frequency mitter. In such cases additional harmonic sup-
currents induced in conductors in the vicinity of pression at the transmitter will do no good, but
the transmitting antenna. Rectification can take any means taken at the receiver to reduce the
place at any point where two conductors are in strength of the amateur signal reaching the
poor electrical contact, a condition that fre- first tube will effect an improvement. With very
quently exists in plumbing, downspouting, BX severe overloading, interference also will occur
cables crossing each other, and numerous other on channels not harmonically related to the
places in the ordinary residence. It also can transmitting frequency, so such cases are easily
occur in any exposed vacuum tubes in the sta- identified.
Cross-Modulation
tion, in power supplies, speech equipment, etc.,
that may not be enclosed in the shielding about Upon some circumstances overloading will
the r.f. circuits. Poor joints anywhere in the result in cross-modulation or mixing of the
antenna system are especially bad, and rectifica- amateur signal with that from a local f.m. or
tion also may take place in the contacts of an- TV station. For example, a 14- Mc, signal can
tenna changeover relays. Another common mix with a92- Mc, f.m. station to produce abeat
cause is overloading the front end of the com- at 78 Mc. and cause interference in Channel 5,
munications receiver when it is used with a or with a TV station on Channel 5 to cause
separate antenna ( which will radiate the har- interference in Channel 3. Neither of the chan-
monics generated in the first tube) for break-in. nels interfered with is in harmonic relationship
Rectification of this sort will not only cause to 14 Mc. Both signals have to be on the air
harmonic interference but also is frequently re- for the interference to occur, and eliminating
sponsible for cross-modulation effect's. It can be either at the TV receiver will eliminate the
detected in greater or less degree in most loca- interference.
tions, but fortunately the harmonics thus gen- There are many combinations of this type,
erated are not usually of high amplitude. How- depending on the band in use and the local fre-
ever, they can cause considerable interference quency assignments to f.m. and TV stations.
in the immediate vicinity in fringe areas, espe- The interfering frequency is equal to the ama-
cially when operation is in the 28- Mc. band. The teur fundamental frequency either added to or
amplitude decreases rapidly with the order of subtracted from the frequency of some local
the harmonic, the second and third being the station, and when interference occurs in a 'TV
worst. It is ordinarily found that even in cases channel that is not harmonically related to the
where destructive interference results from 28- amateur transmitting frequency the possibilities
Mc. operation the interference is comparatively in such frequency combinations should be in-
mild from 14 Mc., and is negligible at still lower vestigated.
I. F. Interference
frequencies.
Nothing can be done at either the transmitter Some TV receivers do not have sufficient
or receiver when rectification occurs. The rem- selectivity to prevent strong signals in the inter-
edy is to find the source and eliminate the poor mediate- frequency range from forcing their
contact either by separating the conductors or way through the front end and getting into the
bonding them together. A crystal wavemeter i.f. amplifier. The once- standard intermediate
(tuned to the fundamental frequency) is useful frequency of, roughly, 21 to 27 Mc., is subject
for hunting the source, by showing which con- to interference from the fundamental- frequency
ductors are carrying r.f. and, comparatively, output of transmitters operating in the 21- Mc.
how much. band. Transmitters on 28 Mc. sometimes will
Interference of this kind is frequently inter- cause this type of interference as well.
mittent since the rectification efficiency will A form of i.f. interference peculiar to 50-Me.
vary with vibration, the weather, and so on. The operation near the low edge of the band oc-
possibility of corroded contacts in the TV re- curs with some receivers having the standard
ceiving antenna should not be overlooked, es- "41- Mc." i.f., which has the sound carrier at
pecially if it has been up a year or more. 41.25 Mc. and the picture carrier at 45.75 Mc.
A 50- Mc. signal that forces its way into the i.f.
TV RECEIVER DEFICIENCIES system of the receiver will beat with the i.f.
picture carrier to give a spurious signal on or
Front- End Overloading near the i.f. sound carrier, even though the in-
When a television receiver is quite close to terfering signal is not actually in the nominal
the transmitter, the intense r.f. signal from the passband of the i.f. amplifier.
transmitter's fundamental may overload one or There is a type of i.f. interference unique to
more of the receiver circuits to produce spuri- the 144-Mc. band in localities where certain
ous responses that cause interference. u.h.f. TV channels are in operation, affecting
If the overload is moderate, the interference only those TV receivers in which double-con-
is of the same nature as harmonic interference; version type plug-in u.h.f. tuning strips are
it is caused by harmonics generated in the early used. The design of these strips involves a first
stages of the receiver and, since it occurs only intermediate frequency that varies with the TV
on channels harmonically related to the trans- channel to be received and, depending on the
mitting frequency, is difficult to distinguish particular strip design, this first i.f. may be in
 570 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES
or close to the 144-Mc, amateur band. Since that have proved effective are shown in Figs.
there is comparatively little selectivity in the 23-29 and 23-30. Fig. 23-30 has one more sec-
TV signal- frequency circuits ahead of the first tion than the filters of Fig. 23-29 and as a
i.f., a signal from a 144- Mc, transmitter will consequence has somewhat better cut-off char-
"ride into" the i.f., even when the receiver is acteristics. All the circuits given are designed
at a considerable distance from the transmitter. to have little or no effect on the TV signals but
The channels that can be affected by this type will attenuate all signals lower in frequency
of i.f. interference are: than about 40 Mc. These filters preferably
should be constructed in some sort of shielding
Receivers with Receivers with
container, although shielding is not always nec-
21-Mc. 4I-Mc.
second i.f. second i.f. essary. The dashed lines in Fig. 23-30 show how
r

Channels 14-18, inc. Channels 20-25, inc. individual filter coils can be shielded from each
Channels 41-48, inc. Channels 51-58, inc. other. The capacitors can be tubular ceramic
Channels 82 and 83. units centered in holes in the partitions that
Channels 69-77, inc.
separate the coils.
If the receiver is not close to the transmitter, a Simple high-pass filters cannot always be ap-
trap of the type shown in Fig. 23-31 will be plied successfully in the case of 50- Mc, trans-
effective. However, if the separation is small missions, because they do not have sufficiently-
the 144-Mc. signal will be picked up directly on sharp cut-off characteristics to give both good
the receiver circuits and the best solution is to attenuation at 50-54 Mc. and no attenuation
readjust the strip oscillator so that the first i.f. above 54 Mc. A more elaborate design capable
is moved to a frequency not in the vicinity of of giving the required sharp cut-off has been
the 144-Mc. band. This has to be done by a described ( Ladd, "50- Mc. TVI—Its Causes and
competent technician. Cures," QST, June and July, 1954). This article
I.f. interference is easily identified since it
occurs on all channels—although sometimes the
intensity varies from channel to channel—and
the cross-hatch pattern it causes will rotate
when the receiver's fine-tuning control is varied.
When the interference is caused by aharmonic,
overloading, or cross modulation, the structure
of the interference pattern does not change ( its
intensity may change) as the fine-tuning control C•20Ayd.
OIL
is varied. L i.40 TURNS NO 30 THAM CLOSEHOUND,./..

High-Pass Filters Len TURNS NO 30 ( NAM CLOSEWOuND,V 01A.

In all of the above cases the interference can Fig. 23-30—Another type of high-pass filter for 300-
be eliminated if the fundamental signal strength ohm line. The coils may be wound on Mi- inch diameter
can be reduced to a level that the receiver can plastic knitting needles. Important: Do not use a direct
handle. To accomplish this with signals on ground on the chassis of a transformerless receiver.
bands below 30 Mc., the most satisfactory de- Ground through a 0.001-µf, mica capacitor.
vice is a high-pass filter having a cut-off fre-
quency between 30 and 54 Mc., installed at the also contains other information useful in coping
tuner input terminals of the receiver. Circuits with the TVI problems peculiar to 50- Mc. op-
lOmpt eration. As an alternative to such a filter, a

1
high- Q wave trap tuned to the transmitting
frequency may be used, suffering only the dis-
.... s ANT TERMINALS
ON TV RCVR. advantage that it is quite selective and therefore
will protect a receiver from overloading over
only a small range of transmitting frequencies
TO vi TER EACH COIL 8 TURNS NO. 14, in the 50-Mc. band. A trap of this type using
DIAMETER 54 .
,LENGTH 11.
PIPE GROUND
TAPPED AT CENTER.
(A) quarter-wave sections of Twin-Lead is shown
in Fig. 23-31. These " suck-out" traps, while
absorbing energy at the frequency to which they
are tuned, do not affect the receiver operation
otherwise. The assembly should be slid along
ANY TERMINALS
OM Tv RCvR.
the TV antenna lead-in until the most effective
75 OHM
COAX TO ANT
position is found, and then fastened securely in
place with Scotch Tape. An insulated tuning
EACH COIL 3 TURNS NO 14. tool should be used for adjustment of the trim-
(
8)
DIAMETER V.R TURNS PER INC.'
mer capacitor, since it is at a "hot" point and
Fig. 23-29— High-pass filters for installation at the TV will show considerable body-capacitance effect.
receiver antenna terminals. A—balanced filter for 300- High-pass filters are available commercially at
ohm line, B—for 75-ohm coaxial line. Important: Do moderate prices. In this connection, it should be
not use a direct ground on the chassis of a trans- understood by all parties concerned that while
formerless receiver. Ground through a 0.001-µf. mica an amateur is responsible for harmonic radia-
capacitor. tion from his transmitter, it is no part of his
Antenna Installation 571
Fig. 23- 31—Absorption- type
wave trap using sections of 300- 3-30ppt
ohm line tuned to have an elec-
trical length of 14 wavelength at
To
the transmitter frequency. Ap- Ant.
proximate physical lengths
(dimension A) are 40 inches for
To
50 Mc. and 11 inches for 144 Rcvr. Short
Mc., allowing for the loading Parallel open ends these ends
Put sections flat against
and connect to one
effect of the capacitance at the 300- ohm line from ant.
terminal of condenser.
open end. Two traps are used in and tape in place.
Same on other side,
parallel, one on each side of the
line to the receiver.

responsibility to pay for or install filters, wave true transmission-line ("push-pull") currents;
traps, etc. that may be required at the receiver that is, only signals picked up on the actual
to prevent interference caused by his funda- antenna would cause a receiver response. How-
mental frequency. The set owner should be ever, no receiver is perfect in this respect, and
advised to get in touch with the organization many TV receivers will respond strongly to
from which he purchased the receiver or which such parallel currents. The result is that the
services it, to make arrangements for proper signals from a nearby amateur transmitter are
installation. Proper installation usually requires much more intense at the first stage in the TV
that the filter be installed right at the input receiver than they would be if the receiver re-
terminals of the r.f. tuner of the TV set and sponse were confined entirely to energy picked
not merely at the external antenna terminals, up on the TV antenna alone. This situation can
which may be at a considerable distance from be improved by using shielded transmission line
the tuner. The question of cost is one to be —coax or, in the balanced form, " twinax"—
settled between the set owner and the organiza- for the receiving installation. For best results
tion with which he deals. • the line should terminate in a coax fitting on
Some of the larger manufacturers of TV re- the receiver chassis, but if this is not possible
ceivers have instituted arrangements for coop- the shield should be grounded to the chassis
erating with the set dealer in installing high- right at the antenna terminals.
pass filters at no cost to the receiver owner. The use of shielded transmission line for the
FCC- sponsored TVI Committees, now operat- receiver also will be helpful in reducing re-
ing in many cities, have all the information sponse to harmonics actually being radiated
necessary for effectuating such arrangements. from the transmitter or transmitting antenna.
To find out whether such a committee is func- In most receiving installations the transmission
tioning in your community, write to the FCC line is very much longer than the antenna itself,
field office having jurisdiction over your loca- and is consequently far more exposed to the
tion. A list of the field offices is contained in harmonic fields from the transmitter. Much of
The Radio Amateur's License Manual, pub- the harmonic pickup, therefore, is on the re-
lished by ARRL. ceiving transmission line when the transmitter
If the fundamental signal is getting into the and receiver are quite close together. Shielded
receiver by way of the line cord a line filter line, plus relocation of either the transmitting
such as that shown in Fig. 23-1 may help. To be or receiving antenna to take advantage of
most effective it should be installed inside the directive effects, often will result in reducing
receiver chassis at the point where the cord overloading, as well as harmonic pickup, to a
enters, making the ground connections directly level that does not interfere with reception.
to chassis at this point. It may not be so helpful
U.H.F. TELEVISION
if placed between the line plug and the wall
socket unless the r.f. is actually picked up on Harmonic TVI in the u.h.f. TV band is far
the house wiring rather than on the line cord less troublesome than in the v.h.f. band. Har-
itself. monics from transmitters operating below 30
Antenna Installation Mc. are of such high order that they would
Usually, the transmission line between the TV normally be expected to be quite weak; in addi-
receiver and the actual TV antenna will pick up tion, the components, circuit conditions and
a great deal more energy from a nearby trans- construction of low-frequency transmitters are
mitter than the television receiving antenna such as to tend to prevent very strong har-
itself. The currents induced on the TV trans- monics from being generated in this region.
mission line in this case are of the "parallel" However, this is not true of amateur v.h.f.
type, where the phase of the current is the same transmitters, particularly those working in the
in both conductors. The line simply acts like 144-Mc. and higher bands. Here the problem
two wires connected together to operate as one. is quite similar to that of the low v.h.f. TV
If the receiver's antenna input circuit were per- band with respect to transmitters operating be-
fectly balanced it would reject these "parallel" low 30 Mc.
or "unbalance" signals and respond only to the There is one highly favorable factor in u.h.f.
572 INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER SERVICES

TABLE 23-1

Harmonic Relationship—Amateur V.H.F. Bands and U.H.F. TV Channels

Amateur Fundamental Channel Amateur Fundamental Channel

Band Harmonic Freq. Range Affected Band Harmonic Freq. Range Affected

144 .Mc. 4th 144.0-144.5 31 220 Mc. 3rd 220-220.67 45

144.5-146.0 32 220.67-222.67 46
146.0-147.5 33 222.67-224.67 47
147.5-148.0 34 224.67-225 48
5th 144.0-144.4 55 4th 220-221 82
144.4-145.6 56 221-222.5 83
145.6-146.8 57 420 Mc. 2nd 420-421 75
146.8-148 58 421-424 76
6th 144-144.33 79 424-427 77
144.33-145.33 80 427-430 78
145.33-147.33 81 430-433 79
147.33-148 82 433-436 80

TV that does not exist in the most of the v.h.f. considerable interference to reception in the
TV band: If harmonics are radiated, it is possi- amateur bands. While measures to suppress
ble to move the transmitter frequency sufficiently radiation of this nature are required by FCC
(within the amateur band being used) to avoid in current receivers, many older sets have had
interfering with achannel that may be in use in no such treatment. The interference takes the
the locality. By restricting operation to aportion form of rather unstable, a.c.-modulated signals
of the amateur band that will not result in har- spaced at intervals of 15.75 kc.
monic interference, it is possible to avoid the Studies have shown that the radiation takes
necessity for taking extraordinary precautions to place principally in three ways, in order of their
prevent harmonic radiation. importance: ( 1) from the a.c. line, through
The frequency assignment for u.h.f. tele- stray coupling to the sweep circuits; (2) from
vision consists of seventy 6-megacycle channels the antenna system, through similar coupling;
(Nos. 14 to 83, inclusive) beginning at 470 Mc. (3) directly from the picture tube and sweep-
and ending at 890 Mc. The harmonics from circuit wiring. Line radiation often can be
amateur bands above 50 Mc. span the u.h.f. reduced by bypassing the a.c. line cord to the
channels as shown in Table 23-I. Since the chassis at the point of entry, although this is
assignment plan calls for aminimum separation not completely effective in all cases since the
of six channels between any two stations in one coupling may take place outside the chassis
locality, there is ample opportunity to choose a beyond the point where the bypassing is done.
fundamental frequency that will move a har- Radiation from the antenna is usually sup-
monic out of range of a local TV frequency. pressed by installing a high-pass filter on the
receiver. The direct radiation requires shielding
COLOR TELEVISION of high- potential leads and, in some receivers,
The color TV signal includes a subcarrier additional bypassing in the sweep circuit; in
spaced 3.58 megacycles from the regular picture severe cases, it may be necessary to line the
carrier ( or 4.83 Mc. from the low edge of the cabinet with screening or similar shielding ma-
channel) for transmitting the color information. terial.
Harmonics which fall in the color subcarrier Incidental radiation of this type from TV and
region can be expected to cause break-up of broadcast receivers, when of sufficient intensity
color in the received picture. This modifies the to cause serious interference to other radio
chart of Fig. 23-3 to introduce another " severe" services ( such as amateur), is covered by Part
region centering around 4.8 Mc. measured from 15 of the FCC rules. When such interference
the low-frequency edge of the channel. Hence is caused, the user of the receiver is obligated
with color television reception there is less oppor- to take steps to eliminate it. The owner of an
tunity to avoid harmonic interference by choice offending receiver should be advised to contact
of operating frequency. In other respects the the source from which the receiver was pur-
problem of eliminating interference is the same chased for appropriate modification of the re-
as with black-and- white television. ceiving installation. TV receiver dealers can
obtain the necessary information from the set
INTERFERENCE FROM TV RECEIVERS manufacturer.
The TV picture tube is swept horizontally by It is usually possible to reduce interference
the electron beam 15,750 times per second, using very considerably, without modifying the TV
awave shape that has very high harmonic con- receiver, simply by having agood amateur-band
tent. The harmonics are of appreciable ampli- receiving installation. The principles are the
tude even at frequencies as high as 30 Mc., and same as those used in reducing "hash" and
when radiated from the receiver can cause other noise — use a good antenna, such as the
Antenna Considerations 573
transmitting antenna, for reception; install it mitting antenna should be located as far as pos-
as far as possible from a.c. circuits; use agood sible from the receiving antenna. The chances of
feeder system such as aproperly balanced two- fundamental overload at the television receiver
wire line or coax with the outer conductor are reduced when a horizontal transmitting an-
grounded; use coax input to the receiver, with tenna or beam is mounted higher than the TV
a matching circuit if necessary; and check the antenna. Other things being equal, fundamental
receiver to make sure that it does not pick up overload is more likely to occur with a vertical
signals or noise with the antenna disconnected. transmitting antenna than with a horizontal one,
because the vertical antenna has a stronger field
TRANSMITTING ANTENNA at alow angle. If a ground- plane antenna can be
located well above the height of the TV receiv-
CONSIDERATIONS
ing antenna, there is less likelihood of fundamental
When a well- shielded transmitter is used in overload than when it is at the same height or be-
conjunction with an effective low-pass filter, and low the television antenna.
there is no incidental rectification in the area, it The s.w.r. on the line to the transmitting an-
is impossible to have "harmonic-type" TVI, re- tenna has no effect on TVI. However, when the
gardless of the type of transmitting antenna. How- line to the antenna passes near the TV antenna,
ever, the type of transmitting antenna in use can radiation from the line can be a source of TVI.
be responsible for "fundamental-overload" TVI. Methods for minimizing radiation from the line
To minimize the chances of TVI, the trans- are discussed in the chapter on transmission lines.
 Chapter 24

Operating a Station

The enjoyment of our hobby comes mostly hear stations engaged in communication on that
from the operation of our station once we have frequency, stand by until you are sure no inter-
finished its construction. Upon the station and ference will be caused by your operations, or
its operation depend the communication records shift to another frequency. No amateur or any
that are made. The standing of individuals as group of amateurs has any exclusive claim to any
amateurs and respect for the capabilities of the frequency in any band. We must work together,
whole institution of amateur radio depend to a each respecting the rights of others. Remember,
considerable extent on the practical communica- those other chaps can cause you as much inter-
tions established by amateurs, the aggregate of ference as you cause them, sometimes more!
all our station efforts. In this chapter we'll recount some fundamen-
An operator with a slow, steady, clean-cut tals of operating success, cover major procedures
method of sending has a big advantage over for successful general work and include proper
the poor operator. The technique of speaking in forms to use in message handling and other
connected thoughts and phrases is equally im- fields. Note also the sections on special activities,
portant for the voice operator. Good sending is awards and organization. These permit us all to
partly amatter of practice but patience and judg- develop through our organization more success
ment are just as important qualities of an opera- together than we could ever attain by separate
tor as agood "fist." uncoordinated efforts that overlook the precepts
Operating knowledge embracing standard pro- established through operating experience.
cedures, development of skill in employing c.w.
to expand the station range and operating effec- C.W. PROCEDURE
tiveness at minimum power levels and some net The best operators, both those using voice and
know-how are all essentials in achieving atrium- c.w., observe certain operating procedures re-
phant amateur experience with top station rec- garded as " standard practice."
ords, personal results, and demonstrations of 1) Calls. Calling stations may call efficiently
what our stations can do in practical communi- by transmitting the call signal of the station
cations. called three times, the letters DE, followed by
one's own station call sent three times. ( Short
OPERATING COURTESY AND
calls with frequent "breaks" to listen have proved
TOLERANCE
to be the best method.) Repeating the call of the
Normal operating interests in amateur radio station called four or five times and signing not
vary considerably. Some prefer to rag-chew, more than two or three times has proved excel-
others handle traffic, others work DX, others lent practice, thus: WOBY WOBY WOBY
concentrate on working certain areas, countries WOBY WfiBY DE W1AW W1AW W1AW
or states and still others get on for an occasional AR.
contact only to check a new transmitter or an- CQ. The general-inquiry call ( CQ) should be
tenna. sent not more than five times without interspers-
Interference is one of the things we amateurs ing one's station identification. The length of
have to live with. However, we can conduct our repeated calls is carefully limited in intelligent
operating in a way designed to alleviate it as amateur operating. ( CQ is not to be used when
much as possible. Before putting the transmitter testing or when the sender is not expecting or
on the air, listen on your own frequency. If you looking for an answer. Never send aCQ "blind."
Listen on the transmitting frequency first.)
The directional CQ: To avoid useless answers
and lessen QRM, every CQ call should be made
informative when possible. Respect, do not an-
swer, such calls not applicable to you.
Examples: A United States station looking
for any Hawaiian amateur calls: CQ KH6 CO
KH6 CQ KH6 DE W4IA W4IA W4IA K.
A Western station with traffic for the East
Coast when looking for an intermediate relay •
station calls: CQ EAST CQ EAST CQ EAST
DE W5IGW W5IGW W5IGW K. A station
with messages for points in Massachusetts
calls: CQ MASS CQ MASS CQ MASS DE
W7CZY W7CZY W7CZY K.

574
C.W. Procedure 575
Hams who do not raise stations readily may "all after." When a few words at the beginning
find that their sending is poor, their calls ill- of a transmission are lost, ? AB for " all before"
timed or their judgment in error. When condi- a stated word should be used. The quickest way
tions are right to bring in signals from the desired to ask for afill in the middle of atransmission is
locality, you can call them. Short calls, at to send the last word received correctly, aques-
about the same frequency, with breaks to listen, tion mark, then the next word received correctly.
will raise stations with minimum time and trouble. Another way is to send "? BN [ word] and
2) Answering a Call: Call three times ( or [word]."
less) ; send DE; sign three times ( or less) ; after Do not send words twice ( QSZ) unless it is
contact is established decrease the use of the call requested. Send single. Do not fall into the bad
signals of both stations to once or twice. When a habit of sending double without a request from
station receives a call but does not receive the fellows you work. Don't say "QRM" or " QRN"
call letters of the station calling, QRZ? may be when you mean "QRS." Don't CQ unless there
used. It means " By whom am I being called?" is definite reason for so doing. When sending
QRZ should not be used in place of CQ. CQ, use judgment.
3) Ending Signals and Sign- Off: The proper
General Practices
use of AR, K, KN, SK and CL ending signals is
as follows : When astation has receiving trouble, the oper-
ator asks the transmitting station to " QSV."
AR—End of transmission. Recommended
The letter " R" is often used in place of adecimal
after call to a specific station before contact has
point ( e.g., "3R5 Mc.") or the colon in time
been established.
designation ( e.g., "2R30 PM"). A long dash is
Example: W6ABC W6ABC W6ABC sometimes sent for " zero."
W6ABC W6ABC DE W9LMN W9LMN AR. The law concerning superfluous signals should
Also at the end of transmission of a radio- be noted. If you must test, disconnect the antenna
gram, immediately following the signature,
preceding identification. system and use an equivalent "dummy" antenna.
Send your call frequently when operating. Pick
K—Go ahead ( any station). Recommended after a time for adjusting the station apparatus when
CQ and at the end of each transmission dur- few stations will be bothered.
ing QS° when there is no objection to others The up-to-date amateur station uses "break-
breaking in. in." For best results send at a medium speed.
Example: CQ CQ CQ DE W1ABC WIABC Send evenly with proper spacing. The standard-
K or W9XYZ DE W1ABC K.
type telegraph key is best for all-round use.
KN—Go ahead ( specific station), all others Regular daily practice periods, two or three
keep out. Recommended at the end of each periods aday, are best to acquire real familiarity
transmission during aQS0, or after acall, when and proficiency with code.
calls from other stations are not desired and will No excuse can be made for "garbled" copy.
not be answered. Operators should copy what is sent and refuse to
acknowledge a whole transmission until every
Example: W4FGH DE EL4A KN.
word has been received correctly. Good operators
SK—End of QS0. Recommended before sign- do not guess. "Swing" in afist is not the mark of
ing last transmission at end of aQS0. a good operator. Unusual words are sent twice,
Example: SK W8LMN DE W5BCD. the word repeated following the transmission of
"?". If not sure, a good operator systematically
CL—Iam closing station. Recommended when
asks for a fill or repeat. Sign your call fre-
a station is going off the air, to indicate that it
quently, interspersed with calls, and at the end of
will not listen for any further calls.
all transmissions.
Example: .... SK W7HIJ DE W2JKL
CL. On Good Sending
4) Testing. When it is necessary for astation Assuming that an operator has learned sending
to make test signals they must not continue for properly, and comes up with a precision " fist"
more than 10 seconds and must be composed of a — not fast, but clean, steady, making well-
series of VVV followed by the call sign of the formed rhythmical characters and spacing beau-
station emitting the test signals. Always listen tiful to listen to — he then becomes subject to
first to find a clear spot if possible, to avoid outside pressures to his own possible detriment
causing unwarranted QRM of aQS0 in progress. in everyday operating. He will want to " speed it
5) Receipting for conversation or traffic: up" because the operator at the other end is
Never receipt for atransmission until it has been going faster, and so he begins, unconsciously, to
entirely received. " R" means "transmission re- run his words together or develops a "swing."
ceived as sent." Use R only when all is received Perhaps one of the easiest ways to get into
correctly. bad habits is to do too much playing around
6) Repeats. When most of a transmission is with special keys. Too many operators spend
lost, a call should be followed by correct abbre- only enough time with a straight key to acquire
viations to ask for repeats. When afew words on "passable" sending, then subject their newly-
the end of a transmission are lost, the last word developed " fists" to the entirely different move-
received correctly is given after ?AA, meaning ments of bugs, side-swipers, electronic keys, or
576 OPERATING A STATION
what-have-you. All too often, this results in the
ruination of what might have become avery good
Voice-Operating Hints
"fist."
1) Listen before calling.
Think about your sending a little. Are you
2) Make short calls with breaks to listen. Avoid
satisfied with it? You should not be—ever. long CQs; do not answer over-long CQs.
Nobody's sending is perfect, and therefore every 3) Use push-to-talk or voice control. Give essen-
operator should continually strive for improve- tial data concisely in first transmission.
4) Make reports honest. Use definitions of
ment. Do you ever run letters together — like Q strength and readability for reference. Make your
for MA, or P for AN — especially when you are reports informative and useful. Honest reports
in a hurry? Practically everybody does at one and full word description of signals save amateur
operators from FCC trouble.
time or another. Do you have a " swing"? Any
5) Limit transmission length. Two minutes or
recognizable " swing" is a deviation from per- less will convey much information. When three or
fection. Strive to send like tape sending; copy a more stations converse in round tables, brevity is
W1AW Bulletin and try to send it with the same essential.
6) Display sportsmanship and courtesy. Bands
spacing using a local oscillator on a subsequent are congested ... make transmissions meaningful
transmission. . . . give others a break.
Check your spacing in characters, between 7) Check transmitter adjustment . . . avoid
a.m. overmodulation and splatter. On e.s.b. check
characters and between words occasionally by carrier balance carefully. Do not radiate when
making arecording of your fist on an inked tape moving v.f.o. frequency or checking n.f.m. swing.
recorder. This will show up your faults as noth- Use receiver b.f.o. to check stability of signal.
ing else will. Practice the correction of faults. Complete testing before busy hours!

USING A BREAK-IN SYSTEM

Break-in avoids unnecessarily long calls, pre- In voice work, however, abbreviations are not
vents QRM, gives more communication per hour necessary, and should have less importance in our
of operating. Brief calls with frequent short operating procedure.
pauses for reply can approach ( but not equal) The letter " K" has been agreed to in tele-
break-in efficiency. graphic practice so that the operator will not
A separate receiving antenna facilitates break- have to pound out the separate letters that spell
in operation. It is only necessary with break-in the words "go ahead.". The voice operator can
to pause just a moment with the key up ( or to say the words "go ahead" or "over," or "come
cut the carrier momentarily and pause in aphone in please."
conversation) to listen for the other station. The One laughs on c.w. by spelling out HI. On
cl:ck when the carrier is cut off is as effective as phone use alaugh when one is called for. Be nat-
the word "break." ural as you would with your family and friends.
C.w. telegraphy break-in is usually simple to The matter of reporting readability and
arrange. With break-in, ideas and messages to be strength is as important to phone operators as
transmitted can be pulled right through the holes to those using code. With telegraph nomen-
in the QRM. Snappy, efficient amateur work clature, it is necessary to spell out words to de-
with break-in usually requires a separate receiv- scribe signals or use abbreviated signal reports.
ing antenna and arrangement of the transmitter But on voice, we have the ability to "say it with
and receiver to eliminate the necessity for throw- words." " Readability four, Strength eight" is
ing switches between transmissions. the best way to give aquantitative report. Report-
In calling, the transmitting operator sends the ing can be done so much more meaningfully with
letters " BK" at intervals during his call so that ordinary words: " You are weak but you are in
stations hearing the call may know that break-in the clear and Ican understand you, so go ahead,"
is in use and take advantage of the fact. He or " Your signal is strong but you buried under
pauses at intervals during his call, to listen for a local interference." Why not say it with words?
moment for a reply. If the station being called
does not answer, the call can be continued. Voice Equivalents to Code Procedure
With atap of the key, the man on the receiv- Voice Code Meaning
ing end can interrupt ( if a word is missed). Go ahead; over K Self-explanatory
The other operator is constantly monitoring, Wait; stand by AS Self-explanatory
awaiting just such directions. It is not necessary Received Receipt for acorrectly.
that you have perfect facilities to take advantage transcribed message or
for " solid" transmis-
of break-in when the stations you work are sion with no missing
break- in-equipped. After an invitation to break portions
is given ( and at each pause) press your key—and
contact can start immediately. Phone-Operating Practice
Efficient voice communication, like good c.w.
VOICE OPERATING
communication, demands good operating. Ad-
The use of proper procedure to get best results herence to certain points "on getting results"
is just as important as in using code. In telegra- will go along way toward improving our phone-
phy words must be spelled out letter by letter. band operating conditions.
It is therfore but natural that abbreviations and Use push- to- talk technique. Where possible ar-
shortcuts should have come into widespread use. range on-off switches, controls or voice-con-
Voice Operating 577
trolled break-in for fast back-and-forth ex- received everything O.K. Don't try to prove it.
changes. This will help reduce the length of Use phonetics only as required. When clarify-
transmissions and keep brother amateurs from ing genuinely doubtful expessions and in getting
calling you a " monologuist" — a guy who likes your call identified positively we suggest use of
to hear himself talk! the ARRL Phonetic List or the International
Listen with care. Keep noise and "back- Civil Aviation Organization list. The ARRL list
grounds" out of your operating room to facilitate was designed for amateur use (no confusion be-
good listening. It is natural to answer the strong- tween phonetics and station location). Whichever
est signal, but take time to listen and give some you learn, don't overdo its use.
consideration to the best signals, regardless of The speed of radiotelephone transmission
strength. Every amateur cannot run a kilowatt, (with perfect accuracy) depends almost entirely
but there is no reason why every amateur cannot upon the skill of the two operators involved. One
have asignal of good quality, and utilize uniform must learn to speak at a rate allowing perfect
operating practices to aid in the understanda- understanding as well as permitting the re-
bility and ease of his own communications. ceiving operator to copy down the message text,
Interpose your call regularly and at frequent if that is necessary. Because of the similarity of
intervals. Three short calls are better than one many English speech sounds, the use of word lists
long one. In calling CQ, one's call should cer- hak been found necessary. All voice-operated sta-
tainly appear at least once for every five or six tions should use a standard list as needed to
CQs. Calls with frequent breaks to listen will identify call signals or unfamiliar expressions.
save time and be most productive of results. In
WORD LISTS FOR VOICE WORK
identifying, always transmit your own call last.
Don't say "This is W1ABC standing by for ARRL ICAO ARRL ICAO
A —ADAM ALFA N —NANCY NOVEMBER
W2DEF"; say " W2DEF, this is W1ABC, over."
B — RAKER BRAVO 0 —OTTO OSCAR
FCC regulations show the call of the transmit- C —CHARLIE CHARLIE P —PETER PAPA
ting station sent last. D —DAVID DELTA Q —QUEEN QUEBEC
Include country prefix before call. It is not cor- E —EDWARD ECHO R —ROBERT ROMEO
F —FRANK FOXTROT S —SUSAN SIERRA
rect to say "9RRX, this is 1BDI." Correct G— GEORGE GOLF T —THOMAS TANGO
and legal use is "W9RRX, this is W1BDI." FCC H —HENRY HOTEL II—UNION UNIFORM
regulations require proper use of calls; you may I —IDA INDIA V —VICTOR VICTOR
.1 —JOHN JULIETT W —WILLIAM WHISKEY
be cited for failure to comply. K —KING KILO X —X-RAY X-RAY
Monitor your own frequency. This helps in L —LEWIS LIMA Y —YOUNG YA NK EE
timing calls and transmissions. Transmit when M —MARY MIKE Z —ZEBRA ZULU
there is a chance of being copied successfully— Example: W1AW . . . W 1 ADAM WILLIAM .. .
not when you are merely "more QRM." Timing W1AW

transmissions is an art to cultivate.

Keep modulation constant. By turning the gain Round Tables. The round table has many ad-
"wide open" you are subjecting anyone listening vantages if run properly. It clears frequencies of
to the diversion of whatever noises are present interference, especially if all stations involved
in or near your operating room, to say nothing of are on the same frequency, while the enjoyment
the possibility of feedback, echo due to poor value remains the same, if not greater. By use of
acoustics, and modulation excesses due to sud- push-to-talk, the conversation can be kept lively
den loud noises. Speak near the microphone, and and interesting, giving each station operator am-
don't let your gaze wander all over the station ple opportunity to participate without waiting
causing sharply-varying input to your speech overlong for his turn.
amplifier; at the same time, keep far enough Round tables can become very unpopular if
from the microphone so your signal is not modu- they are not conducted properly. The monologu-
lated by your breathing. Change distance or gain ist, off on a long spiel about nothing in par-
only as necessary to insure uniform transmitter ticular, cannot be interrupted; make your trans-
performance without splatter or distortion. missions short and to the point. "Butting in" is
Make connected thoughts and phrases. Don't discourteous and unsportsmanlike; don't enter a
mix disconnected subjects. Ask questions con- round table, or any contact between two other
sistently. Pause and get answers. amateurs, unless you are invited. It is bad enough
Have a pad of paper handy. It is convenient trying to copy through prevailing interference
and desirable to jot down questions as they come, without the added difficulty of poor voice qual-
in order not to miss any. It will help you to make ity; check your transmitter adjustments fre-
intelligent to-the-point replies. quently. In general, follow the precepts as here-
Steer clear of inanities and soap-opera stuff. inbefore outlined for the most enjoyment in
Our amateur radio and personal reputation as round tables as well as any other form of radio-
serious communications workers depend on us. telephone communication.
Avoid repetition. Don't repeat back what the
other fellow has just said. Too often we hear: WORKING DX
"Okay on your new antenna there, okay on the Most amateurs at one time or another make
trouble you're having with your receiver, okay "working DX" a major aim. As in every other
on the company who just came in with some phase of amateur work, there are right and
ice cream and cake, okay... [ etc.]." Just say you wrong ways to go about getting best results in
578 OPERATING A STATION
working foreign stations, and it is the intention ada do not use this call, but answer such calls
of this section to outline afew of them. made by foreign stations.)
The ham who has trouble raising DX stations c) CQ DX used on 3.5 Mc. under winter-night
readily may find that poor transmitter efficiency conditions may be used in this same manner. At
is not the reason. He may find that his sending is other times, under average 3.5- Mc, propagation
poor, or his calls ill-timed, or his judgment in conditions, the call may be used in domestic
error. When conditions are right to bring in the work when looking for new states or countries
DX, and the receiver sensitive enough to bring in one's own continent, usually applying to sta-
in several stations from the desired locality, the tions located over 1000 miles distant from you.
way to work DX is to use the appropriate fre- The way to work DX is not to use a CQ call
quency and timing and call these stations, as at all ( in our continent). Instead, use your best
against the common practice of calling "CQ tuning skill — and listen — and listen — and
DX." listen. You have to hear them before you can
The call CQ DX means slightly different work them. Hear the desired stations first; time
things to amateurs in different bands: your calls well. Use your utmost skill. A sensi-
a) On v.h.f., CQ DX is a general call ordi- tive receiver is often more important than the
narily used only when the band is open, under power input in working foreign stations. If you
favorable "skip" conditions. For v.h.f. work, such can hear stations in aparticular country or area,
a call is used for looking for new states and chances are that you will be able to work some-
countries, also for distances beyond the custom- one there.
ary "line-of- sight" range on most v.h.f. bands.
b) CQ DX on our 7-, 14-, 21- and 28- Mc.
bands may be taken to mean "General call to any
foreign station." The term "foreign station" usu-
ally refers to any station in a foreign continent.
(Experienced amateurs in the U. S. A. and Can-

DX OPERATING CODE
A LOT OF 5N0001k16 *
(For W/VE Amateurs)

Some amateurs interested in DX work have One of the most effective ways to work DX is
caused considerable confusion and ORM in their to know the operating habits of the DX stations
efforts to work DX stations. The points below, if
observed by all W/VE amateurs, will go a long
sought. Doing too much transmitting on the DX
way toward making DX more enjoyable for every- bands is not the way to do this. Again, listening
body. is effective. Once you know the operating habits
1. Call DX only after he calls CQ, QRZ?, signs of the DX station you are after you will know
SK, or phone equivalents thereof when and where to call, and when to remain
2. Do not call aDX station:
a. On the frequency of the station he is
silent waiting your chance.
working until you are sure the QS0 is Some DX stations indicate where they will
over. This is indicated by the ending sig- tune for replies by use of " 10U" or " 15D." ( See
nal SK on c.w. and any indication that point 4 of the DX Operating Code.) In voice
the operator is listening, on phone
work the overseas operator may say "listening
b. Because you hear someone else calling
him on 14,225 kc." or "tuning upward from 28,500
c. When he signs KN, AR, CL, or phone kc." Many a DX station will not reply to acall
equivalents on his exact frequency.
d. Exactly on his frequency ARRL has recommended some operating pro-
e. After he calls a directional CQ, unless of
course you are in the right direction or cedures to DX stations aimed at controlling some
area. of the thoughtless operating practices sometimes
3. Keep within frequency-band limits. Some DX used by W/VE amateurs. A copy of these recom-
stations operate outside. Perhaps they can get
mendations ( Operating Aid No. 5) can be ob-
away with it, but you cannot
4. Observe calling instructions of DX stations. tained free of charge from ARRL Headquarters.
"10U" means call ten kc. up from his frequency, In any band, particularly at line-of- sight fre-
"15D" means 15 kc. down, etc.
quencies, when directional antennas are used,
5. Give honest reports. Many foreign stations
depend on W and VE reports for adjustment of the directional CQ such as CQ W5, CQ north,
station and equipment etc., is the preferable type of call. Mature ama-
6. Keep your signal clean. Key clicks, chirps, teurs agree that CQ DX is awishful rather than
hum or splatter give you abad reputation and may
get you a citation from FCC.
a practical type of call for most stations in the
7. Listen for and call the station you want. Call- North Americas looking for foreign contacts.
ing CQ DX is not the best assurance that the rare Ordinarily, it is acause of unnecessary QRM.
DX will reply.
Conditions in the transmission medium often
8. When there are several W or VE stations
waiting to work a DX station, avoid asking him make it possible for the signals from low-
to "listen for a friend." Let your friend take his powered transmitters to be received at great dis-
chances with the rest. Also avoid engaging DX sta- tances. In general, the higher the frequency band
tions in rag-chews against their wishes.
the less important power considerations become,
for occasional DX work. This accounts in part
Message Handling 579
me*
?t71 "reMDT
•
orwcw

•
11-16-53
1815 WOTQD x 3.65 589 569X 3.5 Al 250 ._1843 Tfc— reed 6, sent 10
1920 CQ X 7
1921 X Ve4TW1 7.16 369 579 tt if 19 32 Vy heavy ORM on me
21 25 W8UKS X 3.83 59 47 .3.9 A3 1002205 Sam
11-18-53
0705 VK4EL X 14.03 14 Al 250 Answered a W6
0709 ZL2ACV X 14.07 339 559X « . 0720
0721 X KA2KW 14.07 469X 349 . . 0733 First KA
0736 CQ X „ „
0737 X W6TH 14.01 589 589C • 0812

KEEP AN ACCURATE AND COMPLETE STATION LOG AT ALL TIMES. F.C.C. REQUIRES IT.
A page from the official ARRL log is shown above, answering every Government requirement in respect to sta-
tion records. Bound logs made up in accord with the above form can be obtained from Headquarters for a nominal
sum or you can prepare your own, in which case we offer this form as a suggestion. The ARRL log has a special
wire binding and lies perfectly flat on the table.

for the relative popularity of the 14 -,21 - and two-way contacts resulted or not), ( 3) the input
28- Mc, bands amoung amateurs who like to work power to the last stage of the transmitter, ( 4)
DX. the frequency band used, ( 5) the time of ending
each QSO and the operator's identifying signa-
KEEPING AN AMATEUR STATION LOG ture for responsibility for each session of operat-
The FCC requires every amateur to keep a ing. Messages may be witten in the log or sepa-
complete station operating record. It may also rate records kept—but record must be retained
contain records of experimental tests and ajust- for one year as required by the FCC. For the
ment data. A stenographer's notebook can be convenience of amateur station operators ARRL
ruled with vertical lines in any form to suit the stocks both logbooks and message blanks, and if
user. The Federal Communications Commission one uses the official log he is sure to comply fully
requirements are that a log be maintained that with the Government requirements if the pre-
shows ( 1) the date and time of each transmission, cautions and suggestions included in the log are
(2) all calls and transmissions made ( whether followed.

MESSAGE HANDLING
Amateur operators in the United States and the same frequency to effect wider coverage in
afew other countries enjoy aprivilege not avail- less time with fewer relays; but the old methods
able to amateurs in most countries—that of are still available to the amateur who handles
handling third- party message traffic. In the early only an occasional message.
history of amateur radio in this country, some Although message handling is as old an art as
amateurs who were among the first to take ad- is amateur radio itself, there are many amateurs
vantage of this privilege formed an extensive who do not know how to handle a message and
relay organization which became known as the have never done so. As each amateur grows
American Radio Relay League. older and gains experience in the amateur serv-
Thus, amateur message-handling has had a ice, there is bound to come a time when he will
long and honorable history and, like most serv- be called upon to handle a written message,
ices, has gone through many periods of develop- during a communications emergency, in casual
ment and change. Those amateurs who handled contact with one of his many acquaintances on
traffic in 1914 would hardly recognize it the way the air, or as a result of a request from a non-
some of us do it today, just as equipment in those amateur friend. Regardless of the occasion, if it
days was far different from that in use now. comes to you, you will want to rise to it! Con-
Progress has been made and new methods have siderable embarrassment is likely to be experi-
been developed in step with advancement in com- enced by the amateur who finds he not only does
munication techniques of all kinds. Amateurs not know the form in which the message should
who handled alot of traffic found that organized be prepared, but does not know what to do with
operating schedules were more effective than his station.
random relays, and as techniques advanced and Traffic work need not be a complicated or
messages increased in number, trunk lines were time-consuming activity for the casual or occa-
organized, spot frequencies began to be used, sional message-handler. Amateurs may partici-
and there came into existence a number of pate in traffic work to whatever extent they wish,
traffic nets in which many stations operated on from an occasional message now and then to be-
580 OPERATING A STATION
coming apart of organized traffic systems. This year to year, have been at the request of amateurs
chapter explains some principles so the reader participating in this activity, and they are com-
may know where to find out more about the sub- pletely outlined and explained in Operating an
ject and may exercise the message- handling priv- Amateur Radio Station, acopy of which is avail-
ilege to best effect as the spirit and opportunity able upon request or by use of the coupon at the
arise. end of this chapter.
Responsibility
Amateurs who originate messages for trans- Clearing aMessage
mission or who receive messages for relay or de- The best way to clear a message is to put it
livery should first consider that in doing so they into one of the many organized traffic networks,
are accepting the responsibility of clearing the or to give it to a station who can do so. There
message from their station on its way to its des- are many amateurs who make the handling of
tination in the shortest possible time. Forty- traffic their principal operating activity, and
eight hours after filing or receipt is the generally- many more still who participate in this activity
accepted rule among traffic-handling amateurs, to agreater or lesser extent. The result is asys-
but it is obvious that if every amateur who re- tem of traffic nets which spreads to all corners of
layed the message allowed it to remain in his sta- the United States and covers most U. S. posses-
tion this long it might be a long time reaching sions and Canada. Once a message gets into one
its destination. Traffic should be relayed or de- of these nets, regardless of the net's size or cov-
livered as quickly as possible. erage, it is systematically routed toward its des-
tination in the shortest possible time.
Message Form Amateurs not experienced in message handling
Once this responsibility is realized and ac- should depend on the experienced message- han-
cepted, handling the message becomes a matter dler to get amessage through, if it is important;
of following generally-accepted standards of but the average amateur can enjoy operating
form and transmission. For this purpose, each with a message to be handled either through a
message is divided into four parts: the preamble, local traffic net or by free-lancing. The latter may
the address, the text and the signature. Some of be accomplished by careful listening for an ama-
these parts themselves are subdivided. It is nec- teur station at desired points, directional CQs,
essary in preparing the message for transmission use of the National Calling and Emergency fre-
and in actually transmitting it to know not only quencies, or by making and keeping a schedule
what each part is and what it is for, but to know with another amateur for regular work between
in what order it should be transmitted, and to specified points. He may well aim at learning and
know the various procedure signals used with it enjoying through doing. The joy and accomplish-
when sent by c.w. If you are going to send a ment in thus developing one's operating skill to
message, you may as well send it right. top perfection has areward all its own.
Standardization is important! There is agreat If you decide to "take the bull by the horns"
deal of room for expressing originality and indi- and put the message into a traffic net yourself
viduality in amateur radio, but there are also (and more power to you if you do!), you will
times and places where such expression can only need to know something about how traffic nets
cause confusion and inefficiency. Recognizing operate, and the special Q signals and procedure
the need for standardization in message form they use to dispatch all traffic with a maximum
and message transmitting procedures, ARRL of efficiency. The frequency and operating time of
has long since recommended such standards, and the net in your section, or of other nets into which
most traffic- interested amateurs have followed your message can go, is given in ARRL's Net
them. In general, these recommendations, and Directory. This annually revised lithograph is
the various changes they have undergone from available on request. Listening for a few min-
utes at the time and frequency indicated should
THE Mil-RI -
CAM- EiM516 kÉLAY tEACAIE:
acquaint you with enough fundamentals to enable
RADIOGRAM you to report into the net and indicate your traf-
fic. From that time on you follow the instruc-
its suck ciur APR 18
tions of the net control station, who will tell you
BROOM JESESEN
29 VEST MULBERRY ST
CANTON OHIO
when and to whom ( and on what frequency, if
different from the net frequency) to send your
PLEASE LOT US ENO. YOUR PLANS POI SUMMER VISIT STOP LOU
message. Since most nets use the special " QN"
signals, it is usually very helpful to have a list
RITA
of these before you ( list available from ARRL
Hq., Operating Aid No. 9).

HIC D POSTIANO ORE Network Operation

Sr, 72s7LN LEY

About this time, you may find that you are en-
joying this type of operating activity and want to
Here is an example of a plain- language message in know more about it and increase your profi-
correct ARRL form. The preamble is always sent as ciency. Many amateurs are happily "addicted"
shown: number, station of origin, check, place of origin, to traffic handling after only one or two brief
time filed, date. exposures to it. Much traffic is at present being
Emergency Communication 581
conducted by c.w., since this mode of communi- message traffic is handled on established nets.
cation seems to be popular for record purposes— Much traffic is also handled on phone. This
but this does not mean that high code speed is a mode is exceptionally well suited to short-range
necessary prerequisite to working in traffic net- traffic work and requires knowledge of phonetics
works. There are many nets organized specifi- and procedure peculiar to voice operation. Pro-
cally for the slow- speed amateur, and most of the cedure is of paramount importance on phone,
so-called "fast" nets are usually glad to slow since the public may be listening. The major
down to accommodate slower operators, es- problem, of course, is QRM.
pecially those nets at state or section level. Teamwork is the theme of net operation. The
It is a significant operating fact that code net which functions most efficiently is the net
speed or word speed alone does not make for in which all participants are thoroughly familiar
efficiency—sometimes the contrary! A high- with the procedure used, and in which operators
speed operator who does not know procedure refrain from transmitting except at the direction
can "foul up" a net much more completely of the net control station, and do not occupy time
and more quickly than can a slow operator. with extraneous comments, even the exchange
It is a proven fact that a bunch of high-speed of pleasantries. There is a time and place for
operators who are not " savvy" in net operation everything. When anet is in session it should con-
cannot accomplish as much during a specified centrate on handling traffic until all traffic is
period as an equal number of slow operators who cleared. Before or after the net is the time for
know net procedure. Don't let low code speed rag-chewing and discussion. Some details of net
deter you from getting into traffic work. Given operation are included in Operating an Amateur
a little time, your speed will reach the point Radio Station, mentioned earlier, but the whole
where you can easily hold your own. Concentrate story cannot be told. There is no substitute for
first on learning the net procedures, for most actual participation.

PUBLIC SERVICE
Amateurs interested in rendering public serv- can flow both ways so that traffic originated on
ice are "closing ranks" in the Amateur Radio the West Coast reaches the East Coast with a
Public Service Corps ( ARPSC), a combina- maximum of dispatch, and vice versa. In general
tion of the Amateur Radio Emergency Corps local section nets function at 1900, region nets
(AREC) and the National Traffic System at 1945, area nets at 2030 and the same or
(NTS). The AREC continues as heretofore ( be- different regional personnel again at 2130. Some
low) but with more emphasis on record traffic section nets conduct a late session at 2200 to
handling, increased frequency and regularity of effect traffic delivery the same night. Local
drills, and liaison with long-haul facilities of the standard time is referred to in each case.
NTS. NTS also continues to operate as before The NTS plan somewhat spreads traffic oppor-
(see below), but with more emphasis on emer- tunity so that casual traffic may be reported into
gency procedures, and creation and utilization nets for efficient handling one or two nights per
of local NTS nets. week, early or late; or the ardent traffic man can
operate in both early and late groups and in be-
The National Traffic System tween to roll up impressive totals and speed traf-
To facilitate and speed the movement of mes- fic reliably to its destination. Old-time traffic
sage traffic, there is in existence an integrated men who prefer a high degree of organization
national system by means of which originated and teamwork have returned to the traffic game
traffic can normally reach its destination area the as a result of the new system. Beginners have
same day the message is originated. This system shown more interest in becoming part of a sys-
uses the local section net as abasis. Each section tem nationwide in scope, in which anyone can
net sends a representative to a " region" participate. The National Traffic System has
net ( normally covering a call area) and each vast and intriguing possibilities as an amateur
"region" net sends a representative to an service. It is open to any amateur who wishes to
"area" net ( normally covering a time zone). participate.
After the area net has cleared all its traffic, its The above is but the briefest résumé of what is
members then go back to their respective re- of necessity arather complicated arrangement of
gion nets, where they clear traffic to the vari- nets and schedules. Complete details of the Sys-
ous section net representatives. By means of con- tem and its operation are available to anyone
necting schedules between the area nets, traffic interested. Just drop a line to ARRL.

EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
One of the most important ways in which the gencies. Every amateur, regardless of the extent
amateur serves the public, thus making his ex- of his normal operating activities, should give
istence anational asset, is by his preparation for some thought to the possibility of his being the
and his participation in communications emer- only means of communication should his corn-
582 OPERATING A STATION
munity be cut off from the outside world. It has favor of the business at hand. There is only one
happened many times, often in the most unlikely way to gain experience in this type of operation,
places; it has happened without warning, find- and that is by practice. During an emergency is
ing some amateurs totally unprepared; it can no time for practice; it should be done before-
happen to you. Are you ready ? hand, as often as possible, on a regular basis.
There are two principal ways in which any This leads up to the necessity for emergency
amateur can prepare himself for such an even- organization and preparedness. ARRL has long
tuality. One is to provide himself with equip- recognized this necessity and has provided for it.
ment capable of operating on any type of The Section Communications Manager ( whose
emergency power ( i.e., either a.c. or d.c.), and address appears on page 6 of every issue of
equipment which can readily be transported to QST) is empowered to appoint certain qualified
the scene of disaster. Mobile equipment is espe- amateurs in his section for the purpose of co-
cially desirable in most emergency situations. ordinating emergency communication organiza-
Such equipment, regardless of how elaborate tion and preparedness in specified areas or com-
or how modern, is of little use, however, if it munities. This appointee is known as an Emer-
is not used properly and at the right times; and gency Coordinator for the city or town. One is
so another way for an amateur to prepare him- specified for each community. For coordination
self for emergencies, by no means less important and promotion at section level a Section Emer-
than the first, is to /earn to operate efficiently. gency Coordinator arranges for and recommends
There are many amateurs who feel that they the appointments of various Emergency Coordi-
know how to operate efficiently but who find nators at activity points throughout the section.
themselves considerably handicapped at the cru- Emergency Coordinators organize amateurs in
cial time by not knowing proper procedure, by their communities according to local needs for
being unable, due to years of casual amateur emergency communication facilities.
operation, to adapt themselves to snappy, abbre- The community amateurs taking part in the
viated transmissions, and by being unfamiliar local organization are members of the Amateur
with message form and procedures. It is dan- Radio Emergency Corps ( AREC). All ama-
gerous to overrate your ability in this; it is bet- teurs are invited to register in the AREC,
ter to assume you have things to learn. whether they are able to play an active part in
In general it can be said that there is more their local organization or only a supporting
emergency equipment available than there are role. Application blanks are available from your
operators who know properly how to operate EC, SEC, SCM or direct from ARRL Head-
during emergency conditions, for such condi- quarters. In the event that inquiry reveals no
tions require clipped, terse procedure with com- Emergency Coordinator appointed for your com-
plete break-in on c.w. and fast push-to-talk on munity, your SCM would welcome a recom-
phone. The casual rag-chewing aspect of ama- mendation either from yourself or from a radio
teur radio, however enjoyable and worth- while club of which you are a member. By holding an
in its place, must be forgotten at such times in amateur operator license, you have the respon-

Before Emergency
PREPARE yourself by providing a transmitter- receiver setup together with an emergency power source
upon which you can depend.
TEST both the dependability of your emergency equipment and your own operating ability in the annual
ARRL Simulated Emergency Test and the several annual on-the-air contests, especially Field Day.
REGISTER your facilities and your availability with your local ARRL Emergency Coordinator. If your
community has no EC, contact your local civic and relief agencies and explain to them what the Amateur
Service offers the community in time of disaster.

In Emergency
LISTEN before you transmit. Never violate this principle.
REPORT at once to your Emergency Coordinator so that he will have up-to-the-minute data on the facilities
available to him. Work with local civic and relief agencies as the EC suggests, offer these agencies your services
directly in the absence of an EC.
RESTRICT all on-the-air work in accordance with FCC regulations, Sec. 12.156, whenever FCC " declares"
a state of communications emergency.
QRRR is the official ARRL "land SOS," a distress call for emergency only. It is for use only by a station
seeking assistance.
RESPECT the fact that the success of the amateur effort in emergency depends largely on circuit discipline.
The established Net Control Station should be the supreme authority for priority and traffic routing.
COOPERATE with those we serve. Be ready to help, but stay off the air unless there is a specific job to be
done that you can handle more efficiently than any other station.
COPY all bulletins from W1AW. During time of emergency special bulletins will keep you posted on the
latest developments.

After Emergency
REPORT to ARRL Headquarters as soon as possible and as fully as possible so that the Amateur Service
can receive full credit. Amateur Radio has won glowing public tribute in many major disasters since 1919.
Maintain this record.
 nrbl
HRRL
583
sibility to your community and to amateur radio (and in some cases building) the necessary
to uphold the traditions of the service. equipment, but also of the training of thousands
Among the League's publications is a booklet of additional people. This can and should be a
entitled Emergency Communications. This function of the local unit of the Amateur Radio
booklet, while small in size, contains awealth of Emergency Corps under its EC and his assist-
information on AREC organization and func- ants, working in close collaboration with the lo-
tions and is invaluable to any amateur participat- cal civil defense organization.
ing in emergency or civil defense work. It is free The first step in organizing RACES locally is
to AREC members and should be in every ama- the appointment of a Radio Officer by the local
teur's shack. Drop a line to the ARRL Com- civil defense director, possibly on the recommen-
munications Department if you want a copy, or dation of his communications officer. A complete
use the coupon at the end of this chapter. and detailed communications plan must be ap-
proved successively by local, state and OCD
The Radio Amateur Civil regional directors, by the OCD National office,
Emergency Service and by FCC. Once this has been accomplished,
In order to be prepared for any eventuality, applications for station authorizations under this
FCC and the Office of Civil Defense ( OCD), plan can be submitted direct to FCC. QST
in collaboration with ARRL, have promulgated carries further information from time to time,
the Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service. and ARRL will keep its field officials fully in-
RACES is atemporary amateur service, intended formed by bulletins as the situation requires. A
primarily to serve civil defense and to continue complete bibliography of QST articles dealing
operation during any extreme national emer- with the subject of civil defense and RACES is
gency, such as war. It shares certain segments available upon request from the ARRL Commu-
of frequencies with the regular Amateur Service nications Department.
on anonexclusive basis. Its regulations have been In the event of war, civil defense will place
made a sub-part of the familiar amateur regu- great reliance on RACES for radio communica-
lations and are included in the latest edition of tions. RACES is an Amateur Service. Its im-
the ARRL License Manual. plementation is logically a function of the Ama-
If every amateur participated, we would still teur Radio Emergency Corps—an additional
be far short of the total operating personnel re- function in peacetime, but probably an exclusive
quired properly to implement RACES. As the function in wartime. Therefore, your best op-
service which bears the responsibility for the portunity to be of service will be to register with
successful implementation of this important your local EC, and to participate actively in the
function, we face not only the task of installing local AREC/RACES program.

ARRL OPERATING ORGANIZATION

Amateur operation must have point and con- Whether your activity embraces phone or
structive purpose to win public respect. Each telegraphy, or both, there is a place for you in
individual amateur is the ambassador of the en- the League organization.
tire fraternity in his public relations and attitude
toward his hobby. ARRL field organization adds LEADERSHIP POSTS
point and purpose to amateur operating. To advance each type of station work and
The Communications Department of the group interest in amateur radio, and to develop
League is concerned with the practical operation practical communications plans with the great-
of stations in all branches of amateur activity. est success, appointments of leaders and or-
Appointments or awards are available for rag- ganizers in particular single- interest fields are
chewer, traffic enthusiast, phone operator, DX made by SCMs. Each leadership post is impor-
man and experimenter. tant. Each provides activities and assistance for
There are seventy-three ARRL Sections in appointee groups and individual members along
the League's field organization, which embraces the lines of natural interest. Some posts further
the United States, Canada and certain other the general ability of amateurs to communicate
territory. Operating affairs in each Section are efficiently at all times, by pointing activity
supervised by a Section Communications Man- toward networks and round tables, others are
ager elected by members in that section for atwo- aimed specifically at establishment of provisions
year term of office. Organization appointments for organizing the amateur service as a stand-
are made by the section managers, elected as by communications group to serve the public in
provided in the Rules and Regulations of the disaster, civil defense need or emergency of any
Communications Department, which accompany sort. The SCM appoints the following in accord-
the League's By-Laws and Articles of Associa- ance with section needs and individual qualifica-
tion. Section Communications Managers' ad- tions:
dresses for all sections are given in full in each PAM Phone Activities Manager. Organizes activities
issue of QST. SCMs welcome monthly activity for OPSs and voice operators in his section.
reports from all amateur stations in their juris- Promotes phone nets and recruits OPSs.
RM Route Manager. Organizes and coordinates c.w.
diction.
584 OPERATING A STATION
traffic activities. Supervises and promotes nets amateur radio, when organized into effective nets
and recruits ORSs.
interconnecting cities and towns.
SEC Section Emergency Coordinator. Promotes and
administers section emergency radio organiza- The successful operation of anet depends alot
tion. on the Net Control Station. This station should
EC Emergency Coordinator. Organizes amateurs of be chosen carefully and be one that will not hesi-
a community or other local area for emergency
radio service; maintains liaison with officials and tate to enforce each and every net rule and set
agencies served, also with other local communi- the example in his own operation.
cation facilities. Sponsors tests, recruits for A progressive net grows, obtaining new mem-
AREC and encourages alignment with RACES.
bers both directly and through other net mem-
bers. Bulletins may be issued at intervals to keep
STATION APPOINTMENTS in direct contact with the members regarding
ARRL's field organization has a place for general net activity, to keep tab on net procedure,
every active amateur who has a station. The make suggestions for improvement, keep track of
Communications Department organization ex- active members and weed out inactive ones.
ists to increase individual enjoyment and station A National Traffic System is sponsored by
effectiveness in amateur radio work, and we ex- ARRL to facilitate the over-all expeditious
tend a cordial invitation to every amateur to relay and delivery of message traffic. The system
participate fully in the activities, to report recognizes the need for handling traffic beyond
results monthly, and to apply to the SCM for one the section- level networks that have the popular
of the following station appointments. ARRL support of both phone and c.w. groups ( OPS and
membership and the General Class license or VE ORS) throughout the League's field organiza-
equivalent is prerequisite to appointments, except tion. Area and regional provisions for NTS are
OES is available to Novice/Technician grades. furthered by Headquarters correspondence. The
ARRL Net Directory, revised in December each
year, includes the frequencies and times of op-
eration of the hundreds of different nets operat-
ing on amateur band frequencies.
OPf g
SEC r at" Radio Club Affiliation
7444
- ARRL is pleased to grant affiliation to any
amateur society having ( 1) at least 51% of the
voting club membership as full members of the
League, and ( 2) at least 51% of members govern-
ment-licensed radio amateurs. In high school ra-
dio clubs bearing the school name, the first
above requirement is modified to require one
full member of ARRL in the club. Where asoci-
e ety has common aims and wishes to add strength
to that of other club groups and strengthen ama-
OPS Official Phone Station. Sets high voice operating teur radio by affiliation with the national ama-
standards and procedures, furthers phone nets
teur organization, a request addressed to the
and traffic.
ORS Official Relay Station. Traffic service, operates Communications Manager will bring the neces-
c.w. nets; noted for 15 w.p.m. and procedure sary forms and information to initiate the appli-
ability. cation for affiliation. Such clubs receive field-
OBS Official Bulletin Station. Transmits ARRL and
FCC bulletin information to amateurs. organization bulletins and special information at
OES Official Experimental Station. Collects and re. intervals for posting on club bulletin boards or
ports v.h.f.-u.h.f.-s.h.f. propagation data, may for relay to their memberships. A travel plan
engage in facsimile, TT, TV, work on 50 Mc.
providing communications, technical and secre-
and/or above. Takes part as feasible in vhf.
traffic work, reports same, supports v.h.f. nets, tarial contact from the Headquarters is worked
observes procedure standards. out seasonally to give maximum benefits to as
00 Official Observer. Sends cooperative notices to many as possible of the twelve hundred active
amateurs to assist in frequency observance, in-
sures high-quality signals, and prevents FCC
affiliated radio clubs. Papers on club work, sug-
trouble. gestions for organizing, for constitutions, for
radio courses of study, etc., are available on re-
Emblem Colors quest.
Members wear the ARRL emblem with black-
enamel background. A red background for an Club Training Aids
emblem will indicate that the wearer is SCM. One section of the ARRL Communications De-
SECs, ECs, RMs, and PAMs may wear the em- partment handles the Training Aids Program.
blem with green background. Observers and all This program is a service to ARRL affiliated
station appointees are entitled to wear blue em- clubs. Material is aimed at education, training
blems. and entertainment of club members. Interesting
quiz material is available.
SECTION NETS Training Aids include such items as motion-
Amateurs gain experience and pleasure and picture films, film strips, slides, audio tapes and
add much accomplishment to the credit of all of lecture outlines. Bookings are limited to ARRL-
Operating Activities and Awards 585
affiliated clubs, since the visual aids listings are ing new countries and building up your DXCC
not sufficiently extensive to permit such services totals; certificate awards are offered to top
to other groups. scorers in each country and ARRL section ( see
All Training Aids materials are loaned free page 6 of any QST) and to club leaders. Then
(except for shipping charges) to ARRL affili- there is the ever- popular Sweepstakes in Novem-
ated clubs. Numerous groups use this ARRL ber. Of domestic scope, the SS affords the op-
service to good advantage. If your club is affil- portunity to work new states for that WAS
iated but has not yet taken advantage of this serv- award. A Novice activity is planned annually.
ice, you are missing a good chance to add the The interests of v.h.f. enthusiasts are also pro-
available features to your meeting programs and vided for in contests held in January, June and
general club activities. Watch club bulletins and September of each year. Where enough logs
QST or write the ARRL Communications De- (three) are received to constitute minimum
partment for TA-21 and TA-32. "competition" acertificate in spot activities, such
as the " SS" and v.h.f. party, is awarded the lead-
W1AW ing newcomer for his work considered only in
The Maxim Memorial Station, W1AW, is competition with other newcomers.
dedicated to fraternity and service. Operated by As in all our operating, the idea of having a
the League headquarters, W1AW is located about good time is combined in the Annual Field Day
four miles south of the Headquarters offices on a with the more serious thought of preparing our-
seven-acre site. The station is on the air daily, selves to render public service in times of emer-
except holidays, and available time is divided be- gency. A premium is placed on the use of equip-
tween different bands and modes. Telegraph and ment without connection to commercial power
phone trans- sources. Clubs and individual groups always en-
mitters are joy themselves in the " FD," and learn much
provided for about the requirements for operating under
all bands knockabout conditions afield.
from 1.8 to ARRL contest activities are diversified to ap-
144 Mc. The peal to all operating interests, and will be found
normal fre- announced in detail in issues of QST preceding
quencies in the different events.
each band for
c.w. and AWARDS
voice trans- The League- sponsored operating activities
missions are heretofore mentioned have useful objectives
as follows: 1820, 3555, 3945, 7080, 7255, 14,100, and provide much enjoyment for members of
14,280, 21,075, 21,330, 28,080, 29,000, 50,900 and the fraternity. Achievement in amateur radio
145,800 kc. Operating-visiting hours and the sta- is recognized by various certificates offered
tion schedule are listed every other month in through the League and detailed below.
QST.
WAS Award
Operation is roughly proportional to amateur
interest in different bands and modes, with one WAS means " Worked All States." This
kw. except on 160 and v.h.f. bands. W1AW's daily award is available regardless of affiliation or
bulletins and code practice aim to give opera- nonaffiliation with any organization. Here are
tional help to the largest number. the simple rules to follow in going after your
All amateurs are invited to visit W1AW, as WAS:
well as to work the station from their own
shacks. The station was established to be a liv-
ing memorial to Hiram Percy Maxim, to carry
on the work and traditions of amateur radio. ertermees,
1«.•40.1 •••••• i
,
..«.‘
trt
rui
OPERATING ACTIVITIES
Within the ARRL field organization there are
several special activities. During six months of
the year, the first week end is an occasion for
ARRL officials, officers, and directors to get to-
gether over the air. This activity is known to the
gang as the LO ( League officials) party. For all
*rionglelnun
i
appointees, quarterly CD parties are scheduled 1) Two-way communication must be established on the
additionally to develop operating ability and a amateur bands with each of the states; any and all ama-
teur bands may be used. A card from the District of
spirit of fraternalism. Columbia may be submitted in lieu of one from Maryland.
In addition to those for appointees and officials, 2) Contacts with all states must be made from the
ARRL sponsors various other activities open to same location. Within a given community one location
may be defined as from places no two of which are more
all amateurs. The DX-minded amateur may par-
than 25 miles apart.
ticipate in the Annual ARRL International DX 3) Contacts may be made over any period of years,
competition during February and March. This provided only that all contacts are from the same loca-
tion, and except that only contacts with Alaska dated
popular contest may bring you the thrill of work-
 586 OPERATING A STATION
January 3, 1959, or later count, and only contacts with be made under the provisions of Rule 9, and by the same
Hawaii dated August 21, 1959, or later count. station licensee; contacts may have been made under
4) QSL cards, or other written communications from different call letters in the same area ( or country), if the
stations worked confirming the necessary two-way con- licensee for all was the same.
tacts, must be submitted by the applicant to ARRL head- 11) Any altered or forged confirmations submitted for
quarters. CC credit will result in disqualification of the applicant.
5) Sufficient postage must be sent with the confirma- The , eligibility of any DXCC applicant who was ever
tions to finance their return. No correspondence will be barred from DXCC to reapply, and the conditions for
returned unless sufficient postage is furnished. such application, shall be determined by the Awards Com-
6) The WAS award is available to all amateurs. It is mittee. Any holder of the Century Club Award submitting
required that the confirmations submitted be placed forged or altered confirmations must forfeit his right to be
alphabetically in order by states. considered for further endorsements.
7) Address all applications and confirmations to the 12) Operating ethics: Fair play and good sportsman-
Communications Department, ARRL, 38 La Salle Road, ship in operating are required of all amateurs working to-
West Hartford, Conn. ward the DX Century Club Award. In the event of spe-
cific objections relative to continued poor operating ethics
DX Century Club Award an individual may be disqualified from the DXCC by
action of the ARRL Awards Committee.
Here are the rules under which the DX Cen- 13) Sufficient postage for the return of confirmations
tury Club Award will be issued to amateurs who must be forwarded with the application. In order to insure
have worked and confirmed contact with 100 the safe return of large batches of confirmations, it is
suggested that enough postage be sent to make possible
countries in the postwar period.
their return by first-class mail, registered.
1) The DX Century Club Award Certificate for con- 14) Decisions of the ARRL Awards Committee regard-
firmed contracts with 100 or more countries is available ing interpretation of the rules as here printed or later
to all amateurs everywhere in the world. amended shall be final.
2) Confirmations must be submitted direct to ARRL 15) Address all applications and confirmations to the
headquarters for all countries claimed. Claims for a total Communications Department, ARRL, 38 La Salle Road,
of 100 countries must be included with first application. West Hartford 7, Conn,
Confirmation from foreign 'contest logs may be re-
quested in the case of the ARRL International DX Com- WAC Award
petition only, subject to the following conditions: The WAC award, Worked All Continents, is
a) Sufficient confirmations of other types must be sub-
mitted so that these, plus the DX Contest confirmations, issued by the International Amateur Radio
will total 100. In every case, Contest confirmations must Union ( IARU) upon proof of contact with each
not be requested for any countries from which the appli- of the six continents. Amateurs in the U.S.A.,
cant has regular confirmations. That is, contest confir-
mations will be granted only in the case of countries from
Possessions and Canada should apply for the
which applicants have no regular confirmations. award through ARRL, headquarters society of
b) Look up the contest results as published in QST to the IARU. Those elsewhere must submit direct
see if your man is listed in the foreign scores. If he isn't,
to their own IARU member- society. Residents
he did not send in a log and no confirmation is possible.
c) Give year of contest, date and time of OSO.
of countries not represented in the Union may
d) In future DX Contests, do not request confirmations apply directly to ARRL for the award. Two
until after the final results have been published, usually basic types of WAC certificates are issued. One
in one of the early fall issues. Requests before this time
contains no endorsements and is awarded for
must be ignored.
3) The ARRL Countries List, printed periodically in c.w, or a combination of c.w. and phone con-
QST, will be used in determining what constitutes a tacts; the other is awarded when all work is done
"country." This chapter contains the Postwar Countries on phone. There is a special endorsement to the
List,
4) Confirmations must be accompanied by a list of
phone WAC when all of the confirmations sub-
claimed countries and stations to aid in checking and for mitted clearly indicate that the work was done on
future reference. two-way s.s.b. The only special band endorse-
5) Confirmations from additional countries may be
ments are for 3.5 and 50 Mc.
submitted for credit each time ten additional confirma-
tions are available. Endorsements for affixing to certifi-
cates and showing the new confirmed total ( 110, 120, 130,
Code Proficiency Award
etc.) will be awarded as additional credits are granted. Many hams can follow the general idea of a
ARRL DX Competition logs from foreign stations may contact "by ear" but when pressed to "write it
be utilized for these endorsements, subject to conditions
stated under ( 2). down" they " muff" the copy. The Code Pro-
6) All contacts must be made with amateur stations ficiency Award permits each amateur to prove
working in the authorized amateur bands or with other himself as a proficient operator, and sets up a
stations licensed to work amateurs.
7) In cases of countries where amateurs are licensed in
the normal manner, credit may be claimed only for sta- 4,Tertifflifir"
tions using regular government-assigned call letters. No
credit may be claimed for contacts with stations in any # %Man itailio &ay least
countries in which amateurs have been temporarily closed
down by special government edict where amateur licenses
Calilkadi «Ifrofidsq %On Ibr bollortel tsdr.
were formerly issued in the normal manner.
8) All stations contacted must be " land stations" . . .
contacts with ships, anchored or otherwise, and aircraft,
cannot be counted.
9) All stations must be contacted from the same call
area, where such areas exist, or from the same country in
cases where there are no call areas. One exception is
allowed to this rule: where a station is moved from one
call area to another, or from one country to another, all
contacts must be made from within a radius of 150 miles
of the initial location.
10) Contacts may be made over any period of years
from November 15, 1945, provided only that all contacts
-eieeeikeekttANeetateolleX1)
Awards 587
system of awards for step-by-step gains in copy- Operating an Amateur Radio Station. Aim to
ing proficiency. It enables every amateur to make yourself a fine operator, and one of these
check his code proficiency, to better that pro- days you may be pleasantly surprised by an invi-
ficiency, and to receive a certification of his re- tation to belong to the A-1 Operator Club, which
ceiving speed. carries a worth-while certificate in its own
This program is a whale of a lot of fun. The right.
League will give a certificate to any licensed
Brass Pounders League
radio amateur who demonstrates that he can
copy perfectly, for at least one minute, plain- Every individual reporting more than a speci-
language Continental code at 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 or fied minimum in official monthly traffic totals is
35 words per minute, as transmitted during spe- given an honor place in the QST listing known as
cial monthly transmissions from W1AW and the Brass Pounders League and a certificate to
W6OWP. recognize his performance is furnished by the
As part of the ARRL Code Proficiency pro- SCM. In addition, a BPL Traffic Award
gram W1AW transmits plain-language practice (medallion) is given to individual amateurs
material each evening at speeds from 5 to 35 working at their own stations after the third
w.p.m. All amateurs are invited to use these time they "make BPL" provided it is duly re-
transmissions to increase their code- copying ported to the SCM and recorded in .QST.
ability. Non-amateurs are invited to utilize the The value to amatetirs in operator training,
lower speeds, 5, PA and 10 w.p.m., which are and the utility of amateur message handling
transmitted for the benefit of persons studying to the members of the fraternity itself as well as
the code in preparation for the amateur license to the general public, make message-handling
examination. Refer to any issue of QST for de- work of prime importance to the fraternity.
tails of the practice schedule. Fun, enjoyment, and the feeling of having done
something really worth while for one's fellows is
Rag Chewers Club accentuated by pride in message files, records,
The Rag Chewers Club is designed to en- and letters from those served.
courage friendly contacts and discourage the
Old Timers Club
"hello-good-by" type of QS0. It furthers frater-
nalism through amateur radio. Membership cer- The Old Timers Club is open to anyone who
tificates are awarded. holds an amateur call at the present time, and
who held an amateur license ( operator or sta-
How To Get in: ( 1) Chew the rag with amember of the
dub for at least a solid half hour. This does not mean a
tion) 20-or-more years ago. Lapses in activity
half hour spent in trying to get a message over through during the intervening years are permitted.
bad QRM or QRN, but a solid half hour of conversation If you can qualify as an "Old Timer." send
or message handling. (2) Report the conversation by
an outline of your ham career. Indic ate the date
card to The Rag Chewers Club, ARRL, Communications
Department, West Hartford, Conn., and ask the member of your first amateur license and your present
station you talk with to do the same. When both reports call. If eligible for the OTC, you will be added to
are received you will be sent a membership certificate en- the roster and will receive a membership cer-
titling you to all the privileges of a Rag Chewer.
How To Stay in: ( 1) Be a conversationalist on the air tificate.
instead of one of those tongue-tied infants who don't know
any words except "cuagn" or "cul," or " QRU" or " nil." INVITATION
Talk to the fellows you work with and get to know them. Amateur radio is capable of giving enjoyment,
(2) Operate your station in accordance with the radio
laws and ARRL practice. ( 3) Observe rules of courtesy
self- training, social and organization benefits in
on the air. (4) Sign " RCC" after each call so that others proportion to what the individual amateur puts
may know you can talk as well as call. into his hobby. All amateurs are invited to be-
come ARRL members, to work toward awards,
A-1 Operator Club and to accept the challenge and invitation of
The A-1 Operator Club should include in its fered in field-organization appointments. Drop a
ranks every good operator. To become a mem- line to ARRL Headquarters for the booklet
ber, one must be nominated by at least two Operating an Amateur Radio Station, which has
operators who already belong. General keying or detailed information on the field-organization
voice technique, procedure, copying ability, appointments and awards. Accept today the invi-
judgment and courtesy all count in rating candi- tation to take full part in all League activities and
dates under the club rules detailed at length in organization work.
 588 OPERATING A STATION

OPERATING ABBREVIATIONS AND PREFIXES

Q SIGNALS QSU Shall I send or reply on this frequency (or on
..kc.) ? Send or reply on this frequency (
os
Given below are anumber of Q signals whose on. .kc.)
meanings most often need to be expressed with QSV Shall Isend aseries of Vs on this frequency (or
brevity and clearness in amateur work. ( Q ab- ....kc.)? Send a series of Vs on this fre-
breviations take the form of questions only when quency ( or kc.).
each is sent followed by aquestion mark.) QSW Will you send on this frequency (or on... .kc.)?
I am going to send on this frequency (or on
QRG Will you tell me my exact frequency ( or that kc.).
of )? Your exact frequency ( or that QSX Will you listen to on kc.? Iam listen-
of ) is kc. ing to on kc.
()RH Does my frequency vary? Your frequency var- QSY Shall I change to transmission on another fre-
ies. quency? Change to transmission on another
QRI How is the tone of my transmission? The tone of frequency ( or on....kc.).
your transmission is ( 1. Good; 2. Vari- QSZ Shall Isend each word or group more than once?
able; 3. Bad). Send each word or group twice ( or. ... times).
QRS What is the intelligibility of my signals ('jr those QTA Shall I cancel message number....as if it had
of ) ? The intelligibility of your signals not been sent? Cancel message number
(or those of...) is.. ( 1. bad; 2. poor; 3. fair; as if it had not been sent.
4. good; 5. excellent. QTB Do you agree with my counting of words? Ido
QRL Are you busy? I am busy (or I am busy with not agree with your counting of words; I will
) Please do not interfere. repeat the first letter or digit of each word or
group.
OEM Are you being interfered with? I am being in-
terfered with.. ( 1. nil; 2. slightly; 3. moder- QTC How many messages have you to send? I have
ately; 4. severely; 5. extremely). ....messages for you ( or for )
QRN Are you troubled by static? I am troubled by QT11 What is your location? My location is
static.. ( 1-5 as under ORM). QTR What is the correct time? The time is
ORO Shall I increase power? Increase power. QUA Have you news of.. (call sign)? Here is news
ORP Shall I decrease power? Decrease power. of.. (call sign).
ORO Shall Isend faster? Send faster ( w p.m.). Special abbreviations adopted by ARRL:
ORS Shall I send more slowly? Send more slowly QST General call preceding amessage addressed to all
(.... w.p.m.). amateurs and ARRL members. This is in ef-
OAT Shall I stop sending? Stop sending. fect " CQ ARRL."
QRU Have you anything for me? I have nothing for QRRR Official ARRL "land SOS." A distress call for
you. emergency use only by a station in an emer-
gency situation.
QRV Are you ready? I am ready.
QRW Shall Iinform that you are calling him on
kc.? Please inform that I am call- The R-S- T System
lug on kc.
READABILITY
QRX When will you call me again? I will call you
1— Unreadable.
again at hours ( on kc.).
2 — Barely readable, some words distinguishable.
QRY What is my turn? Your turn is Number... 3 — Readable with considerable difficulty.
QRZ Who is calling me? You are being called by 4 — Readable with practically no difficulty.
(on kc.). 5 — Perfectly readable.
OSA What is the strength of my signals ( or those of SIGNAL STRENGTH
) ? The strength of your signals ( or 1 — Faint signals, barely perceptible.
those of ) is ( 1. Scarcely percep- 2 — Very weak signals.
tible; 2. Weak; 3. Fairly good; 4. Good; 5. 3 — Weak signals.
Very good). 4 — Fair signals.
QSB Are my signals fading? Your signals are fading. 5 — Fairly good signals.
QSD Is my keying defective? Your keying Is defec- 6 — Good signals.
tive. 7 — Moderately strong signals.
8 — Strong signals.
QSG Shall Isend messages at atime? Send
9 — Extremely strong signals.
messages at a time.
QSIC Can you hear me between your signals and if TONE
so can Ibreak in on your transmission? Ican 1 — Extremely rough hissing note.
hear you between my signals; break in on my 2 — Very rough a.c. note, no trace of musicality.
transmission. 3 — Rough low-pitched a.c. note, slightly musical.
QSL Can you acknowledge receipt? Iam acknowledg- 4 — Rather rough a.c. note, moderately musical.
ing receipt. 5 — Musically-modulated note.
6 — Modulated note, slight trace of whistle.
QSM Shall Irepeat the last message which Isent you,
7 — Near d.c. note, smooth ripple.
or some previous message? Repeat the last
8 — Good d.c. note, just a trace of ripple.
message which you sent me [or message(a)
9 — Purest d.c. note.
number ( s)
If the signal has the characteristic stability of
QSN Did you hear me (or...) on. .10.1 I did hear
crystal control, add the letter X to the RST report.
you ( or...) on .kc.
If there is a chirp, the letter C may be added to so
OSO Can you communicate with... . direct or by re- Indicate. Similarly for a click, add K.
lay? I can communicate with direct (or This reporting system is used on both c.w. and
by relay through ). voice, leaving out the "tone" report on voice.
OSP Will you relay to IIwill relay to....
 TRANSMITTERS and RECEIVERS

HT-32B TRANSMITTER. Preferred by the tivity plus exclusive upper-lower sideband selection
most experienced amateurs for SSB/AM/CW oper- —linear CTO, direct reading in kc. A perfect match
ation because of advance.d features . . . beam- for Hallicrafters' HT- 32B and HT- 33B exciters and
switching modulator with unusually high carrier transmitters.
suppression stability—CTO direct reading in kc., and
FREQUENCY COVERAGE: Nine 500 kc segments
complete 10- meter coverage.
covering 3.5-4.0 Mc.; 7.0-7.5 Mc.; 14.0-14.5 Mc.,
FEATURES: Beam-deflection, high level sideband 21-21.5 Mc.; 28.0-30.0 Mc.; (4segments); and WWV.
modulator for low- noise, high-stability signal, Haiti-
crafters' exclusive 5.0 Mc. quartz crystal filter with FEATURES: High order of mechanical and elec-
trical stability; linear tuning; constant tuning rate;
sideband rejection of 50 db. or more; CTO direct
reading in kilocycles to within 1kc.; 144 watts plate separate noise limiters for SSB/CW/AM; amplified
input ( P.E.P. two-tone). Five band output (80, 40, dual loop AVC with fast attack-slow release; spuri-
20, 15, 10 meters). All modes of transmission—CW, ous signal and image rejection better than 60 db.
AM, SSB. Unwanted sideband down 50 db. or more. 1kc calibration marks; transmitter-type VFO with
Both sidebands transmitted on AM Precision gear differential TC; 100 kc crystal calibrator; crystal
controlled 1st and 3rd conversion oscillators; select-
driven CTO. Exclusive Hallicrafters patented side-
band selection. Logarithmic meter for accurately able sidebands; selectivity variable in five steps from
tuning and carrier level adjustment. Ideal CW key- 500 to 5000 cycles; product detector for SSB/CW
envelope detector for AM; I.F. type noise limiter for
ing and break-in operation, push-to-talk and full
voice control system built in. Keying circuit brought SSB/CW automatic threshold series type for AM;
out for teletype keyer. band gain equalization; audio inverse feedbacks;
"S" meter functions with AVC off.
FRONT PANEL CONTROLS, FUNCTIONS
AND CONNECTIONS: Operation — power off, SENSITIVITY: Less than 1 microvolt on AM—
standby, Mo., Cal., Vox.—P.T.T. Audio level 0-10 less than 1
/ microvolt on SSB/CW.
2

R.F. level 0-10. Final tuning 80, 40, 20, 15, 10 TUNING MECHANISM: Back- lash free gear
meters. Function— upper sideband, lower sideband, driven tuning mechanism.
DSB, CW. Meter compression. Calibration level
TUBES AND FUNCTIONS: 6DC6 R.F. ampli-
0-10. Driver tuning 0-5. Band selector- 80, 40, 20,
15, 10 meters. High stability, gear driven VFO. fier — 6BA7 1st mixer — 12AT7 crystal oscillator —
6DC6 1st I.F. amplifier-6BA7-2nd mixer-6CB6
Microphone, key and headphone monitor jacks.
VFO-6DC6 2nd 1.F. amplifier-6BA6 3rd mixer-
TUBES AND FUNCTIONS: ( 2)-6146 Power out- 12AT7 SSB switching oscillator-6DC6 3rd I.F.
put amplifiers. 6CB6 variable frequency oscillator. amplifier-6BY6 product detector-6BJ7 2nd AVC,
12BY7 R.F. driver. 6AH6 2nd mixer. 6AH6 3rd AM detector, ANL-12AX7 BFO 1st audio ampli-
mixer. 6AB4 crystal oscillator. I2AX7 voice con- fier-6AQ5 audio output-6AU6 100 kc crystal cal.
trol. Audio amp. I2AU7 audio amp, and carrier —6AU6 " S" meter amplifier-6AU6 1st loop AVC
oscillator. 7360 modulator. 12AT7 sideband select- amplifier- 0A2 voltage regulator-five silicon diodes.
ing oscillator. 6AH6 1st mixer. 6AH6 4.95 Mc.
amp. 6AU6 9Mc. amp. 5R4GY HV rectifier. 5V4G FRONT PANEL CONTROLS: R.F. gain; A.F.
LV rectifier. 0A2 voltage regulator. gain; tuning; selectivity; function selector (upper-
lower SSB; upper-lower AM; on-off switch); cal set
REAR CHASSIS: Co-ax antenna connector, FSK lock; receive-standby switch; notch frequency; BFO
jack, AC accessory outlet. Line fuse. Control con- pitch; AVC/ANL (AVC on-off; SSB/CW ANL;
nector, ground stud, AC power line cord. Cabinet AM/ANL); antenna trimmer; band switch; cali-
20" wide, 10 1 / "high, and 17" deep. Approximate
2 brator on-off; headphone jack.
shipping weight 86 lbs. (Conforms to F.C.D.A.
specifications.) AUDIO OUTPUT IMPEDANCE: 3.2 and 500
ohm,.
SX-115 RECEIVER. First in its class for AM,
CW and SSB reception. Truly a deluxe receiver POWER REQUIREMENTS : 105/125V, 50/60
offering band pass filter front end—equivalent of cycles AC 85 watts.
four tuned circuits preceding first mixer—crystal- PHYSICAL DATA: 16" wide x 10 12 "high x 16"
/
controlled, high frequency oscillator- 5 step selec- deep. Shipping weight 47 lbs.

HT-32B SX-115 HT- 33B

4
 590 OPERATING A STATION
ZL New Zealand 4S7 Ceylon 6Y Jamaica
ZL5 ( See CE9) 4W1 Yemen 7G1 Rep. of Guinea
ZM6 Western Samoa 4X4 Israel 7X2 ( See FA)
ZM7 Tokelau ( Union) Islands 5A Libya 9A1 (See M1)
ZP Paraguay 5B4 Cyprus 9G1 Ghana
ZS1, 2, 4, 5, 6 South Africa 5H3 Tanganyika 9K2 Kuwait
ZS2 Prince Edward & 5N2 Nigeria 9K3 Kuwait/Saudia Arabia
Marion Islands 5R8 Malagasy Rep. Neutral Zone
ZS3 Southwest Africa ST Mauritania 9L1 Sierra Leone
ZS7 Swaziland 5U7 Niger Rep. 9M2 Malaya
ZS8 Basutoland .5V Togo 9N1 Nepal
ZS9 Bechuanaland 5X5 Uganda 905 Rep. of Congo
3A Monaco 5Z4 Kenya 9U5 Burundi
3V8 Tunisia 601, 2 Somali Rep. 9X5 Rwanda
3W8 Vietnam 6W8 Senegal Rep. Ciuubodia

INTERNATIONAL PREFIXES
AAA-ALZ United States of America QAA-QZZ ( Service abbreviations)
AMA-AOZ Spain RAA-RZZ Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
APA-ASZ Pakistan SAA-SMZ Sweden
ATA-AWZ India SNA-SRZ People's Republic of Poland
AXA-AXZ Commonwealth of Australia SSA-SSM Egypt
AYA-AZZ Argentine Republic SSN-STZ Sudan
BAA-BZZ China SUA-SUZ Egypt
CAA-CEZ Chile SVA-SZZ Greece
CFA-CKZ Canada TAA-TCZ Turkey
CLA-CMZ Cuba TDA-TDZ Guatemala
CNA-CNZ Morocco TEA- TEZ Costa Rica
COA- COZ Cuba TFA-TFZ Iceland
CPA-CPZ Bolivia TGA-TGZ Guatemala
CQA-CRZ Portuguese Overseas Provinces THA-THZ France and French Community
CSA-CUZ Portugal TLA-TIZ Costa Rica
CVA-CXZ Uruguay TJA-TJZ Republic of Cameron
CYA-CZZ Canada TKA-TKZ France, and Community
DAA-DTZ Germany TLA-TLZ Central African Republic
DUA-DZZ Republic of the Philippines TMA-TMZ France, French Community
EAA-EHZ Spain TNA-TNZ Republic of the Congo ( Brazzaville)
EIA-EJZ Ireland
TOA-TQZ France, French Community
EKA-EKE Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Liberia TRA-TRZ Republic of Gabon
ELA-ELZ TSA-TSZ Tunisia
EMA-EOZ Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
TTA-TTZ Republic of Chad
EPA-EQZ Iran TUA-TUZ Republic of the Ivory Coast
ERA-ERZ Union of Soviet Socialist Republics TVA-TXZ France, French Community
ESA-ESZ Estonia TYA-TYZ Republic of Dahomey
ETA-ETZ Ethiopia TZA-TZZ Republic of Mali
EUA-EWZ Bielorussian Soviet Socialist Republic
EXA-EZZ Union of Soviet Socialist Republics UAA-UQZ Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
URA-UTZ Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
FAA-FZZ France and French Community
UUA-UZZ Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
GAA-GZZ Great Britain VAA-VGZ Canada
HAA-HAZ Hungarian People's Republic
VHA-VNZ Commonwealth of Australia
HBA-HBZ Switzerland
VOA - VOZ Canada
HCA-HDZ Ecuador
Switzerland VPA-VSZ British Overseas Territories
HEA-HEZ VTA-VWZ India
HFA-HFZ People's Republic of Poland
VXA-VYZ Canada
HGA-HGZ Hungarian People's Republic
HHA-HHZ Republic of Haiti VZA-VZZ Commonwealth of Australia
HIA-HIZ Dominican Republic WAA•WZZ United States of America
HJA-HKZ Republic of Colombia XAA-XIZ Mexico
HLA-HMZ Korea XJA-XOZ Canada
HNA-HNZ Iraq XPA-XPZ Denmark
HOA-HPZ Republic of Panama XQA-XRZ Chile
HQA-HRZ Republic of Honduras XSA-XSZ China
HSA-HSZ Thailand XTA-XTZ Republic of the Upper Volta
HTA-HTZ Nicaragua XUA-XUZ Cambodia
HUA-HUZ Republic of El Salvador XVA-XVZ Viet- Nam
HVA-HVZ Vatican City State XWA-XWZ Laos
HWA-HYZ France and French Community XXA-XXZ Portuguese Overseas Provinces
HZA-HZZ Saudi Arabia XYA-XZZ Burma
IAA-IZZ Italy and Mandated Territories YAA-YAZ Afghanistan

[
Japan YBA-YHZ Republic of Indonesia
Mongolian People's Republic YIA-YIZ Iraq
'Sit-1M
WArZ Norway YJA-YJZ New Hebrides
YA- YZ Jordan YKA-YKZ Syria
ZA- ZZ West New Guinea YLA-YLZ Latvia
AA-KZZ United States of America YMA-YMZ Turkey
LAA-LNZ Norway YNA-YNZ Nicaragua
LOA-LWZ Argentine Republic YOA-YRZ Roumanian People's Republic
LXA-LXZ Luxembourg YSA-YSZ Republic of El Salvador
LYA-LYZ Lithuania YTA-YUZ Yugoslavia
LZA-LZZ People's Republic of Bulgaria YVA-YYZ Venezuela
MAA-M ZZ Great Britain YZA-YZZ Yugoslavia
NAA-NZZ United States of America ZAA-ZAZ Albania
OAA-OCZ Peru ZBA-ZJZ British Overseas Territories
ODA-ODZ Lebanon ZKA-ZMZ New Zealand
0EA-0EZ Austria ZNA-ZOZ British Overseas Territories
OFA-OJZ Finland ZPA-ZPZ Paraguay
OKA-OMZ Czechoslovakia ZQA-ZQZ British Overseas Territories
ONA-OTZ Belgium ZRA-ZUZ Republic of South Africa
OUA-OZZ Denmark ZVA-ZZZ Brazil
PAA-PIZ Netherlands 2AA-2ZZ Great Britain
PJA-PJZ Netherlands Antilles 3AA-3AZ Monaco
PKA-POZ Republic of Indonesia SBA- 3F2 Canada
PPA-PYZ Brazil 3GA-3GZ Chile
PZA-PZZ Surinam 311A-3 UZ China
Abbreviations 591
3VA-3VZ Tunisia 6AA-6BZ Egypt
3WA-3WZ Viet- Nam 6CA-6CZ Syria
3XA-3XZ Guinea 6DA-6J_Z Mexico
3YA-3YZ Norway 6KA-6NZ Korea
3ZA-3ZZ People's Republic of Poland 60A-602 Somalia
4AA-4CZ Mexico 6PA-6SZ Pakistan
4DA-4IZ Republic of the Philippines 6TA-6UZ Sudan
4JA-4LZ Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 6VA-6WZ Republic of the Senegal
4MA-4MZ Venezuela 6XA-6XZ Malagasy Republic
4NA-40Z Yugoslavia 6YA-6YZ Jamaica
4PA-4SZ Ceylon 7AA-7IZ Indonesia
4TA-4TZ Peru 7JA-7NZ Japan
4UA-4UZ United Nations 7RA-7RZ Algeria
4VA-4VZ Republic of Haiti 7SA-7SZ Sweden
4WA-4WZ Yemen 7TA-7YZ Algeria
4XA-4XZ State of Israel 7ZA-7ZZ Saudi Arabia
4YA-4YZ International Civil Aviation Organization 8AA-812 Indonesia
4ZA-4ZZ State of Israel 81A-8NZ Japan
MA -SAZ Libya 8SA-8SZ Sweden
5BA-5BZ Republic of Cyprus 8TA-8YZ India
SCA-SGZ Morocco 8ZA-8ZZ Saudi Arabia
SHA-5IZ Tanganyika 9AA-9AZ San Marino
SJA-SKZ Colombia 9BA-9DZ Iran
5LA-SMZ Liberia 9EA-9F2 Ethiopia
SNA-50Z Nigeria 9GA-9GZ Ghana
SPA-5QZ Denmark 9KA-9KZ Kuwait
SRA-5SZ Malagasy Republic 9LA-9LZ Sierra Leone
5TA-5TZ Islamic Republic of Mauretania 9MA-9MZ Malaysia
SUA-SUZ Republic of the Niger 9NA-9NZ Nepal
5VA-5VZ Togolese Republic 90A-9TZ Republic of the Congo ( Leopoldville)
5WA-5WZ Western Samoa 9UA-9UZ Burundi
53CA-SXZ Uganda 9XA-9XZ Rwanda
5YA-5ZZ Kenya

ABBREVIATIONS FOR C.W. WORK

Abbreviations help to cut down unnecessary transmission. However, make it a rule not to abbreviate unnecessarily
when working an operator of unknown experience.
AA All after NW Now; I resume transmission
AB All before OB Old boy
ABT About OM Old man
ADR Address OP-OPR Operator
AGN Again OT Old timer; old top
ANT Antenna PBL Preamble
ECl Broadcast interference PSE Please
BCL Broadcast listener PWR Power
BK Break; break me; break in PX Press
BN All between; been R Received as transmitted; are
Yes RCD Received
CFM Confirm; I confirm RCVR ( RX) Receiver
CK Check REF Refer to; referring to; reference
CL I am closing my station; call RIG Station equipment
CLD-CLG Called; calling RPT Repeat; I repeat
CUD Could SED Said
CUL See you later SIG Signature; signal
CUM Come SINE Operator's personal initials or nickname
CW Continuous wave SKED Schedule
DLD-DLVD Delivered SRI Sorry
DX Distance, foreign countries SVC Service; prefix to service message
ES And, & TFC Traffic
FB Fine business; excellent TMW Tomorrow
GA Go ahead ( or resume sending) TNX-TKS Thanks
GB Good-by TT That
GBA Give better address TU Thank you
GE Good evening TVI Television interference
GG Going TXT Text
GM Good morning UR-URS Your; you're; yours
GN Good night VFO Variable-frequency oscillator
GND Ground VY Very
GUD Good WA Word after
HI The telegraphic laugh; high WB Word before
HR Here; hear WD-WDS Word; words
HV Have WKD-WKG Worked; working
HW How WL Well; will
LID A poor operator WUD Would
MA, MILS Milliamperes WX Weather
MSG Message; prefix to radiogram XMTR ( TX) Transmitter
N No XTAL Crystal
ND Nothing doing XYL ( YF) Wife
NIL Nothing; I have nothing for you YL Young lady
NM No more 73 Best regards
NR Number 88 Love and kisses
 592 OPERATING A STATION

P.A.Ii•h«1 rhe
Amateur Radio Emergency Cmps
by the An:mom limed Melee Meg . r
em e met, *remove.; ”. me, um

Operating an Amateur Radio Station covers Emergency Communications is the " bible" of
the details of practical amateur operating. In it the Amateur Radio Emergency Corps. Within its
you will find information on Operating Practices, eight pages are contained the fundamentals of
Emergency Communication, ARRL Operating Ac- emergency communication which every amateur
tivities and Awards, the ARRL Field Organization, interested in public service work should know, in-
Handling Messages, Network Organization, " Q" cluding a complete diagrammatical plan adapt-
Signals and Abbreviations used in amateur oper- able for use in any community, explanation of
ating, important extracts from the FCC Regula- the role of the American Red Cross and FCC's
tions, and other helpful material. It's a handy regulations concerning amateur operation in
reference that will serve to answer many of the emergencies. The Radio Amateur Civil Emergency
questions concerning operating that arise during Service ( RACES) comes in for special considera-
your activities on the air. tion, including a table of RACES frequencies on
the front cover.

The two publications described above

may be obtained without charge by
any Handbook reader. Either or
both will be sent upon request.

AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE

225 Main Street
Newington, Conn. 06111

Please send me, without charge, the following:

E OPERATING AN AMATEUR RADIO STATION
Li EMERGENCY COMMUNICATIONS

Name
(Please Print)

Address
 Chapter 25

Vacuum Tubes
and Semiconductors
For the convenience of the designer, the re- consideration. Intermittent Commercial and
ceiving- type tubes listed in this chapter are Amateur Service is. defined to include the
grouped by filament voltages and construction many applications where the transmitter de-
types ( glass, metal, miniature, etc.). For ex- sign factors of minimum size, light weight,
ample, all miniature tubes are listed in Table and maximum power output are more import-
I, all metal tubes are in Table II, and so on. ant than long tube life. ICAS ratings are con-
Transmitting tubes are divided into triodes siderably higher than CCS ratings. They
and tetrodes-pentodes, then listed according permit the handling of greater power, and
to rated plate dissipation. This permits direct although such use involves some sacrifice in
comparison of ratings of tubes in the same tube life, the period over which tubes give
power classification. satisfactory performance in intermittent serv-
For quick reference, all tubes are listed in ice can be extremely long.
numerical-alphabetical order in the index. The plate dissipation values given for trans-
Types having no table reference are either ob- mitting tubes should not be exceeded during
solete or of little use in amateur equipment. normal operation. In plate modulated ampli-
Base diagrams for these tubes are listed. fier applications, the maximum allowable
carrier-condition plate dissipation is approxi-
Tube Ratings mately 66 per cent of the value listed and will
Vacuum tubes are designed to be operated rise to the maximum value under 100 per cent
within definite maximum (and minimum) rat- sinusoidal modulation.
ings. These ratings are the maximum safe op-
Typical Operating Conditions
erating voltages and currents for the elec-
trodes, based on inherent limiting factors such The typical operating conditions given for
as permissible cathode temperature, emission, transmitting tubes represent, in general, maxi-
and power dissipation in electrodes. mum ICAS ratings where such ratings have
In the transmitting-tube tables, maximum been given by the manufacturer. They do not
ratings for electrode voltage, current and dis- represent the only possible method of opera-
sipation are given separately from the typical tion of aparticular tube type. Other values of
operating conditions for the recommended plate voltage, plate current, etc., may be used so
classes of operation. In the receiving-tube long as the maximum ratings for a particular
tables, ratings and operating data are combined. voltage or current are not exceeded.
Where only one set of operating conditions ap-
Equivalent Tubes
pears, the positive electrode voltages shown
(plate, screen, etc.) are, in general, also the maxi- The equivalent tubes listed in Table VIII
mum rated voltages. are used occasionally in amateur service. In
For certain air-cooled transmitting tubes, addition to the types listed, other equivalents
there are two sets of maximum values, one are available for special purposes such as
designated as CCS ( Continuous Commercial series- heater string operation in TV receivers.
Service) ratings, the other ICAS ( Intermit- These types require unusual values of heater
tent Commercial and Amateur Service) rat- voltage ( 3.15, 4.2, etc.), and have controlled
ings. Continuous Commercial Service is de- warm-up time characteristics to minimize
fined as that type of service in which long voltage unbalance during starting. Except for
tube life and reliability of performance under heater design, these types correspond electri-
continuous operating conditions are the prime cally and mechanically to 6-volt prototypes.

INDEX TO TUBE TABLES

I — Miniature Receiving Tubes V16 IX— Control and Regulator Tubes V25
II — 6.3-Volt Metal Receiving Tubes V20 X — Rectifiers V25
III — 6.3- Volt Glass Tubes with Octal XI — Triode Transmitting Tubes V26
Bases V21 XII — Tetrode and Pentode Trans-
IV — 6.3-Volt Lock- In Base Tubes V22 mitting Tubes V30
V — 1.5-Volt Battery Tubes V22 XIII — Electrostatic Cathode- Ray
VI — High-Voltage Heater Tubes V23 Tubes V32
VII — Special Receiving Tubes V23 XIV — Transistors V33
VIII — Equivalent Tubes V23 XV — Crystal Diodes V34

V1
à›.44g›uxWmz› goeMer. .., 4i.noXwZmWwwelwxx,„ enwi.x › ocizaw.e4r.44.x.)<rg u ..cr..m,ie2wm...ccpc,z need 4 wmwXwXem>mXn›m refem›Xxezwa bex
zRggmWàeâgeàeeJeeeeeeee"Ueg'eeble5 ge;geeÎee 4 eâe2ggeelggUeege3enUe1 2 eegneeeeeeegReaeg2ek4gelgE*5UReeegeeeeeàgg

.cce
2.122

a
,iwomm xmwwF4'axo wn m
egmegeeftegJeegeege2e2egeougeeegggegeggeeeeegee
wenx,.ww me NE-4-.Neft¡Xxxcn.,,a1 2. Nor. ig> 2,Q.emal,E.reo.cy ,Yam.Jcl,zwar›, o
geieeeeeeeeeeggeeeefteeeggeelegkelleeeggegeereehk
e › nIXE.n>w,wsW rela.XM NZOw.e,Mel›.

41. -
g.
gagàegeâihera.g....=eccteglemientecAiâeâaemedeggcnieneeelderee.A oez.lgiineie&ÑigiÉeeiùi¡:--
egge.legegeggiggeegeeemeegeeergegeegggeeheegeeeeeggeeverageeeeeeggegenieeenem em mwggeeàmiie&i.e.a.eD
LugideletAttec -zumnennkteltteiteta%gJeetueeeighAienegeeenhemeeromegegiumeggn
cil.eceeleeneelleleineueuemeeeeeeeeleeenelleleemilleemillie111111erellie.leiccilimeleiceme;-==ee
.:1WÓ
...... E
.........:
: : : ,
7s4;
' 1
,
..::,,:
4it 2..i.
: : : :
:: : e..
t. e .... _, e. : , , " : F. ....... ' 1- : : E. .......... : i.; : : : . : .. : : • : E. : : : E.
e:.21-0.ââe!eaCze.aetiMmleee.EerMee,?.Teetg.e.;U n2,iiiieneodtoondwdelden.iMoC000rloggggeee322:-=»;zzeeeâdgMáMgger
. " . '. e. • .
2° -Se e ° • :.q °0 .° ,-M 2 : : : : • • • - • . 004 ...i.4 •.,;.: .' . 0 • -0
• 0
24e=e-141.1.1i1=eefflei.ffle›.7aMegt.*a eUeCege ««««««««««««««<« .1.1.1ge.le=ege.e.1.=:=1.1.1=1.1.1==

'MÈdeglgeeeegeeeeeeeeggÈtettege gRÉeldeenenRRWteeeigaeeRReiedkÉeiee.eilikeegeieeeed

gsgemgme.
ei»»,»1
x..- ..,
III 4.»11»1
444 22 nI
Il II nI
i>i nn III i>»1>i
i>i>i e.11. 4 i»i M U% nn nmanmnimmne= nnnnnnenngs=
i>i»Ii>i»1»1>I>1......>»1›.....»»5...•1
42 &I 44 n.7e.e..7,.g g...-......-.-.
k.i>>.,;»1>».» ..»..
- 4. d.
C .u ......... d..
. .C.C-

5iggetehikijd iàlellgË!!!!ddle 416Ñe legli

2.9dheeneeeÙeedigee:71.kagekeUegeeeee ZOOOIO4O OO

j!IleeeeeeeeelllleCelllle111111111a111111111111111111e1111 allIrIllelleee111111111leeelllleeelleleelle1111111111111111e111111Me
 c e 22 a W; a % a 22g2 Na. 28 2 22 ne g : e e at. at. t. .i.
eeezetle.ee.Viee.meeee4UReeeze.L'a*mtzlmieneee-
agle.e. .4•=gAgge,geletLeeee...geeemwee 2
/ ggee4e.=z,""""'"'":
"P'
e'°

l!el 1
11
1le11111111leee111111111111lee5lillem1111111e1 1
11
lelem imiemeele llele ..› 1
- ' =ggg
e leel 1›lel l>.›1111111111111111leee151 1
Imiel -

••co!-, e • • • • eite
99 ` 1.1"Y"''' `'````' °`0"e• -`` 1°'' .Q```111 `° 1 - - - - 1 11 . ..... • • ...1.e.e. ....n...e 0.-e,e, .... ...e.... s.-,. $$$ 2 -...‘00.... ,. .
e e4 e44 gge.=NN....NNNNN=N.NNN
-M-gg ---- 'e"4-d''seeii'/8 eàieàeÎeÎiiggd::;2:eeitnaeeageegleinÉM::.=.=.::.N...N.Mg§hgggÎgeg
g 2 ÎN=.==..gÎggg==g..===mggg§g i

2
heeCeâd2eg2hgegîeMeà2hWgeeeeCgRîke edledeeeeIEhUAAECCareeâAeÈg.1 2eeattlge. 2 ee?e?àgîgàeeeeelg 2d

;4.1eleeeelleeleilllie11111111111111eillelieemelleellelimee111111111eleeeemelle1111111111111111111leeellelelleemieleelmeelemie
F..
E;
C F F. . .... ...... g . 0000 .
4 És e 4 • =
4 13915 glielellandlidejlandegiellli :- "A :
4AllaldEiteme2IL '
allggegirAdzié ej'
eeeee'eeee

eue. Nmer. e ux ›co 0.mm non œ u< U‹ e aXXX>o > 144-X

egeeepeeueteezgeeegeeeg!eegegeeegegegeegeeggggggeegeear/uemeceegeegeeugeeàgmggkeeaggeeegeaeeeue.Eeteueeefflgg
0 MOW .X.)424 , N2 2.4 2 02F XXX 22E. 220

eeleeeeeneeleemeeleelleeelleeleenceilleeeeeeeeeeeeeeemmelmeelemilemeellIIIIIIIIIIInciellIIIII 5e1111111111eeemeeeee
..
t.

at
.......
.I.• • •....
• . •< F.E. E
.(4 "
.
Zon '
e • e nj e
etgâilegf

e dg e
g ggigegghâledleelegag
e ........ ne
neOnnwœom ›•< g«W effleieele.

jee,m'eeegnZellOCeeeeZeeeeZegenr.Zeteneeeeiaegeegeeeegelgegi*??gggeleeegeeggealóggeeen ee ge
z,Nzooce ›. 0 oag.à 2,-,2220NX2 M00 0 0022 222edeE.2NE. 2 2E. MX00 CO * MM. al.greXX.cma » g>egge>emee Ng X›..z,gz %Jam w
n g e e e.gLege=raIeiggUeg

,e....... ..... • .
Vacuum-Tube Data

k± . . . . . ,< • . .
ees " • " . ......
*00 e
-nntteeenei-e;x›,zae ›e>exx›.:IgAneeteleleggâgg5Migidfillliktlegg hilkellgee leg een

lAiel eeeeagemeeegeghetgeev»gu-aeo—gelguehmegeggagedgekesdeeeeeemeâedeeliAlu 5
II II II III II II III 11111 II II II III II III II II III II III II IIII II II

.......... .,4g
›; E
t:„
c

"eiirffilliiiiitabigaiggiBiegiffiefirathieertraige4 d'neAAer Healeedee=lea.<<ri«.

I' '13° ° " * ee%hurze5e8ta
in

_... reeeereemeee
C4 egetZ.. E. e.
!, eix xx Sg ra= ce...........
;
xi ...
3
• 3..,.,... R a 2 ..
........, •
I
ZezexeegeiElgeeleeedeeeeheledne.<9..leibleneiieraZ I
eMeedet.2.122Ree
e C,*Re.i.i2.9.É°,9.°M219,11-1ez i
i gregeu
a b...........gzgr
0 ,:.
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIleilliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiielliiiiiiiimeilleemilleillimileeeemileilil
: . meeàeeei2iè
zzzzzzzz.zzzzz..- 2
< , 7
,..................›.
.223222xxxx gxxxx xaMem 2 xxxmagmeMxmmxmmxmwwxxxxmmmm2xwexe.$204§pmeettle=°° 0 °%xee-P,Rxxxxli,
LaaaaAg.aaaxxxx xxxxxxexceaxexaerdeareeemexeedexcceaex«exxmactecarceceeem.m m E.E.E. m bereemeneeeeme
g 2 22 .2SS$Sgge g $ 2 g g ee gggg g Sgg.
eglIÈÉÉeee,, etLeittuggehilemellegea.t.e.tweiReeheenemenegheiigeghleÉe=1::.tbfieiel
M2

demenileeee.
l' 511leeellelliiiiiiiieeelliecelicellille111111111eleemile1111111111111111e1111111IIIIImeeelle ememeemeee.
kk
, elp11 2
e'l..
WM
Rages= ee risr... sgs-g-2.,,i80$.8-2§43g=reieeZZSZ-2.;.e2a.le2,.:...;112-Sgr.-..-ice
ple .,...„le .......< .... ...3 . . . Q.3 . Q0Idr.04 : . . . Q0 : . • • • • .... •
•
..... • • ......... • , ,:,.; : e • " meeemeeeme
$
..7geeEl<eXx<emgcwwxxxexcx.)Qu.gg n31 .
a..3.4.a 3S423Zmag.r.g..eUa.wwwwwwwwwmwwwwwwwww>››>>>>>>>>>>»»>.›..»»»'.›ow.,
ersae«ee«mmm0000nnsommwmm.0000000000000000mmmmmwmmwm=========mmwwwwwwwwwwwmwwwwwwwwwwwmwwwwmwwwwzaa

oimknemeeemieu
enemenemeeme

SEMICONDUCTORS
ea CCC g • ce.
lleerreiklileletIggre..g.
ef2.261 igle.ekeeeteg
-ghl elk >gieLlInellEtng.zE.z.ont.
X ' .. ,, .......................................
ougOlee.mxa

,pmfieeeeeleeleeeeeeeceeeeeeeeme.eeeleeeeeFaceeeceeeceecuelecceoreeceememe,,,,,emee leue VierEeeeeeeeee

e *e

5
Q....

Mikehlz›z:Eit
e:e151KILEZINLIPARTaraledeneneeenneeneileneeneneereenne r efillErdnine een§

j n4:4 Zaaé.ZuWW ee‹, W we elD elnu h4Mwt4

;s 0 W n.own e..n X one wm * e
beeeemeemeeem,e
gengekel,egUee k
tÉeeeteeeeeMeMeReeellgegegedeeagegegghegfiggienedigeidgigeiàggek
baa naug ggg R mr g R ggg Rg R mggg a00000 0000
RZIRRgr, Rgg g gg m
gy»I>»I>»»I>»I>I oul II 4,11 4,11 I11 >»1»1›>»1›1›>»1›11›.11>>»»1›»»1›>»11 Ii 1»1›111› »» 11>»1›1111> zzz'eWZebillbri

FeeeeCee»eeeee

cesm re R gw ;Ix meuedgeemcenemsgg

› WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
,

4%edeleeeegagee.
e C.A.3 =aejeleeSkieâteâïe.bei
. egleedegllneeeeigeLleiegeeeee

beceeeeccemeceme
3
e
e ....
e «gee.«
mr e::-...qnseepeefirefitaidarefilir.-::::Wfarnir—"nmigneeregememevizentEecrifilinandranfil e— ggo"Fu2Sse'
›,zeWezzze;zzzzzee
Vacuum-Tube Data V5

E.I.A. VACUUM- TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS

Socket connections correspond to the base designations given in the column headed " Base" in the classified tube-data tables.
Bottom views are shown throughout. Terminal designations are as follows:
D = Deflecting Plate IS -= Internal Shield RC = Ray- Control Eelectrode
A = Anode
B = Beam = Filament K = Cathode Ref =-- Reflector
FE =-- Focus Elect. NC = No Connection S Shell
BP = Bayonet Pin
BS = Base Sleeve G = Grid P = Plate ( Anode) TA = Target
H = Heater Pi = Starter- Anode U = Unit
C = Ext. Coating
CL Collector IC = Internal Con. Par Beam Plates • =-- Gas-Type Tube

Alphabetical subscripts D. P. T and HX indicate, respectively, diode unit, pentode unit, triode unit or hexode unit in multi-
unit types. Subscript CT indicates filament or heater tap.
Generally when the No. 1 pin of a metal- type tube in Table H, with the exception of all triodes, is shown connected to the
shell, the No. 1 pin in the glass ( G or CT) equivalent is connected to an internal shield.
• On 12AQ, 12AS and 12CT: index = large lug; • = pin cut off

2N 2T 2Z 3C
2AG 20

3T 4AB 4AC
3G 3N

4AD 4AJ 4AM 4A0 4AT

48J 480 48U

48 488 48C

4CK 4D 4E
4C 4C8 4CG

BP

4J 4K 4M
4F 4G

4V 4X 4Y
4P 4R

SAC SAD
5AB
4Z
V6 Chapter 25

TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS

Bottom views are shown. Terminal designations on ,, rkeIs are giren on page vs.

5AF SAG SAK SAL SAM 5AP

SAO SAS SAW 5AY SAZ 58

SBA 588 58C 58D 58E 5BF

5BK 580 580

58U
5C 5CA
5CB

IS

5CE SCF 5D 5E 5F 5J

5K 5L SM 50 58 5S

ST SU 5Y 5Z
6AA

6AE 6AF 6AM

PANEL DIALS — The No. 10035 illuminated panel dial has 12 DIALS AND KNOBS — Just o few ol 1,e many stock types of
to 1 ratio, size, 81
4 " x 61
/ 4 ". Small No. 10039 has 8 to I ratio; size,
/ small dials and knobs are illustrated herewith. 10007 is 11/
8 " diam-

4" o 311 / ". Both are of compact mechanical design, easy to mount
4 eter, 10009 is 21
/ " and 10008 is 31
2 2 "•
/
and have totally self-contained mechanism, thus eliminating bock of NIGH VOLTAGE INSULATED SHAFT EXTENSION —
panel interference. Provision for mounting and morking auxiliory No. 10061 shaft locks and the Na. 39023 insulated high voltage
controls, such as switches, potentiometers, etc., provided on the No. potentiometer extension mountings are available as o single integrated
10035. Standard finish, either size, flat black art metal. unit — the No. 39024. The proper shaft length is independent of
SHAFT LOCKS -- In addition to the original No. 10080 and No. the panel thickness. The standard shaft has provision for screw driver
10061 " DESIGNED FOR APPLICATION' . shaft locks, we can also adjustment. Special shaft arrangements ore available for industrial
furnish such variations as the No. 10062 and No. 10063 for easy applications. Extension shaft and insulated coupling are molded as a
thumb operation as illustrated above. The No. 10061 instantly con- single unit to provide accuracy of alignment and ease of installation.
verts any plain " 1 / shaft •• volume control, condenser, etc. from
4
No. 39023, non locking type Na. 39024, locking type
"plain" to " shaft locked" type. Easy to mount.

12000 and 16000 SERIES TRANSMITTING CONDENSERS 04000 and 11000 SERIES TRANSMITTING CONDENSERS
— Rigid heavy channeled aluminum end plates. Isolantite insulation, Another member of the ' Designed for Application" series of trans-
polished or plain edges. One piece o'er contact spring and connec• mitting variable air capacitors is the 04000 series with peak voltage
tion lug. Compact, easy to mount with connector lugs in convenient ratings of 3000, 6000, and 9000 volts. Right angle drive, 1.1
locations. Same plate sizes as 11000 series above. ratio. Adjustable drive shaft ongle for either vertical or sloping
The 16000 series has some plate sizes as 04000 series. Also has panels. Sturdy construction, thick, round- edged, polished aluminum
constant impedance, heavy current, multiple finger rotor contactor plates with 11/ " radius. Constant impedance, heavy current, multiple
4

of new design. Both 12000 and 16000 series available in single tTnger rotor contactor of new design. Available in all normal
and double sections and many capacities and plate spacing. capacities.
The 11000 series has 16/1 ratio center drive and fixed angle drive
28000-29000 SERIES VARIABLE AIR CAPACITORS shaft.
"Designed for Application," double bearings, steatite end plates,
cadmium or silver plated brass plates. Single or double section
.022" or . 066" air gap. End plate size: 19/ r," o 1%6". Rotor plate
1 PERMEABILITY TUNED CERAMIC FORMS — In addition to
radius: 3 / ". Shaft lock, rear shaft extension, special mounting
4 the popular shielded plug-in permeability tuned forms, 74000 series,
brackets, etc., to meet your requirements. The 28000 series has the 69040 series of ceramic permeability tuned unshielded forms
semi- circular rotor plate shape. The 29000 series has approximately are ovoiloble as standard stock items. Winding diameters available
straight frequency line rotor plate shape. Prices quoted on request. / " ona winding space from lye ta 11
from Yi,,," to 1
2 / ".
4

Many stock sizes. No. 69041—( Copper Slug) No. 69052—( Iron Core)
No. 69042—( Iron Core) No, 69054—(1ron Core)
NEUTRALIZING, CAPACITOR — Designed originally for use Na. 69043—) Copper Slug/ No. 69055—( Copper Slug)
in our own Na, 90881 Power Amplifier, the No. 15011 disc neutral- No. 69044—( Iron Core) No. 69056—) Iron Core)
izing capacitor has such unique features as rigid channel frame, No. 69045—( Copper Slug) No. 69057—) Copper Slug)
horizontal or vertical mounting, fine threod over- size lead screw No. 69046—( Iron Core) Na. 69058—( Iron Core)
with stop to prevent shorting and rotor lock. Heavy rounded•edged No. 69047—) Capper Slug) No. 69061—( Copper Slug)
polished aluminum plates are 2" diameter, Glazed steatite insulation No. 69048— Won Core) No. 69062—( Iron Core)
Na, 15011 No. 69051—) Copper Slug/

13
V8 Chapter 25

TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS

Bottom siews are shoon. Terminal designations on sockets are given on page V5

7AL 7AM TAN 7A0 7AP TAO

TAU 7AV TAX 7AZ 78

78A 7BB 7BC 78D 7BF

7BH 78K 7BM 7BN 780

7BP 7B0 7BR 7BS 787 7BW

78Z 7C 7CA 7CB

7CF 7CH 7CJ 7CK 7CM

G,

?CO 7CU
7CX 7CY 70

7D8 7DC
7OF 7DH TOK
give you the cleanest signal on amateur bands
70 to 100 watts driving power ( from the 32S-3 (except 5.0 to 6.5 mc). Crystals are provided
or KWM-2), it provides the full legal power for all HF bands except 10 meters where one
input for SSB, CW or RTTY. The tube used crystal is supplied with provision for two addi-
is the Eimac 4CX1000A. The 30S-1 may be tional crystals.
used on any frequency between 3.4 and 29.7 mc.
A special comparator tuning circuit allows tune- The KWM-2 operates on 80 through 10 meters
up at low power to avoid exceeding the legal dc with 175 watts PEP input on SSB or 160 watts
input of 1kw. Push button selection of linear on CW.
amplifier or exciter output from the front panel.
Antenna relay included. Conservatively rated. Top features of the KWM-2 are filter-type SSB
generation, Collins permeability-tuned oscil-
The new compact 30L-1 Linear ( the same
lator, crystal-controlled HF double conversion
size as the famous KWM-2) provides for 1000
oscillator, VOX and anti-trip circuits, automatic
watts PEP input on SSB ( 500 watts average dc)
load control and RF inverse feedback.
and 1000 watts average on CW, and has aself-
contained power supply. It is designed to be
driven by Collins KWM-1, KWM-2 or 32S-3, Extended Frequency Versions of the S/Line
as well as from most other 70-100 watt The 75S-3 is available in an extended frequency
CW/SSB exciters. The new unit also features version, designated the 75S-3A. The receiver
RF inverse feedback; automatic load control; differs from the original in that an additional
silicon rectifiers and ahigh/low power switch. crystal board has been added beneath the chassis.
Instant warm-up time. Automatic antenna In this board is placed the standard complement
switching from exciter to amplifier included. of ham band crystals normally received with the
equipment. The upper board is available for the
KWM-2 SSB Transceiver placement of whatever additional crystals may
This versatile single sideband transceiver serves be desired up to a total of 14. A front panel
both fixed station and mobile needs on any four- switch is added to allow switching between the
teen 200 kc bands between 3.4 and 29.7 mc two crystal boards.

19
vi o Chapter 25

TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS

Bottom stews are shown. Terminal designatiom on sockets are gisen on page

BBK 8BL 8BN 8130 89S 8BU

BEIV 813W RBY 8BZ BC BCB

BCD BCH 8CJ 8C0 8CS

BCT 8E 8EX 8EZ

8F 8FP 8FV 8GD 8GS

8H 8JC BK

Ge

8K0 8KS 8L 8N 80 80

8R es au 8V 8W

ex 8Y 8Z 9A 9AA 9AB
Vacuum-Tube Data
TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS

Bottom siews are shown. ' terminal designations on sockets are gisen on page 5.

G.,

9AE 9AG 9A11 9AJ

9AD

9AK 9AM 9AQ

9AX 9BA

98G 98L 98M

9BF

98P 980 98S 98U 98W

9BX 9BY 98Z 9C 9CB

NC

NC

9CD 9CG 9CK 9CT 9CV

9CZ 9DA 9DE

90R 9DW
V12 Chapter 25

TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS

Bottom siews are shown. "Terminal designations on sockets are gis en on page 3

907 9E 9EC 9ED 9EF

G,

'IC

9EN 9ER 9ES 9EW 9F

9FA 9FE 9FG 9FH 9FJ

9FT 9FX 9FZ 9GC

9GE 9GF 9GJ 9GK 9GM 9GR

9H 9HN 9HR
9GS

9FIV 9HZ 9J 9J0

9JG 9JU 9J X 9K

9KT 9K U 9L 9LK
Vacuum-Tube Data V13

Bottom views are shown. Terminal designations on sockets and • meaning are given on page VS.

9LY 9M 9MS

a,
G,

9NZ 9PB

IC

NC

90 9R
9PM

9V 9Y
9S

IIA 11B IIC IIJ IIL

92

NC

IIN IIS IIT

IIM

KT.

12BF 12BJ 12BM 1280

G,

G;

12BY I2CA 12E

I2BW

I4A 14B
I2F I2FB I2J 121
V14 Chapter 25

TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS

BOtt0111 news are shown. Terminal & signal - on sockets are 'then on pace

14E 14G 14 J I4R

NC

I4S 14U 14 V Fla 2 FIG. 3

Fla 4 FIG. 5 FIG.6 FIG. 7 FIG .8 FIG.9

en

FIG.10 FIG. II FIG. 13 FIG.14 FIG. 15

TOP RING

NC
RING
RA

NC NH

FIG. 16 FIG. Il FIG. 18 FIG. 19 FIG. 20 FIG, 21

FIG. 22 FIG. 23 FIG. 24 FIG. 25 FIG. 26 FIG. 27

NC

PIN
FIG. 28 FIG. 29 FIG. 30 FIG. 31 FIG. 32 FIG. 33

Ge

N II

FIG. 34 FIG. 35 FIG. 36 FIG. 37 FIG. 38 FIG. 39

G SLOT

FIG. 40 FIG. 41 FIG. 42 FIG. 43 FIG. 44 FIG. 45

Vacuum-Tube Data V15

TUBE BASE DIAGRAMS

Bottom siews are shown. Terminal designations on sockets are given on page VS

NC

FIG. 46 FIG. 47 FIG,48 FIG. 49 FIG.50 FIG. 51

«c NC

FIG. 52 FIG. 53 FIG. 55 FIG. 56 FIG. 57

G.

G,
G, Fo•

FIG. 58 FIG. 59 FIG. 60 FIG. 61 FIG. 62 FIG. 63

FIG. 64 FIG. 65 FIG. 66 FIG. 67 FIG. 68 FIG. 69

G,
H

FIG. 70 FIG. 71 FIG. 72 FIG. 73 FIG. 74 FIG.75

FIG.76 FIG 77 FIG.78 FIG. 79

0. 0 H VPIATOR

O*0
H 6'

efr- 0
Gt Al 0

Ni
jeer.
o - o

FIG. 85 FIG. 86
nG. 82 FIG.83 FIG. 84
 TABLE I- MINIATURE RECEIVING TUBES

Fil. or Capacitances

Res. Ohms
Neater E

Transcon-
Supply V.
Pt

ductance
Type Name Base

Factor.

Output
Watts
Plate

Plate

Amp.
Bias

Load
Grid
I'
V. Amp. Co, L

Ma.
e

ei cie
Cool Cop
@it I

1A3 Ht. Diode 5AP 1.4 0.15 - - - Max. a.c. vo tage per plate - 111. Max. output curie
1L4 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 6AR 1.4 0.05 3.6 7.5 0.008 90 0 90 2.0 4.5 3506 1025
Ill Pentagrid Cony. 7DC 1.4 0.05 7.5 12.0 0.3 90 0 45 0.6 0.5 650K 300 - - -
IRS Pentagrid Coml. 7AT 1.4 0.05 7.0 12.0 0.3 90 0 67.5 3.5 1.5 4006 280 Grid No. 11006
154 Pentagrid Pwr. Amp. 7AV 1.4 0.1 - - - 90 -7.0 67.5 1.4 7.4 ICOK 1575 - 8K 0.270
A, Amo 67.5 0 67.5 0.4 1.6 6006 625 - - -
195 Diode - Pentode •' 8AU 1.4 0.05 - -
R.f. Amp. 90 0 90 Screen Rosis or 3meg., rid 10 meg. Imeg. 0.050
1T4 Variable, Pent. 6AR 1.4 0.05 3.6 7.5 0.01 90 0 67.5 1.4 3.5 5006 903 - - -
1U4 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 6AR 1.4 0.05 3.6 7.5 0.01 90 0 90 0.5 1.6 1meg. 900 - - -
1U5 Diode Pentode 66W 1.4 0.05 - - - 67.5 0 67.5 0.4 1.6 600K 625 - - -
A, Amp. 250 450" 250 3.3/ 7.4 44: 636 3700 40 , 4.56 4.5
Beam Pwr. A, Amp.: 250 225" 250 6.6/14.8 88: - - 80 , 96 , 9
2E30 7C11 6.0 0.65 9.5 6.6 0.2
Pent AB, Amp.: 250 -25 250 3/13.5 82: - - 48: 86 , 12.5
AB, Amp.' 250 -30 250 4/20 120: - - ae 3.8. 17
2EA53 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 7EW 2.4 0.60 3.8 2.3 0.06 250 -1 150 - 10 1506 8000 - - -
2E053 Dual Diode 7FL 2.1 0.45 - - - Ma . a.c. vo luge per plate - 200. Max. otput curt nt - 5.0 ma.
1.4 0.2 135 -7.5 90 2.6 14.9: 906 0.6
3A4 Per. Amp. Pent. 7118 4.8 4.2 0.34 1900 - 8K -
2.8 0.1 150 -8.4 90 2.2 14.1: 1006 0.7
1.4 0.22
3A5 H.f. Dual Triode: , 78C 0.9 1.0 3.2 90 -2.5 - - 3.7 8.3K 1800 15 - -
2.8 0.11
3DKIt Sharp Cut-off Pent. 7CM 3.15 0.6 6.3 1.9 0.02 300 -6.5 150 3.8 12
1.4 0.1 2.1 9.5 ICOK 2150 10K 0.27
304 Per. Amp. Pent. 7BA 5.5 3.8 0.2 90 -4.5 93
2.8 0.05 1.7 7.7 1206 2000 10K 0.24
1.4 0.1 1.4 7.4 1575 027
364 Per. Amp. Pent 7BA 90 -1 67.5 100K on -
2.8 0.05 1.1 6.1 1425 0.235
IEW63 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 7CM 4.2 0.6 10.0 2.4 0.04 300 -3.5 180 3.2 11 - 1400 - - -
SABI U.h.f. Triode 5CE 6.3 0.15 2.2 0.5 1.5 250 200' - - 10 I0.9K 5500 60 - -
SAFIA Uhf. - Triode A, Amp '
80 150" - - 16 2.27K 6600 15 - -
701( 6.3 0.225 2.2 0.45 1.9
Ou. 950 Mc. 100 10604 - 0.4: 22 - - - - -
SAGS 250 180" 150 2.0 6.5 8006 5000 - - -
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 780 6.3 0.3 6.5 1.8 0.03
100 180. 100 1.4 4.5 6006 4500 - - -
SANS Sharp Cut-off Pent Amp. 300 160" 150 2.5 10 51:014 9600 - - -
78K 6.3 0.45 10.0 2.0 0.03
Pent Triode Amp. 150 160* - - 12.5 3.6K 116 40 - -
SAM Uhf. Triode MIX 6.3 0.225 4.4 0.18 2.4 125 68. - - 16 4.2K 10K 42 - -
180 200' 120 2.4 7.7 690K 5100 - - -
OAKS Sharp Cut-off Pent. 761) 6.3 0.175 4.0 2.8 0.02 150 330' 140 2.2 7 420K 4300 - - -
120 200' 120 2.5 7.5 340K 5000 - - -
SAK6 Per. Amp. Pent. 78K 6.3 0.15 3.6 4.2 0.12 180 -9 180 2.5 15 2006 2308 - 10K 1.1
8AL5 Dual Diode: , 601 6.3 0.3 - - - Max. r.m.. voltage - 117. Max. d.c. out ut curro t - 9ma.:
SAM4 U.h.f. Triode 9BR 6.3 0.225 4.4 0.16 2.4 150 100. - - 7.5 10K 9000 90 - -
SAMOA: Diode - Sharp Cut-off Pent. ICY 6.3 0.45 6.0 2.6 0.015 200 120' I50 2.7 11.5 600K 7000 - - -
SAN4 Uhf. Triode 7DK 6.3 0.225 2.8 0.28 1.7 203 100' - - 13 - 106 70 - -
SANS Beam Per. Pent 100 6.3 0.45 9.0 4.8 0.075 120 120' 120 12.0 35 I2.5K 8000 - 2.5K 1.3
Medium, Triode 2.0 2.7 1.5 200 -6 - - 13 5.756 3300 - - -
6ANSA3 IDA 6.3 0.45
Sharp Cut-off Pent 7.0 2.3 0.04 200 180' 150 2.8 9.5 306 6200 - - -
6AQ5At 180 -8.5 180 3/4 30: 58K 3700 29: 5.56 2.0
Beam Per. Pent. 702 6.3 0.45 8.3 8.2 0.35
250 -12.5 250 4.5, 7 47 1 52K 4100 45: 56 4.5
Dual Diode - 100 -1 - - 0.8 6114 1150 70 - -
84418 781 6.3 0.15 1.7 1.5 1.8
High, Triode 250 -3 - - 1 586 1200 70 - -
8ACI8 High, Twin Triode 9A1 6.3 0.435 0.3 1.2 1.5 250 -2 - - 10 9.76 6030 - - -
BARS Per. Amp. Pent. 250 -16.5 250 5.7/10 35: 65K 2400 34: 7K 3.2
8CC 6.3 0.4 - -
250 -18 250 5.5/10 33: 68K 2300 32 , 7.66 3.4
SARI Sheet Beam SDP 6.3 0.3 - - - TV Color Ckts. - Synchronous Detector - Bu st Gate
SASS Beam Per. Amp. IC V 6.3 0.8 12 6.2 0.6 150 -8.5 110 2/6.5 36: - 5603 35 , 4.514 2.2
SASS Sharp Cut-off Pent. 7CM 6.3 0.175 4 3 0.2 120 -2 120 3.5 5.2 110K 3200 - - -
SASS Diode - Sharp Cut-off Pent SOS 6.3 0.45 7 2.2 0.04 200 180' 150 3 9.5 303K 6200 - - -
SAIS Duplex Diode - High, Triode 717 6.3 0.3 2.3 1.1 2.1 250 -3 - - I 58K 1200 70 - -
Medium, Triode 2 0.5 1.5 100 100' - - 8.5 6.9K 5800 40 - -
6ATIMI 9DW 6.3 0.45
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 4.5 0.9 0.025 250 203. 150 1.6 7.7 751314 4600 - - -
6AU6A3 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 76K 6.3 0.3 5.5 5 0.0035 250 68' 150 4.3 10.6 Imeg. 5200 - - -
Medium- 0 Triode 2.6 0.34 2.2 150 150" - - 9 8.26 4900 40 - -
GAM: 9DX 6.3 0.6
Sharp Cut-off Pent 7.5 3.4 0.06 200 82' 125 3.4 15 1506 7000 - - -
SAYS Dual Diode - High, Triode 782 6.3 0.3 2.2 0.8 2.0 250 -2 - - 1.2 62.5K 1600 103 - -
High, Triode 3.2 0.32 2.2 200 -2 - - 4 17.56 4000 70 - -
SAME 9DX 6.3 0.6
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 11 2.8 0.036 200 180. 150 3.5 13 4036 9000 - - -
Medium, Triode 2.5 1 1.8 150 56' - - 18 5K 8500 40 - -
6AX11 SAE 6.3 0.45
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 5 3.5 0.006 250 120' 110 3.5 10 4006 4800 - - -
Medium, Triode 2 1.7 1.7 200 -6 - - 13 5.756 3300 19 - -
6AZ1 SEO 6.3 0.45
Semiremote Cut-off Pent 6.5 2.2 0.02 200 180' 150 3 9.5 3006 6003 - - -
GRAS Remote Cut-off Pent 78K 6.3 0.3 5.5 5 0.0035 250 68' 100 4.2 II Imeg. 4400 - - -
GSM Pentagrid Cony. ACT 6.3 0.3 Osc. 20611 250 -1 ICO 10 3.8 1meg. 950 - - -
Medium, Triode 2.5 0.7 2.2 200 -8 - - 8 6.76 27C0 18 - -
88118A3 9DX 6.3 0.6
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 11 2.8 0.036 200 180' 150 3.5 13 4006 9000 - - -
UM Uhf. Medium, Triode 9011 6.3 0.225 2.9 0.26 1.6 150 me - - 14.5 4.8K 10K 48 - -
68C5 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 100 6.3 0.3 6.5 1.8 0.03 250 180' 150 2.1 7.5 80014 5703 - - -
BBC? Triple Diode 9AX 6.3 0.45 Max. diode current per plate •,. 12 Ma. Max. htr.-cath. volts - 200
MIMI Medium- 0 Dual Triode: , 9A.1 6.3 0.4 2.5 1.3 1.4 150 220' - - 10 - 6200 35 - -
100 -I 100 5 13 1506 2500 - - -
6806 Remote Cut-off Pent 78K 6.3 0.3 4.3 5.0 0.005
250 -3 100 3 9 sox 2000 - - -
 TABLE I - MINATURE RECEIVING. TUBES - Continued V17

11
Fn. or Capacitances

Res. Ohms
naallot3 oa
-11038111111
›:

w
Heater FL

[
Name Base

Factor.
Typo

Screen
Screen

I Amp.
Plate

alrld
Volts

Load
Bias
Grid

sad
is.i7i

Ma.
V. Amp. Cu. Cup

Ma.
C.. e 3o

68E6 Pentagrid Cony. 7CH 6.3 0.3 Osc. 20K0 250 -1.5 100 6.8 2.9 1meg. 475 - -
Medium, Triode 2.8 1.5 1.8 150 56. - - 18 5K 8503 40 - --
68E8AL 9EG 6.3 0.45 -
Sharp Cut.off Pent 4.4 2.6 0.04 250 68* 110 3.5 10 400K 5200 - -
68E5 Beam Pwr. Amp. 781 6.3 1.2 14 6 0.65 110 -7.5 110 4, 10.5 392 12K 7503 36 5 2.511 1.9
68F6 Dual Diode - Medium- 0 Triode 78T 6.3 0.3 1.8 0.8 2 250 -9 - - 9.5 8.5K 1900 16 10K 0.3
68H6 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 7CM 6.3 0.15 5.4 4.4 0.0035 250 -I 150 2.9 7.4 1.4 meg. 4600 - - -
Medium - 0 Triode 2.6 0.38 2.4 150 -5 - - 9.5 5.15K 3300 17 - -
MO: 900 6.3 0.6 15 150K 7000 - - -
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 7 2.4 0.046 200 82. 125 3.4
6816A Remote Cut-off Pent 7CM 6.3 0.15 4.5 5.5 0.0035 250 -I 100 3.3 9.2 1.3 meg. 3800 - - -
6817 Triple Diode 9AX 6.3 0.45 Max. peak inverse plate voltage -330 V. Max d.c. plate current each diode - 1.0 Ma.
6818: Dual Diode - Medium, Triode 9ER 6.3 0.6 2.8 0.38 2.6 250 -9 - - 8 7.156 2800 20 - -
6865 Beam Pwr. Pent. 980 6.3 1.2 13 5 0.6 250 -5 250 3.5/10 37 2 100K 8500 355 6.5K 3.5
68K8 Dual Diode - High- 0 Triode 781 6.3 0.3 - - - 250 -2 - - 1.2 62.511 1600 100 - -
681178 Medium-v. Dual Triode" 9A1 6.3 0.4 3 I 1.8 150 56' - - 18 4.6K 9300 43 - -
Triode 2.5 1.8 1.5 250 -1.3 - - 14 - 5000 20 - -
68L8 Flg. 83 6.3 0.43 2.8 10 400K 6200 47 - -
Pentode 5.2 3.4 0.025 250 -1.3 175
68N4* Medium-0Triode 7EG 6.3 0.2 3.2 1.4 1.2 150 220" - - 9 6.3K 6800 43 - -
6806 Gated- Beam Pent 7DF 6.3 0.3 4.2 3.3 0.034 80 -1.3 60 5 0.23 - - - 68K -
UM: Dual Diode - High - 0 Triode 9ER 6.3 0.6 3.6 0.25 2.5 250 -3 - - 1.6 28K 2500 70 - -
6005 Pwr. Amp. Pent UV 6.3 0.76 10.8 6.5 0.5 300 -7.3 200 10.8 49.52 38K - - 5.26 17 ,
68Q7A Medium- 0 Dual Triode ,. SA1 6.3 0.4 2.85 1.35 1.15 150 220* - - 9 6.16 6400 39 - -
Medium- 0 Triode 2.5 0.4 1.8 150 56* - - 18 5K 8500 40 - -
68R8AL 9FA 6.3 0.45 400K 5200 - - -
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 5 2.6 0.015 250 68* 110 3.5 10
68S8 Low- Noise Dual Triode" 9A1 6.3 0.4 2.6 1.35 1.15 150 220' - - 10 56 7200 36 - -
6t1T6 Dual Diode - High-v. Triode 78T 6.3 0.3 - - - 250 -3 - - 1 58K 1200 70 - -
6818 Dual Diode - Pent 9FE 6.3 0.45 7 2.3 0.04 203 180* 150 2.8 9.5 300K 6200 - - -
6806 Dual Diode - Low, Triode 781 6.3 0.3 - - - 250 -9 - - 9.5 8.5K 1900 16 10K 0.3
6881 Dual Pent" 9FG 6.3 0.3 6 3 , - 100 , - 67.5 3.3 22 - - - - -
6BVM Dual Diode - Medium-v. Triode 9E1 6.3 0.6 3.6 0.4 2 200 330* - - II 5.9K 5600 33 - -
68W8 Dual Diode - Pent 9HK 6.3 0.45 4.8 2.6 0.02 250 68* 110 3.5 10 250K 5200 - - -
68X8 Dual Triode" 9A1 6.3 0.4 - - 1.4 65 -1 - - 9 - 6700 25 - -
6800 Pentagrid Amp. 7CH 6.3 0.3 5.4 7.6 0.08 250 -2.5 100 9 6.5 La - 2.5V. 1900 - -
813YM Diode - Sharp Cut-off Pent. 9FN 6.3 0.6 5.5 5 0.0035 250 68' 150 4.3 10.6 1meg. 5200 - - -
6826 Semiremote Cut-off Pent 7CM 6.3 0.3 7.5 1.8 0.02 200 180* 150 2.6 11 600K 6100 - - -
61127 Medium-gDual Triode" 911.1 6.3 0.4 2.5 1.35 1.15 150 220. - - 10 5.611 6800 38 - -
8828 Dual Triode" 9M 6.3 0.4 - - - 125 103. - - 10 , 5.611 8030 45 - -
6C4 Medium- 0 Triode 68G 6.3 0.15 1.8 1.3 1.6 250 -8.5 - - 10.5 7.7K 2200 17 - -
6CA5 Beam Pent 7CV 6.3 1.2 15 9 0.5 125 -4.5 125 4/11 36' 15K 9200 37 5 4.5K 1.5
6C116AL Sharp Cut-off Pent 7CM 6.3 0.3 6.5 1.9 0.02 200 180. 150 22 9.5 600K 6200 - - -
6C655 R.f. Pent. 780 6.3 0.3 6.5 1.9 0.03 200 180* 150 2.8 9.5 603K 6203 - - -
6CF6 Sharp Cut-off Pent 7CM 6.3 0.3 6.3 1.9 0.02 200 180* 150 2.8 9.5 600K 6200 - - -
6CG6 Semiremote Cut-off Pent 78K 6.3 0.3 5 5 0.008 250 -8 150 2.3 9 720K 2030 - - -
6CG7: Medium, Dual Triode" 9A1 6.3 0.6 2.3 2.2 4 250 -8 - - 9 7.76 2600 20 - -
Medium, Triode 2.6 0.05 1.5 100 ¡08' - - 8.5 6.9K 5800 40 - -
6C G8AL 9GF 6.3 0.45 150 1.6 7.7 750K 4600 - - -
Sharp Cut-off Pent 4.8 0.9 0.03 250 200.
Medium, Triode 1.9 1.6 1.6 200 -6 - - 13 5.75K 3300 19 - -
66 H8 SET 6.3 0.45 9.5 300K 6200 - - -
Sharp Cut-off Pent 7 2.25 0.025 200 180. 150 2.8
6CL6 Pwr. Amp. Pent 98V 6.3 0.65 11 5.5 0.12 250 -3 150 7, 7.2 31 , 150K IIK 30 , 7500 2.8
Medium, Triode 2.7 0.4 1.8 300 - - - 15 5K 8000 40 - -
SCUM 9FX 6.3 0.45 300 4 12 100K 6400 - - -
Sharp Cut-off Tetrode 5 0.02 0.02 303 -1
6CM6 Beam Pwr. Amp. 9CK 6.3 0.45 8 8.5 0.7 315 -13 225 2.2/6 355 80K 3750 34 5 8.5K 5.5
.,„ Medium-,. Triode No. 1 2 0.5 3.8 200 -7 - - 5 IIK 2000 20 - -
Dual Triode 9ES 6.3 0.6 - 10 4.1K 4400 18 - -
6CM 's Triode No. 2 3.5 0.4 3 250 -8 -
High-v. Triode 1.6 0.22 1.9 250 -2 - - 1.8, 50K 2000 100 - -
SC MIL SIEZ 6.3 0.45 150 2.8 9.5 300K 6200 - - -
Sharp Cut-off Pent 6 2.6 0.02 200 180.
6.3 0.3 100 -1 - - 0.8 54K 1300 70 - -
6C147: Dual Diode - High-v. Triode 9EN 1.5 0.5 1.8 I 58K 1200 70 - -
3.15 0.6 250 -3 - -
Medium, Triode 2.7 0.4 1.8 125 56* - - 15 511 8000 40 - -
6COM 9GE 6.3 0.45 125 4.2 12 140K 5800 - - -
Sharp Cut-off Tetrode 5 2.5 0.019 125 -1
6C R6 Diode - Remote Cut-off Pent 7EA 6.3 C.3 - - - 250 -2 100 3 9.5 200K 1950 - - -
6CS5 Beam Pwr. Pent. 9CK 6.3 1.2 15 9 0.5 200 180' 125 2.2 47' 28K 8000 - 411 3.8
8CSS Pentagrid Amp. 7C II 6.3 0.3 5.5 7.5 0.05 100 -1 30 1.1 0.75 Imeg. 950 Ea - 0V. -
Medium, Triode No. 1 1.8 0.5 2.6 250 -8.5 - - 10.5 7.7K 2200 17 - -
,, 9EF 6.3 0.6
6C S'. Dual Triode Triode No. 2 3.0 0.5 2.6 250 -10.5 - - 19 3.45K 4500 15.5 - -
6CU5 Beam Pwr. Pent. 7CV 6.3 1.2 13.2 8.6 0.7 120 -8 110 4/8.5 50, 10K 7500 - 23K 2.3
SC W4 Triode 12A0 6.3 0.13 4.1 1.7 0.92 70 0 - - 8 5.44K 12.5K 68 - -
SCW5 Pentode 9CV 6.3 0.76 12 6 0.6 170 -12.5 170 5 70 - - - 2.4K 5.6
Medium, Triode 2.2 0.38 4.4 150 150. - - 9.2 8.7K 4600 40 - -
SEMI 9DX 6.3 0.75 125 5.2 24 70K 10K - - -
Sharp Cut-off Pent 9 4.4 0.06 200 68'
6CY5 Sharp Cut-off Tetrode 7EW 6.3 0.2 4.5 3 0.03 125 -7 80 1.5 10 100K 8000 - - -
Dissimilar - 1.5' 0.3' 1.8' 250' -3' - - 1.2' 52 K , 1300 ' 68, - -
6C Y7 SEE 6.3 0.75 - 30 5 920 5 5400 5 5 - -
Dual Triode 55 Is 4.4 5 150 5 620• 5 - 5

250 -14 250 4.6/8 48 5 73K 4800 46s 5K 5.4

SCI5L Beam Pwr. Amp. A' Amp ' 9HN 6
.3 0.45 8 83 0.7 - - 46 5 7.510 1.5
AB 'Amps 350 -23.5 280 3/13 1031
9G R 63 12 15 9 0.5 200 180. 125 2.2/8.5 46/47 28K 8030 - 4K 3.8
6085 Beam P VIL Amp.
6086 Sharp Cut-off Pent 7CM 6.3 0.3 6 5 0.0035 150 -1 150 6.6 5.8 50K 2050 Ea - 3V. -
6066 Semiremote Cut-off Pent 7CM 6.3 0.3 6.5 2 0.02 200 180. 150 3 9 500K 5500 - - -
V18 TABLE I- MINIATURE RECEIVING TUBES - Continued

1
Fit or Capacitances a
Heater Pl. ›; es ï
I
É .le -.=
Type Name Base o

Plate
3 eit ,, '• i. ..4 rtl, el
i'a'

Ma.
ez
3
V. Amp. Ci, C.. C,, gm ib;
f me xi,

60 E6 Sharp Cutoff Pent 7CM 6.3 0.3 6.3 1.9 0.02 200 180' 150 2.8 9.5 6006 6200 - - -
Dissimilar - 2.2' 0.52' 4' 250' -II ' - - 5.5' 8.756' 2000' 17.5' - -
6DE 7 9HF 6.3 0.9
Dual Triode BP I, 8.5 , 150 , -17.5 , - - 35 , 925 , 6500 , 6, - -
UM Twin Triode 9A1 6.3 0.365 3.3 1.8 1.4 90 -1.3 - - 15 - 12.514 33 - -
SDKS Sharp Cut-off Pent. /CM 6.3 0.3 6.3 1.9 0.02 300 -6.5 150 3.8 12
Dissimilar - 2.2 0.34 4.5 330 -3 - - 1.4 - 1600 68' - -
6087 SHE 6.3 0.9
Dual Triode 5.5 1.0 8.5 275 -17.5 - - 35 - 6500 6, - -
6DS 4 High-, Triode 12 ACI 6.3 0.135 4.1 1.7 .92 70 0 - - 8 5.44 K 12.56 68 - -
3.8 250 -8.5 200 310 32 2 28 K 5800 32 , 81(
6DS 5 Beam Pwr. Amp. 78 Z 6.3 0.8 9.5 6.3 0.19
250 270. 200 39 252 286 5800 27 , 86 3.6
BOTS Pwr. Amp. Pent. 9HN 6.3 0.76 10.8 6.5 0.5 300 -7.3 203 10.8 49.52 386 - - 5.26 17
6076 Sharp Cut-off Pent 7EN 6.3 0.3 5.8 - 0.02 150 560' 100 2.1 1.1 150 K 615 - - -
60 T8 High., Dual Triode" 9DE 6.3 0.3 2.7 1.6 1.6 250 200' - - 10 10.96 5500 60 - -
613 V4 Triode 12 E6 6.3 0.135 3.7 0.25 1.8 75 100' - 10.5 3.16 11.56 35
6DW5 Beam Pwr. Amp. 9CK 6.3 1.2 14 9 0.5 200 -22.5 150 2 55 I5K 5500 - - -
6024 Medium-, Triode 7DK 6.3 0.225 2.2 1.3 1.8 80 -II 15 2.06 6700 14
6EA 5 Sharp Cutoff Tet. /EW 6.3 0.2 3.8 2.3 .06 250 -1 140 0.95 10 150K 8000 - - -
Triode 3 0.3 1.7 330 -12 - - 18 5K 8500 40 - -
6EA8: SAE 6.3 0.45
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 5 2.6 0.02 330 -9 330 4 12 800 6400 - - -
6E85 Dual Diode 68 T 6.3 0.3 Max. P.I.
V 550, Max. D.C.output current 5.5 ma
High., Triode 2.4 .36 4.4 330 - - - 2 376 2700 100 - -
6E88 9DX 6.3 0.75
Sharp Cutoff Pent 11 4.2 0.1 330 -9 - 7 25 756 12.56 - - -
6EH 5 Power Pentode 7CV 6.3 1.2 17 9 0.65 135 0 117 14.5 42 116 I4.6 K - 36 1.4
Triode 2.8 1.7 1.8 125 -I - - 13.5 - 7503 40 - -
6EH 8 91 G 6.3 0.45
Pentagrid Cony. 4.8 2.4 0.02 125 -I 125 4 12 1706 6000 - - -
6ER 5 Tetrode 7FN 6.3 0.18 4.4 3.0 0.38 200 -1.2 0 0 10 86 10.5 K 80 - -
6E55 Triode 7FP 6.3 0.20 3.2 3.2 0.5 200 -1 - - 10 86 9000 75 - -
USA Dual Triode 90 E 6.3 0.365 3.4 1.7 1.9 130 -1.2 - - 15 - 12.56 34 - -
6EU 7 Twin Triode 9LS 6.3 0.3 1.6 0.2 1.5 1® -1 - - 0.5 806 1250 100 - -
Triade
riode 5.0 2.6 0.02 150 - .-- 18 56 8500 40 - -
BELIO 6.3 0.45
Pentode 3.0 1.6 1.7 125 -I 125 4 12 806 6400 - - -
6E05 Sharp Cut-OfTut 7EW 6.3 0.2 4.5 2.9 0.035 250 -I 80 0.9 11.5 150 K 8800 - - -
Triple Triode No. I 1.4
BED! 9KA 6.3 0.45 2. 6 1.5 330 -4 - - 4.2 13.66 4200 57 - -
Triode Triodes No. 2 & 3 1.2
6FG 5 Pentode 7GA 6.3 0.2 4.2 2.8 0.02 250 -0.2 250 .42 9 2506 9500 - - -
Triode 3.0 1.3 1.8 125 -1 - - 13 5700 7500 43 - -
6FG 7 9GF 6.3 0.45
Pentode 5.0 2.4 0.2 125 -1 125 4 11 1806 6000 - - -
6FH 5 Triode /FP 6.3 0.2 3.2 3.2 0.6 135 -1 - - 11 5600 9000 50 - -
Duplex 2.4 - -
Max. a.c. voltage - 200. M a d.c. output current - 5ma.
6FM 8 Diode 9148 6.3 0.45 2.2 - -
Triode 1.5 0.16 1.8 300 -3 - - 1 586 1200 70 - -
6F1151if Triode 7FP 6.3 0.18 4.8 4.0 0.4 135 -1.2 - - 11.5 5500 11 K 60 - -
6FS5 V.h.f. Pent 76 A 6.3 0.2 4.8 2.0 .03 275 -0.2 135 0.17 9 2406 10 K - - -
6FV 6 Sharp Cut-off Tetrode 7F0 6.3 0.2 4.5 3 0.03 125 -I 80 1.5 10 100 K 8000 - - -
Triode 2.8 1.5 1.8 330 -1 - - 14 5K 8000 40 - -
6FV 8A; 9FA 6.3 0.45
Pentode 5 2 0.02 330 -1 125 4 12 200 K 6500 - - -
6FW8 Medium-, Twin Triode 9A1 6.3 0.4 3.4 2.4 1.9 100 -1.2 - - 15 2500 13 K 33 - -
6FY5 Tetrode 1FN 6.3 0.2 4.75 3.3 0.50 135 -1 - - 11 - 13 K 70 - -
6GC 5 NU Pent SEC 6.3 1.2 18.0 7.0 0.9 110 -7.5 110 4 50 - I 3K ' 8000 - 2K 2.1
Triode 3.4 1.6 2.6 125 -1 - - 13.5 56 8500 40 - -
66.18 SAE 6.3 0.6
Pentode 8 2.4 0.36 125 -1 125 4.5 12 1506 7500 - - -
66 K5 High., Triode 7FP 6.3 0.18 5 3.5 0.52 135 -1 - - 11.5 5400 I5K 78 - -
66 K6 Power Pentode 901( 6.3 0.76 10 7.0 0.14 250 -7.3 250 5.5 48 3131( 11.36 - 5.21( 5.7
66 M6 Pentode 7CM 6.3 0.4 10 2.4 0.036 125 - 125 3.4 14 2006 I3K - - -
High-, Triode 2.4 0.36 4.4 250 -2 - - 2 376 2700 100 - -
6668 9DX 6.3 0.75
Sharp Cutoff Pent. II 4.2 0.1 200 - 150 5.5 25 606 11.56 - - -
6068 Twin Pentode 9LW 6.3 0.30 6.0 3.2 - 100 -10 67.5 3.6 2.0 - - - - -
High., Triode - - - 100 -0.8 - 5 7.6 K 6500 50
66 V8 9LY 6.3 0.9
Pentode - - 170 -15 170 2.7 41 256 7500 - -
66 Y8 Triple Triode 9M8 6.3 0.45 - - - 125 -1 - - 4.5 146 4500 63 - -
66 W5 V.h.f. Triode 76 K 6.3 0.19 5.5 4.0 0.6 135 -1 - 12.5 5.86 I5K 70 -- -
6H86 Power Pentode 9PU 6.3 0.76 13 8.0 0.18 250 100* 250 6.2 40 24 K 206 -
High-, Triode 2.8 2.6 3.5 200 -2 - - 4 17.56 4000 70 - -
6HF8 9DX 6.3 0.78
Sharp Gut-off Pent, 10 4.2 0.1 200 68' 125 7 25 75K 12.5 K - - -
6H165 Triode 76 M 6.3 0.19 4.4 2.6 0.29 135 -1.0 12.5 511 I5K 75
6HS 6 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 78 K 6.3 0.45 8.8 5.2 .006 150 0 75 2.8 8.8 KOK 9500 -
High., Triode 3.8 0.4 5.0 203 -2 3.5 4K 70 -
8ti 28 9DX 6.3 1.125
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 12 5 0.1 250 100' 170 6 - 29 1406 I2.6 K --
614 Grounded- Grid Triode 780 6.3 0.4 7.5 3.9 0.12 150 100' - - 15 4.56 12 K 55 - -
,, Medium-, A,Amp."
711 F 6 .3 0.45 2.2 0.4 1.6 180 5°' - 8.5 7.16 5300 38 - -
MA " Dual Triode Mixer 150 811P - - 4.8 I
0.2 K 1900 Osc. peak voltage - 3V.
Med. -
0 Triode 2.8 .44 1.3 125 -1 - 12 66 6500 40 - -
BICS SPA 6.3 0.45
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 4.8 0.9 0.038 125 -1 125 2.2 9 3006 5500 - -
3.0 1.0 1.4 KO -1 - 5.3 86 6800 55 -
6
JK8 Dual V.h.f. Triode 911.1 6.3 0.4
5.0 4.0 0.6 135 -1.2 - 10 5.46 13 K 70 - -
Medium-, Triode 2.4 2.0 1.3 125 68' 13 5.06 8000 40 -
6KE8 SOC 6.3 0.4
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 5.0 3.4 .015 125 33* 125 28 10 I
25 K I2K
6S4A Medium., Triode SAC 6.3 0.6 4.2 0.9 2.6 250 -8 - - 26 3.6 K 4500 16 - -
ST4 U.h.f. Triode 7DK 6.3 0225 2.6 0.25 1.7 80 150' - - 18 1.866 7800 13 - -
 TABLE I - MINIATURE RECEIVING TUBES - Continued V19
FI . or
Heater
Capacitances
pl. e j 1
I
I'
TYPs Flame Base e o ,,,;•

Screen

Factor'
Arnp.
V. Amp. Ci n ia ed
Segt •0"

Ma.
Gat Cpp

MA: Triple Diode- High, Triode 9E 6.3 0.45 1.6 1 2.2

KG _1 _ - 0.8 54K 1300 70 - -
250 -3 - - 1 58K 1200 70 - -
Medium, Triode 2.5 0.4 1.8 150 56 8 - - 18 56 8500 40 - -
BUM 96E 6.3 0.45
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 5 2.6 0.01 250 68 8 110 3.5 10 403K 5200 - - -
Medium, Triode 2.0 0.5 1.4 100 100 8 - - 8.5 6.90 - 40 - -
6X86; 96K 6.3 0.45
Sharp Cut-off Pent. 4.3 0.7 0.09 250 200 8 150 1.6 7.7 750K - - - -
A, Amp. 9E0 126 02 8 8.8 02 250 -12.5 250 4.5/ 7 47 , 506 4100 45 , 5K 4.5
12685 Beam Pwr. Amp.
AB, Amp. , 250 -15 250 5/13 791 6010 3750 , 70' 10K, 10
126C6 Remote Cut-off Pent. 78K 12.6 0.15 4.3 5 0.005 12.6 0 12.6 0.2 0.55 500K 730 - - -
12606 Pentagrid Cony. 7CH 12.6 0.15 8 8 0.3 12.6 0 12.6 1.5 0.45 1meg. 260 Grid No. 1Res. 336
126E66 Dual Diode - Medium, Triode WIT 12.6 0.15 1.8 1.1 2 12.6 0 - - 0.75 156 1000 15 - -
Low, Dissimilar 4.7 0.75 3.9 16 - - - 1.9 31.56 4000 13 - -
126E7 96 12.6 0.45 -
Double Triode 4.2 0.85 3.4 16 - - - 7.5 985 6500 6.4 -
126F6 R.f. Pent. 78K 12.6 0.15 5.5 4.8 0.006 12.6 0 12.6 0.35 0.75 3006 1150 - - -
¡MI6 Dual Diode - High, Triode 78T 12.6 0.15 2.2 0.8 2 12.6 0 - - 0.75 456 1200 55 - -
Medium, Triode 1.5 0.3 12 12.6 -0.9 - - 0.25 27K 550 15 - -
1261.9 905 12.6 0.45
Tetrode 8 1.1 0.7 12.6 -0.8 12.6" 50" 25 16 8000 - - -
A, Amp. 250 -12.5 250 4.5, 7 47 , 52K 4100 45 5 5K 4.5
121105 Beam Pwr. Amp. 162 12.6 0.225 82 82 0.35
AB, Amp.' 250 -15 250 5/13 79 2 6010 3750 1 70 , 10K8 10
12.6 0.15 2.2' 0.5' 1.5' 100 270. - - 3.7 I5K 4000 60 - -
12AT7 High, Dual Triode" 9A 10 I0.9K 5500
6.3 0.3 2.2 8 0.4 , 1.5 8 250 200. - - 60 - -
12.6 0.15 1.6' 0.5' 1.5' 100 0 - - 11.8 6.256 3100 19.5 - -
12111176 Medium, Dual Triode 18 9A 10.5 7.76 2200 17 - -
6.3 0.3 1.6 8 0.35 , 1.5 8 250 -8.5 - -
12.6 0.225 3.1' 0.5' 1.9' 100 120. - - 9 6.16 6103 37 - -
IMF? Medium, Dual Triode" 9A - - 18 4.8K 8500 41 - -
6.3 0.45 3.1 , 0.4 , 1.9 8 150 56 8
126W6 Sharp Cut-off Pent. ICIA 12.6 0.15 6.5 1.5 0.025 250 20Ir 150 2 7 8006 5000 42 - -
High, A, Amp." 96 12.6 0.15 1.6' 0.46 , 1.7' 250 -2 - - 1.2 62.56 1600 100 - -
126076 Dual Triode Class 8 1.6 8 0.34 , 1.7 8 300 0 - - MY - - 14 , 16K 8 72
6.3 0.3
Medium, A, Amp. 12.6 0.15 250 -4 - - 3 - 1750 40 - -
12AY7 911 1.3 0.6 1.3
Dual Triode" Low- Level Amp. 6.3 0.3 150 2700. Plate resistor - 20K. Grid re istor - 01meg. V. G. - 12.5
12.6 0.225 3.1' 0.5' 1.9' 103 270 8 - - 3.7 15K 4000 60 - -
1211Z7A: High, Dual Triode" 96 - - 10 10.96 5500 60 -
6.3 0.45 3.1 , 0.4 8 1.9 8 250 200. -
12.6 0.3
1284/4 Low, Triode 9AG 5 1.5 4.8 150 -17.5 - - 34 1.036 6300 6.5 - -
6.3 0.6
12.6 0.3 3.2 , 0.5' 2.6'
128 HIE Medium, Dual Triode" 9A 250 -10.5 - - 11.5 5.36 31C0 16.5 - -
6.3 0.6 3.2 , 0.4 , 2.6 8
128L6 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 78K 12.6 0.15 5.5 4.8 0.006 12.6 -0.65 12.6 0.0305 1.35 5006 1350 - - -
12.6 0.225 103 270 8 - - 3.7 156 4000 60 - -
1281176: Dual Diode - Medium-
yTriode 9CF 2.8 I 1.9 10.96
6.3 0.45 250 200 8 - - 10 5500 60 - -
12.6 0.3
128 V7 Sharp Cut-off Pent 9BF II 3 0.055 250 68' 150 6 25 906 126 1100 - -
6.3 0.6
12856 Pentode 960 12.6 0.15 7.5 3.3 0.007 200 -2.5 203 2.6 10 5506 7103 - - -
12.6 0.3
1211Y7A: Sharp Cutoff Pent 98F 11.1 3 0.055 250 68 8 150 6 25 906 12K 1200 - -
6.3 0.6
12.6 0.3 6.5 , 0.7 , 2.5, 3280 100 - -
1211Z7 High-
yDual Triode" 96 250 -2 - - 2.5 31.86
6.3 0.6 6.5 8 0.55 8 2.5 8
12CN5 Pentode 7CV 12.6 0.45 - - 0.25 12.6 0 12.6 0.35 4.5 40K 3803 - - -
Medium, Tri ode 2.4 0.19 2.2 150 -6.5 - - 9 8.26 4400 40 - -
1201 9DA 12.6 0.3 1506 7000 - - -
Sharp Cut-off Pent 7.5 2.4 0.044 200 -8 125 3.4 15
12C XS Sharp Cut-off Pent 78K 12.6 0.15 7.6 6.2 0.05 12.6 0 12.6 1.4 3 40K 3100 - - -
1200 Diode - Remote Cut-off Pent Flg. 111 12.6 0.2 5.5 5.7 0.076 12.6 -0.8 12.6 0.5 1.3 3006 1500 - - -
120K7 Dual Diode-Tetrode 9HZ 12.6 0.5 - - - 12.6 0 12.6 I 6 46 5000 - 3.5K 0.01
1201.8 Dual Diode-Tetrode 9HR 12.6 0.55 12 12 - 12.6 -0.5 12.6" 75" 40 480 15K 72 - -
6.3 0.26 806 1250 100 - -
120M7 Twin Triode 96 1.6 0.39 1.7 100 -1.0 - - 0.5
12.6 0.13
12.6 0.3
12007 Beam Pwr. Pent 98F 10 3.8 0.1 330 - 180 5.6 26 53K 10.56 - - -
6.3 0.6
Dual Diode Max. .c. voltage - 16. Max. d.c. output current - 5ma.
12057 9.111 12.6 0.4
Pwr. Tetrode - - - 16 - 16 75 40 480 156 7.2 803 .04
12DT6 Pentode 7EN 12.6 0.15 - - - 150 -4.5 103 2.1 1.1 1506 - - - -
High, 12.6 0.15 1.6 0.46 1.7
120'17 9A 300 -2 - - 1.2 62.56 1603 100 - -
Dual Triode 6.3 0.3 1.6 0.34 1.7

I
Dual Diode Max. average diode current - It, ma.
120117 91X 12.6 0.275 66 I6200 I - 2.76 .
025
Tetrode 11 3.6 0.6 I 16 - 16 1.5 12
Dual Diode Max. average diode current - 1.0 ma.
120 V7 91Y 12.6 0.15 - - 0.4 196 750 14 -- -
Triode 1.3 0.38 1.6 16 -
120 WI Dual Diode - Tetrode 9HR 12.6 0.375 9.0 1.0 12 12.6 18 8 - - 6.88 - - 7.6 1250 .005
12.6 0.15 1.6 0.44 1.7 250 -2 - - 1.2 62.56 1600 100 - -
120W7 Double Triode 96 1.5 250 -8.5 - - 10.5 7.76 2200 17 - -
6.3 0.30 1.7 0.4
Diode 1.6' 0.7 1.8 1.9 , - 2700 9.5 - -
120V111 91 C 12.6 0.45 16 0 - 6500 6.4 - -
Dissimilar Dual Triode 4.4 8 0.7 8 3.2 7.5 8 -
Sharp Cut-off Triode 2 2 1.5 16 0 - - 1.2 10K 2000 20 - -
12080 910 12.6 0.35 - 12.6 2 14 56 6000 - - -
Tetrode 11 3 0.74 16
120Z6 Pwr. Amp. Pent 78K 12.6 0.175 12.5 8.5 0.25 12.6 - 12.6 2.2 4.5, 25K 3800 - - -
12E66 R.F. Pent 78K 12.6 0.175 II 4 0.04 12.6 -3.4 12.6 1.4 3.2 , 326 3800 - - -
Medium, Triode 2.6 0.4 1.7 16 -2.2 - - 2.4 66 4700 25 - -
12EC11 IFA 12.6 0.225 0.66 7506 2000 - - -
Pent 4.6 2.6 0.02 16 -1.6 12.6 -
12(059 Pwr. Amp. Pent. 7CV 12.6 0.45 14 8.5 0.26 150 -4.5 150 II 36, 14K 8500 - - 12
V20 TABLE I - MINIATURE RECEIVING TUBES - Continued

Fil or Capacitances

Transcon-
Heater pi.

V.
1

ductance
Tyne Name Base o -

Screen
Supply

Factor
Amp.
late

rolts
V. Amp. Cie Cs,
Ceet
*0
2.4 0.4 1500

.—I
0.15 - - - - - -

1;1
12EG6 Dual Control Heptode 7CH 12.6

->
12EK8 R.f. Pent. MK 12.6 0.2 10 5.5 0.032 4.0 12.6 2 4.4 40K - - -
12(16 Dual Diode - High-, Triode 7FII 12.6 0.15 2.2 1 1.8 12.6 0 - - 0.75 450 55 - -

.'
12EM6 Diode - Tetrode 9HV 12.6 0.5 - - - 12.6 0 12.6 1 6 40 5000 - - -
Dual Diode - Remote
12F1 1000 - - -
Cut-off Pent. 9FH 12.6 0.15 4.5 3 0.06 12.6 0 12.6 0.38 1 333K
12F116 Dual Diode - Low-, Triode 7BT 12.6 0.15 1.8 0.7 1.6 16 0 - - 1.3 6.20 1200 7.4 - -
12FM6 Dual Diode - Med.- 0 Triode MT 12.6 0.15 2.7 1.7 1.7 30 0 - - 1.8 5.61( 2400 13.5 - -
12F08 Twin Double Plate Triode 9KT 12.6 0.15 1.7 0.27 0.9 250 -1.5 - - 1.5 760 1250 95 - -
Pentode 0.32 8.5. 5.5 0.15 12.6 -0.8 12.6 0.7 1.9 403K 2700 - - -
12FRI 9KU 120
Triode - Diode 2.6 2.0 1.7 12.6 -0.6 - - 1.0 - 1200 10 - -
12FT6 Dual Diode - Triode 7BT 12.6 0.15 1.8 1.1 2.0 30 0 - - 2 7.66 1900 ' 15 - -
Triode 2.2 0.25 1.3 12.6 - - - 0.29 - 1400 10 - -
12F 811 A KV 12 .6
Heptode 0.27 - - - 12.6 1.6 - - 1.3 500K - - - -
INA; Heptode 7CH 12.6 0.15 5.0 13 0.05 12.6 0 12.6 0.80 0.30 Imeg. 140 - - -
12.6 90 0 - 3003 20 -
MN General Purpose Triode 7DW 0. 15 2.4 0.9 3.4 - - 10
6.3 0.3 250 -8 - - 9 - 2600 20 -
- -
1218 Dual Diode - Tetrode 9GC 12.6 0.325 10.5 4.4 0.7 12.6 0 12.6 1.5 12 , 614 5503 - 2.714 0.02
1205 Tetrode (Pwr. Amp. Driver) TEK 12.6 0.45 - - - 12.6 -2 12.6.. 85** 8 800 7000 5.6 863 0.035
1285) Beam Pwr. Pent. 7CV 12.6 0.6 13 9 0.55 110 -8.5 110 3.3 40 13K 7000 - - -
12117 Dual Medium-, Triode" 9A 12.6 0.15 1.6 ,-
, 0.4 , I.5'- , 12.6 0 - - 1 12.5K 1600 20 - -
18FW6A; Remote Cut-off Pent. 7CC 18 0.1 5.5 5 0.0035 150 - 100 4.4 11 2500 4403 - - -
WM; Dual Control Heptode 7034 18 0.1 - - - 150 - - - 2.3 400K - - - -
18FY6A; High-, Triode - Diode 7BT 18 0.1 2.4 0.22 1.8 150 -1 - - 0.6 771( 1363 103 - -
25F5 Beam Pwr. Pent. 7CV 25 0.15 12 6 0.57 110 -7.5 110 97 36 37 16K 5800 - 2.5K 1.2
32E15 Beam Pwr. Pent. 7CV 32 0.1 12 6 0.6 150 -7.5 130 - - 21.5K 5500 - 2.814 1.2
340D5 Beam Pwr. Pent. 7CV 34 0.1 12 6 0.6 110 -7.5 110 3 35 1314 571X1 - 2.514 1.4
3565 Beam Pwr. Amp. 7BZ 35 0.15 11 6.5 0.4 110 -7.5 110 97 41 , - 5800 40 5 2.50 1.5
511115 Beam Pwr. Amp. 111Z 50 0.15 13 6.5 0.5 110 -7.5 110 4/ 8.5 50 , 1414 7503 49 , 2.50 1.9
50FK5 Pwr. Pent. 7CV 50 0.1 17 9 0.65 110 62. 115 12 32 140 12.80 - 3K 1.2
1218A U.h.f. Triode 70K 6.3 0.225 2.9 0.25 1.7 200 100' - - 18 10.750 55 - -
5686 Beam Pwr. Pent. 9G 6.3 0.35 6.4 8.5 0.11 250 -12.5 250 3, 27, _ 45K 3100 - 90 2.7
12.6 0.45 4, 0.6 , 4, 120 -2 - - 36 1.714 II K 18.5 - -
5687 Medium-, Dual Triode' , 9H
6.3 0.9 4, 0.5 , 4, 250 -12.5 - - 12.5 3K 5500 16.5 - -
5722 Noise Generating Diode 5CB 6.3 1.5 - 2.2 - 200 - - - 35 - - - - -

Me / High-, Triode 9V 6.3 0.3 9.0 1.8 0.55 150 62. - - 26 1.8K 246 43 - -
ON
5879 Sharp Cut-off Pent. SAD 6.3 0.15 2.7 2.40.15 250 -3 100 0.4 1.8 2meg. 1000 - - -
6386 Medium-, Dual Triode" KJ 6.3 0.35 2 1.1 1.2 103 200• - - 9.6 4.250 4003 17 - -
6887 Dual Diode 81IT 6.3 0.2 Max. peak inverse plate voltage - 360 V. Max. d.c. plate current each diode - 10 ma.
6973 Pwr. Pentode 9EU 6.3 0.45 6 6 0.4 440 -15 300 - - 73K 4800 - - -_
7189 Pwr. Pentode 9CV 6.3 0.76 10.8 6.5 0.5 250 -7.3 250 5.5 48 406 11.314 - -
Sharp Cut-off 1 2.4 0.4 330 - 125 3.8 12 170K 7800 - -
72511 91311 12 . 6 0 . 195 4.7K 4500
Medium-, Triode 2 0.26 1.5 330 -3 - - 15 21 - -
7586 Medium-, Triode 12AG 6.3 0.135 4.2 1.6 2.2 75 0 - - 10.5 3000 11.56 35 - -
7587 Sharp Cut-off let. 12AS 6.3 0.15 6.5 1.4 0.01 125 68' 50 2.7 10 20014 10.51( - - -
7895 High-, Triode 12All 6.3 0.135 4.2 1.7 0.9 110 0 - - 7 6863 9400 64 - -
8056 Medium-, Triode 12A11 6.3 0.135 4.0 1.7 2.1 12 0 - - 5.8 1.614 8000 12.5 - -
8058 High-, Triode 12CT 6.3 0.135 6.0 0.046 1.3 110 47' - - 10 10K - - -
9001 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 710 6.3 0.15 3.6 3 0.01 250 -3 103 0.7 2 1meg. 1400 - - -
9002 U.h.f. Triode 7IS 6.3 0.15 1.2 1.1 1.4 250 -7 - - 6.3 11.414 2200 25 - -
9003 Remote Cut-off Pent. 760 6.3 0.15 3.4 3 0.1 250 -3 100 2.7 6.7 70314 1800 - - -
9006 Uhf. Diode 6BH 6.3 0.15 Max. a.c. volta e - 270 Max. d. . output current - 5ma.
tCon rolled heater warm-up characteristi Per Plate 5 No signa plate m . Oscill for grid current ma.
u0sillator gridleak or screen- dropping resistor ohms. ,Maximum-signal current for full- power output. ,Effective plate- to- plate. "Value for each section.
•Cathode resistor ohms. ,Values ar for two tubes in push-pull. ,Triode No. I. Micromhos.
.• Space-charge grid. ,Unless st erwise noted. ¡Triode No. 2. Throu h33K.

TABLE II - METAL RECEIVING TUBES

Characteri ' given in this table apply to all tubes having type numbers shown, including
metal tbes, glass tubes with "G" suffix, and bantam tubes with "OT" suffx.
For "G" and "GT"-tubes not listed (not having metal counterparts), see Tables Ill, V, VI and VIII.

Fll or Capacitances
Heater pi• e I
1
Type Name Base o 8t' 1-
Output

ir. . f. :., • Ê2 &2 .3 °.

Watts

P. Amp ' Ch, C'''' , C'''' ga iiiii et. xi si .. a,'i' til. 31

250 -3 100 2.7 3.5 36014 550 - - -
6A8 Pentagrid Cono. IA 6.3 0.3 - -
E.. (Osc.) 250 V. through 206. Grid resistor (Os .) 50K. I =4ma. I1 = 0.4 ma.
6AC7 300 160' 150 2.5 10 Imeg. 9000 - - -
1852 Sharp Cut-off Pent. ON 6.3 0.45 II 5 0.15
300 160. 6014 , 2.5 10 1meg. 9000
liAG7 Pwr. Amp. Pent. IV 6.3 0.65 13 7.5 0.06 300 -3 150 7, 9 30/31 1300 IIK 1 3
--

6E18 Dual-Diode - Pent. BE 6.3 0.3 6 9 0.035 250 -3 125 2.3 10 600K 1325 - - -
 TABLE II- METAL RECEIVING TUBES- Continued
Characteristics given in this table apply to all tubes having type numbers shown, including
V21
matai tubes, glass tubes with "G" suffi:, and bantam tubes with "GT" suffie.
For "G" and "GT"tubes not listed (net having metal counterparts), see Tables III, V, Vi and VIII.

Output :
Fi. or Capacitances

Res. Ohms

ductance”
Transcon-
Heater Pt a*. .C'

[
Name Rasa a..

Screen
TYPo

Screen
sii °

Watts
31

Plate
Volts
1Bias
Grid
V. Amp.

ia.
Cis CMl Ce, 2 j.,
rT. N ic a. cc
A, Amp.'.' 250 -20 20" - 31/34 2.6K 2600 6.8 4K 0.85
350 730' 132" - 50/60 - - - I010 9
AB, Amp.I. '
350 -38 123" - 4892 - - - 6K , 13
IR Pwr. Amp. Pent. A, Amp. , 75 6.3 0.7 6.5 13 0.2 250 -16.5 250 6/11 34 36 80K 2500 - 7K 3.2
285 -20 285 713 38 40 78K 2500 - 7K 4.8
375 -26 250 5, 20 34 82 - - 82 ,, 1010 18.5
AB, Amp. ,
375 340. 250 8/18 54, 77 - - 94 ,, 10K , 19
815 Medium-0Triode 8C1 6.3 0.3 3.4 3.6 3.4 250 -8 - - 9 7.7K 2600 20 - -
Sharp Cut- A, Amp. 250 -3 100 0.5 2 Imeg. 1225 - - -
6.17 IR 6.3 0.3 7 12 0.005
off Pent. Biased Detector 250 10K• 100 Zero sign Icathode current - 0.43 ma. 0.5 me
Variable- 0 8.1. Amp. 0.035 250 -3 125 2.6 10.5 600K 1650 990 - -
111(1 7E 6.3 0.3 7 12
Pent. Mixer 250 -10 100 Osc. peak volts - 7
Triode - Hexode BK 6. 3 0. 3 - - 250 -3 100 6 2.
5 600 K 350 - - -
SKI Hexode Cone. Triode 100 50K , - - 3.8 le (Osc.) - 0.15 ma.
A, Amp. ,• , 250 -20 20" - 40/44 I.7K 4700 8 5K 1.4
A, Amp. , 250 167. 250 5.4/7.2 75 78 - - 14" 2.5K 6.5
Self Bias 300 218. 200 3/4.6 51, 55 - - 12.7" 4.5K 6.5
A, Amp. , 250 -14 250 5/7.3 72 79 22.5K 6000 14" 2.5K 6.5
Fixed Bias 350 -18 250 2.5/7 54 '66 33K 5200 18" 4.2K 10.8
A, Amp. , 250 125. 250 10/15 120 130 - - 35.6" 5K' 13.8
B eam Self Bias 270 125. 270 11/17 134 145 - - 28.2u 5K , 18.5
ILII•GIP 7AC 63 0.9 11.5 95 0.9
For. Amp. A, Amp. , 250 -16 250 10;16 120, 140 24.5, 5500, 32" 5K" 14.5
Fixed Bias 270 -17.5 270 11/17 134/155 23.5, 5700, 35" 5K , 17-1
AB, Amp. , Self Bias 360 270. 270 5/17 88/100 - - 40.6" 9K , 24.5
AB, Amp. , 360 -22.5 270 5/ 11 88/140 - - 45" 3.810 18
Fixed Bias 360 -22.5 270 5/15 88/ 132 - - 45u 6.61V 26.5
Al3 aAmp. , 360 -18 225 3.5/11 78 / 142 - 52" 6K , 31
Fixed Bias 360 -22.5 270 5/16 88 205 - - 72" 3.810 47
el 6.5 5.3 600K 1100 -3" - -
BU Pentagrid - A' Amp. 71 6.3 0.3 - - 250 -3
Mixer Amp. Mixer 250 -6 150 9.2 3.3 1meg. 350 -15" - -
Class- B BAmp., 300 0 - - 35 /70 - - 82" 8K' 10
6147GT SB 6.3 0.8 - - 3100 - - -
Twin Triode A, Amp." 250 -5 - - 6 11.3K
607 Dual Diode - High• 0 Triode 71/' 6.3 0.3 5 3.8 1.4 250 -3 - - 1 58K 1200 70 - -
681 Dual Diode- Triode 7V , 6.3 0.3 4.8 3.8 2.4 250 -9 - - 9.5 8.56 1900 16 106 0.28
6SA1GT Pentagrid Cone. Illt , 6.3 0.3 9.5 12 0.13 250 0, 100 8 3.4 800K Grid No. 1 esistor 20K.
100 -I 100 10.2 3.6 50K 903 - - -
6567Y Pentagrid Cone. ilit 6.3 0.3 9.6 9.2 0.13 250 -1 103 10 3.8 1meg. 950 - - -
250 22K , 12K , 12/13 6.8/6.5 Osc. Section in 88-108 Mc. Service.
6SCI High- 0 Dual Triode , OS 6.3 0.3 2 3 2 250 -2 - - 2 53K 1325 70 - -
6SF5 High -,iTriode 60,8 2 6.3 0.3 4 3.6 2.4 250 -2 - - 0.9 66K 1500 100 - -
6SF1 Diode - Variable- 0 Pent 7AZ 6.3 0.3 5.5 6 0.004 250 -I 100 3.3 12.4 7001( 2050 - - -
6507 HI. Amp. Pent. 88K 6.3 0.3 8.5 7 0.083 250 -2.5 150 3.4 9.2 1 meg. 4000 - - -
65H7 Hi Amp. Pent 88K 6.3 0.3 8.5 7 0.033 250 -1 150 4.1 10.8 9001( 4900 - - -
8511 , Sharp Cut-off Pent. IIN 6.3 0.3 6 7 0.005 250 -3 103 0.8 3 Imeg. 1650 - - -
65 KI Variable-0Pent. IN 6.3 0.3 6 7 0.003 250 -3 100 2.6 9.2 8COK 2000 - - -
6S117GT Dual Diode - High- 0 Triode 80 6.3 0.3 3.2 3 1.6 250 -2 - - 0.9 9IK 1100 100 - -
6SR7 Dual Diode - Triode BQ 6.3 0.3 3.6 2.8 2.4 250 -9 - - 9.5 8.5K 1900 16 - -
180 -8.5 180 3/4 29 30 50K 3700 8.5" 5.5K 2
A, Amp. , 250 -12.5 250 4.5/7 45, 47 50K 4100 12.5 ,, 5K 4.5
6V6GTA Beam For. Amp. In 6.3 0.45 IO II 0.3 315 -13 225 2.2/6 34 35 80K 3750 13" 8.5K 5.5
250 -15 250 5/13 70,79 60K 3750 30" 1014 , 10
AB, Amp. , 285 -19 285 4/13.5 70/92 70K 3600 38" 8K , 14
1620 Sharp Cut-off Pent 7R 6.3 0.3 7 12 0.035 250 -3 100 0.5 2 1meg. 1225 - - -
5693 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 8N 6.3 0.3 5.3 6.2 0.005 250 -3 100 0.85 3 Imeg. 1650 - - -
•Cath de resistor-ohms. 1 Also type 6517Y. ,Osc. grid leak - Sc, . res. Micr mhos.
Screen tied to plate. ,Values are for single tube or sec ion. ,Va uno for two units. "Unless otherwise noted.
No connection to Pin No. 1for 6L6G, 6Q7G, 6RGT/G, ,Values are for two tubes in push-pull. " Peak s.f. grid voltag . "G, vItage.
6S7G, 6SA7GT/G and 65F5-GT. Plate-to- plate value. ', Peak a.f. G-Gvoltage. "Unit connect din parallel.
'Grid bias - 2volts if separate oscillator excitation is used.

TABLE III - 6.3-VOLT GLASS TUBES WITH OCTAL BASES

(For "G" and "GT"-type tubes not listed here, see «luiraient type ln Tables II and VIII; characteristics and connections will besimilar)

' Fil or Capacitances e

Transcon-
ductance°

Heater pl. 1
.à'' e 1 à
Output

Name Base
Screen

l'YI*
Factor

Watts
Amp.

2. 2
Ma.

P. Amp.
ri
Cie Colot Cep

Outer edge of ny oft ethree iuminaled areas di placed V, in. min outward with + 5
BALIGT Electron- Ray I
ndicator - 8614 6.3 0.15 - - - volts to its electrode. Smilar inward disp with - 5volts. No pattern with - 6volts grid.
Dual Diode - ICK 6.3 0.3 2.8 3.2 3 250 -2 - - 2. 40 K - -
SADIST- 3 1600 70
High- 0 Triode
SARI Beam Pent. - 850 6.3 1.2 II 7 0.55 250 -22.5 250 5 77 2IK 5400 - - -
Dual Diode - - 10E 6.3 0.3 5.5 7.5 0.003 250 -2 100 1.8 7 1.2 meg. 2500 - - -
611117GT Remote Pent.
V22 TABLE Ill - 6.3-VOLT GLASS TUBES WITH OCTAL BASES - Continued
(For "G" and "GT"-type tubes not listed here, see equivalent type In Tables ii and VIII, harocteristics and tions will be similar)

!!
Fil or

pation Watts
Capacitances

Res. Ohms

Res. Ohms
;Plate Dissi-

Transcon-
ductance.
Heater pf.

Supply V.
%we Name Base

Screen

Screen

Output
Factor

Watts
Plate

Amp.
Plate

Plate
Volts

Load
Bias
Grid

Ma.

Ma.
V. Amp. C. Gee, Cep

Low- 0 Twin Triode - _

6AS7GA 800 6.3 2.5 6.5 2.2 7.5 135 250' - - 125 0.28K 7000 2 - -
6AU5GT Beam Pwr. Amp.' 10 SCIE 6.3 1.25 11.3 7 0.5 115 -20 175 6.8 60 66 5600 - -
6AV5GA Beam Pwr. Amp. , II 6CK 6.3 1.2 14 7 0.5 250 -22.5 ISO 2.1 55 206 5500 - - -
68G6GA Beam 1%vr. Amp. ,
1 20 5BT 6.3 0.9 11 6 0.8 250 -15 250 4 75 256 6000 - - -
68L7GTA Medium- 0 Dual Triode' - 8BD 6.3 1.5 4.4 0.9 6 250 -9 - - 40 2.156 7000 15 - -
6806GT8 Beam Pwr. Amp.' II SAM 6.3 1.2 15 7 0.6 250 -- 22.5 150 2.1 57 14.56 5900 - - -
6CU6
MIX7GT Dual Triode , - 880 6.3 1.5 5 3.4 4.2 250 390* - - 42 1.316 7600 10 - -
11C85A Beam P VIL Amp.' 26 ND 6.3 2.5 22 10 0.4 175 -30 175 6 90 56 8800 - -
KONA Beam Kw. Amp.' 20 58T 6.3 2.5 24 9.5 0.8 175 -30 175 5.5 75 7.26 7700 - - -
6CK4 Low- 0 Triode - 81B 6.3 1.25 8 1.8 6.5 550 -26 - - 55 1.06 6503 6.7 - -
6CL5 Beam Pwr. Amp.' 25 861:1 6.3 2.5 20 11.5 0.7 175 -40 175 7 90 6K 6500 - - -
6C1116 Beam Pwr. Amp.' 11 SAM 6.3 1.2 15 7 0.55 250 -22.5 150 2.1 55 206 5500 -, - -
6066GT Beam Pwr. Amp. - 75 6.3 1.2 - - - 200 180. 125 8.5 47 286 8000 - 46 3.8
6DN6 Beam Pwr. Pent , 15 58T 6.3 2.5 22 11.5 0.8 125 -18 125 6.3 70 46 9000 - -
Dissimilar 2.2 0.7 4 350 -8 - - 8 96 2500 22 - -
61:1N7 - IIIIID 6.3 0.9
Dual Triode 4.6 I 5.5 550 -9.5 - - 68 2K 7700 15 - -
OM Beam Pwr. Amp? 24 8.1C 6.3 2.5 23 11 0.5 175 -25 125 5 110 5.516 10.56 - - -
60018 Beam Pwr. Amp.' 18 61114 63 1.2 15 7 0.55 250 -22.5 150 2.4 75 20K 6600 - - -
UM Twin Pwr. Pent. , 13.2 UP 6.3 1.52 II 5 0.6 300 120' 250 15 80 WV 12
6E5 Electron Ray - Triode - 611 6.3 0.3 - - - 250 - - - - - - - -
Dissimilar - 2.2 0.6 4 350 -3 - - 1.5 346 1903 65 - -
OEA? - 88D 6.3 1.05
Dual Triode 6 1.3 8 550 -25 - -- 95 770 6500 5 - -
UFO Beam Pwr. Amp. , - 15 6.3 0.9 11.5 9 0.8 250 -18 250 2 50 - -
8EX6 Beam Pwr. Amp. , 22 583 6.3 2.25 22 8.5 1.1 175 -30 175 3.3 67 8.56 7700
6E96 Beam Pwr. Pent. - 7AC 6.3 0.68 8.5 7 0.7 350 -17.5 300 3 44 606 4400 - - -
6E25 Beam Pwr. Pent. - /AC 6.3 0.8 9 7 0.6 350 -20 300 3.5 43 506 4100 - - -
6FH6 Beam Pwr. Pent. - SAM 6.3 1.2 33 8 0.4 770 -22.5 220 13 75 126 6000 - -
6GW6 Beam Power Amp.' 17.5 6AM 6.3 1.2 17 7 0.5 250 -22.5 150 2.1 70 15K 7100 - -
6K6GT Pwr. Amp. Pent. - 75 6.3 0.4 5.5 6 0.5 315 -21 250 4'9 25 28 1106 2100 9K 4.5
65801 Triple- Diode - Triode - 8C 8 6.3 0.3 I.? 5 2 250 -2 - - - 916 1100 100 - -
liSD7GT Semi-Remote Pent. - 8N 6.3 0.3 9 7.5 0.0035 250 -2 125 3 9.5 7006 4250 - - -
651.7GT High- 0 Dual Triode' - 880 6.3 0.3 3.4 3.8 2.8 250 -2 - - 2.3 446 1600 70 - -
6SNIGTB Medium- 0 Dual Triode' - 11110 6.3 0.6 3 1.2 4 250 -8 - - 9 1.76 2600 20 - -
6W6GT Beam No. Amp. - 75 6.3 1.2 15 9 0.5 200 180' 125 28.5 46 47 28K 8000 - 4K 3.8
6Y6GA Beam Pwr. Amp. - /S 6.3 1.25 15 1 0.7 200 -14 135 2.2 9 61 66 18.36 7100 - 2.66 6
1635 High, Dual Triode - 88 6.3 0.6 - - - 300 0 - - 6.6 54 - - 126 2 10.4
6550 Power Pentode 35 /5 6.3 1.6 14 12 0.85 400 -16.5 225 18 105 27K 9000 3K 20
7027A Beam Pwr. Amp. - 8HY 6.3 0.9 10 7.5 1.5 450 -30 350 19.2 194 - 6000 - 66 2 50
7591 Beam Pwr. Amp. 19 8160 6.3 0.8 10 5 0.25 450 203' 400 22 94 - 96 2 28
•Cathode resistor-ohms. Plate- to- plate value. Hon. Deflection Amp. Micromho .
1 Per section. Vert. Dell ction Amp.

TABLE IV - 6.3-VOLT LOCK- N-BASE TUBES

For other lock-in-base types see Tables V, VI, and VII
11

Fl. or Capacitances
É
Transcon-
ductance

Heater pf.
Supply V.

1
à o
Output
Name Base
Screen

Screen

TN*
Factor

Watts
Amp.
Plate

Plate
Volts

Ma.

V. Amp. Cie
Ma.

Coe Cop Z.2

003 ¡CI' ]à4

7A8 Octode Cony. BU 6.3 0.15 7.5 9 0.15 250 -3 100 3.2 3 506 An de grid 250 Volts max. ,
IAN? Remote Cut-off Pent. ItY 6.3 0.15 7 6.5 0.005 250 250' 250 1.9 6.8 Imeg. 3300 - - -
7111(7 Sharp Cut-off Pent 85 6.3 0.8 12 9.5 0.7 150 0 90 21 41 11.56 5500 - - -
787 Remote Cut-off Pent 8V 6.3 0.15 5 6 0.007 250 -3 100 1.7 8.5 7506 1750 - - -
7C7 Sharp Cut-off Pent 8V 6.3 0.15 5.5 6.5 0.007 250 -3 100 0.5 2 2meg. 1300 - - -
7E7 Dual Diode - Pent. 88E 6.3 0.3 4.6 5.5 0.005 250 330' 100 1.6 7.5 1036 1300 - - -
7F8 Medium- 0 Dual Triode , 88W 6.3 0.3 2.8 1.4 1.2 250 500' - - 6 14.56 3300 48 - -
7K7 Dual Diode -- High- 0 Triode 88F 6.3 0.3 2.4 2 1.7 250 -2 - - 2.3 44K 1600 70 - -
"Cathode resistor-ohms. 1Ti•rnugh 206 resistor. Each section. Micromhos.

TABLE V- 1.5- VOLT FILAMENT BATTERY TUBES

Fil or Capacitances
Heater
Type Name Base E o
V. Amp. C» 1.4
Coot
Ea eat
1A7GT Pentagrid Cony. 72 1.4 0.05 7 10 0.5 90 0 45 0.7 0.6 600K E Anode- gid = 90 Volts.
1H5GT Diode High-oTriode 51 1.4 0.05 1.1 4.6 1 90 0 0.15 2406 275 65 - -
ILN5 Sharp Cut-off Pent. 7A0 1.4 0.05 3 8 0.037 90 o 90 0.35 1.6 1.1 meg. 800
IN5GT R.f. Pentode 55 1.4 0.05 3 10 0.007 90 O 90 0.3 1.2 1.5 meg. 750
3E6 Sharp Cut-off Pent iCi 2.8 1 0.05 5.5 8 0.007 90 0 90 1.2 2.9 325K 1700
1Center-tap filament permits 1.4 volt operation. 2Micromhos.
 TABLE VI - HIGH- VOLTAGE HEATER TUBES V23
Soc also Tololc VIII.

Output ,
FR or Capacitances

Res. Ohms

Res. Ohms
é1

Supply V.
Heater pf. • 4.8
M C

Screen

Screen
Name Base

Factor
TVP•

[Watts
Amp.
Plate
Plate

Volts

Load
e3

Ma.
V. Amp. Ci. C.., Cep

12A8 Beam Pwr. Amp. 75 12.6 0.15 8 9 0.3 250 -12.5 250 3.5. 5.5 30,32 706 3000 - 1.5K 3.4
12E66: Beam Pwr. Amp. 75 12.6 0.6 14 8 0.65 200 -9.5 110 2.2 50 286 8000 - - -
21E X11 Beam Pwr. Pent. 581 21.5 0.6 22 8.5 1.1 - -30 195 .3 67 8.56 7700 - - -
50C6GA Beam Pwr. Amp. 75 50 0.15 - - - 200 -14 135 2.2/9 61/66 18.36 7100 - 2.66 6
117N7GT Rect. - Beam Pwr. Amp. IIA11 117 0.09 - - - 100 -6 100 5 51 166 7000 - 36 1.2
6082 Low, Dual Triode' 1111D 26.5 0.6 6 2.2 8 135 250• - - 125 0.286 7000 2 - -
•Cathode resistor-ohms. Each section. Micromhos.
Controlled heater warm-up characteristic.

TABLE VII - SPECIAL RECEIVING TUBES

Fi. or Capacitances e

Res. Ohms

Transcon-
ductancel
iï
2 i Heater pf. a:
Z• o

Screen
Type Name o Base

Factor
Amp.
.1 L :EA

Plate

Plate
it

Volts
1 •

Ma.
f
sa
V. Amp.
Am Cm C.«, CI,
.... I:
UZI àii ..• Ct

6* Vil Triple Triode - 121V 6.3 0.6 1.9 1.5 1.2 250 -8.5 - - 10.5 7.76 2200 17 - -
Dual Triode -7.26 250 -8 - - 10 2500 18 - -
6610 121F 6.3 0.6 Diode current for continuous operation = 5m.
Dual Diode
6C10 Triple Triode - 12110 6.3 0.6 1.6 0.3 1.7 250 -2 - - 1.2 62.56 1600 100 - -
6010 Triple Triode - 1210 6.3 0.45 2.2 0.5 1.5 125 -1 - - 4.2 13.6K 4200 57 - -
Dissimilar ,, 2.2 0.4 4.2 250 -II - - 5.5 8.7511 2000 17.5 - -
SEW? Dual Triode - 6116 6'3 0. ' 7.0 12 9.0 150 -17.5 - - 45 500 7500 6 - -
6F4 Acorn Triode - 7BR 6.3 0.225 2 0.6 1.9 80 ne - - 13 2.96 5800 17 - -
Dissimilar - 2.2 0.48 3.8 250 -8 - - 8 96 2500 22.5 - -
6F17 12114 6.3 0.9 -9.5 - - 41 26 7700 15.4 - -
Dual Triode - 4.0 0.54 5.0 250
66E5 Beam Pwr. Pent. 17.5 12111 6.3 1.2 16 7 0.34 250 -22.5 150 1.8 65 186 7300 - -
6G15 Beam Pwr. Pent. 17.5 911M 6.3 1.2 15 6.5 0.26 250 -22.5 150 2.1 70 I5K 7100 - - -
6GT5 Beam Pwr. Pent. 17.5 9NZ 6.3 1.2 15 6.5 0.26 250 -22.5 150 2.1 70 I5K 7100 - - -
ENES Beam Pwr. Pent. 28 12FB 6.3 2.25 24 10 0.56 175 -25 125 4.5 125 5.66 11.36 - - -
6111 Twin Pentode - 12BW 6.3 0.8 II 2.8 0.04 125 56* 125 3.8 II 20136 131( - -
61E6 Pentode 24 SQL 6.3 2.5 21 11 0.44 175 -25 125 5 115 5.56 10.56 - -
1.9 1.8 1.3 250 -8.5 - - 10.5 7.76 2203 17 - -
6611 Triple - 129V 6.3 0.6 1.8 0.7 1.3 250 -2.0 - - 1.2 62.56 1600 100 - -
Triode - - 1.2 62.56 1600 100 - -
1.8 1.8 1.3 250 -2.0 -
614 Acorn Triode Itilt 6.3 0.225 1.8 0.5 1.6 80 150• - - 9.5 4.46 6400 28 - -
Twin Triode - 3.4 0.8 1.8 125 120• - 8 10K 86 58 - -
6M11 12CA 62 0.77 125 3.4 II 2006 136 -
Pentode - 12 2.8 0.03 125 56•
1.9 1.7 1.8 150 0 - - 22 7K 25C0 18 - -
Triple - 1600 100 - -
8QI 1 Triode - 1211E 6.3 0.6 1.
8 0.
6 2.
0 250 -2 - - 1.2 62.56
1.8 1.7 2.0 250 -2 - - 1.2 62.56 1600 100 - -
7ES/1201 Ht. Triode ON 6.3 0.15 3.6 2.8 1.5 180 -3 - 5.5 I2K 3000 36 - -
Detector Amp. - Ai Amp. 588 6.3 0.15 3.4 3 0.007 250 -3 100 0.7 2 Imeg. 1400 -- - -
954 250 -6 100 1. diusted to 0.1 ma. with no signal. 2506 -
Pentode (Acorn) Detector -
250 -7 - - 6.3 11.4K 2200 25 - -
955 Medium, Triode (Acorn) - 511C 6.3 0.15 I 0.6 1.4 1700 25 - -
90 -22 - - 23 1436
Remote Cut-off Ai Amp. _ me 6.3 0.15 3.4 3 0.007 250 -3 100 2.1 6.7 7006 1800 - - -
956 Pent. (Acorn) mixer 250 -10 100 Oscillato peak volt - 7min. - -
Medium, Triode (Acorn) 5BD 1.25 0.1 0.6 0.8 2.6 135 -7.5 - - 3 101( 1200 12 - -
958A
1.25 0.05 1.8 2.5 0.015 135 -3 67 . 0. 1. j - - -
959 Sharp Cut-off Pent. (Acorn) .- 58E 5 4 7 8006 600

6113 UM "Pencil" Diode - Elg. 34 6.3 0.135 Plate to K - 1.1 Peak in else - 375 Volts. Peak I, - 50 Ma. Max. d.c. output - 5.5 ma. -
7071 Ceramic Uhf. Triode - - 6.3 0.24 1.9 0.01 1.0 250 I -5 I - - I 6.4 I 8.96 I 9000 I - I - I -
1360 Beam Deflection 9145 6.3 0.35 - - - For Practical Circuits See Chap. 11
Beam Pwr. Pent. 16 9P X 50 0.15 14 9 0.75 140 "i1 140 14 100 -- 1100 4.5
7695
Nor. Pent. 19 9NZ 6.3 0.8 11 4.4 0.15 300 -10 J 300 15 75 296 I0.2K I - 3K I 11
1868
•Cathode resistor-ohms Micromhos.

TABLE VIII- EQUIVALENT TUBES

The equivalent tubes listed in this table are, in general, designed for
industrial, military and other special-purpose applications. Those tubos
are general!" not directly interchangeable because of mechanical
and/or electrical differ Involving basing, heater characteristics,
maximum ratings, interelectrode apacitances, etc.

Base Et , It , Type Equivalent and Table Base Et , le

Type Equivalent and Table
3C 1.25 0.2 6116 667 II 711 6.3 0.8
1E3 113 X
SAG 1.4 0.05 6A7 6A8 II 7C 6.3 0.3
1L/14 1H5GT V
7EW 2.9 0.45 SAES 668 II ABU 6.3 0.3
3EA5 2EA5 I
2.8 0.05 11A117: I2AU7A I 9A 3.15 0.6
3LF4 , 3Q5GT VII 6139
2.8 0.05 6A X70' 12AX7 I 9/1 6.3 0.3
31,43 3Q4 I 60X
7CM 4.2 0.45 HS 617 II 6F 6.3 0.3
OKI 3066 I
9EZ 6.3 0.45
5D14 5U4GB x KS 5.0 3.0 IICSII: 6CR8 I
6.3 0.45
9AE 43 0.6 ;CO 6AN8 I 9GM
SEAS 6EA8 I
4.7 0.6 SEWS 4EW6 I 7CM 6.3 0.4
5FV11 6FV8 I 9FA
V24 TABLE VIII - EQUIVALENT TUBES- Continued

Type Equivalent and Table Bast Type Equivalent and Table Base Et ,
SSU7GTT 6SL7GT III 'ID 6.3 0.3 1401 6SA7 II SAL 12.6 0.15
61.6GT 6Y6GA III IS 6.3 1.25 19CL8A 6CL8A 9FX 18.9 0.15
1A4 615 II SAC 6.3 0.3 25h OIGA 68Q6GTB III BAN 25 0.3
7A8 696 II 7AJ 6.3 0.15 2580601 68Q6GTB III BAN 25 0.3
7A7 6S67 II 118 6.3 0.3 25106G18: 68Q6GTB III SAM 25 0.3
784 6SF5 II SAC 6.3 0.3 25C5 5005 VIII 7CV 25 0.3
785 6K6GT III SAE 6.3 0.4 25C6GA 50C6GA VIII IS 25 0.3
1811 65Q7 II SW 6.3 0.3 25CA5 6CA5 7CV 25 0.3
188 6A8 II IX 6.3 0.3 25106G 6CD6GA III 25 0.6
716 686 II SAA 6.3 0.45 25CD6GA0 60D6GA III 581 25 0.6
7E860 6EY6 III 7AC 7.2 0.6 25CD6G11.7 6CD6GA III SIT 25 0.6
7F1 6SL7GT III SAC 6.3 0.3 25CU6 6CU6 II SAN 25 0.3
1H7 6SG7 II 81i 6.3 0.3 25006: 6096 III SIT 25 0.6
7N7 6SNIGT III SAC 6.3 0.6 25EC60 25CD6GB VIII 5111 25 0.6
6SA7 II SAL 6.3 0.3 25EH5 6E05 /CV 25 0.3
10E880 6E88 9DX 10.5 0.45 25L6GT 1216GT VI 15 '25 0.3
12A8GT 6A8 II 8A 12.6 0.15 25SA/GT 6SA7GT II SAD
12A15 6AL5 SIT 12.6 0.15 25W6GT 6W6GT III 75 25 0.3
12AT6 6816 711T 12.6 35C5 3585 ICY 35 0.15
12* 86 6AU6A 78K 12.6 0.15 35L6GT 3585 75 35 0.15
12AY5GA: 6AV5GT III 6CK 12.6 0.6 41 666GT III 68 6.3 0.4
12* VS 6AV6 751T 12.6. 0.15 42 6F6 II 611 6.3 0.7
1284 1284AV 1 SAG 12.6 0.3 50A5 121161 VI 611A 50
128A6 6866 18K 12.6 0.15 5011K5 6865 980 50 0.15
128117 6BA7 ICI 12.6 0.15 5005 50135 ICY 50 0.15
12806 6806 78K 12.6 0.15 5006G 50C6GA VI 75 50 0.15
128E6 68E6 7CH 12.6 0.15 50L651 12L6GT VI 7AC 50 0.15
128F6 68F6 1 181 12.6 0.15 75 6SQ7 II 60 6.3 0.3
128K5: 6865 980 12.6 0.6 78 667 II OF 6.3 0.3
128K6 6866 78T 12.6 1221 617 II 6F 6.3 0.3
12806 6806 /DE 12.6 1223 617 II 7R 6.3 0.3
128088/17 68Q6GT8 III SAM 12.6 0.6 1631 616G8 II 711C 12.6 0.45
121106GT: 68Q6GT8 III SAM 12.6 0.6 1632 121611 VI 75 12.6 0.6
128060187 68Q6GTE1 III SAM 12.6 0.6 1634 6SC7 II 8S 12.6 0.15
12878 61316 71IT 12.6 0.15 5591 6AK5 78D 6.3 0.15
128U6 6006 78T 12.6 0.15 5654 6665 1 711D 6.3 0.175
128W4 6I3W4 X 12.6 0.45 5610 2051 ICi 6.3 0.35
12887 12BY7AI , 98F 12.6 0.3 5678 696 II 7CX 6.3 0.15
128267 6816 /CM 12.6 0.15 5691 6SL7GT III 880 6.3 0.6
12C57 5085 ICY 12.6 0.6 5692 6SNIGT III 880 6.3 0.6
12C8 688 II 8E 12.6 0.15 5725 6AS6 7CM 6.3 0.175
12C1150 6CA5 ?CV 12.6 0.6 5726 6AL5 688 6.3 0.3
12G MG 6CM6 SCE 12.6 0.225 5749 6866 7BK 6.3 0.3
12G RS 60R6 7EA 12.6 0.15 68E6 7CH 6.3 0.3
120550 6CS5 9CK 12.6 0.6 5751 , 12AX7 9A 12.6 0.175
12CS6 6CS6 7CH 12.6 0.15 5111411 , I2SN7GT VIII 9A 12.6 0.175
121157 6CU5 1CY 12.6 0.6 5871 6V6GTA II 7AC 6.3 0.9
12CU8 60U6 III SAM 12.6 0.6 5881 616G8 II 7AC 6.3 0.9
120857 6085 9GR 12.6 0.6 5910 1U4 6AR 1.4 0.05
120F7 , 12AX7 9A 12.6 0.15 5915 6886 7CH 6.3 0.3
12006A0 6DQ6B III SAM 12.6 0.6 5963 , 126576 SA 12.6 0.15
12085 6915 INN 12.6 0.6 5964 6368 18F 6.3 0.45
12018 6918 90E 12.6 0.15 5965 , 12AV7 1 9A 12.6 0.225
12DW50 6DW5 9CK 12.6 0.6 6046 121611 VI 7AC 25 0.3
6EF6 III 75 12.6 0.45 6051 , I2AX7 9A 12.6
1204 615 II 680 12.6 0.15 6058 6AL5 SIT 6.3 0.3
126E5 6GE5 VII 1281 12.6 0.6 6059 617 II 98C 6.3 0.15
12G WI 6GW6 III SAM 12.6 0.6 6060 , 12817 9A 12.6 0.15
12H6 656 II 10 12.6 0.15 6061 6V6GTA II SAM 6.3 0.45
1115GT 615 II 80 12.6 0.15 6064 6AM6 708 6.3 0.3
12J7GT 617 II 7R 12.6 015 6065 6806 6.3 0.2
12K7GT 667 II 7R 12.6 0.15 6066 6816 781 6.3 0.3
1260 668 II 8K 12.6 0.15 6067 , I2AU7A 9A 12.6 0.15
12SIGT 6S8GT III 11C8 12.6 0.15 6080 6ASIG III 8EID 6.3 2.5
12SA7 6SA7 II 80 12.6 0.15 6101 616A 18F 6.3 0.45
125C1 6.507II IS 12.6 0.15 6132 6006 98A 6.3 0.75
125F5 6SF5 II 12.6 0.15 6136 6AU6A 78K 6.3 0.3
12SF7 6SF7 II 1A2 12.6 6186 6AG5 6.3 0.3
125G/ 6SG7 II 88K 12.6 0.15 6201 , 12617 SA 12.6 0.15
125 HI 6SH7 II Ilk 12.6 0.15 6265 6906 7CM 6.3 0.175
12517 6S17 II 8N 12.6 0.15 6350 , 12BH7A 9CZ 12.6 0.3
12SK7 &SKI II 8N 12.6 0.15 6485 6AH6 78K 6.3 0.45
125 LIST 651701 III 880 12.6 0.15 6827 082 IX 580
12SN7GT 6SN7GT8 III 12.6 0.3 6660 6BA6 7CC 6.3 0.3
12SN7GTA 6SN7GTB III 880 12.6 0.3 6661 6806 7CM 6.3 0.15
125137 6SQ7 II 80 12.6 0.15 6862 6816A 7CM 6.3 0.15
12507 6SR7 II 80 12.6 0.15 6663 6AL5 SIT 6.3 0.3
12W6GT: 6W6GT III IS 12.6 06 6664 6684 5CE 6.3 0.15
14A7 6S67 II 88 12.6 0.15 6669 6AQ5A 782 6.3 0.45
14AF7 7AF7 IV SAC 12.6 0.15 6876 6C86A 7CM 6.3 0.3
1488 6SQ7 II 8W 12.6 6611 6016 6.3 0.65 -
14F7 6SL7GT III SAC 12.6 6678 60067 SAE 6.3 0.45
14N7 6SN7GT8 III 811C 12.6 0.6 6679 , 12617 9A 12.6
 TABLE VIII - EQUIVALENT TUBES - Continued V25
Equivalent and Table Bass Era ha TNN0 Equivalent and Table Dana Era le
Tyne
12AU7A I 9A 12.6 0.15 7081 12A135 I 9EU 13.5 0.210
6680 0
12AX7 I 9A 12.6 0.15 7137 614 I 780 6.3 0.4
6681'
5965 VIII 9A 12.6 0.225 7187 6CV5 1 7EW 13.5 0.09
6829 ,
2C39 fl - 6.3 1.05 7247 12AU7 I 511 12.6 0.15
6891
617 II 76 6.3 0.3 7408 6V6-GTA III 7AC 6.3 0.45
7000
12AX7 VII SA 12.6 0.15 7543 6AU6 I 788 6.3 0.3
70253
12BY7 I 911F 13.5 0.275 7581A 6L6GB II 7AC 6.3 0.9
7054
6AL5 I 68T 13.5 0.155 7700 617 II 8F 6.3 0.3
7055
6C66 I 7CM 13.5 0.150 ECC81 3 12AT7 I 9A 12.6 0.15
7056
6B27 I 9111 13.5 0.180 ECM , 12AU7A I 9A 12.6 0.15
7057
12A07 I 911 13.5 0.155 ECC83 3 12AX7 I 9A 12.6 0.15
7058
608 I SAE 13.5 0.195 KT-86° 6L6GB I I 7AC 6.3 1.27
7059
6AU8 I 805 13.5 0.280 XXD 7AF7 IV SAG 12.6 0.15
1060
5Controlled hater warm-up characteristics. 'Heater cent r. tapped or operation
Filament or heater voltage. at half volt ge shown.
Filament or eater current. °British vers on of 6L6.

TABLE IX - CONTROL AND REGULATOR TUBES

Fil. or Heater Peak Max. Minimum Oper- Oper- Tube

Tyne Hama Base Cathode Anode Anode Supply ating Resistor Voltage
Min g Grid
Volts Amp. Voltage Ma. Voltage Voltage Ma. Drop

OR 580 Cold - - - - 185 150 5-30 - -

Voltage Regulator
6073
4A.1 Cold - - - - 105 - 75 5-40 - -
0A3/VR75 Voltage Regulator
Gas Triode 46 - With 105-120-volt a.c. anode supply, peak starter-anode a.c. voltage is 70
0A40 Cold - peak r.f. voltage 55. Peak d.c. ma - 00. Average d.c. ma - 25.
1287 Starter-Anode Type IV
OAS Gas Pentode Fl. 19 Cold - - Plate - 750 V., Screen - 90 V,Grid + 3V., Pulse - 85 V.
082 580 Cold - - - - 133 108 5-30 - -
Voltage Regulator
6W4
4111 Cold - - - - 125 SO 5-40 - -
083/VR90 Voltage Regulator
580 Cold - - - - 105 75 5-30 - -
0C2 Voltage Regulator
161 Cold - - - - 135 105 5-40 - -
0C3/68105 Voltage Regulator
4A.1 Cold - - - - 185 150 5-40 - -
003/V11150 Voltage Regulator
650 500 - 650 100 0.1-10' 8
Grid-Controlled Rectifier ION Htr. 6.3 0.6 - _
2021 400 - -
Relay Tube
Ep - 350; Grid volts - - 50; Avg,. Ma. - 25 Peak Ma. - 100;
8D4 Control Tube SAY Htr. 6.
3 0.
25 Voltage drop - 16.
580 Cold - - - - 125 90 1-40 - -
90C1 Voltage Regulator
300 300 - - 2 25000 -
884 Gas Triode Grid Type 60 Htr. 6.3 0.6 - - 75 25000 -
350 300
3G Fil. 2.5 5.0 2500 500 -51 - -- - 10-24
967 Grid- Controlled Rectifier
IM Cold - - - - 130 50 5-30 • - -
1265 Voltage Regulator
al Cold - - - - - 70 5-40 - -
1268 Voltage Regulator
Relay Tube 4V Cold - - Characteristics same as 0A4G
1267
821A Htr. 6.3 0.6 650 500 - - 100 0.1-W 8
2050 Grid-Controlled Rectifier
Cold - - 115 - 115 87 1.5-3.5 - -
5851 Voltage Regulator 580
Thyratron - Fuse Flg. 78 Htr. 6.3 1.5 200a 1,, to use - 150 Amp., 60 cycle half-wave 50 V.
5862
786 Htr. 6.3 0.15 5001 100 ma. peak current; 25-ma. average.
5896 Relay Service
Gas Thyratron 786 Htr. 6.3 0.6 650 - - - -
5727
5823 Relay or Trigger 4CK Cold - - Max. peak inv. volts - 200; Peak Ma. - 100; Avg. Ma. - 25.
2AG Cold - - - - 730 700 5/55a - -
5962 Voltage Regulator
880 Htr. 6.3 2.4 250 125 - 110 100 350, -
5998 Series Regulator
86 X Cold - - - 3.5 115 87 - - -
8308 Voltage Regulator
6338A Twin Triode Series- Regulator 880 Htr. 6.3 5.0 Ep - 400; 1p 400 ma.; Grid vol - - 300
Fig. 12 Cold - - - - 180 150 5-15 - -
6354 Voltage Regulator
- Fil. 2.5 10.0 - - - 3000 503 - -
KY21 Grid-Controlled Rectifier
Radio- Controlled Relay -1 Fil. 1.4 0.05 45 1.5 30 - 0.5-1.5 -- 3, 30
6561
eau inverse verrugo. -•
No base Tinned wire leads. °Cathode resistor-ohms.
aAt 1090 anode volts. Megohms.

TABLE X - RECTIFIERS- RECEIVING AND TRANSMITTING

See Also Table IX - Controls and Regulator Tubes

Max. D.C. Max. Peak

Fil. or Heater A.C. Output Inverse Plate Type
Type Name Base Cathode Volts Amp. Voltage Current Peak Current
Per Plate Ma. Voltage Ma.
- - 300 75 1000 203 GAS
124-G Full-Wave Rectifier 4R Cold
163-6T/ Fil. 125 0.2 - 1.0 33030 30 HV
Half-Wave Rectifier 3C
HOST
Fil. 1.25 0.2 - 0.5 26000 50 HV
163/113 Half-Wave Rectifier 30
Fil. 0.625 0.3 - 0.5 7500 10 FIV
1V2 Half-Wave Rectifier 9U
Fn. 1.4 0.11 1000 1.5 - 9 HV
2825 Half-Wave Rectifier 37
2.5 1.75 4500 7.5 - - HV
202.11 Half-Wave Rectifier 4AB Htr.
2.5 1.75 4400 5.0 - - HV
2Y2 Half -Wave Rectifier 4AB Fil.
Al. 2.5 1.5 350 50 - - liV
222/064 Half-Wave Rectifier 48
5.0 3.0 - 60 20000 300 HV
3824 Half-Wave Rectifier Flg. 49 Fil. 2.5, 3.0 - 30 20
M3 150
 V26 TABLE X - RECTIFIERS-RECEIVING AND TRANSMITTING- Continued
See Also Table IX- Controls and Regulator Tubes

Max. D.C. Max. Peak

Fil. or Heater A.G. Output I
Type Name Base Cathode Plate
Volts Amp. Voltage Current Peak Current TYR°
Per Plate Ma. Voltage Ma.
31128 Half-Wave Rectifier 4P Fil. 2.5 5.0 - 250 10000 1000 GAS
5AT4 Full-Wave Rectifier 5L Htr. 5.0 2.25 550 800 1550 - NV
300 3 3503
5AU4 Full-Wave Rectifier 5T Fil. 5.0 4.5 400 3 325 3 1400 1075 HV
um. 325 ,
5AW4 Full-Wave Rectifier 51 Fil. 5.0 450 3 250 3
4.0 1550 750 HV
550 , 250 ,
50C3 Full-Wave Rectifier WIT Fil. 5.0 3.0 ue 150 1700 1000 HV
5114G Y 900 , 150 ,
5R4GYA Fu ll -
Wave Rectifier
R 5T Fil. 5.0 2.0 2800
950 , 175 , MO HV
5114G Full-Wave Rectifier 5T Fij. 5.0 3.0 Same as Type 5Z3 11V
300 , 275 3
5t14811 Full- Wave Rectifier 5T Fil. 5.0 3.0 450' 2503 1550 xe IIV
550' 250'
5U4GB 300 , 300 ,
5AS4A Full-Wave Reclifier 5T Fil. 5.0 3.0 450 3 275 , 1550 1000 11V
5504 275'
5V3 Full-Wave Rectifier 52 Htr. 5.0 425 ,
3.8 350 1400 1200 liV
500"
5V4GA Full-Wave Rectifier 5L Htr. 5.0 2.0 375 3 175 1400 525 HV
5X4G Full-Wave Rectifier 50 Fil. 5.0 3.0 Same as Type 523 HV
573-G•GT Full-Wave Rectifier 5T Fil. 5.0 2.0 Same as Type 80 NV
5`14-G•GT Full-Wave Rectifier 50 Fil. 5.0 2.0 Same as Type 80 NV
523 Full-Wave Rectifier 4E Fil. 5.0 3.0 500 250 1400 - HV
514 Full-Wave Rectifier 51. Htr. 5.0 2.0 400 125 1100 - liV
611F3 Half-Wave Rectifier 9011 Htr. 6.3 1.2 - 185 4500 750 NV
6AL3 Half-Wave Rectifier 900 Htr. 6.3 1.55 - 220 7500 550 HV
6AY4 Full-Wave Rectifier 505 Htr. 6.3 0.95 - 90 1250 250 HV
6AX5GT Full-Wave Rectifier 65 Htr. 6.3 1.2 450 125 1250 375 MV
110W4 Full-Wave Rectifier 901 Htr. 6.3 0.9 450 100 1275 350 HV
6131(4 Full-Wave Rectifier 5BS Htr. 6.3 0.6 - 90 1350 270 HV
6BY5G Full-Wave Rectifier GEN Htr. 6.3 1.6 375 3 175 14011 525 HV
6CA4 Fol!- Wave Rectifier 8M Htr. 6.3 1.0 350 , 150 1000 450 HV
lIDA4A Half-Wave Diode 4CG Htr. 6.3 1.2 - 155 4400 900 HV
8E1E4 Half- Wave Rectifier 40G Fil. 6.3 1.6 - 175 5000 1100 HV
6U4GT Half-Wave Rectifier 4CG Htr. 6.3 1.2 - 138 1375 660 11V
6V4 Full-Wave Rectifier 9M Htr. 6.3 0.6 350 93 - - HV
6X4/6063 7CF 325 3
Full-Wave Rectifier Htr. 6.3 0.3 70 1250 210 HV
6X5GT 6S 450,
623 Half-Wave Rectifier 4G Fil. 6.3 0.3 350 50 - - F1V
120F5 6.3 0.9
Full-Wave Rectifier 9BS Htr. 450 100 1275 350 HV
12.6 O45
1284 Full-Wave Rectifier 5BS Htr. 6503 70 1250 210
12.6 0.3 HV
900' 70 1250 210
2525 Rectifier- Doubler 6E Htr. 25 0.3 125 103 - 500 HV
35W4 Half-Wave Rectifier 580 Htr. 35 1 0.15 125 60 330 ae HV
35Z4GT Half-Wave Rectifier 5AA Htr. 35 0.15 250 100 700 a» HV
35250 Half-Wave Rectifier GAD Htr. 35 1 0.15 125 60 - - HV
36AM3 Half-Wave Rectifier 500 Htr. 36 0.1 117 75 365 530 HV
50E104 Half-Wave Rectifier 5110 Htr. 50 0.15 117 100 330 720 MV
50Y6GT Full-Wave Rectifier 70 Htr. 50 0.15 125 85 - - HV
80 Full-Wave Rectifier 40 Fil. 3503 125
5.0 2.0 5004 1400 375 HV
125
83 Full-Wave Rectifier 4C Fil. 5.0 3.0 500 250 1400 am MV
83-V Full-Wave Rectifier 4AD Htr. 5.0 2.0 400 200 1100 - NV
1171470T Rectifier-Tetrode MAY Htr. 117 0.09 117 75 350 450 HV
11723 Half-Wave Rectifier 4CB HIr. 117 0.04 117 90 300 - HV
816 Half-Wave Rectifier 4P Fil. 2.5 2.0 2200 125 7500 500 NW
836 Half-Wave Rectifier 4P Htr. 2.5 5.0 - - 5000 1030 HV
866-11-118 Half-Wave Rectifier 4P Fil. 2.5 5.0 3500 250 10000 1000 MV
6666 Half-Wave Rectifier 4P Fil. 5.0 5.0 - - 8500 1000 MV
866 Jr. Half-Wave Rectifier 46 Fil. 2.5 2.5 1250 2502 - - MV
872A/872 . .Half-Wave Rectifier UT Fil. 5.0 7.5 - 1250 10030
.- . .. 5CCO MV
iappeo rpiiøt l ampe. Capacitor input. ,Using only one-half of filament.
Per pair with choke input. 'Choke input.

TABLE X1- TRIODE TRANSMITTING TUBES

Ma imum Ratings Cathode Capacitances Typical Operation

d
o
7.3
Type Cop C.., Base -0 2
E e Pf. Pf. Pf. •
.E c.s ,f, 44. 0
E3 E yj
la. la. 4 - u du 11 1
.3
958-A 0.6 135 7 1.0 500 12 1.25 0.1 0.6 2.6 0.8 5BD C.T.0 135 -20 1.0 0.035 0.6
616A3' 1.5 300 30 16 250 32 6.3 0.45 2.2 1.6 0.4 - 7BF C:f 150 -10 30 1.6 0.035
 TABLE XI - TRIODE TRANSMITTING TUBES- Continued V27
Maximum Ratings Cathode Capacitances Typical Operation

r.

Amplification
pation Watts

Full Ratings
Current Ma.
Current Ma.
Plate Dissi-
"2 Cie Cep C... ". s,

Freq. Mc.
Base
Type I s

D.C. Grid
7,i
` p. PL aà
S.1' 6- 'el

Factor
2E . tj"E 341 È ,i1"' -

Plate
É 2 2 ‘
Me; a
o E
< U3 ig e.d i:J d,J .u. L'Li .te.
250 8 2.0 250 25 6.3 0.15 1.2 1.4 1.1 765 64.0 180 -35 7 1.5 - - 0.5
9002 1.6
1.6 180 8 2.0 250 25 6.3 0.15 1.0 1.4 0.6 5116 64.0 180 -35 7 15 - - 0.5
955
C.T.0 180 -30 12 2.0 0.2 - IA ,
HY1148 1.8 180 12 3.0 300 13 1.
4 0.
155 1.
0 1.
3 1.
0 2T C-P 180 -35 12 2.5 0.3 - 1.4 ,
-15
2.0 150 20 8.0 500 17 6.3 0.225 2.0 1.9 0.6 IBR C-T-0 150 550' 20 7.5 0.2 - 1.8
6F4
zoo04
3.5' 54 18 6.3 0.3 1.5 1.5 0.5 9A 64.0 350 -100 24 7 - - 6.0
12AU7A , 2.76, 350 124
30 10 400 24 6.3 0.2 2.2 1.3 0.38 Fly. 18 C-T-0 135 1300 4 20 9.5 - - 1.25
6026 3.0 150
C4.0 300 -35 20 2.0 0.4 - 4.0,
HY515 3.5 300 20 4.0 300 20 6.3 0.175 1.4 1.6 1. 2 Fig. 71
HY-21148 C- P 300 -35 20 3.0 0.8 - 3.5,
350 25 8.0 54 18 6.3 0.15 1.8 1.6 1.3 MIG C-T-0 300 -27 25 7.0 0.35 - 5.5
864 5.0
1200 25 6.3 0.4 1.4 2.4 0.36 Fig. 21 C.T.0 ,, 1000° 0 900° - - - 2005
2C36 5 1500° - -
5 350 - - 3300 25 6.3 0.4 1.4 1.85 0.02 Fly,. 21 C-T-0' , 150 3000' 15 3.6 - - 0.5
2631
3300 25 6.3 0.4 1.4 1.85 0.02 Fig. 21 C.T.0 ,, 1000° 0 1300° - - - 2005
5764 5 1500 , 11.5 -
165 30 8 3000 20 6.3 0.135 2.3 1.3 0.09 Fig. 21 G.G.0 120 -8 25 4 - - 0.05
5675 5
30° 5.0° 10 35 6.3 0.8 - - - 86 C.T.0 11 350 -100 60 10 - - 143
6N7GT 2 5.5° 350
6.5 500 25 - 500 36 6.3 0.75 2.1 1.3 0.05 Fly. 11 C-1-0 250 -5 20 0.3 - - 0.075
2640
C-T 350 -33 35 13 2.4 - 6.5
5893 8.0 400 40 13 1000 27 6.0 0.
33 2.
5 1.
75 0.
07 Fly. 21 C-P 300 -45 30 12 2.0 - 6.5
C-T 350 -50 35 15 - - -
8.0 350 35 15 2500 47 6.3 0.9 5.0 2.3 0.03 -
GL-8442 C- P 275 -50 35 15 - - -

10 300 80 20 250 13 6.3 0.8 3.4 2.4 0.5 Fig. 70 C.1%0 300 -36 80 20 L8 - 16
ge,
40 - 1250 48 6.3 0.9 2.9 1.7 0.05 Fly. 11 C-T-0 470 - 38 , - - - 9 ,
2C43 12 500
C-T 350 -58 40 15 3 - 10
6263 13 403 55 25 500 27 6.3 0.28 2.9 1.7 0.08 2.4 - 8
C-P 320 -52 35 12
6264 13 400 50 25 500 40 6.3 0.28 2.95 1.75 0.07 - C-T 350 -45 40 15 3 - 8
C-T 450 -140 90 20 5.2 - 26
HY15A 15 450 90 25 175 9.6 6.
3 2.
6 1.
8 2.
6 1.
0 2T C•P 400 -140 90 20 5.2 - 21
C-T 600 -150 65 15 4.0 - 25
20 600 70 15 60 8.0 7.5 1.25 4.5 6.0 1.5 4D C- P 500 -190 55 15 4.5 - 18
8111-1/801
B, 600 -75 130 320 , 3.0 , 10K 45
CI 750 -85 85 18 3.6 - 44
T20 20 750 85 25 60 20 7.
5 1.
75 4.
9 5.
1 0.
7 3G C-P 750 -140 70 15 3.6 - 38
C-T 750 -40 85 28 3.75 - 44
20 750 85 30 60 62 7.5 1.75 5.3 5.0 0.6 36 C-P 750 -100 70 23 4.8 - 38
T220
B, 800 0 40 136 160, 1.8 , 126 70
- - - 600 25 5.5 4.2 1.4 1.15 Fig. 51 2000 -130 63 18 4.0 - 100
15E" 20
C-T-0 1500 -95 67 13 2.2 - 75
252 0.3 1.3 - 47
36 1000 -70 72 9
34583 25 2000 75 25 60 24 6.3 3.0 2.7 1.5
8, 2000 -80 16/80 270 , 0.7 , 55.56 110
100 2.1 1.8 0.1 Fly. 31 2000 -170 63 17 4.5 - 100
3028" 3G C-T-0 1500 -110 67 15 3.1 - 75
60 2.5 1.7 0.4
3C34" 25 2000 75 25 23 6.3 3.0
2.0 1.6 0.2 1003 -80 72 15 2.6 - 47
3-2503 20
150 1.7 1.5 0.3 2000 --85 16/80 290 , 1.1° 55.56 110
246 -

75 C-T 2000 -130 63 18 4 - 100

25 2030
60 7 60 24 6.3 3.0 1.7 1.6 0.2 2D C-P 1600 -170 53 II 3.1 - 68
3024 17 1600 ,,

2000 75 AEI 2, 1250 -42 24/130 270 , 3.4 8 21.46 112

25
C:f 2000 -140 56 18 4.0 - 90
H624 25 2000 75 3
0 60 25 63 3.
0 2.
5 1.
7 0.4 36 C- P 1500 -145 50 25 5.5 - 60
65 - G-M-A 1000 -135 50 4 3.5 - 20
30
500 18 6.3 1.92 2.7 2.8 0.35 4110 C- P 800 -105 40 10.5 1.4 - 22
8025 20 1000 65 20
20 C-T 1000 -SG 50 14 1.6 - 35
30 80
6.3 3.5 C-T 500 -45 150 25 2.5 - 56
HY31Z , 30 500 150 30 60 45 5.0 5.5 1.9 Fig. 80
HY12312 , 12.6 1.7 C-1' 400 -100 150 30 3.5 - 45
C-T 450 - 80 12 - - 7.5
3168 30 450 80 12 500 6.5 2.0 3.65 1.2 1.6 0.8 C-1' 400 - 80 12 - - 6.5
VT-191
CT 1030 -75 100 25 3.8 - 75
60 50 6.3 2.5 5.7 6.7 0.9 3G C-P 750 -60 100 32 4.3 - 55
809 30 1000 125 -
B, 1000 -9 40/200 155 5 2.7 5 11.6K 145
C-T-0 1000 -90 100 20 3.1 - 75
6.3 2.5 5.7 6.7 0.9 36 C-1' 750 -125 100 20 4.0 - 55
1623 30 1000 100 25 60 20
8, 1000 -40 30,200 230 , 4.2° 12K 145
C-T-0 1500 -140 150 28 9.0 - 158
140 40 1500 150 40 60 25 7.
5 2.
5 4.
5 4.
8 0.
8 36 C•P 1250 -115 115 20 5.25 - 104
C4-0 1500 -90 150 38 10 - 165
7.5 2.5 4.8 5.0 0.8 36 C-P 1250 -100 125 30 7.5 - 116
1Z40 40 1500 150 45 60 62
B, 1503 -9 250° 285 , 6.0 , 126 250

3-5084 4.1 0.3 3G C-T 2000 -135 125 45 13 - 200

357 5.0 4.0 - 1.8
50 2000 150 50 100 39 -P 1500 -150 90 40 11 - 105
3-5004 2.5 0.4 20
3526 B, 2000 -40 4, 167 255, 4.0 , 27 .
56 235

C-T 3000 -290 100 25 10 - 250

5.0 5.0 1.9 1.9 0.2 20 C-1' 2500 -250 100 20 8.0 - 210
0654 50 3000 150 30 100 27
B' 2500 -85 20/150 360, 5.0 40K 275

See pag V29 for key to Class-of-Service abbreviations.

 .1419E Sus,

SSB • ISB • CW • MCW • AM • FSK

illf/LF/MF/HF COMMUNICATIONS
u4emuniitee
r-.-

GPT-750 AN/URT-I 7A, AN/FRT-55. GPT-750 is a fully bandswitched,

continuously tunable ( 2-32 mcs) radio transmitter. The building block con-
cept makes this transmitter versatile, easy to install, operate and maintain.
Five models available for SSB, ISB, AM, CW, FAX, FSK modes. The GPT-750
is ideally suited for fixed station, mobile and shipboard operation.
REQUEST TB 1007

PTE-3A AN/GRM-33A RF SPECTRUM ANALYZER

• RF analysis from 1.5 to 64.5 mcs • Manual sweep for detailed
analysis • Calibration from 0 to — 60 db • Two tone RF and AF
signal generator • On casters for mobility. Model PTE- 3A is a very
useful operational and maintenance tool for sideband transmission
systems. Excellent as laboratory instrument in alignment of all
types of RF equipment, too.... REQUEST TB 6001

TTR-10, TTR-40 Four channel transistorized SSB trans-

mitter/receivers, completely compact, self-contained and ready for
operation. Front panel switching provides for the selection of pre-
tuned transmit/receive modules in 2-4, 4-8, 8-16, 16-32 mc
ranges with SSB ( upper and lower), AM equivalent, CW, FSK and
FAX modes of operation. These units may be used in duplex or
simplex circuit operation with local or remote control.
Model TTR-10 provides 100 watts PEP output; the TTR-40, 35
watts PEP output. Both models feature voice- operated relay con-
trol ( VOX). . . . REQUEST TB 1004

GPR-92 This receiver is patterned after the field

proven GPR-90RXD but incorporates a product de-
tector for the reception of SSB signals and provides
selectable IF bandpass up to 15 kc. A very low noise
figure provides excellent reception capabilities in ISB,
SSB, AM, CW, MCW, FSK and FAX modes of opera-
tion. An external oven crystal amplifier, TMC Model
TRX-1, provides stable 10 channel HFO crystal selec-
tivity.... REQUEST TB 3006

SPU-2 AM-3905/URT. Where critical voice communi-

cations are involved, Model SPU-2 provides a 40 db
dynamic range to prevent overload of transmitters and
to provide constant voice amplitude from receivers to
minimize voice hybrid " ringing." Speech clipping and
pre- emphasis may be switched in during periods of severe
atmospheric conditions to increase articulation by at least
BULLETIN 2026A

SME The SME -1 is a complete solid state SSB exciter

and the SMR-1 is a companion solid state fixed frequency
SSB receiver, capable of INSTANT SELECTION of any
one of 8 pre-set crystal controlled channels over the
2-32 mc frequency range.

SMR-1 The SMR-1 receiver features front end sensi-

tivity of below 1 microvolt with 100 db dynamic range.
Thirty-two distinct channels are instantly available with
oven stability of I part in 10 6 per day and sensitivity of
1 microvolt. Both units may be remote controlled. For full
detalls ... REQUEST TB 3010 SMR-1, TB 2030 SME -1.

11-IL TEGIINICAL MATLRIEL CORPORATION

and Sublidiariss MAMARONECK, NEW YORK
OTTAWA, CANADA • ALEXANDRIA, VIRGINIA • GARLAND, TEXAS • OXNARD, CALIFORNIA
SAN LUIS OBISPO, CALIFORNIA • LUZERN, SWITZERLAND • POMPANO BEACH, FLORIDA
 TABLE XI - TRIODE TRANSMITTING TUBES- Continued V29
Maximum Ratings Cathode Capacitances

eerigesime
u

Power Watts
Ià'rgg'àg'g"currentraa.

oh nis
enr,
a .,;, a • .0 u Cat Cuut
.g. e Ca p Base
Í'' tr. e ..

Class of
T1,111, 3 . z. -.€ It

ggeàii2Voltage
retl e
à, Service
. pi. Of.

p
e
a

Plate
iq e,

Grid
.; 2:1' '•,f
‘ ti e

t
11.° -

1111111C,1111111ro
il ili id 3 e., e.'. > ec

iggedgriggilMilMg

111111
45 30 16.5 10 4.5 5.0 6.4 3.3 2N
8000 175 2500 300

w
16 10 5.75 9.5 7.9 1.6 2N

>
1200 200 2500 350 80 30

ira".§§g§egeisa
25 ,,

1'
200 3500 250
592/ 0 130 2600 200 25 0 150 25 10 5.
0 3.
6 3.3 0.29 Fi g.28

wrà
3-20083
200 3500 250 25 0

11111
4C34 60
200 3000 275 60 23 11-12 4.0 6.0 6.5 1.
4 2N
20

see
HF300

7.0 1.4 -

1
200 3000 300 - - 23 11 6.0 6.0
T-300

1111
2N

-
300 50 30 12.6 5.0 10 6.1 4.2 1.1
806 225 3300

›
2003 -100 ..i5i us zs YEW
CT0 333 90 32 - 750
3000 -150
2030 -160 250 60 22 - 335
3-250A4 40 0 40 37 5.0 10.5 4.6 2.9 0.5 2N -180 225 45 17 - 400
250 4000 350 C-17 2500
250TH 200 38 14 - 435
3000 -200
AV 1500 0 220, 700 460 , 46 , 4.26 630
2000 -200 350 45 22 - 455
CTtO 45 29 - 750
3000 -350 335
2000 -520 250 29 24 - 335
3-250A2 35 0 40 14 5.0 10.5 3.7 3.0 0.7 2N -520 225 20 16 - 400
250 4000 350 C.11 2500
250T I. 200 14 11 - 435
3000 -520
AB, , 1500 -40 200 700 780, 38 , 3.86 580
C•T 3000 -250 363 69 27 - 840

5867 250 3000 400 80 100 25 5.

0 14 .
1 7.
7 5.9 0.18 Fi g
,3 C•P 2500 -300 250 70 28 - 482
A0-9901 0' 3000 -110 570 , 465, 32 14 .
26 1280

2500 -70 300 85 75" - 555

3000 -95 300 110 85 ,1 - 710
45 5.0 14.5 7.6 3.7 0.1 Fig. 3 GGA 285 90 85" - 805
PL- 6569" 250 4030 300 120 30 3500 -110
4000 -120 250 50 70" - 820
1500 -125 665 115 25 - 700
CT0 125 39 - 900
2000 -200 600
5.0 25
1500 -200 420 55 18 - 500
3-300A3 60 0 40 20 13.5 10.2 0.7 4BC -300 440 60 26 - 680
300 3000 900 C•P 2000
304TH
12.5 2500 -350 400 60 29 - soo
10
AB, , 1500 -65 1065 , 330 , 25 , 2.046 1000
1500 -250 665 90 33 - 700
CT0 85 36 - 900
2000 -300 600
2000 -500 250 30 18 - 410
5.0 25
2000 -500 500 75 52 - 810
C- P 18 11 - 425
3-300A2 2500 -525 200
300 3000 900 50 0 40 12 12 .
1 8.
6 0.8 4BC
304TL° 2500 -550 400 50 36 - 830

1500 -118 270 572 236 , 0 2.541( 256

10 12.5 AB,' 8.56 610
2500 -230 160 483 460 , 0
AB,' 1500 -118 1140 , 490 , 39 , 2.751( 1100
2250 -125 445 85 23 - 780
CT-0 70 20 - 800
30 3000 -160 335
350 3300 - 635
6.3 8.5 Fig. 41 2500 -300 335 75 30
500 100 35 10 10 12.3
833A C-11 335 70 26 - 800
2015 3000 -240
450 0 4000 0 13' 3000 -70 100750 400 , 20 , 9.50 1650
G•G•B 3000 0 100,333 120 32 - 655
- 110 200 5 14.5 7.4 4.1 0.07 Flg. 3
3-4002 400 3000 400 105 ,, - 1080
4000 -110 350 92
45 5.0 14.5 7.6 3.9 0.1 5BK GGA 2500 -70 350 95 85
- 660
PL- 65130" 400 4000 0 350 120 -
G•G•13 3000 300
0 180 67065 - 1360
110 200 7.5 21.3 17 6.9 0.17 Fit 3
3-10002 1000 3000 800
_ . ..
li Class- Bdata in Table II
GI-C Gricksol lion circuit.
Cathode resistor in ohms. 0 1000- Mc. c.w. osc.
KEY TO CLASS- OF- SERVICE ABBREVIATIONS GM- A = Grid- modulated amp.
11 Max. grid dissipation in watts.
Twin triode. Values, except interelectrode capaci-
A, = Class- A, at, modulator. Max. cathode current in ma.
AB, = Class- AB, push-pull at, modulator. tances, are for both sections in push-pull.
0 Forced-air cooling required.
AB, = Class- AB, push-pull at, modulator. ,Output at 112 Mc,
11 Plate- pulsed 3300- Mc. soc.
B = Class- Bpush-pull at, modulator. Grid leak resistor in ohms.
ir 1900- Mc. c.w. soc.
Peak values.
C- M = Frequency multiplier. 0 No Class- 8data available.
1 Per section.
C- P = Class- Cplate- modulated telephone. 0 Linear-amplifier tube- operation data for single
'Values are for two tubes in push-pull.
C•T Class- Ctelegraph. sideband in Table 11-1.
1 Max. signal value.
C•T•0 = Class- Camplifier-osc. Includes bias loss, grid dissipation, and feed-
9 Peak at, grid-to- grid volts.
G-G•A = Grounded- grid class- Camp. through power.
Plate- pulsed 1000- Mc. soc.
G.G•B = Grounded- grid class- Bamp. (Single Tone).
&G.') = Grounded- grid soc
 V30 TABLE XII - TETRODE AND PENTODE TRANSMITTING TUBES

Maximum Ratings Cathode Capacitances Typical Operation

or S'
o•
pation Watts .4 15.0
,Plate Dissi-
• :..?- xi xi
Type a* .r . Co, Cy. Coot , E
o E E o 48 E ry

Amperes
r
Ba" • 3 -c • 3
eg ,..,.ei g.
g Ec :to ze pi. pi. Pi. g ,
2.2 ..e.
, .1.. e_ e III ,E et_
.. o
11 t.
g ..
el'

1
: : t,,I,
Li à
-a à
-e. e.: e•: z.-
im r':.3 xr". Je ii g
- r1.3 JJ ii0 Zie Z3 ág:
7717 Z 180 0.5 180 - 6.3 0.2 4.5 0.03 3 7EW C•P 125 80 -- -1 10
6.3 0.75 CT 200 200 - -20 60 13 2 1.0 - 7.5
6939 3 7.5 275 3 200 500 6.6 0.15 1.55 Fig. 13 C•P 180 180 -- -20 55 11 .5 1.7 1.0 - 6
12.6 0.375
CM 200 190 - 686 1 46 10 2.2 0.9 - -
7701 9 350 3.5 300 175 13.6 0.16 1 0.15 3.6 9MS C•P 250 250 - -12.5 28
2E30 10 250 2.5 250 160 CT 250 200 - -50 50 10 2.5 0.2 - -
6 0.65 10 0.5 4.5 700
AB,' 250 250 - -30 40 120 4 20 2.3' 0.2 3.86 17
CT 300 185 - -39 60 4 2.2 1.0 - 7
7905 10 300 1.5 300 175 6.3 0.65 8.5 5.5 0.14 9PB C•P 250 250 - -70 60 2.5 2.1 1.0 - 63
CM 300 215 - -80 50 3.4 1.5 0.5 - 3.5
837 12 500 8 300 20 12.6 CT 500 200 40 -70 80 15 4 0.4 - 28
0.7 16 0.2 10 6BM
C•P 400 140 40 -40 45 20 5 0.3 - 11
7551 12.6 0.38 CT 300 250 - -55 80 5.1 1 6 1 5 - 10
12 300 2 250 175 10 0.15 55 9LK
. .
7558 6.3 0.8C•P 250 250 - -75 70 3.0 2.3 1.0 - 7.5
CT 350 250 - -28.5 48.5 6.2 1.6 0.1 - 14
5763 6.3 0.75 C•P 300 250 - -42.5 50 6 2.4 0.15 - 10
135 350 2 250 50 9.5 0.3 4.5 9K
6417 . 12.6 0.375C•11.1 8 300 250 - -15 40 4 I 0.6 - 2.1
C.M. 300 235 - -100 35 5 I 0.6 - 1.3
2E24 13.5 600 2.5 200 125 6.3 8 0.65 CR 500 180 - -45 54 8 2.5 0.16 - 18
8.5 0.11 6.5 7CL
CT 600 195 - -50 66 10 3 0.21 - 27
2E26" CT 600 185 - -45 66 10 3 0.17 - 27
6.3 0.8
13.5 600 2.5 200 125 12.5 0.2 7 7CK C•P 500 180 - -50 54 9 2.5 0.15 - 18
6893 12.6 0.4
AB,' 500 125 - -15 22 150 32 , - 0.36' 86 54
CT 300 200 - -45 100 3 3 0.2 - 18.5
6360' 14 300 2 200 200 6.3 0.82 C.111 200 100 - 1510 86 3.1 3.3 0.2 - 9.8
6.2 0.1 2.6 Fig. 13
12.6 0.41CM" 300 150 -- -100 65 3.5 3.8 0.45 - 4.8
AB, 300 200 - -21.5 30100 1111.4 64 8 0.04 6.516 17.5
C•T•0 450 250 - -45 75 15 3 0.4 - 24
2E25 15 450 4 250 125 6 0.8 8.5 0.15 6.7 581 C•P 400 200 - -45 60 12 3 0.4 - 16
AB? 450 250 - -30 44 150 10 40 3 0.9' 6K 40
6.3 1.6 CT 750 200 - -65 48 15 2.8 0.19 - 26
832A 3 15 750 5 250 200 8 0.07 3.8 7BP
12.6 0.8 C•P 600 200 - -65 36 16 2.6 0.16 - 17
CT 600 250 - -60 140 14 4 2.0 - -
A
62g10 3 20 750 4 300 300 63 13 6.5 - 2.5 Fig. 7 CR 500 250 - -80 100 12 3 4.0 - -
12.6 0.65
e 500 250 - -26 25 73 0.7 16 52 8 - 20K 23.5
CT 450 250 - -45 100 8 2 0.15 - 31
1614 25 450 3.5 300 80 6.3 0.9 10 0.4 12.5 MC C•P 375 250 - -50 93 7 2 0.15 - 24.5
ABC 530 340 - -36 60 160 20' - - 7.216 50
6.3 C•T•0 500 200 - -45 150 17 2.5 0.13 - 56
815 3 25 500 4 200 125 1.6
13.3 0.2 8.5 8BY CR 400 175 - -45 150 15 3 0.16 - 45
12.6 0.8
AB, 500 125 - -15 22 150 32' - 0.36' 8K 54
CT 600 300 - -60 90 10 5 0.43 - 35
1624 25 600 3.5 300 60 2.5 2 11 0.25 7.5 Flg. 66 C•18 500 275 - -50 75 9 3.3 0.25 - 24
AB,. 600 300 - -25 42 180 515 06 8 1.2' 7.5K 72
4604 25 750 3 250 60 6.3 0.65 11 0.24 8.5 701 CT 400 190 - -60 150 II 2 4.5 - 30
6146" 500 170 - -66 135 9 2.5 0.2 - 48
6146A 6.3 1.25 CT
750 160 - -62 120 II 3.1 0.2 - 70
8032
CT" 400 190 - -54 150 10.4 2.2 3.0 - 35
611113 25 750 3 250 60 12.6 0.625 400 150 - -87 112 7.8 3.4 0.4 - 32
13 0.24 8.5 ICK C•111
600 150 - -87 112 7.8 3.4 0.4 - 52
600 190 - -48 28 270 1.2 20 2' 0.3 56 113
A13,''
6159 26.5 0.3 750 165 - -46 22 240 0.3 20 2.6' 0.4 7AK 131
AB,' 750 195 - -50 23 220 126 00 , 0 8K 120
6524 3 UT 600 200 - -44 120 8 3.7 0.2 - 56
6.3 1.25
25 600 300 100 7 0.11 3.4 Flg. 76 CR 500 200 - -61 100 7 2 .5 0.2 - 40
6850 12.6 0.625
AB, 500 200 - -26 20 116 0.1 10 2.6 0.1 11.1K 40
807" CT 750 250 - -45 100 6 3.5 0.22 - 50
807W 6.3 0.9 SAW C•P 600 275 - -90 100 6.5 4 0.4 - 42 .5
5933 30 750 3.5 300 60 12 0.2 7
AB,. 750 300 - -32 60 240 510 92 8 0.2' 6.956 120
1625 13 12.6 0.45 SAZ B18 750 - - 0 15 240 - . 55 8 5.3' 6.65K 120
2E22 30 750 10 250 - 6.3 1.5 13 0.2 8 51 C.T.0 750 250 Z2.5 -60 100 16 6 0.55 - 53
CT 750 200 - -11 160 10 2.7 0.3 - 85
61468 / 35
8298A 750 3 250 30 6.3 1.125 13 0.22 8.5 7C K C•P 600 175 - -92 140 9.5 3.4 0.5 - 62
Alii i 750 200 - -48 25 125 6.3 - - 3.66 61
AA.
6.3 1.8 CT 600 250 - -80 200 16 2 0.2 - 80
9903' 40 600 7 250 250 6.7 0.08 2.1 Fig. 7
5894A 12.6 0.
9 CR 600 250 - -100 200 24 8 1.2 - 85
8296 3 C•T
- 500 200 - -45 240 32 12 0.7 - 83
6.3 2.25
40 750 7 240 200 14.5 0.12 7 7BP C18 425 200 - -60 212 35 II 0.8 - 63
3E 12.6 1.125
e
293
500 200 - -18 27 230 - 56 8 0.39 4.86 76
3024 45 2oce 10 400 125 6.3 3 6.5 2000 375 - - 300 90 20 10 4.0 - 140
0.2 2.4 Fig. 75 CT0
1500 375 - - 300 90 22 10 4.0 - 105
12.6 1.6 750 1 300 - - 100 240 26 12 1.5 - 135
4022 25.2 0.8 Fig. 16 CT
600 300 - - 100 215 30 10 1.25 - 100
50 750 14 350 60 28 0.27 600 - - - 100
1
C.18 220 28 10 1.25 - 100
4032 6.3 3.75 Fig. 27 550 - - - 100 175 17 6 0.6 - 70
AB,' 600 250 - -25 100 365 26' 70 8 0.45' 3K 125
vice aooreviations.
 TABLE XII - TETRODE AND PENTODE TRANSMITTING TUBES - Continued V31
Capacitances Typical Operation
Maximum Ratings 1Cathode

Approx. Driving
I.

Power Watts
Current Ma.
Current Ma.
Current Ma.
Screen Dissi-

Load Ohms
Suppressor
pation Watts
pation Watts

Full Ratings
,
Plate Dissi-

Ca, C,,,, C.., .... l

Service .
Freq. Mc.

Amperes

Class of

Voltage
Voltage

P- to- P
Voltage

Screen
Type Pt. PC Pt. - 2e

Screen
Voltage
Voltage

screen

Plate
e.,IE

Grid
Grid
Volts
Plate

60/212 1.9/25 - - 1410 16

8117, 60 750 7 300 175 1
62'
36 1:
0 9
8 11.8 3.7 0.09 Fig. 7 AB, 600 250 - -32.5
C.T 1500 300 - -90 150 24 10 1.5 - 160
65 1503 10 300 30 10 3.25 13.5 0.1 13.5 Fig. 84 1250 300 - -150 145 20 10 3.2 - 130
814 C•P
1500 250 - -85 150 40 18 3.
2 - 165
CT.0 - -100 115 22 10 1.7 - 280
3000 250
1500 250 - -125 120 40 16 3.5 - 140
4-85A" 65 3000 10 600 150 6 3.5 8 0.08 2.1 Fig. 25 c.p
2500 250 - -135 110 25 12 2.6 - 230
AN' 1800 250 - -50 50/250 30 , 180 , 2.6 , 20K 270
Cl /50 260 - -75 240 12.7 5.5 3.5 - 123
6.3 1.8
7854 , 68 1000 8 300 175 12 .6 0.9 6.7 2.1 0.09 Fig. 7 C•P 600 225 - -75 200 7. 8 5.
5 3.
5 - 85

C-T 2000 500 60 -200 150 11 6 1.4 - 230

4E27/ 75 4030 30 750 75 5 7.5 12 0.06 6.5 78M 400 60 -130 135 11 8 1.7 - 178
C.1, 1800
8001
C-T 2000 500 60 -200 150 11 6 1.4 - 230
HK257 75 4000 25 750 75" 5 7.5 13.8 0.04 6.7 IBM 400 60 -130 135 11 8 1.7 - 178
C-P 1800
HK2578 12 5 0.8 - 220
2003 400 0 -125 150
75 2000 10 603 - 6 3.2 7.5 0.06 4.2 Fig. 14 CTCP 400 0 -105 150 16 5 0.7 - 100
PL-17711" 1000
2000 400 70 -125 150 12 5 0.8 - 270
C.T
2000 400 70 -140 125 15 4 0.7 - 200
PL-8549 75 2000 10 600 175 6 3.5 7.5 0.09 3.4 Fig. 14 C- P
2000 400 70 -85 30/225 0.1/10 180 , 0.05 , I9K 325
AV
C-T 1500 400 75 -100 180 28 12 2.2 - 200
1250 400 75 -140 160 28 12 2.7 - 150
80 2000 23 750 30 10 3.25 13.5 0.05 14.5 Si C-1'
828 50/270 2/60 240 0 18.56 3e
Afile 2000 750 60 -120
-100 275 15 8 30 - 135
7270 6.3 3.1 C-T 850 400
-.

80 1350 - 425 175 115 1.2 , 8 0.4 0.14 Fig. 84 AB, 665 400 - -119 220 15 6 10 - 85
7271 5 - 85
0.13 0.011 Fig. 85 CT-0 700 200 - -30 300 10 20
8072 103 2200 8 400 500 13.5 1.3 16
900 300 - -30 170 1 10 3 - 80
C.T.0
6.3 2.1 C- P 703 250 - -50 130 10 10 3 - 45
8818, 300 400 14 0.085 0.015 Flg. 77 0/20 30' 0 7K 80
115 1000 4.5 AB, , 850 300 - -15 80/ 200
6884 26.5 0.52 0/25 46 , 0.3 3.960 140
AB,' 850 303 - -15 80/335
1250 300 0 -75 180 35 12 1.7 - 170
C70 220 40 15 4 - 375
2250 400 0 -155
1250 303 0 -160 150 35 13 2.9 - 141r
14 58A C- P 3, -17 , 200
813" 125 2503 20 800 30 10 5 16.3 0.25 2000 0 0
40 16 4.3 - 300
2000 750 0 -90 40/315 1.5/58 230 , 0.1 , 16K 455
AB,, -95 35/360 1.2/55 235 , 0.35 , 17K 650
2500 750 0
350 - -103 200 50 12 2.8 - 275
2030
CT 0 -150 167 30 9 2.5 - 375
3000 350 -
2000 350 - -220 150 33 10 3.8 - 225
4-115An C•P - -210 152 30 9 3.3 - 300
20 600 120 5 6.5 10.8 0.07 3.1 58K 2500 350
4021 125 3000 1.0 , 22K 400
AB,' 2500 350 - -43 93/260 0/6 178 ,
6155 20.316 330
AB, , 2500 600 - -96 50/232 0.3/8.5 192 , 0
2000 0 - 0 10/105" 30" 55 1, 6" 10.5K 145
GG
5 6 1.6 - 3 75
4C2711/ 125 4000 20 750 75 5 7.5 10.5 0.08 4.7 IBM C-T 3066
IOC°
96
750 0
66 -200
-170
167
160 21 3 0.6 - 115
5.1158 - 210
C-T 2000 500 40 -90 160 45 12 2
803 125 2000 30 600 20 10 5 17.5 0.15 29 51 1603 400 100 -80 150 45 25 5 - 155
C-P
1500 400 - -100 330 20 5 4 - 340
C•T
1200 400 - -130 275 20 5 5 - 240
125 2000 20 400 60 6.3 3.2 9.0 0.5 1.8 Fig. 81 C- P
7094 - 120' 0 I2K 560
AB, 2000 400 - -65 60/400
1250 250 - -90 200 20 10 0.8 - 195
C.T.0
48150A 6 2.6 15.5 0.03 4.5 Fig. 75 C- P 1000 250 - -105 200 20 15 2 - 140
150, 1250 12 403 500 100 , 0.15 , 5.616 425
40150G" 0.035 4.5 - AB,, 1250 300 - -44 475 , 0/65
2.5 6.25 27
200 - -30 300 10 30 5 - 165
8122 150 2200 8 400 500 13.5 1.3 16 0.13 0.011 Fig. 85 C.T.0 1000
2500 500 - -150 300 60 9 1.7 - 575
CT 0 -180 345 60 10 2.6 - 800
3000 500 -
4-25011 1, 25130 400 - -200 203 30 9 2.
2 - 375
5022 250' 4CO3 35 600 110 5 14.5 12.7 0.12 4.5 58K C•P
3000 400 - -310 225 30 9 3.
2 - 510
8158 2000 300 - -48 510 , 0,26 198 , 5.5 , 8K 650
AB,'
- -110 430, 0.3/13 180 , 0 61.416 625
A8, , 2500 600
250 - -90 250 25 27 2.8 - 410
C-T-0 2000
1500 250 - -100 200 25 17 2.1 - 250
4X2508 250 9 2000 12 400 175 6 2.1 18.5 0.04 4.7 Fig. 75 C.P
350 - -50 500 , 30 , 100 , 0 8.2616 650
AB, , 2000
C-T-0 2000 250 - -88 250 24 8 2.
5 - 370
250 2000 12 300 6 2.6 , ,. C- P 1603 250 - -118 200 23 5 3 - 230
7413144A 8.16 630
150 16 0'
03 4'4 F'11. '" A8, , 2000 300 - -50 100/500 0/36 106 , 0.2
14%154/0
13 250 2000 12 4C0 26.5 0.58 2000 300 - -50 100/470 0/36 100 , 0 8.766 580
AB,'
250 - -90 250 25 27 2.8 - 410
C-T 2000
4C X- 12 400 500 6 2.75 29.5 0.04 4.8 - C- P 1500 - -
300' 2000 250 -100 200 25 17 2.1
0 8.2616
250
650
300A AB," 1000 350 - -50 500 , 30 , 100'
4000 600 0 -200 350 29 6 1.4 - 960
1
,1:17511 ,3 400 4000 25 600 - 5 14.5 15.1 0.06 9.8 Fig. 86 CT C- P 0 -180 350 40 7 1.6 - 600
2503 603
C.T.C.P 4 000 300 - -170 270 22.5 10 10 - 720
4.400A 400, 4000 35 600 110 5 14.5 12.5 0. 12 4.7 561K 0 - 0 80/270v 55" 100" 38" 42K 325
GG 2500
2000 200 - -30 300 5 30 5 - 300
8121 400 2200 8 400 500 13.5 1.3 16 0.13 0.011 Fig. 86 C.T.0
See page V32 for key to Class-of•Sepace abbreviations.
 V32 TABLE XII - TETRODE AND PENTODE TRANSMITTING TUBES- Continued

Maximum Ratings Cathode Ca pa citances Typical Operation

01
S

Iii-
•

pation Watts

Watts

Full Ratings
4i
Plate Dissi-

i
'

Freq. Mc.

Amperes
Type p'f". e: pl". , Base -a I . . :. . , .3 .c .3
.r C C C.
Ei E

Screen
e p en go, ..- in ca i,
e..,1' é'f• e. 1E F. 1
. t.-2 7.g
2 1. et
[
C-T 3000 500 - -150 700 146 38 11 - 1430
C- P 3000 500 - -200 600 145 36 12 - 1390
4-1000A 1000 6000 75 1000 - 7.5 21 27.2 .24 7.6
AB, 4030 503 - -60 300/1203. 0/95 - II 714 3000
GC 3000 0 - 0 100/ 700" 105" 170" 130" 2.514 1475
2000 325 - -55 500 2000 -4 60 - - 2.88 2160
ICX1000A 1030 3000 12 400 400 6 12.5 35 .005 12 - AB, 2500 325 - -55 500 2000 -4 60 - - 3.116 2920
3000 325 - -55 500 1890 -4 60 - - 3.8514 3360
2000 400 75 -150 725 44 22 4.1 - 1110
C•T 2500 500 75 -175 960 64 31 6.8 - 1870
PL-172 1000 3000 3000 500 75 -175 900 56 24 4.8 - 2170
35 600 - 6 7.8 38 .09 18 _
2000 500 75 -110 400 1600 20.90 210 , , - 2.6514 1810
AB, 2500 500 75 -110 440 ,1600 20/85 210 , - 3.51( 310
3000 500 75 -115 440 ,1500 10/75 200 , - 4.66 2680
Grid-res'stor. Linear-amp! Fier tube operation data for sing e-sideband in Chap. II.
5,
Doubler to 175 Mc. KEY TO CLASS-OF- SERVICE ABBREVIATIONS
Dual tube. Values for both sections, in push-pull. Interelectrode AB, - Cl ss-AB,.
capacitances, however, are for each section. AB, = CI ss-AB,
Tripler to 175 Mc. - Class- Bpush-pull a.f. modulator.
Filament limited to intermittent operation. C-M = Frequency multiplier.
°Values are for two tubes in push-pull C-P Class- Cplate-modulated telephone.
Max.-signal value. C-T = Class-Ctelegraph.
°Peak grid-to-grid a.f. volts. C-T-0 Class- Camplifier-osc.
°Forced-air cooling required. CG = Grounded-grid (grid and screen connected together).
1° Two tubes triode connected, G, to G, through 20K is. Input to G,. 15 No Class Bdata available.
Tripler to 200 Mc. 5° 814257B 120 Mc. full rating.
I' Typical Operation at 175 Mc. "Single tone.

TABLE XIII - ELECTROSTATIC CATHODE-RAY TUBES

Heater AAAAA Anode Anode Cut-off Deflection

Type' Base No. 2 No. 1 No. 3 Grid Avg. Volt DC/Inch
Volts Amp. Voltage Voltage' Voltage Voltage , Di D2 Da Di
18P1-2-11 6.3 0.6 11V 1000 100 303 - -14 - 42 210/310 240/350
201-11 6.3 0.6 12E 2000 300/ 560 - -135 270 174
3ACIPI 6.3 0.6 12E 2750 1100 - -83 - 193 73, 99 26/35
311P1A 6.3 0.6 146 2C00 575 - -30 - 90 zoo 148
3FP7A 6.3 0.6 141 2000 575 4000 -30/ - 90 250 180
36P1A-36P4A 6.3 0.6 1IN 1500 245 437 - -25/-75 96 144 84 126
31P1A-711-11A 6.3 0.6 141 2030 400 690 4000 -45, - 75 180.220 133 163
3KPI-4•11 6.3 0.6 11M 2000 320, 600 - -0, - 90 100, 136 76, 104
3RP1-4-3RP1A 6.3 0.6 12E 2000 330.620 - -135 146 198 104 140
3SP1-4-7 6.3 0.6 12E 2000 330/620 - -28/-135 146 198 104 140
3UP1 6.3 0.6 12F 2000 320 620 - -126 240 310 232 296
3WP1-2-11 6.3 0.6 127 2000 330/620 - -60 / - 100 83 101 57 70
5ARPI-7-11 6.3 0.6 141 2000 400 690 4CO3 -52/ - 8/ 26 34 18 24
5ADP1-7-11 6.3 0.6 141 1500 300 515 3000 -34/ - 56 40.50 305 373
5AMP1 6.3 0.6 I4U 2500 0300 - -34 - 56 40 50 20 25
5AC1P1 6.3 0.6 146 2500 0,300 - -34 - 56 40 50 31.5 38.5
5ATPI-2-7-11 6.3 0.6 14V 6000 0,700 - -34 - 56 94 116 34 42
WW1 A 6.3 0.6 11N 2000 450 - -20 - 60 84 76
horia 6.3 0.6 11N 2000 375.560 - -20 - 60 70 98 63/89
5CPI A 6.3 0.6 141 2000 575 4000 -30 - 90 92 78
5CP1B-211-711-1111 6.3 0.6 141 2000 400 690 4000 -45 - 75 83, 101 70,86
SC PIA-11A-12 6.3 0.6 141 2000 575 4000 -30 - 90 92 74
5GPI 6.3 0.6 11A 2000 425 - -24 - 56 36 72
5HP1A 6.3 0.6 11N 2000 450 - -20 - 60 ea 76
51PI A-4A 6.3 0.6 11S 2000 333 630 4003 -45 - 105 77 115 77 115
5LP1A-4A 6.3 0.6 11T 2000 376 633 4000 -30 - 90 83, 124 72, 108
581P1-4-5-11 2.5 2.1 IAN 1500 375 - -15 - 45 66 60
5NP1-4 6.3 0.6 11A 2030 450 - -20 - 60 84 76
5RPI A-4A 6.3 0.6 14P 2000 362 695 20300 -30 - 90 140 210 131 197
5SP1-4 6.3 0.6 I4K 2030 363 695 4000 -30 - 90 74 110 62 94
5UP1-7-11 6.3 0.6 12E 2000 340 360 - 56 77
-90 46 62
SVP7 6.3 0.6 1111 2000 315 562 - -20 - 60 70 98 63 89
5XPIA-211-11A 6.3 0.6 I4P 2000 362 695 -45 - 75
12000 130 159 42 52
902-A 6.3 0.6 8CD 600 150 -30 - 90
- 139 117
908-A 2.5 2.1 7CE 1503 430 - -25 - 75 114 109
2002 6.3 0.6 Fig. I 600 120 - - 0.16' 0.17'
2005 2.5 0.6 Fig. P 2000 1000 200 -35 0.5' 0.56'
'Bogey value for focus. Voltage oh old be adjustab eabout value shown. Designation Color and persistance Application
Bias for visual extinction of und flected spot. Voltage should be a justable PI Green medium Oscilloscope.
from 0to the higher value shown. P2 Blue-green medium Special oscilloscopes and radar.
Discontinued. P4 White medium Television.
•Cathode connected to Pin 7. P5 Blue very short Photographic recording of high speed traces.
P7 Blue-white short - Yellow long Radar indicators.
In mm. 'volt d.c.
PI I Blue short Oscilloscope.
°Phosphor characteristics (see next column). PI2 Orange long Radar indicators.
 TABLE XIV - TRANSISTORS V33
Maximum Ratings Characteristics Typical Operation Common Emitter Circuit

Collector Emitter Noise Input Freq. Collector Power Out put Power
No. Type Figure Res. Cutoff Use Gain Load R. Output
Dias. Ma. Volts Ma. Db. Ohms' Mc. Ma. Volts Db. Ohms Mw.
Mrs.
-10 16 1000 0.8 Audio, 1.0 6 40 30K 125
21135 NPN 50 100 25
I.F. 0.5 6 24 IOU -
2594 NPN 50 50 zo - - - 2.0
20 - 15 - 5.0 IF.-R.F. 0.5 6 30 10046 -
21194A NPN 50 50
-42 10 22 700 0.6 - -1.0 -5 38 30K -
211107 PNP 50 -10
35 - 750 - Audio, -35.0 -4.5 30 200 75
25109 PNP 50 -35 -12
-16 15 4.5 500 - I.F. -1.0 -9 30 30K -
25139 PNP 35 -15
15 - 700 7.0 I.F.-12.F. -0.4 -9 27 75K -
25140 PNP 35 -15 -16
25 -20 - 500 5.0 I.F.-11.F. 1.0 5 27 15K -
211169A NPN 55 20
3570 - Audio -0.5 -4 43 - -
25175 PNP zo -2 -10 2 6
35 750 Audio, -350 -4.5 30 200 75
25217 PNP 50 -35 -12
- - - 2.0 I.F. - - 21 - -
25233 NPN 50 100 10
10 8 - 30.0 R.F. -1.0 -9 24 - -
211247 PNP 35 10 -35
- 0.2 Audio , -500.0 -6 27 - 5,
2N255 PNP 1500 -3000 -15 - -
- - - 0.2 Audio , -500.0 -12 27 - 10 ,
25256 PNP 1500 -3000 -30
- - Audio , - -12 32 - 500
25270 PNP 150 -75 -12 75 -
10 8 - 30.0 R.F. -1.0 -9 45 - -
25274 PNP 35 -10 -35
- - 0.004 Audio, - -12 24 - -
25278 PNP - -13000 -50 13000
- - - Audio , - -14.4 30 - 12 ,
25301 PNP 7500 -1000 -20 1030
- - - Audio, - -14.4 30 - 12 ,
253010 PNP 7500 -ICAO -30 1030
PNP 200 -200 -30 200 9 - 1.0 Audio -1.0 -6 44 - -
25331
- - - Audio , -3000 -40 - - -
211351 PNP 10000 -3000 -40 3000
- 1750 30.0 R.F. -1.0 -12 12.5 - -
25310 PNP 80 -10 -20 10
10 - - 30.0 R.F. -1.0 -12 - - -
25371 PNP 80 -10 -20
10 - 100 30.0 Mixer -1.0 -12 17 IIK -
25372 PNP 80 -10 -20
80 -10 -25 10 - 2200 30.0 I.F. -1.0 -12 ao - -
211373 PNP
10 - 2600 30.0 Cony. -1.0. -12 40 - -
25374 PNP 80 -10 -25
10 - 30 103.0 R.F. -1.5 -12 15 - -
211384 PNP 120 -10 -30
-150 -35 150 4.0 Switching
25404A PNP 150
- - - Audio , -40 -9 33 800 160
25407 PNP 150 -70 -20 70
700 10.0 11.-R.F. -0.6 -9 32 - -
25411 PNP so -15 -13 15 -
-200 -20 200 6 30 8.0 Switching
25414 PNP 150
- 0.035 Audio , - -12 23 - -
25441 PNP -13000 -40 13000
- - 0.005 Audio , - -12 23 - -
25442 PNP 13030 -50 13003
- 2103 30.0 R.F. -1.0 -12 30 - -
25544 PNP 80 -10 -18 10
-25 250 On-off Cont of
25586 PNP 250 -250
50 - - 200.0 R.F. - - - - -
25588 PNP 80 -50 -18
1000 0.7 Audio -2.0 -12 41 10K 5
25591 PNP 50 -20 -32 20
- 30 lw. Pwr. Amp. - - - -
25897 NPN 600 500 60 -5C0
-20 Switching I
25106A NPN 300
100 50mw. Pm. Amp. - -
211955 NPN 100 150 12 -100
-100 - 500 - Audio - - - - -
251102 NPN 120 100 40
45 140 R.F. Amp. -1.5 -12 14 3.80 -
251171 PNP 80 -10 -30 10
10 - 140 H.F. Om. - -
251178 PNP 80 -10 -30
325 100.0 F.M.-IF. -1.5 -12 20 24K
2111180 PNP eo -10 -30 10
10 - 30 100.0 R.F. -1.5 -12 15 - -
251225 PNP 120 -10 -30
-300 -25 300 3.0 Switching
251302 NPN 150
10 - 30 100.0 R.F. -1.5 -12 15 - -
251398 PNP 120 -10 -30
- - 10 lw. Por. Amp. - , - - -
2141491 NPN soo 50 30 -50
-
-50 - - 10 10 w. Por. Amp. -
2111492 NPN 500 50 60
_50 - - 10 15w. Por. Amp. - -
251493 NPN 500 50 100
1550 33 IS. -1 -12 54 -
251524 PNP 80 -10 -24 10
2150 33 Cony. -.65 -12 - - -
251526 PNP 80 -10 -2 4 10
1000 7 R.F. Amp. 1 -12 47 -
251632 PNP 80 -10 -34 10
10 1003 45.0 R.F. Amp. -1.0 -11.2 25
2111637 PNP 80 -10 -34
- - 1000.0 vhf, amp. - - - - --
251742 PNP 60 - -15 -
- - 1000.0 vhf, mix. - - - - -
251743 PNP 60 - -15 -
-60 10003 - Por. Osc. - -
251905 PNP 5000 -10300
- - -1.0 -6 39 20K -
CK722 PNP 180 -10 -22 10 25 800
- - - 3.5 I.F.41.F. -1.0 -6 - - -
CK768 PNP - -5 -10
-15 - - - 600.0 vhf.osc. - - - - -
T.1859 PNP 30 - _
.---. ---
,Common emitter circuit Two transistors in Class

TYPICAL BASE TYPES

SYMBOLS
S

NPN
LOCATING PIN

E B GREEN LEAD
YELLOW OR BARE TERMINAL
LEAD
OR
BARE
TERMINAL MOUNTING STUD
PNP

Code for identifying typical unction transistors. The leads are marked C- collector, 13- base. E- emitter and S-Interlead shield and metal case
 Sure You Would, even the last dollar. Mosley
engineers would bet that you couldn't find another antenna
that would compare to their 2 and 6 meter Scotch- Master
Beams. Why! Because Mosley Scotch- Master 2 and 6 meter
beams offer unmatched performance, dependability and
features not found in any competitive beam. When you in-
stall a Mosley Scotch- Master Beam there is no need to
bluff agood signal or fold because of QRM.

Please send me FREE of charge your brochure ( form no. SM-2-6)

on the 2 and 6 meter beams.

Name
Address
City/State

M endary
4610 N. Lindbergh Blvd., Bridgeton, Mo. 63044

53
 Index
PAGE
A PAGE Supports 387-388
"A" Battery 59 Dipole 364-367
"A"-Frame Mast 387 Folded Dipole 383
A-1 Operator Club 587 Ground- Plane 374
A.0 16, 32-37 Half- Wave 364-367
A.C. Line Filters 555 Halo 491
A.G C 101 "Inverted V" 366
A.M. ( see " Amplitude Modulation") 58 Long- Wire 367-368, 375
ARRL Emblem Colors 584 Mobile 486-493
ARRL Operating Organization 583-587 Ilultiband 369-373
Abbreviations for C.W. Work 591 Off- Center Fed 370
Absorption Frequency Meters 519 Quad 380-382
Absorption of Radio Waves 396 Receiving 386
Affiliation, Club 584 Resonating, Remote 490
Air-Insulated Lines 348-349 Restricted Space 369-374
Alignment, Receiver 113-114 Rhombic 376
"All-Band" Antennas 369-373 Switching 386
Alternating Current 16, 32-37 "Trap" 371
Alternations 16 TVI 573
Aluminum Finishing 505 V-Beam 375
Amateur Bands 13-14 Vertical 373
Amateur Radio Emergency Corps 580-583 V.H.F 454-465
Amateur Radio History 7-10 "Windom" 370
Amateur Operator and Station Licenses 11 160- Meter 374
Amateur Regulations 11-12 Antinode 345
Amateur's Code, The 6 Appointments, Leadership 583
American Radio Relay League: Appointments, Station 584
Headquarters 10-11 Array 376, 455
Hiram Percy Maxim Memorial Station 11, 585 Arrays in Combination 376-381, 460
Joining the League 587 Assembling aStation 545-552
Ampere 17 Atmospheric Bending 399, 401-402
Amplification 61-67, 81 Atoms 15-16
Amplification Factor 62 Audio-Amplifier Classifications 65-67
Amplification Factor, Current 82 Audio-Circuit Rectification 554
Amplification Factor, Voltage 62-63 Audio Converters 96
Amplifier Adjustment 169, 324 Audio Frequencies 17
Amplifier, Cathode Follower 70-71 Audio Frequency Shift Keying 339
Amplifier Classification 65-67 Audio Harmonics, Suppression of 264
Amplifier, Grounded-Grid 70-71, 166-167 Audio Image 106
Amplifier Keying 246 Audio Limiting 102
Amplifier, Linear 66-67, 296, 320-329 Audio Oscillators 324, 526
Amplifier, Speech 258 Audio Power 289
Amplifier ( see basic classifications, e.g , Audio Range Restriction 268, 330
"Receivers," "Transmitters," " Radio- Audio Squelch Ill
telephony," and " V.H.F.") Auroral Reflection 401
Amplifiers, Class A, B, C 65-67, 320 Autodyne Reception 86, 91
Amplifiers, Resistance Coupled 259 Automatic Gain Control 101, 102
Amplifiers, Transistors 83-84, 109 Automobile Storage Battery 495
Amplitude, Current 15-16 Autotransformer 40
Amplitude Modulation 58, 285 Average-Current Value 17
Angle of Radiation 361, 362, 364, 397 Awards 584-586
Anode 59
Antenna Construction 387, 456-465 B
Antenna Couplers 353-358, 452 "B" Battery 59
Antenna Diameters vs. Length 363 Baud 253
Antenna Gain 377, 378 BCI 553
Antenna Input Impedance 382, 455 B.F.O. 101
Antenna Length 363, 381, 455, 456 BPL 587
Antenna Masts 387 Back Current 80
Antenna Matching 382-386 Back-E.M.F 26. 31, 32
Antenna, Wire Breaking Load 510 Back Resistance . 80
Antennas: 361-394 Back Scatter 398, 402
Beams 376-382 Backwave 246
Bent 370, 375 Baffle Shields 54
Construction 386-394 Balanced Circuit 54
Plumber's Delight 390 Balanced Modulator 305-306
Compact 14 Mc. 3-Element Beam . 391 Balun 352, 385, 541-542
Rotary Beams 389 Band-Changing Receivers 92-93
One- Element Rotary for 21 Mc 392 Band- Pass Coupling 48
 INDEX

PAGE PAGE
Band- Pass Filters 50-51 Capacitor-Input Filter 226
Bands, Amateur 13-14 Capacitors:
Bandspreading 92 Band-Setting 92
Bandwidth, Antenna 361 Bandspread 92
Bandwidth, I.F 87 Buffer 497
Base Transistor 81 Bypass 53, 168, 561
Basic Radio Propagation Predictions 399 Ceramic 509
Battery 16, 59-62, 495, 501 Color Code 509, 510
Battery, Service Life 501 Electrolytic 24
Bazooka 385 Filter 224, 226-2130
Beam Antennas 376-382, 457 Fixed 24
Beam Element Lengths 379, 456 Grid Tank 167
Beam Tetrodes 70 Main-Tuning 92
Beat Frequencies. 58 Neutralizing 158
Beat Note 86 Padding 93
Beat Oscillator 86, 100-101 Phasing 107
Bending, Tropospheric 399, 401-402 Plate Blocking 168
Bent Antennas 370, 375 Plate Spacing 167
Bias 63, 152-154 Plate Tank Voltage 167
Bias, Cathode 72 Ratings 150
Bias, Contact Potential 72 Semiconductor, Voltage-Variable 81, V34
Bias, Fixed 153 Trimmer 93
Bias, Operating 152-154 Variable 24-25
Bias, Protective 152-154 Carl )1III Microphone 257
Bias Stabilization 85 Carrier 58, 285
Bias Supplies 239-241 Carrier Suppression 305
"Birdies" 94, 114 Carriers, Semiconductor 79
Bleeder 225, 227 Caseade Amplifiers 66
Blocked-Grid Keying 248, 251 Cascode R.F. Amplifiers 404
Blocking Capacitor 53 Catcher 77
Booms, Rotary Beam 390 Cathode 59-60
Brass Pounders League 587 Cathode- Bias 72
Breakdown Voltage 23, 24, 25, 167 Cathode Bypass Capacitors 266, 267
Break-In 248, 250, 548, 575 Cathode-Coupled Clipper 76
Bridge Rectifiers 222 Cathode, Directly Heated 60
Bridge-Type Standing- Wave Indicators. 536-539 Cathode Follower 71
Bridge, Impedance 539 Cathode, Indirectly Heated 60
Broadband Antennas, V.H.F 464 Cathode Injection 95
Broadcast Interference, Elimination of 553 Cathode Keying 246
Broadside Arrays 376 Cathode Modulation 295
Buffer Amplifier 142, 287 Cathode Modulation Performance Curves 295
Buffer Capacitors 497 Cathode- Ray Oscilloscopes 542
Buncher 77 Cathode- Ray Tubes V32
Button, Microphone 257 Catwhisker 80
Bypass Capacitors 53 Cavity Resonators 57
Bypassing 53, 560 Cell 16
Center Loading, Mobile Antenna 488
Center-Tap, Filament 71
"C" Battery. 62 Center-Tap Full- Wave Rectifier 221
C( Capacitance) 23 Center-Tap Keying 246
CCS 152 Ceramic Microphone 258
CHU 523 Channel Width 285
CL Computation 533 Charactcritie Curves 61-62, 80, 82, 83
CR and L/R Time Constants 30-31 Characterist ic, Impedance 343, 349, 350
Cable Lacing 507 Cha racterist us, Dynamic 62
Cable Stripping 507 Characterist ics of Radio Waves 395-396
Calibrator Crystal 137, 521 Charges. Elect rim' 15-16, 23
Capacitance and Capacitors 23-25 Charging, Capacitor 23
Capacitance: Chassis Layout 503-504
Distributed 54 Chirp, Keying 146, 245
Feedback 69 Choke:
Formula 24 Coil 26
Grid Tank 155 Filter 227-229
Inductance, and Frequency Charts 45 Radio- Frequency 26, 53, 168
Interelectrode 68-79, 159 Swinging 227
Measurement 533 Choke-Coupled Modulation 290
Parallel 25 Choke- Input Filter 227
Plate Tank 148 Circuit Symbols 512
Series 25 Circuit Tracking 93
Specific Inductive 23 Circuits, Balanced and Single-Ended. 54
Tube Input . 68-69 Clamp Tubes 154
Tube Output 69 Clamp Tube Modulation 293
Capacitance-Resistance Time Constant 30-31 Clapp Oscillator 144
Capacitive Coupling 46, 156, 564 Class A Amplifiers 65
Reactance. 33, 45 Class AB Amplifier 67
 INDEX
PAGE PAGE
Class B Amplifiers 66-67 Coupled Circuits 46-48
Class B Modulators 263 Couplers, Antenna 130, 353-358, 452
Class C Amplifiers 67 Construction 130, 354-358, 452
Clicks, Keying 245, 249 Coupling 29
Clipping Circuits 75-76 Coupling:
Clipping-Filter Circuit 269 Amplifier-Output 147-151
Clipping, Speech 269 Antenna to Line 382
Club Affiliation 584 Antenna to Receiver 130
Coax-Coupled Matching Circuit 354-355 Band-Pass 48
Coaxial Antennas, V.H.F.463 Capacitive 46, 156, 564
Coaxial- Line Circuits 55 Capacitor 64
Coaxial Line Data 349-351 Choke 64
Coaxial-Line Matching Section 382 Circuits 46, 64
Coaxial Plug Assembly Instructions 506 Close 29
Coaxial Transmission Lines 349-351 Coefficient of 29, 47-48, 535
Code ( Continental) and Code Practice.... 12 Critical 47
Code Proficiency Award 586 Feedline 353
Code, Underwriters 551-552 Impedance 64
Coefficient of Coupling 29, 47, 535 Inductive 46, 148, 155
Coefficient, Temperature 19 Interstage 156-157
Coil ( see " Inductance") Link 48, 148, 155
Coils, Dimensions of 28 Loose 29
Coils, Winding 508 Pi-Section 157
Coils, Wire Sizes for Transmitting 168 Resistance. 64
Cold End of Coil 54, 507 Tight 29
Collector 81 To Flat Coaxial Lines 148
Collinear Arrays 376, 456, 457, 462 To Wave Guides and Cavity Resonators 57
Color Codes, EIA 508, 509, 510 Transformer 46, 64, 259
Color Television 572 Transmitter to Line 353
Colpitts Circuit 73, 145 Tuned 149, 353
Combination Arrays 377 Critical:
Compact Antennas 369 Angle 397
Compact 14- Mc. 3- Element Beam 391 Coupling 47
Complex Waves 17, 37 Frequency 397
Component Ratings and Inductance 227
Installation 167-169, 227 Cross- Modulation 108, 554, 569
Component Values 508-510 Cross-Talk ( Telephone) 559
Compression, Speech Amplifier 268 Crystal:
Concentric- Line Matching Section 382 Diodes 79-80, V34
Concentric Transmission Line 349 Filters 106-107
Condenser ( see Capacitor) 23 Microphones 257
Conductance 19 Oscillators 142, 143-144, 425
Conductance, Mutual. 62 Rectifiers 79-80
Conductivity 16 Resonator 51-52
Conductor Size, Antennas 364 Crystal Calibrator 521
Conductors 16 Crystal-Controlled Converters 407-413,
Cone Antennas, V.H F 465 418-424, 469-476
Constant, Time 30-31, 101 Crystal-Controlled Oscillators.142, 143-144, 425
Constants, LC 46 Crystal Detector 79-80, 88
Constant-Voltage Transformers 243 Crystal-Filter Phasing 106-107
Construction, Antenna 386-394 Crystal Filter, Tuning with 106
Construction, Coupler 354 Crystal, Germanium 79-80
Construction Practices 502-512 Crystal- Lattice Filter 308
Construction Tools 502 Crystals, Overtone 425
Contact-Potential Bias 72-73 Crystals, Piezoelectric 51
Continental Code 12 Current:
Control Circuits, Station 547-548 Alternating 16, 32-37
Control Grid 61 Amplification Factor 82
Controlled Carrier 293 Antenna 367
Conversion Efficiency 94 Direct 16
Conversion, Frequency. 328 Distribution, Antenna 367
Conversion of Fractional and Multiple Eddy 29
Units 20 Effective 17
Converter Tube Operating Values 96 Electric 15-16
Converters, Audio 96 Gain 82
Converters, Frequency 94 Lag and Lead 32-35
Converters, Teletype 339-341 Loop 345, 363
Converters, V.H F 407-413 Magnetizing 38
Converters, U.H.F . 418-424 Measurement 514-515
Copper- Wire Table 511 Node 345, 363
Cores 27, 28-29, 37-40 Plate 60
Corner Reflector Antenna, V.H.F 462 Pulsating 16, 52
Corrective Stub 455 Ratio, Decibel 41
Counterpoise 373 Values 17
Countries List, ARRL 589 Curve Resonance 42, 44, 48, 88
 INDEX
PAGE PAGE
Curves, Transistor Characteristic 82 Instability 74
Curves, Tube-Characteristic 61-62 Microphones 258
Cut-Off Frequency 82 Dynamometer Movement 517
Cut-Off, Plate-Current 61-62, 70 Dynamot,ors 496
C.W. Abbreviations 591 Dynatron-Type Oscillator 77
C.W. Procedure. 574-576, 591
C.W. Reception 112 E
Cycle 16, 32 E( Voltage) 17
Cyclic Variations in Ionosphere 398 E Layer 396
E.M.F., Back 26
D E.M.F., Induced 26
D'Arsonval Movement 513 Eddy Current 29
D Region 397 Effective Current Value 17
D.0 16 Efficiency 22-23
D.C. Instruments 513-516 Conversion 94
D.C. Measurements 513 Power 22-23
Decay, Voltage 30, 31 Transformer 38
Decibel 41 Electric Current 15-16
Deflection Plates 542 Electrical Charge 15-16
Degeneration 67-68 Electrical Laws and Circuits 15-58
Degree, Phase 32 Electrical Quantities, Symbols for 512
Delta Matching Transformer 365 Electrical Safety Code, National 551-552
Demodulation 58 Electrode 59
Density, Flux 15 Electrode Voltages, Sources 152
Design of Speech Amplifiers 261 Electrolytic Capacitor 24
Detection 58, 86, 87-91 Electromagnetic:
Detector Blocking and Pull-In 91 Deflection 542
Detectors 87 Field 15
Deviation Ratio . 332 Waves 15, 395
Diagrams, Schematic Symbols for 512 Electromotive Force ( E.M.F ) 16
Dielectric 23 Electron:
Dielectric Constants 23 Gun 542
Dielectric Puncture Voltage 23 Lens 542
Difference of Potential 15, 16 Transit Time 76
Differential Keying 248, 249 Electronic:
Diode Clippers 75 Conduction 16, 79
Diode Detectors 88-89 Speed Key 252
Diodes 60 Voltage Regulation 235
Diodes, Crystal 79-80, V34 Transmit- Receive Switch 254-256
Diodes, Voltage-Variable Capacitor 81 Electrons 15, 79
Diodes, Zener 80-81 Electrostatic:
Dipole 363-367 Deflection 542
Dipole, Folded 365, 383 Field 15
Direct Current. 16-17 Element Spacing, Antenna . . . 379, 380, 456, 459
Direct Feed for Antennas 364 Elements, Vacuum Tube 59
Directive Antennas 375-382 Emergency Communication 580-582
Directivity, Antenna 364, 365, 368 Emergency Communications 582, 592
Director, Antenna 379 Emergency Coordinator 582, 583
Directors, ARRL 10 Emergency Points 582
Discharging, Capacitor. 23 Emergency Power Supply 496
Discriminator 337 Emission:
Disk-Seal Tubes 76 Electron 59
Dissipation, Plate and Screen 154 Secondary 69
Distortion, Audio 299 Thermionic 59
Distortion, Harmonic 63-64 Types of 14
Distributed Capacitance and Inductance 54 Emitter, Transistor 81
Dividers, Voltage 233 End Effect 363
Divisions, ARRL. 10 End-Fire Arrays 377
Doubler, Frequency 142 Energy 22-23
Double-Humped Resonance Curve 48 Envelope Modulation 285
Double Sideband 305 Equivalent Noise Resistance 86
Double Superheterodyne 94 Equivalent Series and Parallel Circuits
Downward Modulation 286 (A.C) 36
Drift, Frequency 75, 146-147 Excitation 74, 154
Drift Transistor 82 Exciter Units ( see " Transmitters")
Drill Sizes ( Table) 503 Exciting Voltage 65
Driven-Element Directive Antennas 376 Extended Double-Zepp Antenna 376
Driver . 66, 142, 266
Drivers for Class B Modulators 265 F
Dummy Load 328 F. M. ( see " Frequency Modulation")
DXCC. 585-586, 589 F Layer 397, 400-401
DX Century Club Award 585-586 Fading 398
DX Operating Code 578 Farad 24
Dynamic: Fee, Licensing 11
Characteristics 62 Feedback 67, 109,-267
 INDEX
PAU E PAGE
Feedback Percentage 268 Interpolation-Type Frequency Meter 522
Feed, Series and Parallel 53 Precise Measurements 522
Feeder Length 350 WWV and WWVH Schedules 523
Feeders and Feed Systems 343-351 Frequency and Phase Modulation 330, 331
Feeding Dipole Antennas. 364 Narrow-Band Reactance-Modulator
Feeding Long- Wire Antennas 368 Unit 331
Feeding Mobile Antennas 490 Deviation Ratio . 331
Feeding Rotary Beams 379 Discriminator 336
Fidelity 98, 257 Index, Modulation 329
Field Direction 15 Methods 332
Field, Electromagnetic 15 On V.H.F 426
Field, Electrostatic 15 Principles 330
Field Intensity 15 R.F. Amplifiers 335
Field, Magnetostatic 15 Reactance Modulator 333
Field Strength 361 Reception 337
Field-Strength Meter 493, 535 Transmitter Checking 333
Filament 59-60 Frequency Multiplication 331
Filament Center-Tap 71 Frequency Multipliers 142, 164, 425
Filament Hum 71 Frequency Response, Microphone 257
Filament Isolation . 163 Frequency Shift Keying 339: 341
Filament Supply 231 Frequency Spectrum Nomenclature 18
Filament Voltage . 152 Frequency Spotting 548
Filter Capacitors in Series 229 Frequency Stability 287
Filter Component Ratings 229 Frequency-Wavelength Conversion 18
Filter, Crystal 106 Front End Overloading, TV 569
Filter Resonance 229 Front-to-Back Ratio 361
Filters 50-51 Full- Wave Bridge Rectifiers 222
Audio 264, 268, 269, 270 Full- Wave Center-Tap Rectifiers 220
Band- Pass 50-51 Fundamental Frequency 17
Basic Sections 50 Fusing 242, 550
Crystal- Lattice 308
Cut-Off Frequency 51
Design Formulas 50 G
High- Pass 50-51, 570 Gain, Directive Antennas 377, 379
Keying 245, 246 Gain Control 110, 112, 261
Line 555 "Gamma" Match 380, 384, 460
Lead 560 Ganged Tuning 93
Low- Pass 50-51, 565 Gaseous Regulator Tubes 232, V25
Mechanical 107 Gasoline-Engine-Driven Generators 500
M- Derived 51 Gauges, Standard Metal 505
Pass- Band 51 Generator 16
Pi-Section 50-51 Generator Noise 467, 501
Power-Supply 224 Germanium Crystal Diodes 79-80, V34
R.F. Click 245 Glossary ( see Foreword) 3
Stop Band 51 Grid 61
Terminating Impedance 51 Bias 72, 154, 239, 263
Filtering, Audio 264, 268, 269, 270 Capacitor 73, 167
Filtering, N. egative-Lead 229 Current 61
Filtering, TV! 555, 559, 561, 565-567, 570 Excitation 74, 154
Filter-Type S.S.B. Exciters 307 Impedance 155
Finishing Aluminum 506 Injection, Mixer 94
First Detector 93 Keying 247, 251
Fixed Bias 153 Leak 73, 154
Fixed Capacitor 24 Resistor 64, 73
Flat Lines 347 Suppressor 69
Flux Density, Magnetic 15, 27, 28 Voltage 61
Flux, Leakage 39 Grid-Cathode Capacitance 68-69
Flux Lines 15 Grid- Dip Meters 524-527
Fly-Back 543 Grid-Input Impedance 155
Focusing Electrode 542 Grid-Leak Detectors 91
Folded Dipole 365, 383 Grid Modulation 291-294
Folded Dipole Nomogram 363, 384 Grid- Plate Capacitance 68-69
Force, Electromotive 16 Grid- Plate Crystal Oscillator 144
Force, Lines of 15 Grid- Plate Transconductance 62
Form, Log 579 Grid-Separation Circuit 70-71
Form, Message 580 Grid-Tank Capacitance 155
Free-Space Pattern 362 Ground 54, 362, 375
Frequency 16 Ground Effects 362
Frequency Bands, Amateur 13, 14 Ground- Plane Antenna 374
Frequency Conversion 328 Ground Point, R.F 75
Frequency Converters ( Receiver) 94-96 Ground Potential 54
Frequency Measurement: Ground Waves 396
Absorption Frequency Meters 519 Grounded Antennas 375
Frequency Standards 521 Grounded- Base Circuit 83
Heterodyne Frequency Meters 522 Grounded-Collector Circuit 84
 INDEX
PAGE PAGE
Grounded-Emitter Circuit 83 Input 70, 83, 154-155, 346
Grounded-Grid Amplifier. . 70-71, 161-163, 330, Matching 39, 49, 353, 455
403-404 Measurements 536, 541
Grounded-Grid Amplifier, Driving Power. 162 Modulating 289, 296
Grounded-Grid Amplifier-Power Output. 162 Output 70, 83
Guys, Antenna 388 Parallel Circuits 36
Ratio 39, 346
H Resistive 44
Half- Lattice Crystal Filter 308 Series Circuits 36
Half- Wave Antenna 364-367 Surge 343
Half- Wave Antenna Lengths 364, 456 Transformation 45, 347
Half- Wave Phasing Section 377 Transformer Quarter-Wave 382
half- Wave Rectifiers 221 Transformer Ratio 39, 263
Halo Antenna 491 Transmission-Line 343, 349, 350
Halyards, Antenna 388 Impedance-Coupled Amplifiers 64
Hang A.G.C. System 102 Imperfect Ground 362
Harmonic 17 Improving Receiver Performance 115
Amateur Bands/TV 550, 556, 566, 572 Impulse Noise 102
Antenna 369 Incident Power 344
Distortion 63-64 Index, Modulation 332
Generation 558 Indicating Wavemeters 520
Reduction 426, 568, 569 Indicators, Signal-Strength 104-105
Suppression 265, 568 Indicators, Tuning 104-105
Traps 559, 570 Induced E.M.F 26
Hartley Circuit 73, 145 Inductance 26-30
Hash Elimination 497 Calculation 26, 27
Headphones 104 Capacitance and Frequency Charts . . . . 45
Heater 59 Critical 227
Heater Connections for 6-Volt and 6/12- Distributed 54
Volt Tube 498 Leak age 39
Heater Voltage 152 Measurement 533
Henry 26 Mutual 29-30
Heterodyne Frequency Meters 522 Parallel 29
Heterodyne Reception 86 Plate Tank 167
Heterodyning 58 Series 29
Hi -Fi Interference 556 Slug-Tuned 93
High- C 45, 74 Small Coil 27, 28
High Frequencies 17-18 Inductance- Resistance Time Constant .30-31
High- Frequency Oscillator. 96 Inductance in Series and Parallel 29
High- Frequency Receivers 86-141 Indutance Capacitance, Specific 23
High- Frequency Transmitters 142-220 Inductive Coupling 46, 148, 155
Iligh-Pass Filters 50-51, 570 Inductive Neutralization 158
High- Q Circuit 43-44 Inductive Reactance. 33-34, 45
High- Vacuum Rectifiers 223, V25 Inductor 26
High- 1h Tubes 62 Inductors, Dimensions of . 28
Hiram Percy Maxim Memorial Station. . 12, 585 Infinite- Impedance Detector 89-90
History of Amateur Radio 9-12 Input Choke 227
Hole Conduction 19 Input Impedance 70, 83, 154-155, 346
Hole Cutting 504 Input, Plate Power. 60, 152
Hole 79 Instability, Receiver 87
Horizontal Angle of Radiation 361 Instrument Calibration 519
Horizontal Polarization of Radio Waves 395, Instantaneous Current Value 17
454, 491 Insulators 16
Hum 71, 284 Interelectrode Capacitances 68-69
Hysteresis 29 Interference, Television and Broadcast . 553-572
Intermediate Frequency 98
I Intermediate Frequency Amplifier 98, 406
/ ( Current) . 15-16 Interinediate Frequency Amplifier,
ICAO Phonetics 577 Transistor 100
ICAS 152 Intermediate Frequency Interference, TV 569
I.F 98 Intermediate Frequency Transformers 99
ITV 566 Intermediate Frequency Transformer
Ignition Interference 466 Color Code 509
Image 94 Intermittent Direct Current 16, 60
Image, Audio-Frequency 106 International Amateur Prefixes 589
Image Ratio 94 International Prefixes 590
Image Response 554 International Morse Code ' 12
Impedance 36, 37 Interpolation-Type Frequency Meter 522
Antenna . 362, 364, 368 Interstage Coupling, Capacitive 156
Bridge 541 Interstage Coupling, Pi- Network 157
Characteristic 343, 349, 350 Interstage Transformer 99
Complex 37 Inverse- Distance Law of Propagation 395
Grid Input 155 Inverse Peak Voltage, Rectifier 222
Grounded-Grid Amplifier Input. . 162, 323-324 Inversion, Temperature 402
Foldrd Dipolp 383, 384 "Inverted V" Antenna 366
 INDEX
PAGE PAGE
Ionization 15, 396 Linear Amplifier Tube Operation,
Ionosphere 396-401 Grounded Cathode 321
Ionosphere Storms 398 Linear Amplifier Tube Operation,
Ionospheric Propagation 396-401 Grounded Grid 322
Ions 15, 396 Linear Amplifiers. 66-67, 296, 320
Iron-Core Coils 27, 37 Linear Baluns 3C2
Linear Sweep 543
Linear Transformers 382
Junction Diodes . 80 Linearity 63, 287, 299
Junction Transistors 82 Lines, Coaxial 349
Lines, Matched 344
Lines of Force 15
Keeping aLog 579 Lines, Nonresonant and Resonant 347
Key Chirps 146, 245 Lines, Parallel Conductor 348
Key Clicks 245, 249 Lines, Transmission 343-360
Keyer Tubes 247 Lines, Unterminated 345
Keyers, Vacuum-Tube 247 Link Coupling 48, 148, 155, 156
Keying: Link Neutralization 158
Amplifier 246 Lissajous Figures 545
Audio Frequency Shift 339 Load, Antenna 382
Back Wave 246 Load Impedance 263
Break-In 248, 250 Load Isolation, V.F.O. 145-146
Differential 248 Load Resistor 22, 60, 62-63
Frequency Shift 339, 341 Loaded Circuit Q 44, 45
Grid-Block 247, 251 Loading-Coil Data 487
Key-Click Reduction 245, 249 Local Oscillator 93
Methods 246-250 Log, Station 579
Monitoring 250, 252 Long- Wire Antennas. 367-368
Oscillator 248 Long Wire Antenna Lengths 367
Speeds 253 Long- Wire Directive Arrays 375
Testing 249 Loops, Current and Voltage 363
Keys, Speed 252 Losses, Hysteresis 29
Keys, Electronic 253 Losses in Transmission Lines 350
Keys, Electronic, Speed Adjustment of . 253 Loudspeaker Coil Color Code 510
Kilocycle 17 Loudspeakers 105
Kilowatt 22 Low-C 46
Kilowatt Hour 23 Low-Frequencies 17-18
Klystrons 77 Low-Pass Filters 50-51 570
Low-Q 44
Low- pTubes 62
L (Inductance) 26-30
LC Computation 533 M
LC Constants 46 M.U.F. ( see " Maximum Usable
L/C Ratios 45-46, 149-150, 292 Frequency") 397, 400
L Network 49 Magnetic Storms 398, 401
L/R Time Constant 30-31 Magnetizing Current 38
Lacing Cable 507 Magnetrons 77-78
Lag Circuits 246 Majority Carriers 79
Lag, Current or Voltage 32-37 Marker Frequencies 521
Laminations 29 Masts 387
Laws Concerning Amateur Operations 11 Matched Lines 344
Laws, Electrical 15-58 Matching, Antenna 382-386
Lazy-H Antenna 377 Matching-Circuit Construction 354
Lead, Current or Voltage 32-37 Maximum Average Recified Current 80
Lead-In, Antenna 389 Maximum Safe Inverse Voltage 80
Leakage Current 85 Maximum Usable Frequency 397, 400
Leakage Flux 39 Measurements:
Leakage Inductance 39 Antenna 535
Leakage Reactance 39 Capacitance 533
Learning the Radiotelegraph Code 12 Current 515, 530
Level, Microphone 257 Field Strength 493, 535
License Manual, The Radio Amateur's. 11 Frequency 519
Licenses, Amateur 11 Impedance 536, 541
Licensing Fee 11 Inductance 533
Light, Speed of 18 Keying 249
"Lighthouse" Tubes 76, 404 Modulation 282, 297
Lightning Arrester 550 Phase 32
Lightning Protection 550 Power 515, 533
Limiter Circuits 75-76, 337 Radio Frequency 530
Limiters, Noise 103, 468 Resistance. 516
Limiting Resistor 233 Standing-Wave Ratio 536
Line Filters 555 Transmission Line 535-542
Line, Open-Circuited 345 Voltage 513, 518, 531
Line Radiation 348 Measuring Instruments 513
Line-Voltage Adjustment. 242 Mechanical Filter 107
 INDEX
PAGE
Medium of Propagation 395 Power 286
Medium- gTubes 62 Screen-Grid Amplifiers 300
Megacycle 17 Screen-Grid Modulation . 292
Megohm 20 Suppressor-Grid Modulation 294
Mercury-Vapor Rectifiers 223, V25 Test Equipment 282, 297, 527, 544
Message Form 580 Velocity Modulation 76-77
Message Handling 579-581 Wave Forms 284, 286, 287, 298, 301
Metal Gauges, Standard 505 Modulator Tubes 260
Metal, Resistivity of 18 Modulators ( see " Radiotelephony") 263
Meteor Trails 402 "Monimatch" 358
Metering 164-165 Monitors 250, 252; 303, 545
Meters, Volt-Ohm- Milliampere 518 Motorboating 114
Meter Accuracy. 514 Moving- Vane Instrument 513
Meter Installation 164 Mu ( µ) 62
Meter Multiplier 514 Mu, Variable 70
Meter Switching 165 Nlii Itiband Antennas 369, 371
Mho 19, 62 M nit iband Tank Circuits 151
Microampere 20 lit I
tihop Transmission 397-398, 401
Microfarad and Micromicrofarad 24 NIultimeters 149
Microhenry 27 Multipliers, Frequency 142, 164, 425
Micromho 19, 62 Multipliers, Voltage 234
Microphones 257 Multipliers, Voltmeter 514
Microvolt 20 Multirange Meters 518
Microwaves 76 Muting, Receiver 251
Miller Effect 68 Mutual Conductance 62
Milliammeters 514 Mutual Inductance 29
Milliampere 17, 20
Millihenry 26 N
Millivolt 20 N-Type Material 79
Nlilliwatt. 22 N.F M. Reception 333
Minority Carriers 79 Narrow- Band Frequency Modulation... :331-332
Mixers 94-95, 328, 405 National Electrical Safety Code . 551-552
..
Mixers, Transistor 96 National Traffic System . a81
Mobile: Natural Resonanres 54
Antennas 486-493 Negative Fee Il 68. 267
Mobile Modulators 485 Negative- Lead Filtering 229
Power Supplies 494, 499 Negative- Resistance Oscillator 77
Receivers: Network Operation 580-581
Mobile Converter for 3.5-28 Mc 469 Neutralization 151, 158-160, 403
Crystal-Controlled Converters for 50 Neutralizing Capacitor 158
and 144 Mc 474 Neutral Wire 241
"Hybrid" Crystal-Controlled Nodes 345, 363
Converter 472 Noise Figures 87
Transmitters: Noise Generator • 528-530
A 40- watt " Extended- Band" Mobile Noise- Limiter Circuits 103, 468
Transmitter 4-- Noise, Receiver 86-87, 102
A 65- watt Mobile Transmitter 481 Noise, Elimination, Mobile 466-468
25- watt Transistor Modulator 485 Noise Reduction 103. 468
Signal Field-Strength Meter 493 Noise Silcni•er, I.F 104
Modes of Propagation 56 ervp., 102
Modulation, Heterodyning and Beats 58 Noincncla t tire. Frequency- Spectrum 17-18
Modulation: Nonconductors 16
Amplitude Modulation 58, 285 Non Ii nearity 63, 87, 288, 299
Capability 288 Nouradiating Loads 352
Cathode Modulation 295 Nonresonant Lines 347
Characteristic 287 Nonsynehronous Vihrators 496
Characteristic Chart 288, 291, 295 Nucleus 15
Checking A.M. Phone Operation . . . . 282, 297
Choke-Coupled Modulation 290 o
Clamp-Tube 293 Off-Ce der Fed Antenna 370
Controlled-Carrier Systems 293 Officia Bulletin Station 584
Driving Power 258, 265 Officia Experimental Station 584
Envelope 285 Officia Observer 584
Frequency Modulation 331-426 Officia Phone Station 584
Grid Modulation 291 Officia Relay Station 584
Impedance 264, 289, 296 Ohm 18
Index 332 Ohm's Law 19-20, 22
Linearity 287, 299 Ohm's Law for A.C.:34, 36
Methods 288-296 Ohmmeters 516
Monitoring 297, 303, 545 Old Timers Club 587
Narrow- Band Frequency 331, 332 One- Element Rotary for 21 Mc 392
Percentage of 287 Open-Circuited Line 345
Phase Modulation 331 Open- Wire Line 348
Plate Modulation 289, 301 Operating an Amateur Radio Station .
580, 581, 592
Plate Supply 288 Operating Angle, Amplifier 67
 INDEX
PAGE PAGE
Operating aStation 574-587 Phase Relations, Amplifiers 63
Operating Bias 152-154 Phase-Splitter Circuit 261
Operating Conditions, R.F. Amplifier-Tube 151 Phased Antennas 376
Operating Courtesy 572 Phasing-Type S.S.B. Exciters 306, 314
Operating Point 63 Phone Activities Manager 583
Operator License, Amateur 13 Phone Reception 112
Oscillation. 68, 73-75, 85 Phonetic Alphabet 577
Oscillations, Parasitic 159-160 Picofarad 24
Oscillator Keying 248 Pi Network 49
Oscillators 73-75, 85 Pi Network Design 150
Audio 527 Pi-Section Coupling 150, 157, 162
Beat- Frequency 101 Pi-Section Filters 49-50
Crystal 142, 143-144, 425 Pi-Section Tank Circuit 49, 150, 162
Grid- Dip 524 Pierce Oscillator 143-144
Overtone 425 Piezoelectric Crystals 51-52
Transistor 85 Piezoelectric Effect 51
V.F 0 142, 144-147 Piezoelectric Microphone 51
Oscilloscope Patterns:....284, 286, 287, 298-301 Pilot-Lamp Data 510
319, 325-328 Plane-Reflector Antennas, V.H F 464
Oscilloscope's 283, 297-302, 542 Plate-Cathode Capacitance 69
Output Capacitor, Filter 229 Plate-Current Shift 301
Output Limiting 268 Plate-Grid Capacitance 68-69
Output Power 65 Plate 59
Output Voltage, Power Supply 228 Blocking Capacitor 168
Overexcitation, Class B Amplifier 265 Current 60
Overloading, TV Receiver 569 Detectors 89
Overrnodulation 287, 298-302 Dissipation 152
Overmodulation Indicators 303 Efficiency 67
Overtone Oscillators 425 Modulation 289, 301
Oxide-Coated Cathode 60 Resistance 61
Resistor 64
P Supply, Audio 265, 288
P ( Power) 22 Plate Tank Capacitance . 148
l'.E I' 323 Plate Tank Q 147-148
P-Type Material 79 Plate Tank Voltage 152
P.M. ( see " Phase Modulation") 331, 332 Plate Transformer 230
Padding Capacitor 92 Plate Tuning, Power-Amplifier 165
Page Printer 338 Plates, Deflection 542
Parabolic Reflectors 465 "Plumber's Delight" Antenna 390
Parallel Amplifiers 65-66, 160 Point-Contact Diode 79-80
Parallel Antenna Tuning 353 Point-Contact Transistor 81
Parallel Capacitances 25 Polarization 361, 363, 454, 491
Parallel Circuits . 20-22, 25 29, 34, 36 Positive Feedback 68
Parallel-Conductor Line 348 Potential Difference 15, 16
Parallel-Conductor Line Measurements 541 Potential, Ground 54
Parallel Feed 53 Powder, Antistatic 467
Parallel Impedance 36, 44 Power 22-23
Parallel Inductances 29 Power Amplification 65-67
Parallel Reactance 34-35 Power Amplification Ratio 65
Parallel Resistances 20-21 Power Amplifier 65
Parallel Itesonanace 43-46 Power Connections and Control. . .... 548-550
l'arastic Elements, Power Efficiency 22, 23
Antenna Arrays with 377, 457 Power Factor 37
Parasitic Excitation 377 Power Gain, Antenna 361, 368
Parasitic Oscillations 158-159 Power, Incident 344
Patterns, Oscilloscope...284, 286, 287, 298-301, Power Input 60, 152
319, 325-328 Power, Instantaneous 286
Patterns, Radiation 365, 368 Power-Line Connections 241
Patterns, TVI 557-558 Power Measurement 22-23, 515, 533
Peak-Current Value 17 Power Output 65
Peak Envelope Power. 323 Power Ratio, Decibel 41
Peak-Voltage Rating ( Rectifier) 222 Power, Reactive 35-36
Pencil Tubes 404 Power, Reflected 344
Pentagrid Converters 95 Power Sensitivity 65
Pentode Amplifiers. 69-70 Power-Supply Construction Data 209, 231-241
Pentode Crystal Oscillators 144 Power Supplies:
Pentodes 69 Battery Service Life 501
Percentage of Modulation 285, 303 Bias Supplies 239-241
Per Cent Ripple. 226, 228 Combination A.C.-Storage Battery
Permeability 27 Supplies 497
Phase 32-33 Construction 231
Phase Inversion 261 Constructional ( see Chapters Five
Phase Modulation ( see also " Frequency and Six)
and Phase Modulation") 331, 332 Dry Batteries 501
Phase Modulation Reception 333 Dynamotors 496
 INDEX
PAGE PAGE
Emergency Power Supply 496 Radiation Resistance 362, 364, 367
Filament Supply 230 Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service.. 382
Heavy-Duty Regulated Power Supply 236 Radio Frequency. 17-18
Input Resistance 225 Radio Frequency Choke 26, 53, 168
Load Resistance 225 Radio Frequency Circuits 41-52
Mercury Batteries 501 Radiotelegraph Operating Procedure...574-576,
Noise Elimination 501 591
Output Capacity 288 Radiotelephone Operating Procedure.. . 576-577
Output Voltage 226 Radiotelephony:
Plate Supply 265, 288 Adjustments and Testing...282, 297, 324, 334
Principles 221 Audio- Harmonic Suppression 264
Safety Precautions 244 Checking A.M. Transmitters 297
Selenium Rectifiers 222 Checking F.M. and P.M. Transmitters 333
Transformer Voltage 230 Constructional:
Transistor 499 Class B Modulator 281
Typical 231-232 Low-Power Modulator ( 8 Watts). . 271
Vibrators. 496 Narrow-Band Reactance Modulator 334
Vibrator Supplies 497 Phasing-Type S.S.B. Exciters 306, 314
Preamplifier, Receiver Ill Speech Amplifier Circuit with
Prediction Charts 399 Negative Feedback 267
Preferred Values, Component 508 Speech-Amplifier with Push-Pull
Prefixes 589-591 Triodes 266
Primary Coil 37 25- watt Modulator using Push-Pull
Probe, R.F 532 6BQ6GTs 273
Procedure, C.W 574-576, 591 50- watt AB ' Modulator 275
Procedure, Voice 576-577 6146 Modulator and Speech Amplifier
Product Detector 90, 96 (120 Watts) 278
Propagation, Ionospheric 396-397, 398-399 Driver Stages 263
400-401 Measurements 282, 297
Propagation Modes 56 Microphones 257
Propagation Phenomena 400-402 Modulation 285
Propagation Predictions 395, 523 Modulators and Drivers 263
Propagation, Tropospheric 399, 401-402 Monitors 303
Propagation, V.H.F 399-402 Output Limiting 268
Protective Bias 152-154 Overmodulation Indicators 303
Public Relations, BCI-TVI 553 Principles 399
Public Service 8-9 Reception 110, 112
Pulleys, Antenna 389 Resistance-Coupled Speech-Amplifier
Pulsating Current 52 Data 260
Puncture Voltage 23, 24-25 Single-Sideband Transmission 305
Push- Pull Amplifier 65-66, 161 Speech Amplifiers 258
Push- Pull Multiplier 164 Volume Compression 268
Push- Push Multiplier 164 Radioteletype. 338-342
Radioteletype F.S.K. Converter 340
Radio Waves, Characteristics of 395-396
0
Radio Waves, Propagation of 399-402
Q 43, 47, 55, 147-148
Rag Chewers Club 587
"Q- Fiver" 108
Range, V.H.F 400
Q, Loaded Circuit 44-45
Ratio, Deviation 332
Q, Mobile Antenna 488
Ratio, Image 94
Q Multiplier 107, 141
Ratio, Impedance 39
"Q"-Section Transformer 382
Ratio, Short-Circuit Current Transfer 83
Q Signals 588
Ratio, Turns 38
QST 10-11
Ratio, Power-Amplification 65
Quad Antenna 380-382
Ratio, Power Voltage, and Current 41
Quad Antenna Length 381
Ratio, Standing Wave 346, 537
Quarter- Wave Transformer 382
Ratio, Transformer 263
Ratio, Voltage-Amplification 63
Ratio, L/C 45-46, 149-150, 292
R (Resistance) 18-22 Reactance, Capacitive 33, 45
RACES 583 Reactance Charts 35, 45
RC Circuits 30-31 Reactance, Inductive 33-34
RC Time Constant 30-31 Reactance, Leakage 39
RCC Certificate 587 Reactance Modulator 334
R.F 17 Reactance, Transmission-Line 343
R.F. Probe 532 Reactive Power 35-36
R.M.S. Current Value 17 Readability Scale 588
RST System 588 Receiver Alignment 113-115
RTTY 338 Receiver, Communications 86
Radials 373 Receiver, Coupling to 130
Radiation, Transmission Line 348 Receiver Muting 251
Radiation Angle 361, 362, 364 Receiver Servicing. 113
Radiation Characteristics 364 Receivers, High-Frequency ( See also
Radiation from Transmitter 560 "V.H.F.") 86-141
Radiation Patterns 365, 368 Antennas for 386
 INDEX
PAGE PAGE
Constructional: Restriction of Frequency Response 268, 330
Antenna Coupler for Receiving 130 Return Trace 543
Crystal-Controlled Converter for 20, Rhombic Antenna 376
15 and 10 Meters 127 "Ribbon" Microphone 258
DOS-500 Double-Conversion Superhet 133 Ripple Frequency and Voltage.. . . 225, 226, 228
Regenerative Preselector for 7to 30 Mc 131 RMS Voltage 17
Selective Converter for 80 and 40 125 Rochelle Salts Crystals 51, 257
"Selectoject" 129 Rotary Antennas 377
Simple- X Super Mark II 116 Rotary Antennas, Feedlines for 379
Transistorized Q Multiplier 140 Rotary- Beam Construction 389
2 X 4 -1- Superhet. 120 Route Manager 583
Converters 94-96
Detectors 87-91 S
High-Frequency Oscillator. 96 S- Meters 104-105
Improving Performance of 115 S Scale 588
Noise Reduction 102 S.S.B. Exciters 307
Radio-Frequency Amplifier 109 S.NV.R 346, 537
Regenerative Detectors 90-91 Safety 244, 549-552
Selectivity. 86, 87, 106-107 Safety Code, National Electric 551-552
Sensitivity 86, 111-112 Saturation 28
Superheterodyne 93 Saturation Point 60
Superregenerative 406 Sawtooth Sweep 543
Tuning 92-93, 112-113, 338 Schematic Symbols 512
Reception, A.M. and C.W 112 Screen Bypass Capacitor 7:3
Reception, N.F.M., F.M. and P.M 336 Screen Circuits, Tuned 426
Reception, Single-Sideband 330 Screen Dissipation . 15.1
Rectification 60-61 Screen Dropping Resistor 73
In Non- Linear Conductors 568 Screen-Grid Keying 247
Rectified A.0 60 Screen-Grid Modulation. 292
Rectifiers 221-224, V25, V34 Screen-Grid Neutralization 158
Rectifiers, Mercury-Vapor 223, V25 Screen-Grid Tube Protection 154
Rectifiers, Ratings 223 Screen-Grid Tubes 69-70
Rectifiers, Selenium 222 Screen Voltage 154
Rectifier-Type Voltmeter 517 Screen- Voltage Supply 7:3
Reflected Power 344 Second Detector 93, 100-101
Reflection of Radio Waves 344, 400-402 Secondary Coil 37
Reflection from Meteor Trails 402 Secondary Emission 69
Reflection, Ground 362, 396 Secondary Frequency Standard 521
Reflector, Antenna 379 Section Communications Manager 582, 583
Refraction of Radio Waves 396, 401, 402 Section Emergency Coordinator. 582, 583
Regeneration 67-68, 106, 112 Section Nets 584
Regenerative Detectors 90-91 Selective Fading 398
Regenerative I.F.106 Select ivity 42, 47-48, 86. 87
Regulation, Voltage 224, 226, 235 Selectivity, I . F 106, 107, .108
Regulations, Amateur . 13-14 Selectivity Receiver 86, 87, 106-108
Regulator, High Voltage 237 Selenium Rectifiers 222
Regulator Tubes 235, V25 Self- Bias 153
Regulator, Voltage 235, V25 Self-Controlled Oscillators. 142, 144-147
Relays 449 Self- Inductance 26
Reperforator 338 Self-Oscillation 69
Resistance 18-22 Semiconductors 79-85
Resistance, Back 80 Sending 575-576
Resistance, Forward 80 Sensitivity, Receiver 86, 111-112
Resistance- Bridge Standing-Wave Series Antenna Tuning 353
Indicator 536 Series Capacitances. 25
Resistance-Capacitance Time Constant 30-31 Series Circuits . 20-22, 25, 29, 34, 36
Resistance-Coupled Amplifier Data ( Chart) 260 Series Feed 53
Resistance in Series and Parallel 20-22 Series Inductances 29
Resistive Impedance 44 Series- Parallel Resistances 20-22
Resistivity of Metals 18 Series Reactances 34-35
Resistor. 19 Series Resistances 20-21
Resistor Color Code 509 Series Resonance 41-43
Resistor Wattage 22 Series Voltage- Dropping Resistor 233
Resonance 41-46 Servicing Superhet Receivers 113
Resonance Curve 42, 44, 48, 87 Sharp Cut-Off Tubes 70
Resonance, Filter 229 Sheet Metal Cutting and Bending 505
Resonance, Sharpness of 42, 381 Shielding 54,560
Resonant Circuits, Coupled 47 Shields 54
Resonant Frequency 42 Short-Circuiting 23
Resonant- Line Circuits 55 Short Skip 401
Resonant Transmission Lines 347 Shorting Stick 550
Resonator, Cavity 57 Shot-Effect Noise 86
Response, Flat 48, 68 Shot Noise 102
Response, Frequency 48, 68, 257 Shunt Matching, Ground- Plane Antenna 373
Restricted-Space Antennas 369, 374 Shunt, Meter 515
 INDEX
PAGE PAGE
Sideband Cutting 98 Station Assembling 546-562
Sideband Interference 285 Station Control Circuits 562
Sidebands 58, 285 Station Log 579
Sidebands, F.M. and P.M. 332 Storage Battery, Automobile 496
Sideband Techniques 305 Straight Amplifier 142
Side Frequencies 58, 285 Stray Receiver Rectification 558
Signal Envelope Shape 245 Stubs, Antenna- Matching 455
Signal Generators 524 Sunspot Cycle 398-401
Signal-to-Image Ratio 94 Superheterodyne 93
Signal Monitoring 250 Superheterodyne, Alignment and
Signal-Strength Indicators 104-105 Servicing 113-115
Signal-Strength Scale 588 Superhigh Frequencies ( see Ultra High
Signal Voltage 62 Frequencies and Very High Frequencies)
Silencer, Noise 104 Superimposed A.C. on D.C. 52
Silicon Diodes . 80, V34 Superregeneration 406
Sine Wave 17, 32 Suppressed Carrier 305
Single-Ended Circuits 54 Suppressor Grid 69
Single Sideband ( see also Suppressor-Grid Modulation 294
"Radiotelephony"): Surface Barrier Transistor 82
Adjustment 324 Surface Wave 396
Amplification 319 Surge Impedance 343
Exciters 307, 309 Surplus Transmitters for Novices,
Generators 306 Converting 217
Identification 330 Sweep Wave Forms 543
Mixers 328 Swinging Choke 227
Signal Reception 330 Switch 19
Transmission 305 Switch to Safety 244
Two-Tone Test 325 Switches, Power 549-550
Single-Signal Reception 106 Switching, Antenna 386, 254-255
Skin Effect 19 Switching, Meter 165
Skip Distance 397, 401 Symbols for Electrical Quantities 512
Skip Zone 397 Symbols, Schematic 512
Skirt Selectivity 87 Symbols, Transistors 82, V33
Sky Wave 396 Synchronous Vibrators 496
Slug-Tuned Inductance 93
Smoothing Choke 227 T
Solar Cycle 398, 401 "T"- Match to Antennas 380, 384
Soldering 505, 507 "T"-Section Filters 50
Space Charge 59 T.R. Switch 254, 255
Space Wave 396 Tank Circuit Capacitance 148, 150, 155
Spark Plug Suppressors 467 Tank-Circuit Q 43, 149
Specific Gravity 495 Tank Circuits, Multiband 151
Specific Inductive Capacity. 23 Tank Constants 149-150
Spectrum, Frequency 17, 18 Tap Sizes 503
Speech Amplifiers 258 Tape Printer 338
Speech-Amplifier Construction 262 Telephone Interference 556
Speech Amplifier Design 261 Teletype Code 338
Speech Clipping and Filtering. 269 Television Interference, Eliminating... . 553-572
Speech Compression 268 Temperature Effects on Resistance 19
Speech Equipment 257 Temperature Inversion 401
Speed Key 252 Termination, Line 343
Splatter 287 Tertiary Winding 99
Splatter-Suppression Filter 270 Test Oscillators 524
Sporadic-E Layer Ionization 398-399, 401 Test Signals 575
Sporadic-E Skip . 401 Tetrode 69
Spotting, Frequency 548 Tetrode Neutralization 158
Spreading of Radio Waves 395 Tetrodes, Beam 70
Spurious Responses 94, 113, 404, 569 Thermal-Agitation Noise 86
Spurious Sidebands 302 Thermionic Emission 59
Squegging 97 Thermocouple 530
Squelch Circuits 111 Thoriated-Tungsten Cathodes 60
Stability, Amplifier 158-160 Tickler Coil 91
Stability, Frequency 287 Time Constant 30-31, 101
Stability, Oscillator 74, 405 Time Signals 523
Stabilization, Voltage 235 Tone Control 268
Stacked Arrays 376, 500 Tone Scale 588
Stagger-Tuning 48 Tools 502-504
Standard Component Values 508 Top Loading, Mobile Antenna 488
Standards, Frequency 515, 518 Trace, Cathode-Ray 543
Standard Metal Gauges 505 Tracing Noise 468
Standing Waves 346 Tracking 93, 110
Standing-Wave Ratio 346, 537 Training Aids 584
Starting Voltage ( Regulator Tubes) 235, V25 Transatlantics 8
Static Collectors 467 Transceiver, A Simple 432 Mc 414
Station Appointments 584 Transeonduetanee, Grid-Plate 62
 INDEX
PAGE PAGE
Transformation, Impedance 45 Transverse- Electric and Magnetic Mode 56
Transformer Color Code 509-510 "Trap" Antennas 371
Transformer Construction 40 Trapezoidal Pattern 297-300, 319, 325-328
Transformer Coupling 46, 64, 259 Traveling- Wave Tube 78
Transformer Current 38 Trimmer Capacitor 93
Transformer, Delta- Matching 366 Triodes 61-62
Transformer Efficiency 38 Triode Amplifiers 161
Transformer, Gamma 380, 384 Triode Clippers 75-76
Transformer Impedance 223 Triode-Hexode Converter 95
Transformer, Linear 382 Tripler, Frequency 142
Transformer Power Relationships 38 Tri-Tet Oscillator 144
Transformer, " Q"-Section 382 Troposphere Propagation 399, 401-403
Transformer Ratio 263 Tropospheric Bending 399, 401-403
Transformer, T-Match 380, 384 Tropospheric Waves 399
Transformerless Power Supplies 240 Trouble Shooting ( Phone Transmitters) 297-302
Transformers• 37-40 Trouble Shooting ( Receivers) 113
Auto 40 Trouble Shooting ( Speech Equipment). . 282, 302
Constant-Voltage 243 Tube Elements 59
Diode 99 Tube Keyer 247
Filament 230 Tube Noise 86
I. F 99 Tube Operating Conditions, R.F. Amplifier 151
Permeability-Tuned 99 Tube Ratings, Transmitting 152
Plate 230 Tubes, Modulator. 263
Triple-Tuned 99 Tuned Circuits, Tapped 51
Variable-Selectivity 99 Tuned Coupling 149, 355
Transistors 81-85, V33 Tuned Screen Circuits 426
Transistor Base Diagrams V33 Tuned-Grid Tuned- Plate Circuit 74
Transistor Current Transfer Ratio 83, 84 Tuned- Line Tank Circuit 56
Transistor " Grid- Dip" Oscillator 524 Tuned Transmission Lines 347
Transistor I.F. Amplifier 100 Tuners, Antenna,
Transistor Mixers 96 Construction of . 130, 354-358, 452
Transistor Power Supplies 499 Tuning Indicators 104-105
Transistor R.F. Amplifier 109 Tuning Rate . 92
Transistor Symbols 82, V33 Tuning R.F. Amplifiers 165
Transit Time 76-77 Tuning Receivers 92-93
Transmission Lines 343 Tuning Slug 93
Transmission Lines as Circuit Elements 55-56 Tunnel Diode. 81
Transmission-Line Attenuation 351 Turns Ratio 38
Transmission-Line Construction 348 TVI 426, 553
Transmission- Line Coupling 148 TV Receiver Deficiencies 569
Transmission-Line Data 349, 350, 351 "Twin- Five" Array 462
Transmission- Line Feed for Half-Wave Twin-Lead 349
Antennas 364 Two-Tone Test 325
Transmission Line Length 350
Transmission Line Losses 350-351 U
Transmission Lines, Spacing. 348, 349 Ultra- High Frequencies:
Transmission, Multihop 397-398, 401 Cavity Resonators 57
Transmit-Receive Switch 254, 255 Circuits 55-57
Transmitters: ( see also " Very High Grid- Dip Meter 525
Frequencies", " Ultrahigh Frequencies" Klystrons 77
and " Mobile") "Lighthouse" Tubes 76, 404
Constructional: Magnetrons 77-78
An Inexpensive 75-Watt Five-Band Pencil Tubes 404
Transmitter 172 Tank Circuits 55-57
Coverting Surplus Transmitters for Transmission- Line Tanks 55-56
Novice Use 217 Traveling-Wave Tubes . 78
Grounded-Grid Amplifier ( 900 Watts) 193 Tubes 76-78
High- Power Grounded-Grid Amplifier Velocity Modulation 76-77
and Power Supply 206 Waveguides 56-57
Kilowatt Amplifier, One Band 202 Unbalance in Transmission Lines 349
Kilowatt 4-400A Amplifier 197 Underwriters' Code 551-552
Phased Single-Sideband Exciter 314 Unsymmetrical Modulation 286
Remote-Tuned V.F 0 189 Untuned Transmission Lines. 347
Self-Contained 500- Watt Transmitter 188 Upward Modulation 286
Single-Sideband Exciter 309
Two-Band V.F 0 213 V
3-Band Transmitter for the Novice "V" Antennas 375
(30 Watts) 169 V Signal 575
75-Watt 6DQ5 Transmitter VAR 36
(Five Bands) 176 VR Tube Break-In System 249
90-Watt All- Purpose Amplifier 180 VR Tubes 232, V25
200- Watt Grounded-Grid 811 Vacuum Tubes and Semiconductors
Linear Amplifier 184 (Index to Tables) VI
Metering 165 Vacuum Tube Input Capacitance 68
Principles and Design 142-168 Vacuum Tube Keyers 247
 INDEX
PAGE PAGE
Vacuum Tube Plate Power Input, Plate Voltage Loop 345, 363
Dissipation 152 Voltage-Amplification Ratio 63
Vacuum Tube Principles 59-78 Voltage Multiplier Circuits 234
Vacuum Tube Voltmeter 518 Voltage Node 345, 363
Vacuum Tube Voltmeter R.F. Probe 532 Voltage-Turns Ratio, Transformer 38
Variable Capacitor 24 Voltage Regulation 224, 226, 235
Variable-Frequency Oscillators 144-146, 189, 213 Voltage- Regulator Interference 467
Variable-µ Tubes 70 Voltage, Ripple 225, 226, 228
Velocity Factor 350 Voltage Rise 43
Velocity Microphone 258 Voltage-Stabilized Power Supplies 235
Velocity-Modulated Tubes 77 Voltmeters 513, 518, 531
Velocity Modulation 76-77 Volume Compression 268
Velocity of Radio Waves 18, 395
Vertical Angle of Radiation 361
Vertical Antennas 374, 463 W1AW 12, 585, 586
Vertical Antennas, Capacitance of 487 WAC Award 586
Vertical Polarization of Radio Waves.. 395, 454 WAS Award 585
Very High Frequencies ( V.H.F.): Watt 22
Antenna Arrays 456 Watt-Hour 23
Antenna Coupler 452 Watt-Second 23
Antenna Systems 454-465, 491 Wave Angle 361, 362, 364, 397
Propagation 400-402 Wave- Envelope Pattern 287, 298-301
Receivers 403-424 Wave Front 395
Construction: Wave, Ground 396
Crystal-Controlled Converter for Wave Guide Dimensions 56-57
432 Mc 418 Wave Guides 56
Crystal-Controlled Converter for 50 Wavemeters 519
and 144 Me. Mobile Use 474 Wave Propagation 395-402
Crystal-Controlled Converters for Wave, Sine 17, 32
50, 144 and 220 Mc. 407 Wave, Sky 396
Crystal-Controlled Converter for Wave Form 17
1296 Mc. 420 Wavelength 17-18
Superregenerative 406 Wavelength-Frequency Conversion 18
V.H.F. Receiver Design 403 Wavelengths, Amateur 13, 14
Transceivers: Waves, Complex 17, 37
432 Mc., A Simple 414 Waves, Distorted 63
Transmitters 423-451 Waves, Electromagnetic 15
Construction: Wave Traps 570
Complete 50 Mc. through 432 Mc. Wheel Static 467
Transmitter 427 Wide-Band Antennas, V.H F 464
High- Power Transmitter for 50 and "Windom" Antenna 370
144 Mc 439 Wire, Breaking Load for Antenna 510
50- Mc. Amplifier 442 Wire Table, Copper 511
144- Mc. Driver-Amplifier 447 Wiring Diagrams, Symbols for 512
V.F.O. for 2 Meters 438 Wiring, Station 550-551
Design 425-426 Wiring, Transmitter 507
V.F O 144-146, 189, 213, 438 Word Lists for Accurate Transmission.. 577
VVV Signals 574 Working DX 577-578
Vibrator Power Supplies 496 Working Voltage, Capacitor 229
Virtual Height 396 Workshop Practice 507-512
Voice-Controlled Break-In. 329 WWV and WWVH Schedules 523
Voice Equivalents to Code Procedure 576
Voice Operating 576-577 X
Volt 17 X (
Reactance) 33
Volt-Ampere-Reactive 36
Volt-Ampere Rating 230 Y
Voltage Amplification 62-63, 259 "Yagi" Antennas 455, 461
Voltage Amplifier 65
Voltage Breakdown 23, 24, 25
Voltage Decay 30, 31 Z (Impedance) 36
Voltage Dividers 233 Zener Diodes 80-81
Voltage Distribution, Antenna 367 Zener Knee 80
Voltage Drop 21, 233 Zero Beat 91
Voltage Gain 64, 259 Zero-Bias Tubes 66
 he
eatalog Section
* *

In the following pages is a catalog

file of products of certain principal

manufacturers and distributors who

serve the radio field: industrial, com-

mercial, amateur. All firms whose

advertising has been accepted for

this section have met The American

Radio Relay League's rigid standards

for established integrity ; their prod-

ucts and engineering methods have

received the League's approval.

 41st EDITION 1964

INDEX OF ADVERTISERS
CATALOG SECTION

J1e Zaidee >legatee:1 qiaftsetdood

Page Page

Allied Radio Corp 57 Instructog ra ph Co. 40

American Radio Relay League ... 49-52, 67,80 International Crystal Mfg. Co., Inc 24, 25
Antenna Specialists Co., The 63
Arrow Electronics, Inc. 54
Automatic Telegraph Keyer Corp. 54 Johnson Co., E. F. 22, 23

Lafayette Radio 59
Barker & Williamson, Inc. 26, 27
Lampkin Laboratories, Inc 55
Belden Mfg. Co. 36
Bird Electronic Corp. 30, 31
Burste in-Ap ple bee Co. 62 McGraw-Hill Book Co. 72
Measurements, Div. of McGraw- Edison 77
Millen Mfg. Co., Inc., James 10-15
Carling Electric, Inc. 78 ,79 Miller Co., J. W. 73
Cleveland Institute of Electronics . 67 Mosley Electronics, Inc 53
Collins Radio Co. 17-20
Communications Co., Inc. 66
Ohmite Mfg. Co. 34

Datak Corporation 69
Penta Laboratories 38

Editors & Engineers, Ltd 32, 33 Radio Shack Corp. 32

Eitel-McCullough, Inc. 9 Raytheon Mfg. Co 75
Elmar Electronics 71
E- ZWay Towers, Inc. 44
Shunte Meters 58
Sonora Electromatics, Inc. 76
Frederick Electronics Corp 60 Sprague Products Co. 42

General Electric Co 56 Technical Materiel Corp. 47

Gertsch Products, Inc. 61 Telcolab Corp. 70
Grantham School of Electronics 65 Telex Corporation 69
Telrex, Inc. 59
Topaz Incorporated 72
Hallicrafters Co., The 3-8
Hammarlund Mfg. Co., Inc. 45
Harrison Radio 46 United Transformer Corp. 16
Harvey Radio Co 48
Heath Co., The 35, 37, 39, 41 Vibroplex Co., Inc. 64
Hygain Antenna Products Co. 43

Institute of Electrical Westates Electronics Corp 68

and Electronic Engineers 21 Westinghouse Electric Co. 28, 29
Wile, Eugene G . 74

2
1964 AMATEUR EQUIPMENT CATALOG
hail/Crafters
the new ideas in
communications are born at...

SR- 150 AMATEUR BAND

FIXED- MOBILE TRANSCEIVER

Hallicrafters' new SR- 150 is a rugged, lightweight,

high-performance amateur band transceiver designed
TRANSCEIVERS for maximum flexibility and convenience of opera-
tion in both fixed and mobile situations.
Advanced communications technology and proven,
dependable design have been carefully blended to
give you maximum performance under all potential
environmental conditions—yet provide a range of
operating features never before available at anything
approaching the price.
f
i)SR- 160THREE- BAND FIXED GENERAL: Dial cal., 5 kc.; 100 kc. crystal cal.;
MOBILE TRANSCEIVER VFO tunes 500 kc.; 18 tubes plus volt. reg., 10
diodes, one varicap. Rugged, lightweight aluminum
A rugged, lightweight, high-performance amateur construction (only 17 1
/ lb.); size-61
2 2 'x 15' x 13'.
/
transceiver that covers the three most popular ama-
FREQUENCY COVERAGE: Eight-band capabil-
teur bands. Excellent for fixed and mobile SSB and
ity—full coverage provided for 80, 40, 20 and 15
CW use. Crystal filter-type sideband generation.
meters; 10M crystals furnished for operation on
Hallicrafters famous R.I.T. Control and AALC. All
28.5 to 29.0 Mc. Other crystals may be added for
jacks and switching for operation of linear amplifier
full 10 meter coverage without adjustment. Available
are included in this new low cost transceiver.
for operation on specified non-amateur frequencies
Dial calibration 5kc. Covers all of 80-40-20 meter by special order.
amateur bands: Upper sideband on 20 meters and
FRONT PANEL CONTROLS: Tuning; Band
lower sideband on 40-80 meters. Aluminum con-
Selector; Final Tuning; R. F. Level; Mic. Gain;
struction. Weight only 13 1
/4 lbs.; cabinet size 13'W
Pre-Selector; R.r.T.; Rec. RF Gain; AF Gain;
x6Y8"H x 11'D.
Operation ( Off/Standby/M0X/VOX.); Function
(CW/USB/LSB); Cal.
FRONT PANEL CONTROLS: R.I.T. On/Off. TRANSMITTER SECTION: ( 2) 12DQ6B output
R.I.T. Frequency. RF Gain Control/AL Gain Con- tubes. Fixed, 50-ohm Pi network. Power input-
trol. Operation: Off/Rec. Only/CW-TUNE/SSB/ 150W P.E.P. SSB; 125W CW. Carrier and unwanted
CAL., Dial Cal. Tuning. Band Selector. Driver SB suppression 50 db.; distortion prod., 30 db.
Tune. Carrier Level/Mic. Gain. Final Tune. Audio: 400-2800 c.p.s. @ 6db.
RECEIVER SECTION: Sensitivity less than 1pv
TRANSMITTER SECTION: ( 2) 12DQ6B final for 20 db. signal-to-noise ratio. Audio output 2W;
amplifiers. Fixed 50-ohm PI network. Power input: overall gain, 1pv for 1
/ W output. 6.0 - 6.5 1st I.F.
2

150W SSB, 125W max. CW. Carrier and unwanted (tunes with VFO). 1650 kc. 2nd I.F.
sideband suppression, 50 db. Distortion products, POWER REQUIREMENTS: 12.6V @ 5A; 250V
30 db. Audio, 600-2800 c.p.s. at 3db. @ 220 ma; * 500V @ 250 ma; - 75V t 10 ma.
*Transmit Only

RECEIVER SECTION: Sensitivity better than 1 SPECIAL FEATURES: Receiver Offset Control
pv for 20 db. signal-to-noise ratio. 100 db. a.v.c. (R.I.T.) permits ± 2kc. adjustment of receiver fre-
figure of merit. Calibrator circuitry built-in (shipped quency independent of transmitter for round-table,
less crystal and tube), uses same power supplies as net or CW operation. (Patents applied for.) New
SR- 150. Exclusive Hallicrafters AALC (Amplified Automatic
Level Control). Inverse Feedback on RF P.A. Cor-
Mobile mounting kit and plug-in VOX adaptor
rects for screen "knee" distortion inherent in all
unit available. See "Accessories" page.
small beam power pentodes.

OM • SO fr—[:
-̀ .

• •
SR-100 ) SR- 150
 TRANSMITTERS and RECEIVERS

HT-32B TRANSMITTER. Preferred by the tivity plus exclusive upper-lower sideband selection
most experienced amateurs for SSB/AM/CW oper- —linear CTO, direct reading in kc. A perfect match
ation because of advance.d features . . . beam- for Hallicrafters' HT- 32B and HT- 33B exciters and
switching modulator with unusually high carrier transmitters.
suppression stability—CTO direct reading in kc., and
FREQUENCY COVERAGE: Nine 500 kc segments
complete 10- meter coverage.
covering 3.5-4.0 Mc.; 7.0-7.5 Mc.; 14.0-14.5 Mc.,
FEATURES: Beam-deflection, high level sideband 21-21.5 Mc.; 28.0-30.0 Mc.; (4segments); and WWV.
modulator for low- noise, high-stability signal, Haiti-
crafters' exclusive 5.0 Mc. quartz crystal filter with FEATURES: High order of mechanical and elec-
trical stability; linear tuning; constant tuning rate;
sideband rejection of 50 db. or more; CTO direct
reading in kilocycles to within 1kc.; 144 watts plate separate noise limiters for SSB/CW/AM; amplified
input ( P.E.P. two-tone). Five band output (80, 40, dual loop AVC with fast attack-slow release; spuri-
20, 15, 10 meters). All modes of transmission—CW, ous signal and image rejection better than 60 db.
AM, SSB. Unwanted sideband down 50 db. or more. 1kc calibration marks; transmitter-type VFO with
Both sidebands transmitted on AM Precision gear differential TC; 100 kc crystal calibrator; crystal
controlled 1st and 3rd conversion oscillators; select-
driven CTO. Exclusive Hallicrafters patented side-
band selection. Logarithmic meter for accurately able sidebands; selectivity variable in five steps from
tuning and carrier level adjustment. Ideal CW key- 500 to 5000 cycles; product detector for SSB/CW
envelope detector for AM; I.F. type noise limiter for
ing and break-in operation, push-to-talk and full
voice control system built in. Keying circuit brought SSB/CW automatic threshold series type for AM;
out for teletype keyer. band gain equalization; audio inverse feedbacks;
"S" meter functions with AVC off.
FRONT PANEL CONTROLS, FUNCTIONS
AND CONNECTIONS: Operation — power off, SENSITIVITY: Less than 1 microvolt on AM—
standby, Mo., Cal., Vox.—P.T.T. Audio level 0-10 less than 1
/ microvolt on SSB/CW.
2

R.F. level 0-10. Final tuning 80, 40, 20, 15, 10 TUNING MECHANISM: Back- lash free gear
meters. Function— upper sideband, lower sideband, driven tuning mechanism.
DSB, CW. Meter compression. Calibration level
TUBES AND FUNCTIONS: 6DC6 R.F. ampli-
0-10. Driver tuning 0-5. Band selector- 80, 40, 20,
15, 10 meters. High stability, gear driven VFO. fier — 6BA7 1st mixer — 12AT7 crystal oscillator —
6DC6 1st I.F. amplifier-6BA7-2nd mixer-6CB6
Microphone, key and headphone monitor jacks.
VFO-6DC6 2nd 1.F. amplifier-6BA6 3rd mixer-
TUBES AND FUNCTIONS: ( 2)-6146 Power out- 12AT7 SSB switching oscillator-6DC6 3rd I.F.
put amplifiers. 6CB6 variable frequency oscillator. amplifier-6BY6 product detector-6BJ7 2nd AVC,
12BY7 R.F. driver. 6AH6 2nd mixer. 6AH6 3rd AM detector, ANL-12AX7 BFO 1st audio ampli-
mixer. 6AB4 crystal oscillator. I2AX7 voice con- fier-6AQ5 audio output-6AU6 100 kc crystal cal.
trol. Audio amp. I2AU7 audio amp, and carrier —6AU6 " S" meter amplifier-6AU6 1st loop AVC
oscillator. 7360 modulator. 12AT7 sideband select- amplifier- 0A2 voltage regulator-five silicon diodes.
ing oscillator. 6AH6 1st mixer. 6AH6 4.95 Mc.
amp. 6AU6 9Mc. amp. 5R4GY HV rectifier. 5V4G FRONT PANEL CONTROLS: R.F. gain; A.F.
LV rectifier. 0A2 voltage regulator. gain; tuning; selectivity; function selector (upper-
lower SSB; upper-lower AM; on-off switch); cal set
REAR CHASSIS: Co-ax antenna connector, FSK lock; receive-standby switch; notch frequency; BFO
jack, AC accessory outlet. Line fuse. Control con- pitch; AVC/ANL (AVC on-off; SSB/CW ANL;
nector, ground stud, AC power line cord. Cabinet AM/ANL); antenna trimmer; band switch; cali-
20" wide, 10 1 / "high, and 17" deep. Approximate
2 brator on-off; headphone jack.
shipping weight 86 lbs. (Conforms to F.C.D.A.
specifications.) AUDIO OUTPUT IMPEDANCE: 3.2 and 500
ohm,.
SX-115 RECEIVER. First in its class for AM,
CW and SSB reception. Truly a deluxe receiver POWER REQUIREMENTS : 105/125V, 50/60
offering band pass filter front end—equivalent of cycles AC 85 watts.
four tuned circuits preceding first mixer—crystal- PHYSICAL DATA: 16" wide x 10 12 "high x 16"
/
controlled, high frequency oscillator- 5 step selec- deep. Shipping weight 47 lbs.

HT-32B SX-115 HT- 33B

4
ri HT- 33B LINEAR AMPLIFIER. Heavy REAR CHASSIS: RF input, RF output,
duty components leave plenty of reserve for filament fuse, bias terminals. P-45 Power Sup-
efficiency and long life. ply recommended. See "Accessories" page.
FREQUENCY COVERAGE: Amateurbands
80, 40, 20, 15, 10 meters.
FEATURES: Rated conservatively at maxi-
mum legal input. Distortion products down
in excess of 30 db. R.F. output meter for SX-122 GENERAL COVERAGE
simplified tune-up. All important circuits RECEIVER
metered. Pi-network. Variable output load- Outstanding performance is yours with Halli-
ing. Circuit breaker. A perfect match to crafters new SX-122 general coverage receiver.
Hallicrafters' famous HT- 32B in size, ap- Dual conversion on all bands for excellent re-
pearance and drive requirements. ception of AM/CW/SSB signals.
CIRCUIT DETAILS: A PL- 172 operating
FREQUENCY COVERAGE: Standard
in class AB1. Is grid- driven across a non-
inductive resistor, assuring the maximum Broadcast; 540-1600 kc.; Three S/W Bands,
stability under all conditions. Single knob 1750 kc.-34 Mcs. Band 1: 540 kc.-1600 kc.
band switching selects the proper inductance —Band 2: 1750 kc.-4.9 Mcs.—Band 3: 4.8
for each band. The output circuit is a pi- Mcs.-12.6 Mcs.—Band 4: 12.5 Mcs.-34
network adjustable for loads from 40 to 80 Mcs. Bandspread calibrated for 80, 40, 20,
ohms. 2 panel meters: one to measure grid 15, 10 meter and citizens bands.
current, screen current, plate voltage and
R.F. output voltage. A second meter con- FEATURES: Dual conversion. Antenna
tinuously monitors cathode current. trimmer. Amplified A.V.C. Product detector
TUBES: (I) PL- 172 high power pentode; for SSB/CW. Envelope detector for AM.
(2) 3628 rectifiers; ( 6) 0A2 screen regulators. Series noise limiter. Crystal-controlled 2nd
FRONT PANEL CONTROLS: Meter se- cony, oscillator plus additional temperature
lector; Filament switch; High Voltage switch; compensation of high freq. oscillator circuits
Bias adjustment; Bandswitch; Plate tuning; give utmost stability.
Plate loading.
PHYSICAL DATA: Gray and black steel CONTROLS: BFO. Function. Phone jack.
cabinet ( matches HT- 32B). Cabinet: 20" wide Antenna Trimmer. Calibrator On/Off. R.F.
x 10 1
/ " high x 17" deep. Shipping weight
2 Gain. Audio Gain. Band Selector. Noise
approx. 130 lbs. Limiter On/Off Selectivity. Main Tuning.
REAR CHASSIS: Co-ax input; co-ax out- Bandspread Tuning.
put; filament and bias fuse; cutoff bias relay
EXTERNAL CONNECTIONS: 3.2 ohm
terminals; screen fuse; ground terminal.
speaker and standby terminals, terminals for
ri HT-45 LIGHTWEIGHT single wire or double antenna (external an-
TABLETOP, GROUNDED- GRID tenna provided), AC power cord, "S" meter
LINEAR AMPLIFIER electrical adjustment and mounting hole for
Covers 80-40-20-15-10 meter amateur bands, co-axial cable connector. Phone jack on front
styled to match HT-44 and SX-117. panel.
Complete metering—plate voltage, plate TUBE COMPLEMENT: 6DC6-R.F. ampli-
current, grid current, relative RF output. Uses fier. 6AU6-1st mixer. 6C4-H.F. oscillator.
a3-400Z in azero bias grounded-grid circuit. 6DC6-1650 kc. if. amplifier. 6BL8-2nd mixer
Runs full legal input when used with 3000-volt and crystal oscillator. 6BA6-50 kc. i.f. am-
plate supply.(P-45AC Power Supply available.) plifier. 6BE6-BFO and product detector.
6BN8-AVC amplifier, AVC rectifier, AM
FRONT PANEL CONTROLS: Band Selec- detector. 60W8- 1st AF amplifier and audio
tor, Plate Tuning, 80 Meter Switch, FIL On/ output. 5Y3-Rectifier. IN456-ANL diode.
Off, Plate On/Off, Meter Switch, Loading. 0A2-Voltage regulator.

PHYSICAL DATA: Cabinet size 15'W x PHYSICAL DATA: 18 1 2 " wide, 8' high,
/
71
2 "H x 13"D. Weight 28 lbs.
/ 91
/ 'deep, weight 29 lbs.
2

HT-45 SX-122
 TRANSMITTERS
and RECEIVERS

HT-44
SX-117

SX-117 TRIPLE- CONVERSION RECEIVER f, HT-44 TRANSMITTER

Hallicrafters newest—an exceptionally versatile and

Companion unit for SX-117 Receiver. Provides
compact triple-conversion, superheterodyne com-
transceive or separate transmit and receive. AM, CW
munication receiver that's loaded with exceptional
and SSB operation. 80 through 10 meters, full band
features!
coverage, upper and lower sideband, (crystals for
28.0-28.5, 29.0-29.5, 29.5-30 Mc optional extra).
FEATURES: High order of electrical and mechan-
ical stability. Transmitter-type VFO that may be used
as a crystal-locked oscillator. Constant tuning rate, FEATURES: 200 watts, PEP input. Slave or inde-
no back-lash in tuning mechanism. Crystal-controlled pendent operation—break in CW. Full VOX and
1st and 3rd oscillators. Selectable sidebands. Product push-to-talk. AALC. 52 OHM fixed pi network out-
detector for SSB/CW; envelope detector for AM. put. Carrier suppression 50 db.; unwanted sideband
I.F.-type noise limiter. T-notch for up to 50 db. (500-2500 cps) 30 db. minimum. Third and fifth
attenuation to unwanted heterodyne in I.F. pass band. order distortion, 30 db. minimum. 5 kc. dial cali-
Audio inverse feedback. bration.

SENSITIVITY: Less than 1.0 uy on AM; less than FRONT PANEL CONTROLS: VFO Selector.
0.5 .iv on SSB/CW. XMTR/RCVR Audio Gain. Operation Off/Stand-
by/Mox/Cal/VOX. Function CW/DSB/USB/LSB.
SELECTIVITY: Variable in three steps, 0.5-2.5-5.0 Cal Reset. Tuning. Cal. Level. Band Selector. Driver
kc. Tune. Final Tune. RF Level.VOX Delay.

CRYSTALS: Crystals provided for 3.5-4.0, 7.0-7.5, REAR CHASSIS: antenna, power socket, CW
14.0-14.5, 21.0-21.5, 28.5-29 Mc. Four addt'l crystal jack, control socket, jacks for transceive operation
pos. for 500 kc. segments between 85 kc. and 30 Mc. (using SX-117 VFO and crystal oscillator), internal/
100 kc. crystal calibrator included. external OSC switch.

FRONT PANEL: R.F. Gain; Audio Gain; Tuning; PHYSICAL DATA: Aluminum cabinet ( 15'W x
Function Select& ( U/L Sideband, AM, On/Off); Cal. 4 'H x 13' deep) and chassis for light weight
71
/
Reset; Selectivity; Notch Freq.; BFO; ANL/CAL; (16 lbs.).
Band Selector; Headset Jack; Preselector. Uses P-150 Power Supply (See "Accessories"
page) and CA-44 cable assembly for interconnecting
REAR CHASSIS: Coax. antenna connector; audio SX-117 and HT-44.
output; line fuse; ground lug.

PHYSICAL DATA: Size: 15' x 71 4 ' x 13'. Net

/
weight, 18 lbs. (Low freq. tuner available. See "acces-
sories" page). rà HT-41 LINEAR AMPLIFIER. NEW and
POWERFUL! Here is the low cost linear amplifier
you've been looking for—with the capabilities of
delivering the " Big" signal on the air! Ideally engi-
neered with conservatively rated components. Ideal
companion for the HT- 37 in both styling and price.

6 The new ide

 HT-40 SX-140
Both units available in easily-assembled kit form.

FEATURES: Complete coverage 80 through 10 SPECIFICATIONS: Maximum D.C. power in-

meters. Adjustable pi-network output. All important put: 75 watts. Power output in excess of 35 watts
circuits metered. Built in R.F. output meter to simplify CW, 30 watts peak AM phone. ( Slightly less on 6
tune-up. Built in driver pad. Standby bias supply for meters.) Frequency bands: 80, 40, 20, 15, 10 and
complete cutoff during receive. 6 meters.
TUBES AND FUNCTIONS: 6DQ5 power out-
CIRCUIT DETAILS: This new high power linear put; 6CX8 crystal oscillator and driver; 12AX7
amplifier employs two 7094 tetrode-type tubes. These speech amplifier; 6DE7 modulator; silicon high
tubes are connected as high Mu grounded grid triodes voltage rectifiers.
in Class B. Input circuit designed for 50 to 75 ohm
FRONT PANEL: Function ( AC off, tune, standby,
exciters. A completely self-contained power supply
AM, CW); Band Selector ( 80, 40, 20, 15, 10, 6);
uses 866A tubes connected in a full wave rectifier
Drive control; Plate tuning, plate loading, Crystal-
circuit possessing exceptional regulation. Provision
VFO; Grid Current; Meter; AC indicator light; R.F.
also made to control cutoff bias by proper connections
output.
to terminal strip on rear of chassis. Overload protec-
tion provided by fuse which protects plate, filament, REAR CHASSIS: Microphone gain; antenna co-
bias and blower circuits. ax connector; remote control terminals; AC power
cord.
TUBES: (
2) 7094; (
2) 866A rectifiers.

FRONT PANEL CONTROLS: Filament switch;

r‘) SX-140 RECEIVER. It makes good operat-
ing sense to team up this quality-engineered receiver
high voltage switch; meter switch; band selector; with the HT-40. In combination, these two units
plate tuning; plate loading. will give you an excellent performing station for a
very modest investment.
REAR CHASSIS: Co-ax input; co-az output; AC FEATURES: You get complete coverage of all
line cord; plate, filament, bias and blower fuse; termi- amateur bands 80 through 6meters, with extremely
nal strip for bias cutoff relay control and AC control
high sensitivity and sharp selectivity. Unit has R.F.
circuits; terminal strip for internal input; grounding
stage; S-meter; antenna trimmer; and crystal cali-
bolt and lug. brator. Tuning ratio is 25 to 1.

PHYSICAL DATA: 19 1 4 "wide x 9" high x 15 1

/ 2 "
/ CONTROLS: Tuning; Antenna Trimmer; Cal Re-
deep. Cabinet in gray steel with brushed chrome trim set; Function (AC off, standby, AM/CW/SSB);
and knobs. Shipping wt.; 97 lbs. Band Selector; Cal on-off; R.F. Gain; Auto. Noise
Limiter on-off; Selectivity/BFO; Audio Gain; phone
OD HT- 40 TRANSMITTER. Perfectly comple- jack; "S"- meter Adj.
ments the high performance qualities of the SX-140 TUBES AND FUNCTIONS: 6AZ8 tuned R.F.
receiver. This crystal-controlled 75 watt transmitter amplifier and crystal calibrator; 6U8 oscillator and
has all the Hallicrafters design, quality and engi- mixer; 6BA6 1650 kc. I.F. amplifier and BFO; 6T8A
neering features that are equally important to both 2nd detector, AVC, ANL and 1st audio; 6AW8A
beginners and old timers. audio power amplifier and "S"-meter amplifier; (2)
silicon high voltage rectifiers.
FEATURES: You get excellent CW performance
as well as AM. Full band switching, 80 through 6

A
meters. Enjoy easy tune-up and crisp, clean styling
that has efficient operation as well as appearance in
mind. Unit is fully metered, TV! filtered.

communications are born at ... hagcrafters 7

 HA- 5 DELUXE VEO. Heterodyne-type,
ACCESSORIES all amateur bands. Crystals for 80-
10M furnished; we can supply 6 or
2M crystals. 30-1 tuning ratio. IIlum.
dial, built-in spotting switch.

HA-1 "T.O." KEYER. Meets all re-

quirements of the CW perfectionist.
Employs digital techniques to pro-
duce constant ratio of dot-to-space-
to-dash throughout entire speed
range. Transformer operated. Speeds
from 20-45 WPM. Monitor or side-
tone may be heard through built-in
HA-2
speaker.
HA- 2— HA- 6 TRANSVERTERS. A sen- HA- 10 LOW FREQ. TUNER. For use
sible, new approach to VHF operation! Engineered with SX-117 triple-conversion re-
with the usual Hallicrafters precision, these trans- ceiver. Covers 85 kc. to 3.0 Mc.
verters will convert your present 10-meter station Terminal for ext. antenna. Coaxial
to VHF ... AM, CW, SSB, RTTY, FM capability. cable with connector plugs into
All modes of transmission and reception on your receiver L.F. input.
present equipment are useable with these units. A
nuvistor front end in the receiver section provides POWER SUPPLIES
excellent sensitivity and noise figure. P-26. For use with HA-2 or HA-6
FEATURES: Converts received VHF signals transverters. Supplies all voltages.
down to 10 meters for reception. Converts 10- Only one required for stations using
meter signal to VHF for transmission. 5894 tube both units.
in transmitter final amplifier can be driven up to
120 watts input. Can be driven by exciters with P-150AC. Use with SR- 150 trans-
10 to 100 watt capability. Built-in coaxial antenna ceiver at base. Styled to match
relay. SR- 150. 5 silicon diode rectifiers,
PM speaker.
FRONT PANEL CONTROLS AND FUNC-
P-150DC.(not illust.) for mobile use.
TIONS: Power on-off, range selector; tuning;
Transistorized, weighs only 51/ lbs.
2
loading; output indicator; plate current meter.
TUBES: 12AT7 crystal oscillator; 6AH6 buffer P-45. For use with HT-45 Amplifier.
amplifier; 6CW4 R.F. amplifier (REC.); 6AN4 Supplies necessary voltage for oper-
mixer ( REC.); 12BY7 mixer (Xmit); 6360 driver ation of the unit
(Xmit); 5894 final amplifier.
REAR CHASSIS CONTROLS AND FUNC-
TIONS: Receiver co-ax.; antenna co-ax fitting; MR- 150 MOUNTING RACK. Universal
transmitter co- ax. input hi.; transmitter co-ax. rack for mounting SR- 150 on trans-
input low; power and control socket; bias adjust, mission hump, floor or dashboard.
filament and relay fuse; hi-voltage connector. Quick- release design — all connec-
tions made simultaneously. Access
POWER REQUIRED: 750 volts @ 160 MA; 250
holes for VOX controls.
volts @ 70 MA; minus 60 volts @ 10 MA.
PHYSICAL DATA: 8" high x 17" wide x 87 /
8"
HA-8 "SPLATTER GUARD." Electronic
deep. Gray steel cabinet with silver trim. modulation indicator, reduces
splatter tendency due to excessive
audio gain. Transformer operated,
elaS SPEAKER.Compact, AC power. Complete with R.F. probe
a lightweight, designed for com- and connecting cable.
munications. Flat response
from 300-2850 c.p.s. Input CA-44 CABLE ASSEMBLY. For use
impedance: 3.2 ohms.
with HT-44 — SX-177 for transceive
operation.
OD R-48A SPEAKER.Designed

e
n for use with SX-100, or any HA- 7 100 kc CRYSTAL CALIBRATOR
receiver with 3.2 ohm output.
Heavy magnet has fully-satu- ASSEMBLY. Plugs into SX-122.
rated air gap for exceptional
damping, minimum distortion. MR- 160 MOBILE INSTALLATION KIT.
Music/voice switch. For use with SR- 160

The new ideas in

communications
are born at .
hagcrafiers
 AMATEUR SERVICE NEWSLETTER

Eimac zero bias triodes offer economy, simplicity, low distortion

by William I. Orr, W6SAI

The Eimac 3-400Z and 3-1000Z are zero bias triodes especially

suited for single sideband operation in the amateur service. Costly

and bulky screen and bias supplies are not required. The tubes are

small and rugged and are designed to fit into modern, compact trans-
mitter design. Best of all, they provide improved linearity and a
reduction of bothersome intermodulation products when operated in

an approved circuit.
The 3-400Z is rated to 1000 watts p.e.p. input and the 3-1000Z
is rated to 2000 watts p.e.p. input. These ratings are established
at moderate plate potentials and result in third- and higher- order
product distortion figures better than -35 db below maximum output.

These ratings are for continuous, key down service!

For a zero bias package including complete details and appli-

cation information write me today c/o Amateur Service

Dept., Eitel-McCullough, Inc., San Carlos, California. 'Ne:)

3-400Z 3-1000Z

9
 MILLEN NO. 90651
GRID DIP METER
The No. 90651 MILLEN GRID DIP METER is cornpoct and
completely self contained. The AC power supply is of
the " transformer" type. The drum dial has seven caii•
brated uniform length scales from 1.7 MC to 300 MC with
generous over lops plus an arbitrary scale for use with
special application inductors. Internal terminal strip per.
mils battery operation for ontenna measurement.
No. 90651, with tube and carrying case
No. 90651.0— Case only
Additional Inductors for Lower Frequencics
No. 46702-925 to 2000 KC
No. 46703-500 to 1050 KC .
No. 46704-325 to 600 KC ..
No. 46705-220 to 30 KC

TONE MODULATOR — The No. 90751 Tone Modulator is a small HIGH VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY — The No. 90281 high
package containing o transistor audio oscillator and its mercury battery, voltage power supply has a d.c. output of 700 volts, with maximum
which plugs into the phone jack of a Grid Dip Meter to modulate current of 235 ma. In addition, a.c. filament power of 6.3 volts at
the signal at approximately 800 cycles for applications requiring o 4 amperes is also available so that this power supply is an ideal unit
modulated signal. Dimensions: only 2,/x o 13Sis u l'Ae• in. for use with transmitters, such os the Millen No. 90801, as well as
No. 90751, lest battery general laboratory purposes. The power supply uses two Na. 816
rectifiers. The panel is standard 83/x" x 19" rack mounting.
AUDIO CLIPPER — The No. 75016 Audio Clipper is o small No. 90281. less tubes
plug-in symmetrical type clipper with self-contained mercury batteries.
It may be used to clip noise for C- W reception as well as for A- M REGULATED POWER SUPPLY A compact, uncosed, regu-
or SSB, or it may be used to clip a sine wave input to form a square lated power supply, either for table use in the laboratory or for
wove output. Dimensions: only 21/ x 134 x 1310 in.
4 incorporation os an integral port of larger equipment. 250 v.d.c.
No. 75016, less batteries unregulated at 115 sea. 105 v.d.c. regulated at 35 ma. Minus 105
v.d.c. regulated bias at 4 mo. 6.3 v. oc. at 4.2 amps.
No. 90201, with tubes
ANTENNA BRIDGE — The Millen 90672 Antenna Bridge is an
accurate and sensitive bridge for measuring impedances in the range
of 5 to 500 ohms ( or 20 to 2000 ohms with balan) at radio frequencies HIGH FREQUENCY RF AMPLIFIER — A physically small unit
capable of o power output of 70 to 85 watts on Phone or 87 to 110
up to 140 mc. The variable element is an especially designed differen-
worts on C- W on 20, 15, 10, 6 or 2 meter amateur bonds. Pro-
tial variable capacitor capable of high accuracy and permanency of
vision is made for quick band shift by means of the No. 48000 series
calibration. Readily driven by No. 90651 Grid Dipper.
VHF plug-in coils. The No. 90811 unit uses either an 829-B or 3E29.
Na.. 90672
No. 90811 with 10 meter band coils, less tube

BALUNS -- The No. 46672 ( I for each amateur band) wound PHASE- SHIFT NETWORK — A complete and laboratory aligned
Balun is an accurate 2 to 1 turns ratio, high Q auto transformer with pair of phase•shift networks in a single compact 2" o l'Ax" x 4"
the residual reactances tuned out and with very tight coupling between cose with characteristics so as to provide a phase shift between the
the two halves of the total winding. The points of series and parallel two networks of 90 ° + 1.3 ° over a frequency range of 225 cycles to
resonance are selected so that each Bolan provides an accurate 4 to I 2750 cycles. Well adapted for use in either single sideband transmitter
impedance ratio over the entire band of frequencies for which it was or receiver. Possible to obtain a 40 db suppression of the unwonted
designed. Suitable for use with the No. 90672 Antenna Bridge or sideband. The No. 75012 precision adjusted phose•shift network elimi•
medium power transmitters. notes necessity of complicated lob equipment for network adjustment.
No. 45672-80/40/20/15/10 No. 75012
 iAmixe
MALDEN • MASSACHUSETTS

The Na. 90923 oscilloscope is an extremely compact (

inches high) rock panel general purpose oscilloscope
31/
2
MILLEN NO. 90923 RACK
utilizing the type 3XP — 3 x 11 /
4 inch rectangular face
tube. The No. 90923 is complete with vertical and hori- MOUNTED OSCILLOSCOPE
zontal amplifiers for balanced deflection and a very linear
sweep generator.

Miniature input terminals ore on both the front panel and

the rear for vertical -amplifier input, horizontal amplifier
input and synchronizing input. The linear sweep generator
covers two cycles per second to 30 kcs. per second in seven
overlapping ranges. The trace is unusually sharp and
bright due to 2040 volts accelerating potential.

The NO. 90923 is ideally suited for many applications,

and in porticulor, for production test. Its small panel uses
up very little space in a test rack and the mu•metal snieid
around the cathode ray tube shields it against magnetic
fields so that 018 oscilloscope may be used accurately in
locations with strong stray magnetic fields. The cathode
ray tube is of the mono-occelerator type in which the
electron beam is accelerated at the electron gun so that
field distortions are minimized and excellent deflection
linearity is achieved os well as a very uniform spot size
over the entire oreo which the berms, scans.

MILLEN ONE INCH MODULE OSCILLOSCOPES — Minia- BEZELS FOR CATHODE RAY TUBES — Standard types are
turized, packaged panel mounting cathode ray oscilloscope designed of satin finish black plastic. 5" size has neoprene support cushion
for use in instrumentation in place of the conventional " pointer type" and green lucite filter. 3" and 2" sizes have integral cushioning.
moving coil meters uses the 1" tube. Panel bezel matches in size and Na. 80075 ( 5") 80073 ( 3") 80072 ( 2") 80071 ( 1")
type the standard 2" square meters. Magnitude, phase displacement,
WORM DRIVE UNIT — Cast aluminum frame may be panel
wove shape, etc. are constantly visible on scope.
of base mounted. Spring loaded split gross to minimize back lash.
No. 90901, ICP1, less tube No. 90911, IEP1, less tube Standard ratio 16/1. Also in 48/1 on request.
FLAT FACE OSCILLOSCOPE — 90905-11 5- inch Rack Mounting No. 10000 — ( state ratio)
Basic Oscilloscope features include: balanced deflection, front panel
RIGHT ANGLE DRIVE — Extremely compact, with provisions
input terminals, rear panel input terminals, astigmatism control, blank-
for many methods of mounting. Ideal for operating potentiometers,
ing input terminals, flat face precision tolerance Dumont SADP1 tube. switches, etc., that must be located, for short leads, in remote parts
BASIC OSCILLOSCOPES — The No. 90902, No. 90903 and of chassis. No. 10012
No. 90905 Rack Panel Oscilloscopes, for two, three and fire inch
tubes, respectively, are inexpensive basic units comprising power sup- AMATEUR BAND MONITOR OSCILLOSCOPE
ply, brilliancy and centering controls, safety features, magnetic shield-
ing, switches, etc. As o transmitter monitor, no additional equipment • A-1.4 or 558 e 3.5 to 54 Mc.
or accessories are required. By the addition of such units as sweeps, o Blanks out on Standby
pulse generators, amplifiers, servo sweeps, etc., all of which can be • Individual coil for each bond
constructed on companion rack panels, the, ' scope unit may be
expanded to serve any conceivable industrial or laboratory application. SCOPE — Na. 90932 is a complete
oscilloscope for monitoring the modu-
'SCOPE AMPLIFIER — SWEEP UNIT — Vertical and horizon- lated r- f output of a transmitter. Built•
tal amplifiers along with hordtube, saw tooth sweep generator, Com- in link- coupled tuned circuits cover all
plete with power supply mounted on a standard 51 4 " rack panel.
/ amateur bands 3.5 to 54 mc. All circuits
No. 90921, with tubes and accessories are built-in. The moni-
tor will display the r- fenvelope and/or
POWER SUPPLY FOR OSCILLOSCOPE -- 750 volts d.c. at 3 the trapezoidal monitoring pattern of
ma. and 6.3 volts cs.c. at 600 ma. 117 volts 50-60 cycle input single side band transmitters or ampli-
Designed especially for use with No. 90901 and Na. 90911 one inch tude modulated transmitters. It shows
instrumentation oscilloscopes. 45/e in. high x 171g o 21/e. Octal plug the linearity or non- linearity of Closs-B 1157
for input and output. Entire assembly including rectifier is encapsulated. r•f amplifiers, the parasitic oscillo•
Na. 90202, Power Supply ( complete) tion, neutralization, and r•f output. 2" round tube
 MALDEN • MASSACHUSETTS

TUBE SOCKETS DESIGNED FOR APPLICATION — MODERN

SOCKETS for MODERN TUBES! Long Flashover path to chassis per- MILLEN TUBE SOCKETS
mits use with transmitting tubes, 866 rectifiers, etc. Long leakage No. Description No. Description
path between contacts. Contacts ore type proven by hundreds of
millions already in government, commercial and broadcast service, 33002—Crystal Socket 3 4 " x . 125"
/ 33004-4 Pin Tube Socket
to be extremely dependable. Sockets may be mounted either with 33102— Crystal Socket . 487" o . 095" 33005-5 Pin Tube Socket
or without metal flange. Mounts in standard size chassis hole. All 33202—Crystal Socket I/2" o . 125" 33006-6 Pin Tube Socket
33302— Crystal Socket . 487" x . 050" 33008-8 Pin Tube Socket
types have barrier between contacts and chassis. All but ° dot and
crystal sockets also have barriers between individual contacts in 33407— Miniature Socket only, ceramic 33991— Socket for 991
addition. 33409—Novol Socket only, ceramic 33992— Socket for 991
33307— Miniature Socket, Shield, ceramic.. 33207-829 Socket
Voltage regulator dual contact bayonet socket, 33991 black phenolic 33309—Noval Socket, Shield, ceramic 33305—Acorn Socket
insulation and 33992 with low loss mica filled phenolic insulation. 33405-5 Pin Socket Einsoc

FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS — The No. 39000 series of Millen " De- STEATITE TERMINAL STRIPS — Terminal and lug are one
signed for Application" flexible coupling units include, in addition to Piece. Lugs ore turret type and are free floating so os not to strain L4
improved versions of the conventional types, also such exclusive orig- ceramic on wide temperature variations. Easy to mount with series
inal designs os the No. 39001 irisulated universal ¡ oint and the No. of round holes. 1400 volt and 3500 volt series.
39006 " slide-action" coupling ( in both steatite and bakelite insulation).
The Na. 39006 " slide.oction" coupling permits longitudinal shaft POSTS, PLATES, AND PLUGS — The No. 37200 series, in-
motion, eccentric shaft motion and out-of.line operation, os well os cluding both insulated and non•insulated binding posts with associated
angular drive without backlash. plates and plugs, provide various combinations to meet most require-
The Na, 39005 and 39005-8 ( high torque) ore similar to the No. 39001, ments. The posts have captive heads and keyed mounting.
but ore not insulated. The steatite insulated No. 39001 has a special The No. 37291 and No. 37223 ore standard in black or red with other
anti•backlash pivot and socket grip feature. All of the above illus- colors on special order. No. 37201, No. 37202, and No. 37204 and
trated units are for 1
/ " shaft and ore standard production type units.
4 No. 37222 are available in black, red, or low loss. The No. 37202 is
The No. 39016 incorporates features which have long been desired also available in steatite.
in a flexible coupling. No Backlash — Higher Flexibility — Higher No. Description No. Description
Breakdown Voltage — Smaller Diameter — Shorter Length — Higher 37201—Single plates, pr 37212— Dual plug
Alignment Accuracy — Higher Resistance to Mechanical Shock — Solid
3729I—Single plates ( tapered), pr.37222—Non-insuloted binding post
Insulating Barrier Diaphragm — Molded as a Single Unit. 37202— Dual plates, pr 37223— Insulated binding posts
CERAMIC PLATE OR GRID CAPS — Soldering lug and con- 37204— Double dual plates, pr
tact one•piece. Lug ears annealed and solder dipped to facilitate each
DIAL LOCK — Compact, easy to mount, positive in action, does
combination " mechanical plus soldered" connection of cable. not alter dial setting in operotionl Rotation of knob " A" depresses
No. 36001—%" No. 36002- 3
4 "
/ No. 36004—u” finger " 8" and " C" without imparting any rotary motion to Dial.
SAFETY TERMINAL — Combination high voltage terminal and Single hole mounted.
thru-bushing Tapered contact pin fits firmly into conical socket provid- No. 10050
ing large area, low resistance connection. Pin is swivel mounted in
TUBE CLAMP — No. 33087 is easy to use, easy to install, effec-
cap to prevent twisting of lead wire.
tive in function. Available in special sizes for all types of tubes. Single
No. 37001, Black or Red No. 37501, Low loss hole mounting. Spring steel, cadmium plated.

12
PANEL DIALS — The No. 10035 illuminated panel dial has 12 DIALS AND KNOBS — Just o few ol 1,e many stock types of
to 1 ratio, size, 81
4 " x 61
/ 4 ". Small No. 10039 has 8 to I ratio; size,
/ small dials and knobs are illustrated herewith. 10007 is 11/
8 " diam-

4" o 311 / ". Both are of compact mechanical design, easy to mount
4 eter, 10009 is 21
/ " and 10008 is 31
2 2 "•
/
and have totally self-contained mechanism, thus eliminating bock of NIGH VOLTAGE INSULATED SHAFT EXTENSION —
panel interference. Provision for mounting and morking auxiliory No. 10061 shaft locks and the Na. 39023 insulated high voltage
controls, such as switches, potentiometers, etc., provided on the No. potentiometer extension mountings are available as o single integrated
10035. Standard finish, either size, flat black art metal. unit — the No. 39024. The proper shaft length is independent of
SHAFT LOCKS -- In addition to the original No. 10080 and No. the panel thickness. The standard shaft has provision for screw driver
10061 " DESIGNED FOR APPLICATION' . shaft locks, we can also adjustment. Special shaft arrangements ore available for industrial
furnish such variations as the No. 10062 and No. 10063 for easy applications. Extension shaft and insulated coupling are molded as a
thumb operation as illustrated above. The No. 10061 instantly con- single unit to provide accuracy of alignment and ease of installation.
verts any plain " 1 / shaft •• volume control, condenser, etc. from
4
No. 39023, non locking type Na. 39024, locking type
"plain" to " shaft locked" type. Easy to mount.

12000 and 16000 SERIES TRANSMITTING CONDENSERS 04000 and 11000 SERIES TRANSMITTING CONDENSERS
— Rigid heavy channeled aluminum end plates. Isolantite insulation, Another member of the ' Designed for Application" series of trans-
polished or plain edges. One piece o'er contact spring and connec• mitting variable air capacitors is the 04000 series with peak voltage
tion lug. Compact, easy to mount with connector lugs in convenient ratings of 3000, 6000, and 9000 volts. Right angle drive, 1.1
locations. Same plate sizes as 11000 series above. ratio. Adjustable drive shaft ongle for either vertical or sloping
The 16000 series has some plate sizes as 04000 series. Also has panels. Sturdy construction, thick, round- edged, polished aluminum
constant impedance, heavy current, multiple finger rotor contactor plates with 11/ " radius. Constant impedance, heavy current, multiple
4

of new design. Both 12000 and 16000 series available in single tTnger rotor contactor of new design. Available in all normal
and double sections and many capacities and plate spacing. capacities.
The 11000 series has 16/1 ratio center drive and fixed angle drive
28000-29000 SERIES VARIABLE AIR CAPACITORS shaft.
"Designed for Application," double bearings, steatite end plates,
cadmium or silver plated brass plates. Single or double section
.022" or . 066" air gap. End plate size: 19/ r," o 1%6". Rotor plate
1 PERMEABILITY TUNED CERAMIC FORMS — In addition to
radius: 3 / ". Shaft lock, rear shaft extension, special mounting
4 the popular shielded plug-in permeability tuned forms, 74000 series,
brackets, etc., to meet your requirements. The 28000 series has the 69040 series of ceramic permeability tuned unshielded forms
semi- circular rotor plate shape. The 29000 series has approximately are ovoiloble as standard stock items. Winding diameters available
straight frequency line rotor plate shape. Prices quoted on request. / " ona winding space from lye ta 11
from Yi,,," to 1
2 / ".
4

Many stock sizes. No. 69041—( Copper Slug) No. 69052—( Iron Core)
No. 69042—( Iron Core) No, 69054—(1ron Core)
NEUTRALIZING, CAPACITOR — Designed originally for use Na. 69043—) Copper Slug/ No. 69055—( Copper Slug)
in our own Na, 90881 Power Amplifier, the No. 15011 disc neutral- No. 69044—( Iron Core) No. 69056—) Iron Core)
izing capacitor has such unique features as rigid channel frame, No. 69045—( Copper Slug) No. 69057—) Copper Slug)
horizontal or vertical mounting, fine threod over- size lead screw No. 69046—( Iron Core) Na. 69058—( Iron Core)
with stop to prevent shorting and rotor lock. Heavy rounded•edged No. 69047—) Capper Slug) No. 69061—( Copper Slug)
polished aluminum plates are 2" diameter, Glazed steatite insulation No. 69048— Won Core) No. 69062—( Iron Core)
Na, 15011 No. 69051—) Copper Slug/

13
 Quality insulating mate-
rial for the best arc track-
ing control.

Positive make and break

action.

Precision handle operat-

ing forces.

Finer contact materials

2FA53-73 SP.- ST. 2GK250-73
for dependable perform-
2FB53-73 S.P.-D.T. 2GL250-73 D.P.-D.T.
ance under varying 2FC53-73 S.P.-D.T. 2GM250-73 D.P.-D.T.
loads (Center Off) (Center Off)

111
Stronger return springs
with minimum pressure.

H A multitude of circuit
arrangements available.

Easy to wire terminal

arrangements and
styles. HK250-73 3P.-S.T. IK250-73 4P.-D.T.
HL250-73 3P.-D.T. IL250-73 4P.-D.T.
HM250-73 3P.-D.T. IM250-73 4P.-D.T.
(Center OM (Center Off)
Exacting lever to bush-
ing seals.
Call or see your local distributor. •

Carling SWITCHES
WEST HARTFORD 10 CONNECTICUT to
794
 J/AFAILK
MALDEN •
• XII1,X,llYi
MASSACHUSETTS

MINIATURIZED COMPONENTS
DESIGNED for APPLICATION miniaturized componente CODE DESCRIPTION
developed for use in our own equipment such as the 90901 Oscillo- E001 Steatite cts ramic standoff or tie- point. Integral mounting
scope, are now available for separate sale. Many of these parts eyelet. 0.205" overall diameter.
are similar, in most details except size, to their equivalents in our 1201 Black or red plastic binding post plates for No. E222.
standard component parts group. In certain devices where com- E202 Black or red plastic plates for two binding posts spaced 1 2 ".
/
plete miniuturization is not paramount, a combination of standard E212 Black or red plastic plug for two binding posts spaced 1 2 ".
/
and miniature components may possibly be used to advantage. E222 Metal binding post with jack top.
For convenience, we have also listed on this page the extremely E302A to 1306* Steatite ceramic terminal strips. Yu" wide. Ter-
small sized coil forms from our standard catalog. minals spaced Ye" on centers. Screw type or solder type
thru-terminals.
1300-3.3 to J300-2500 Complete line of miniature inductances
CODE DESCRIPTION 3.3 to 2500 microhenries. 3/i" long. Diameter 0.115" to
A001 Bar knob for 1 4 " shaft. 1
/ 2 " high by 1
/ 4 " long.
/ 0.297".
A006 Fluted black plastic knob with brass insert for 1 4 " shaft.
/ M001 Insulated universal joint style flexible coupling for 1 / " dia.
4
/ " high by 1
2
1 / " diameter.
4 shafts.
A007 / " black plastic dial knob with brass insert for 1
4
1 4 " shaft.
/ M003 Solid coupling for 1 / " dia. shafts. Nickel plated brass.
4
/ " diameter dial. t/tz" high.
4
1 M004 Universal ¡ oint style flexible coupling for i/s" diameter shafts.
A008 V.t" black plastic knob. Same as no. A007 except for style. Inverted hubs for short length. Not insulated.
A012 Right angle drive for 1 / " shafts. Single hole mounting.
4 M005 Universal joint style flexible coupling for 1/ " diameter shafts.
4
A014 1" bar dial for 1 / " shaft. 1
4 / " high. 180 ° or 280 ° dials for
2 External hub for maximum flexibility. Not insulated.
clockwise or counter- clockwise rotation. M006 Universal ¡ oint style flexible coupling for 1
/ " diameter shafts.
4
A015 1" fluted knob dial for 1 / " shaft. 1
4 / " high. Same dial plat«
2 Spring finger. Steatite ceramic insulation.
as no. A014. M008 Plastic insulated coupling with nickel plated brass inserts for
A017 11/ " diameter fluted black plastic knob for 1
4 / " shaft.
4 I. diameter shafts.
A018 Knob, some as no. A007 except with 1 / " diameter skirt.
4 M017 Plastic insulated flexible coupling for Vs" diameter shafts.
A019 Knob, some as no. A007, but without dial. '1/2" long by 5/14," diameter. Bronze yoke.
2
A021 Miniature metal index for miniature dials. M023 Insulated shaft extension for 1 /".32 bushing and Ye" shaft
4
A050 Miniature dial lock. For mounting sub- miniature potentiometer.
A061 Shaft lock for Vs" diameter shaft. lie- 32 bushing. Nickel M024 Locking insulated shaft extension similar to no. M023.
plated brass. 69043 Steatite ceramic coil form. Adjustable core. Winding space
A062 Shaft lock with knurled locking nut. / " diameter by 13/
4
1 3/" long. Mounting 4-40 hole.
A066 Shaft bearing for 1 / " diameter shafts. Nickel plated brass.
4 69044 Steatite ceramic coil form. Adjustable core. Winding space
Fits 174.4" diameter hole. 0.187" diameter by Yis" long. No. 10-32 mounting.

15
 FOR EVERY APPLICATION M it
71: (isee.
j IMMEDIATELY AVAILABLE— FROM STOCK
.„ Over 1,000 items to cover virtually every electronic application . 400 Hermetic items,
- proved to MILT 27A, eliminate costly test delays. . . Hi ghest reliability in the field.
Immediately available from your local distributor. Write for catalog.

HIGH Q INDUCTORS
ess

PE MALLOY DUST
LOW PASS HIGH PASS BAND TELEMETER ING TELEGRAPH VAR IABLE VARIABLE DECADE LOW FREQU. TOROIDS HIGHEST Q,
PASS 60 to 12000 CYCLES. 400 to 70000 CYCLES. 425 to 2975 CYCLES. STANDARD HERMETIC INDUCTOR TO 2500 HYS. ACCURACY, STABILITY.

HERIVIETIC
TRANSISTOR COMPACT POWER
AUDIO WIDE RANGE COMPONENTS HIGHEST
Military, Industrial FIDELITY

OLINGER

PLATE TO 6 KV CT H,PERMALLOY

PLUG IN
SMALLEST SIZE

REACTORS TO 1250
LINEAR STANDARD

MINIATURE HERMETIC MINIAtURE, LURE.

WOUND
.05 TO 25 USNC. BROADCAST AND
HIGHEST POWER
HI.FI FAVORITES
ULTRA COMPACT
AMATEUR
TRANSISTOR LIN SERIES
POWER ADAPTORS
FILAMENT 400 CYCLE
MAGNETIC
AMPLIFIERS
HERMETIC
Ce£
AUDIOS
I r+

INVER
2A FROM BATTERY

VOLTAGE ADJUSTORS ... COMPLETE LINE OF

TRANSISTOR SUPPLY STEPDOWN ... ISOLATION AUDIO & POWER FOR FOR SERVO MOTORS
TO 509 7.5A UNITS TO 2500 W. HAM, MARINE, ETC. 2 TO 18 WATTS.

COMMERCIAL GRAD REPLACEMENT TYPES

FOR TUBE, TRANSISTOR,

COMPLETE LINE OF AUDIO POWER CHOPPER, AND MATCHING
UNITS FOR COMMERCIAL EQUIPMENT. SERVICE. . 8 to 12 OZ. AUDIRO
iA liO
0NRE
sR, Tr
3IL21,,up
eTA. AND

UNITED TRANSFORMER CORPORATION

And Special Units to 150 Varick Street, New York 13, N. Y.

Your Specifications PACIFIC MFG. DIVISION, 3630 EASTHAM DRIVE, CULVER CITY, CALIF.
EXPORT DIVISION, 13 EAST 40th STREET, NEW YORK 16, N. Y CABLES " ARLAB"
 COL LI NS

The finest amateur equipment built ...

with only the flip of aswitch!

Collins new 62S-1 gives you full 6 & 2meter operation

There's no cable change to make, either. The The 62S-1 is system engineered for the S/Line/
new Collins 62S-1 VHF Converter is a self- KWM-2 and requires no additional power
contained (using exciter's high voltage) unit supply when used with this equipment. It offers
and supplies a3to 5db noise figure on receive you excellent cross mod rejection from simple
—.160 watts PEP input on transmit. narrow banding of front end for 200 kc tuning
range, and gives easy, accurate readout and 1kc
You can use this new Collins converter to cover
calibration on VHF. Here's something else. The
49.6 to 54.2 mc and 143.6 to 148.8 mc ( crystals
Collins 62S- Iwill convert most equipment oper-
for amateur bands provided). Crystal switching
ating in the 14.0 to 14.2 mc range.
from the front panel tuning knob provides a
choice of any one of twenty-three 200 kc bands The 62S-1 weighs 25 lbs. and measures 61
2 "H,
/
in the 6and 2meter range. 13" W, and 14 3
4" D.

17
 COLLINS

The finest amateur equipment built ...

Collins famous S/Line is engineered on the systems

concept. Each piece of equipment in the line aug-
ments the other. When you interconnect a Collins
S/Line receiver and transmitter, you can operate
them as a transceiver. A frequency control switch
provides for separation of transmit and receive
operation. Systems engineering like this is the reason
why more and more advanced radio operators look
to Collins for the finest in SSB/CW performance.
The modern look of Collins S/Line equipment is
something else you'll like. It's finished in gray tones.
It has smooth, clean lines and the front panels are of
dark gray simulated leather. A handsome rig in your
ham shack, den or family room. Ask your distributor
about trade-in value of Collins S/Line equipment — 30S-1
you'll realize how little it costs to operate the finest.

THE COLLINS S/LINE System engineered to

32S-3 Transmitter dyning crystals. Crystals furnished cover HF
The 32S-3 is an SSB or CW transmitter with amateur bands except the 10 meter band, where
nominal output of 100 watts from 3.4 to 29.7 one crystal is supplied plus provision for two
mc ( except 5.0 to 6.5 mc). Choice of thirteen more.
200 kc bands covers all amateur bands except Features incorporated in the 75S-3 include dual
10 meters, where one 200 kc band crystal is conversion with acrystal-controlled first hetero-
supplied with provision for two additional dyning oscillator; bandpass first IF; stable,
crystals. permeability-tuned VFO; RF amplifier designed
The 32S-3 features Mechanical Filter sideband to minimize cross modulation products; 2.1-kc
generation, permeability-tuned VFO, crystal- Mechanical Filter and 200-cycle crystal filter;
controlled HF oscillator, RF inverse feedback excellent AVC characteristics; both product and
and automatic load control. New are grid block diode detector; rejection notch filter; manual
keying, spotting control, keying hardness con- and crystal BFO, and AGC time constant con-
trol, sidetone level adjust. trol. The advanced design of the 75S-3 includes
The 32S-3 can operate transceive by using oscil- the use of only 150 volts on vacuum tube plates,
lator injection voltages supplied by the 75S-1 use of silicon diodes in lieu of conventional
or 75S-3 receiver. high vacuum rectifier; and the choice of three
degrees of selectivity ( also optional Mechanical
312B-4 Speaker Console Filters for AM). Provision for obtaining power
The 312B-4 provides a unitized control for from adc power supply is also made.
the S/Line or the KWM-2. It houses aspeaker,
RF directional wattmeter with 200- and 2000- With the new Collins 75S-3, you can be assured
watt scales, and switches for station control of the finest amateur receiver available for recep-
functions. tion of the CW, SSB, or RTTY modes.
75S-3 Receiver
The 75S-3 provides SSB, CW and AM recep- 30S-1 and New 30L-1 Linear Amplifiers
tion between 3.4 and 29.7 mc ( except 5.0— 6.5 The 30S-1 is acompletely self-contained, single
mc) by selection of the appropriate HF hetero- tube, grounded grid linear amplifier. Requiring

18
give you the cleanest signal on amateur bands
70 to 100 watts driving power ( from the 32S-3 (except 5.0 to 6.5 mc). Crystals are provided
or KWM-2), it provides the full legal power for all HF bands except 10 meters where one
input for SSB, CW or RTTY. The tube used crystal is supplied with provision for two addi-
is the Eimac 4CX1000A. The 30S-1 may be tional crystals.
used on any frequency between 3.4 and 29.7 mc.
A special comparator tuning circuit allows tune- The KWM-2 operates on 80 through 10 meters
up at low power to avoid exceeding the legal dc with 175 watts PEP input on SSB or 160 watts
input of 1kw. Push button selection of linear on CW.
amplifier or exciter output from the front panel.
Antenna relay included. Conservatively rated. Top features of the KWM-2 are filter-type SSB
generation, Collins permeability-tuned oscil-
The new compact 30L-1 Linear ( the same
lator, crystal-controlled HF double conversion
size as the famous KWM-2) provides for 1000
oscillator, VOX and anti-trip circuits, automatic
watts PEP input on SSB ( 500 watts average dc)
load control and RF inverse feedback.
and 1000 watts average on CW, and has aself-
contained power supply. It is designed to be
driven by Collins KWM-1, KWM-2 or 32S-3, Extended Frequency Versions of the S/Line
as well as from most other 70-100 watt The 75S-3 is available in an extended frequency
CW/SSB exciters. The new unit also features version, designated the 75S-3A. The receiver
RF inverse feedback; automatic load control; differs from the original in that an additional
silicon rectifiers and ahigh/low power switch. crystal board has been added beneath the chassis.
Instant warm-up time. Automatic antenna In this board is placed the standard complement
switching from exciter to amplifier included. of ham band crystals normally received with the
equipment. The upper board is available for the
KWM-2 SSB Transceiver placement of whatever additional crystals may
This versatile single sideband transceiver serves be desired up to a total of 14. A front panel
both fixed station and mobile needs on any four- switch is added to allow switching between the
teen 200 kc bands between 3.4 and 29.7 mc two crystal boards.

19
 516F-2 AC Power Supply — Operates from 115
ac, 50-60 cps. Provides all voltage for the 32S-3
COLLINS and KWM-2. Cabinet has provision for mounting a
speaker styled to match the KWM-2.
MP- 1 Mobile Power Supply — A transistorized
inverter powered from a 12-v automobile, aircraft,
or boat storage battery to the voltages required for
The finest amateur equipment built .. operation of the KWM-1, KWM-2 or KWM-2A.
Wiring cable is normally supplied with 351D-2.
440E-1 Cable— For use with MP- 1 when the
35ID-2 mount is not used. 22' long with plug to
match KWM-2 on one end; provision for solder
lugs on opposite end.
COLLI\S S/LI\E A\D PM- 2 Portable Power Supply— The new PM- 2 is
compact, lightweight, and provides all voltages needed
<VVv-2 ACbESSOIES
,
for the KWM-2. Connects easily and quickly to rear
of KWM-2. Operates from either 115 y ac or 220
ac at 50-400 cps to provide a completely portable
SSB and CW station. Contains a small speaker. The
PM- 2 and KWM-2 may be carried in the CC- 2
carrying case, with a combined weight of less than
45 pounds.
MM- 1 Mobile Microphone — A dynamic micro-
CC- 2 phone designed to fit comfortably in your hand. A
5' length of coiled cord and attached PJ-068 is sup-
plied with the 22- ounce microphone. For use with
the KWM-2 or the S/Line. Push- to-talk switch.
Hanger bracket furnished. Brushed aluminum finish.
MM- 2 Boom Microphone— A high- impedance
reluctance microphone/single earphone combination
for fixed or mobile operation. PTT not required;
operates with VOX control. Sponge-padded headband
302C-3 Directional Wattmeter — Measures forward clasps head firmly but lightly. Microphone boom and
and reflected power on 200- and 2000-watt scales ear pipe adjustable for proper fit. Cord and attached
with accuracy and without calibrating adjustments. plugs furnished.
Coupler unit mounts separately from indicator-control CC-2 Carrying Case — Specially designed Samsonite
box. Power loss and mismatch introduced by the Silhouette case for the KWM-2/PM-2 or 30L-1.
instrument are negligible. Fixed or mobile applica- Attractive molded Royalite interior protects equip-
tions. ment against rough handling. Two spare pockets.
351E Table Mounts — For mounting the S/Line and
SM-I Desk-Top Microphone — A high- impedance,
KWM-2 and accessories on planes, boats, etc. May be dynamic mike with styling and output level to match
fastened to any flat surface. Front clamps attach to the S/Line and KWM-2. Satin aluminum finish. Five-foot
feet of the units to hold them securely. coiled cord and attached PJ-068 plug furnished.
351D-2 Mobile Mount — Provides secure mounting SM-2 Desk-Top Microphone — A high-impedance,
for KWM-2 in most automobiles. Cantilever arms dynamic mike with styling and output level to match
fold out of the way when the unit is removed. Mating S/Line and KWM-2. Gray and chrome finish.
plugs connect power, receive- transmit antenna, noise
blanker antenna, speaker and antenna control as 351R-1 Rack Adapter — Matching gray rack panel
KWM-2 slides into place. Power Supply Cable with hardware for mounting 75S, 32S, KWM-2 or
included. 30L-1. Supporting shelf holds unit securely.
DL- 1Dummy Load — A 100-watt resistive load for 351R-2 Rack Adapter — Matching gray rack panels
all HF frequencies. Connects permanently in antenna with hardware for rack mounting S/Line and KWM-2
accessories, 516F-2, 399C-1, 312B-4 and 312B-5. Sup-
coax line. Front panel or remote switch allows selec-
porting shelf holds unit securely.
tion of "antenna" or " load." Provides easy comparison
of antenna.SWR and non-band interference tune-up. 399B-4 Novice Adapter— Plugs into 32S to pro-
Will absorb 30L-1, 30S-1 outputs for short periods. vide four crystal-controlled channels for novice oper-
Choice of Type N or RCA antenna connectors. ation of 32S. Crystals not furnished.
312B-5 Speaker Console and External PTO — 399B-5 Novice Adapter— Plugs into KWM-2 to
Used with the KWM-2 in fixed station operation to provide four crystal-controlled channels on transmit.
provide separation of receive and transmit frequencies, Receiver remains PTO tuned. Crystals not furnished.
speaker, directional wattmeter, plus switching for
functional control of system. Styled to match KWM-2.
136B-2 Noise Blanker — An accessory for the
KWM-2 for mobile operation. This noise blanker
provides effective reduction of impulse- type noise —
particularly ignition noise. Requires separate antenna
resonant at 40 mc. Properly installed, this 136B-2
can be the difference between operating and not oper-
ating when around other cars.
For further information on the Collins S/Line and
312B-3 Speaker— Contains a 5" x 7" speaker and accessories, see your nearest authorized Collins
connecting cable. Styled to match receiver, transmitter. distributor.

20
 „madiallffl111111K
TWO BIG SECTIONS
at the

NEW YORK
COLISEUM
all 4 floors!

• ELECTRONICS EXHIBITS

• CONVENTION PAPERS

See the finest products of industry,

hear famous men speak! Just one entrance

march 23-26
fee lets you visit both sections.

9:45 A.M.-9 P.M. Buses to the N. Y. Hilton every few minutes

PRODUCTS • PAPERS • PEOPLE • PRODUCTS • PAPERS • PEOPLE

Isee,
ONE GREAT SHOW!
at the

NEW YORK
HILTON
2floors, including Hilton's
main exhibition area
• ELECTRICAL EXHIBITS
• CONVENTION PAPERS

IEEE Members: $ 1.00

Non-members: $ 3.00

march 23-26
Minimum age: 18

9:45 A.M.-9 P.M.

Buses to the NI. Y. Coliseum every few minutes

• PRODUCTS • PAPERS • PEOPLE • PRODUCTS • PAPERS • PEOPLE

21
 RANGER II
Some may call it " ancient modulation", some
simply call it AM phone— but whatever you call it.
AM still rapreSents a major portion of today's
amateur activity— and the " Ranger II" is one of
today's most popular AM rigs! For AM or CW
operation, for 160 through 6 meters— the
"Ranger II" offers the " biggest- little" 75 watts
you'll find on the air! Rated at 75 watts CW and
65 watts high-level AM, the " Ranger II" delivers
communications quality audio with the necessary
punch to break through today's QRM! An excel-
lent " first" transmitter for the Novice or the new
General, the " Ranger II" will drive any of the
popular kilowatt level tubes and will provide a
high quality speech driver system for high pow-
ered modulators without modification! What else?
The " Ranger II" offers attractive styling in a
compact cabinet and is available at a reasonable
price.

Cat. No. 240-162-1 "Ranger II" Kit Net $249.50

Cat. No. 240-162-2 "Ranger II" Wired .... Net $359.50

Vmmieu_LvLq® -1st Choice

ADVENTURER— Self-contained ... 50 watts CW input ... rugged 807 trans.
mitting tube . . . instant bandswitching 80 through 10 meters. Crystal or
external VFO control— wide range pi- network output— timed sequence keying.
With tubes, less crystals.
Cat. No. 240-181-1 Kit Net $ 69.95

CHALLENGER- 70 watts phone input 80 through 6; 120 watts CW input 80

through 10 ... 85 watts CW on 6 meters. Two 6DQ6A final amplifier tubes.
Crystal or external VFO control—TVI suppressed— wide range pi•network
output. With tubes, less crystals.
Cat. No. 240-182-1 Kit Net $ 124.75
Cat. No. 240-182-2 Wired, tested Net $169.76

6N2— Rated 150 watts CW and 100 watts phone— instant bandswitching cov-
erage 6 and 2 meters. Fully TVI suppressed— use with " Viking I II", " Ranger
I, II", "Valiant" or similar power supply/modulators. Operates by crystal
control or external VFO with BS mc. Output, With tubes, less crystals.
Cat. No. 240 201 1 Kit ,,,,,, „ Net $ 141).50
Cat. No. 240-201 2 Wired, tested Net $ 194.50

10 METER " MESSENGER"— A compact, superbly- engineered transceiver.

Ideal for fixed location or mobile operation. Completely crystal controlled, the
10- Meter " Messenger" contains 10 tubes ( including rectifier). Instant selec-
tion of five frequencies in the range of 29.4 to 29.7 mcs., within a 300 kc.
segment of the 10.meter band. Superheterodyne receiver has excellent
sensitivity and selectivity. ANL, AVC—positive action " squelch" . . . wide
range pi.L network output ... push.to-talk ceramic microphone! Transmitter
section uses a 7054 crystal oscillator coupled to a high gain 7061 final ampli.
fier — delivers a clean, crisp, well modulated signal! Unit is light weight, easy
to install. With power cords, tubes, microphone and 29,640 kc. crystals for
National Calling and Emergency Frequency,
Cat. No, 242-201 115V AC only Net $ 129.75
Cat. No, 242-202 115V AC/6V DC Net $ 139.75
Cat. No, 242-203 115V AC/12V DC.. Net $ 139.75

10 METER " PERSONAL MESSENGER"— Two models: 100 milliwatts for short
range; 11
/ watts for extended range- 11 transistors and 4 diodes—super.het.
2
erodyne receiver with tuned RF amplifier gives excellent sensitivity, two stage
transmitter punches signal home. " Quiet" control silences receiver on stand.
by. With battery compartment for penlight cells ( less cells). Rechargeable
cadmium battery and other accessories available.
Cat. No, 242-103 10 Meter " Personal M ", 100 milliwatt, with
29.640 crystal, 8 penlight cell battery case Net $ 109.50
Cat. No. 242-104 10 Meter " Personal Messenger", 11
/
2 watts, with 29.640
crystal, 8 penlight cell battery case . Net $ 129.50
Cat. No, 251-806 Leather carrying case and strap . Net $8.50
Cat. No. 250-804 Rechargeable nickel cadmium battery. Plugs into 115 V
AC outlet to recharge Net $ 19.95

FIVE HUNDRED— Full 600 watts CW-S00 watts phone and SSB (P.E.P, with
euxiliery S5-8 exciter). Compect RF unit designed for desk- top eporetion. All
exciter stages ganged to VEO tuning— may also be operated by crystal control.
Instant bandswitching 80 through 10 meters—TVI suppressed— high gain
push.to.talk audio system. Wide range ptnetwork output. With tubes, less
crystals.
Cat. No. 240-500-2 Wired, tested Net $ 1050.00

Cataeog
The E. F. Johnson Co. also manufactures other transmitters
and accessories ... all described in our newest amateur catalog.
Write for your copy today!
 VALIANT II
"VALIANT II"— Outstanding flexibility and per-
formance— bandswItching 160 through 10 meters
—delivers 275 watts input CW or SSB (with auxil-
iary SSB exciter or Viking SSB adapter) and 200
watts AM! Low level audio clipping— differentially
temperature compensated VFO provides stability
necessary for SSB operation! High efficiency pl.
network tank circuit— final tank coil silver-plated.
Other features: TVI suppression; time sequence
(grid block) keying; high gain push-to-talk audio
built-in low pass audio filter; self-contained power
supply; and single control mode switching. As an
exciter drives any popular kilowatt level tubes and
provides quality speech driver system for high
power modulators. Provision for plug-in SSB op-
eration with no internal modification. With tubes,
less crystals.
Cat. No. 240- 105- 1— Kit Net $ 375.00
Cat. No. 240- 105-2— Wired, tested. . Net $495.00

Among Nation's Amateurs!

"55B ADAPTER"— The new filter-type SSB gen-
erator— with bandswitching 80 through 10 meters
. . more than 50 db sideband suppression . . .
more than 45 db carrier suppression! When used
with the Viking " Valiant" or " Valiant II" it places
275 watts P.E.P. at your command. Two compact
units and interconnecting cables . . . RF unit is
only 8" wide— may be placed on your operating
desk. Power supply unit may be placed in any
convenient location.
Cat. No. 240- 305- 2— Wired, tested Net $ 369.50

'9 • '
11›
--

"6N2 THUNDERBOLT"- 1200 watts (twice average DC) input SSB and DS13,
Class AB I; 1000 watts CW, Class C; and 700 watts input AM linear. Continuous
bandswitched coverage on 6 and 2 meters. TVI suppressed. Drive require-
ments: approx. 5 watts Class AB1 linear, 6 watts Class C CW. With tubes and
built-in power supply.
Cat. No. 240-362-2 Wired Net $549.50

"THUNDERBOLT'— The hottest linear amplifier on the market- 2000 watts

P.E.P. (twice average DC) input SSB; 1000 watts CW; 800 watts AM linear.
Continuous coverage 3.5 to 30 mcs—instant bandswitching. Drive require-
ments: approx. 10 watts Class AB2 linear, 20 watts Class C cent' wave
With tubes and built-in Owe' supply.
Cat No. 240-353-2 Wired, tested Net $659.00

INVADER— More exclusive features than any other Transmitter/Exciter on

the market today! Specially developed high frequency, symmetrical, multi-
section band-pass crystal filter for more than 60 db sideband suppression—
more than 55 db carrier suppression! Instant bandswitching 80 through 10
meters— no extra crystals to buy— no realigning necessary. Delivers a solid
200 watts CW input: 200 watts P.E.P. SSB input; 90 watts input on AMI ( 25-30
watts output— upper sideband and carrier). Built-in VFO—exclusive RF con-
trolled audio AGC and ALC ( limiter type) provide greater average speech VOX
and anti- trip circuits. Fully TVI suppressed. Self-contained heavy-duty power
supply. With tubes and crystals.
Cat. No. 240-302-2 Wired, tested Net $619.50

INVADER 2000— Here are all of the fine features of the " Invader", plus the
added power and flexibility of an integral linear amplifier and remote con•
trolled power supply. Rated at a solid 2000 watts P.E.P. (twice average DC)
SSB, 1000 watts CW, and 800 watts AM! ( 250 to 300 watts output— upper
sideband and carrier). Wide range output circuit (40 to 600 ohms adjustable).
Final amplifier provides exceptionally uniform " Q". Exclusive " push-pull"
cooling system. Heavy-duty multi- section power supply. With power supply,
tubes and crystals.
Cat. No. 240-304-2 Wired, tested Net $ 1229.00

HIGH POWER CONVERSION— Take the features and performance of your

- Invader" ... add the power and flexibility of this unique Viking " Hi- Power
Conversion" system ... and you're " on the air" with the " Invader 2000"
Wired, tested, includes everything you need— no soldering necessary— com-
plete conversion in one evening.
Cat. No. 240-303-2 .... Net $619.50

E. F. JOHNSON COMPANY
WASECA, MINNESOTA, U.S.A.
/D
 International Crystals...
the first choice of the Radio Amateur

Keeping you on frequency is our business!

International Crystal Manufacturing Company, Inc., invites

you to write today for a complete 1964 catalog of pre-
cision made crystals and quality electronic equipment.

INTERNATIONAL
CRYSTAL MANUFACTURING CO., INC.

18 NORTH LEE • OKLAHOMA CITY, OKLA.

24
The amateur who selects International crystals for his
communication gear probably knows these important facts:

Every amateur crystal is manufactured by the same

skilled craftsmen who make International commercial
crysta Is.

International crystals are the product of a continuing

research and development program.

International crystals are designed and manufactured

to operate under all types of field conditions . . .
fixed or mobile.

International crystals are used in all major makes of

commercial two-way radio equipment.

International customers include broadcast stations,

airlines, military services, Civil Air Patrol, ta s.

e International crystals and electronic components are

used in the United States missile and space research
program.

e All International crystals are guaranteed against de-

fective materials and workmanship for an unlimited
time when used in equipment for which they were
specifically made.

Whether you are an amateur building your first transmitter

or an engineer with special crystal requirements, you can
look to International for precision frequency control.
MODEL 6100 TRANSMITTER

A New Standard of Frequency Stability!

A MATCHED PAIR

Model 6100 Transmitter Model [ PA- 1Grounded Grid Linear Amplifier

THE B éti W KILOWATT

BARKER & WILLIAMSON, Inc.

26
 STANDARD COIL MATERIAL — Stock
MODEL 6100 A
10" lengths easily cut to size.
TRANSMITTER
R-FFILTERS FROM 5WATTS TO 1KW
Self-contained SSB, CW and AM — Spurious frequencies radiated by
transmitter, designed to cover all HF radio transmitters can be ef-
high frequency amateur bands 80 fectively suppressed with B&W filters.
through 10 meters and in addition,
a number of MARS frequencies. COAXIAL TYPE SWITCHES — B&W's
Clickless CW operation. An ideal Coaxial Switches provide simple so-
100 watt transmitter and equally C lutions to complex switching prob-
suitable as a driver for a high- lems. Single and multiple- ganged
powered grounded grid final. units are available.

Uses the New B&W crystal con-

MODEL 600 GRID DIP METER — A
trolled frequency synthesizer, pro- highly sensitive, accurately calibrated
ducing an order of stability which
instrument which can be used as an
up to this time has been available D
RF Signal Monitor, Auxiliary Signal
only in costly communications sys-
Generator, and Absorption Wave-
tems. meter.
The crystal lattice filter method
of sideband generation is employed. RF FILAMENT CHOKES ( For Grounded
Grid Amplifiers) — Broadband char-
Solid state rectifiers are used in E
acteristics from 80 through 10
all power supplies.
meters inclusive, requiring no tuning.
ALC with adjustable threshold,
is applied to two stages of the RF PLATE CHOKE MODEL 800 — This
transmitter. Overdrive of the out- unit is ideal for parallel or series
put stage or power amplifier is pre- fed high power final amplifier cir-
vented. cuits.

MODEL LPA-1
AUDIO PHASE SHIFT NETWORK MODEL
GROUNDED GRID 1KW
350/204 — This component is for
LINEAR AMPLIFIER
use in SSB suppressed carrier radio-
The B&W LPA-1 Grounded Grid telephone applications. No larger
Linear Amplifier is the ideal com- than a615 tube.
panion high powered final for
Model 6100. The LPA-1 produces TR SWITCH MODEL 3818 For 52-75
a signal of extremely low distor- OHM COAX LINE — An electronic an-
tion because of a unique feed-back tenna changeover switch. Transmit-
arrangement. ter is continuously connected to
antenna, antenna circuit to receiver

MODEL LPS-1 is blocked during transmit.

POWER SUPPLY UNIT
COAXIAL CABLE CONNECTORS —
This heavy duty separately en- These connectors provide a weather-
cased high-voltage power supply ' proof, mechanically strong connection
for the Model LPA-1 amplifier uses between a coaxial feed line and the
4 Type-816 rectifier tubes in a full center of adipole antenna.
wave, single phase bridge circuit.
. . . And more than 100 other
products for Industry, Amateur
and Military Communications.

BARKER & WILLIAMSON, Inc.

cRadio Communication 2quipiuii ixc 1932
BRISTOL, PENNSYLVANIA • STillwell 8-5581

WRITE FOR FREE AMATEUR RADIO CATALOG

27
 Westinghouse applies its heavy duty industrial experience to your ham transmitter.

SOMETHING NEW! SILICON RECTIFIER ASSEMBLY CAN

Its name is Oz- Pak. The first solid state rectifier
unit designed by amajor manufacturer with the
amateur radio operator in mind. Oz- Pak is a
highly engineered unit for operation under all
known environmental conditions ( heat, cold,
humidity, etc.). •

In addition to replacing
tubes, Oz- Pak eliminates
two to four sockets, one
to three filament trans-
formers plus connectors,
insulators and high volt-
age wiring problems. All
rectifier maintenance dis-
appears as well as " stand-
by" rectifier hash present
with gaseous tubes.
*•...
•....

.••••
Oz- Pak is lightweight and compact. Only ..****
3pounds. Measures 2" x4" x91 2 ". If ***
/
you want an additional choke and/or
filter capacitors, there's plenty of room.

To get your 02- Pak, order from your favorite distributor or any Henry Radio Co., 211 N. Main Street, Butler, Missouri
distributor listed ( right). Send check or money order. But act now. Walter Ashe Radio Co., 1125 Pine Street, St. Louis 1, Missouri
You can be sure...if it's Westinghouse. SC -1104 Harrison Electronics Corp., 227 Greenwich St., New York 13, N.Y.
Elmer Electronics Corp., 140 Eleventh St., Oakland, California
Ack Radio Supply Co., 3101 Fourth Ave., S., Birmingham 5, Ala.
28
REPLACE ALL OF YOUR RECTIFIER TUBES IN 15 MINUTES!
Think of it! No tubes to burn out. Forget
Use Oz- Pak two ways. To build your own equipment. all those familiar rectifier tube prob-
Or to replace the tubes in your present transmitter. lems. Goodby to aging- in . . . to pre-
15 minutes... and its installed. Mounts on any sur- heating ... to hot weather arc backs...
face. No special brackets or insulators needed. to cold weather starts. Hello to arecti-
fier life so long we can't even predict it.

l ee

Rated output is 1KW. Here are the DC load Westinghouse experience with industrial
conditions. (Operation in ambients to 100 and commercial rectifier assemblies helped

e
degrees Fusing natural convection cooling.) us produce Oz- Pak as economically as pos-
1500 V @ 666 ma 2500 V@ 400 ma sible. The heavy-duty assemblies have gone . \ %
2000 V @ 500 ma 3000 V @ 333 ma 40,000,000 stack hours without failure! .... ui actut e
,e$

3300 V @ 300 ma ........

seta Ol e
Another bonus. You can tune up to 2KW
pep for sideband operation ( even when
using up to 120 mfd of output filter capacity).

Mytronic Co., 2145 Florence Avenue, Cincinnati 6, Ohio We never forget how much you rely on
Newark Electronics Corp., 223 W. Madison St., Chicago 6, Illinois

Westinghouse
Allied Radio, 100 North Western Avenue, Chicago 80, Illinois
Cramer Electronics, Inc., 320 Needham Street, Newton, Mass.
World Radio Labs, 3415 W. Broadway, Council Bluffs, Iowa
 INSTRUMENTS

8135 6150 67

TERMALINE® TERMALINE°
RF Coaxial Load Resistors RF Absorption Wattmeters
BIRD TERMALINE RF Coaxial Load Resistors are absorption type termi- BIRD TERMALINE RF Absorption Wattmeters are direct reading instru-

nations for 50-ohm coaxial transmission lines. BIRD loads provide low ments for absorbing and measuring RF power in 50- ohm coaxial line

SWR and make it possible to operate a transmitter for test purposes systems through the frequency of 2 to 500 mc. The load section of

without radiating. BIRD"QC"-Type (Quick- Change) connectors are available the TERMALINE Wattmeter serves as a dummy load. The indicating

on many models. meter is calibrated to read RF power directly in watts with ±

- 5%

of full scale accuracy. TERMALINE Wattmeters are available from

milliwatts to kilowatts.
QUICK SELECTION CHART

QUICK SELECTION CHART

cot
e:A
.,
Max. Freq. Mao.
Model I
Power Range SWR
Model I Mapvii,,,, Calibrated Power Scales
Frequency Available Connector
AIR COOLED Range

80 Male & Female 50.0FIM AIR-COOLED MODELS

5w 0.4kme 1.2
Series N. C. BNC. INC
80A 20w 0.2kme 1.2 Female " N"
25. 50, 100. 250.
"Qt.i."
,type ( Female " N"
6254 2w 30-500mc 500. 1000 milliwatts. Female " BNC'•
8130 50w 0-41tmc 1.2
melly Supplled) 2 watts
810 80w 0-4kmc 1.2 Female " N"
"QC" type ( Femele " N" 611 60w 30-500me Female " N"
8135 150w 1.2 e51/
g reare
0-4kimc Normally Supplied)

8201 500w 0.2.5krnc 1.25 "K..ormally

tYPe (Female " N"
Supplied)
612 130w 30.500rtic 201/
.. re. e w
e'
Female " N"

Choice of two
0-2.5krne 1,25 "QC
N ;;:m
yp.e
u; s
eumpa
ple
i t)C"
3 10 0
000: 61 eo. 30-50Ornc ''''P e 'bi ' "''.' Fernale - iv
88313 I
i52.Q•25w,
(

88 10 0.214mc 1.25 11
4 "LIA Flanged
/
887 • •
888
1200w
1200w
0.1 kmc
0-2kmc
1.1
1.25
31
31
/ " Unflanged
4

4 " CIA Flanged

/
6150 150w 30-500mc hit ere Female " N"

8890 2500w
5000 w . 0.2ke
rn 1.25 -Qc.• tyPe (rna "LC" 67 500w 30-500mc
0.2;e1e0r0S-;00w
Female "N"
Normally Supplied)
Type
889 1 2500w 0-11trisc 1.1 31
4 " CIA Flanged
/ (Female - N"
5000 ,
694 1000w 2-30mc 0.1000w normally
8892 2500w supplied)
5000 w v 0.1 kmc 1.1 11
4 " CIA Flanged
/
•'OC" Type
(Female •' LC"
6835 1200w 30.50Orne 0.
12 1.
,,,eo r
e,nos.roo„,
WATER COOLED
supplied)

"QC" type ( Female " LC"

8230 2500w 0.2.5kmc 1.25 Normally Supplied) 50-OHM WATER-COOLED MODELS
0.2 5 ,
0 ,. 1.2 , "QC" type ( Female"LC"
8246 5000w Normally Supplied)
67C I 2500w I 30.500,11c' I0.100.;;0 r
e0%00w Female " N"
8781" 7.5kw 0-500mc 1.3 34" Unfleriged
8783 7.5kw 0.500mc 1.3 31
4 " CIA Flanged
/ "QC" Type -
8245 5000w 2.40rnc 0'5000w
Female " LC"
502" 25kw 0-500mc 1.3 34 Unflanged
5025 25kw 0.500mc 1.3 34" CIA Flanged •Data loo accurate reading to 1000mc available on request.
890" 50ker 0.500mc 1.3 6/4 " Unflanged
1

8903 50kw 0-500mc 1.3 61

4 " CIA Flanged
/

•ContlnuouS power rating with BA88 Blowe AcceSSOI.

•• 51.5 ohms.

30
FOR MEASURING jiJLí
[ POWER
4100 Series THRULINE Wattmeter
The 4100 Series BIRD THRULINE Wattmeter is designed for permanent
installation in transmitters and test equipment. Each wattmeter is
built to meet specific customer power and frequency ranges.
Meters with regular and special scales can be supplied with the 4100
Series THRULINE. Forward and reflected power is selected by switching
the meter to the desired section.

Coaxwitch - Coaxial
-4 Selector Switches
BIRD COAXWITCH• Coaxial Selector Switches employ aunique, rugged

13 460
and reliable design which assures positive contact, low insertion SWR,
and negligible cross talk between channels. They may be panel mounted
for custom installation. They are useful from dc to 10kmc.

THRULINE
BIRD COAXIAL SELECTOR SWITCHES

Model DescrIpbon Model DescoptIon

Smgle Cdrcudt 7441 SIngie-C,rcuit
7422
two- position three- position

RF Directional Wattmeters 7431

Single.Circuit
four.position
74
Single.Circuit
six- position
Single- Circuit Single-Circuit
BIRD TERMALINE RF Directional Wattmeters are insertion type instruments 718
eight.position
7181
ten.position
for measuring forward and reflected power in coaxial transmission lines. 72-2
Two.Circuit
72.R
Two.Circuit
two•position reversing switch
They accurately measure power flow under any load condition with ±
- 5%

of full scale accuracy. Net power can be determined by subtracting reflected

power from forward power. SWR may be determined by using anomograph. Coaxial RF Filters
ELEMENTS BIRD Coaxial RF Filters are custom-engineered to meet specific circuit
Model Connectors Frequency ( MC) requirements. They are lightweight, compact, rugged, and reliable.
2-30
igbr? .
533° .
5888 Unique patented designs provide component density combined with
high rejection attenuation, and assure long life performance.
25.60. 50-125
250. 500. ?1?0,7.134:2S00

BIRD Wattcher
QC Type 100-250. 200.500.
400.1000 i: 1000
60.80. 80.95. 95.125.
110-160. 150-250, 200.300. 1Watt
275.450. 425.850. 800-950
60-80. 80-95. 95.150.
RF Power Monitor / Alarm
15C250. 200.300, 250.450. 2.5 Watts The Model 3127 BIRD Wattcher" is a panel mounted instrument for
400.850. 800.950
900.1200. 1100.1800. 1. 2.5. 5. 10. 25
warning of system malfunction and for measuring power flow in both
1700.2200
directions. Audible and visual alarms indicate system failures. Auto-
Power RRRRRR (kilowatts)
matic shut-down occurs if fault is in transmission system or antenna.
2 ,0
4712 Flanged 1. 2.5, 5. 10. 25
The Wattcher combines two readout meters and must be used with
25-60. 50.125. 100.250.
200.500. 400.1000
BIRD THRULINES. • Trade•mark
VA" E1A „ n

- ype Connectors
160 5. 10. 25. 50. 100
"QC" -T
Flanged -.-
31/"
4 25.60. 50.125. 100.250,
(
Quick- Change)
480
Unflanged 200-500. 400-1000
BIRD has a wide selection of " QC" type (Quick- Change) connectors
4902 ,1 8E.:: 2-30 25. 50. 100. 250
6
which are adaptable to particular TERMALINE Load Resistors and Watt-
090 6Y." 25.60. 50.125. 100.250.
2.5, 5. 10. 25. 50 meters and the THRULINE Wattmeter line. Changes in connectors may
Unflanged 200-500, 400-1000
be made in the field merely by removing four screws from the connector
F
91;ne
gle
Ad
Per Customer Specifications
base plate, substituting connectors, and replacing the screws. "BC"
4910

Top Grain Cowhide Ca rying Case Model CC- 1is available for the Model 43 Type connectors that are available are: Female or male "BNC", "TNC",
Thruline Wattmeter. I allows easy carrying and protection in addition to
"N", "C", "SC", " HN", " LT", Wand 1%" EIA Flanged.
providing space for three extra plug-in elements.

D
IR
In addition to the standard line of products
ELECTRONIC CORPORATION
manufactured BIRD can design and manu- 30303 A Rd., Solon, Ohio 44139 ( Greater Cleveland)
216-248-1200 TWX 216-248.6458
facture " specials" to suit specific applica- Coble: IIIRCELEC w Rep eeeee TELEX: "8-52"

tions. BIRD engineers will be happy to work O. H. grown Co., P O. flos 128. Polo Alto, Cal.
Phone 231.8867 (415)
with you on your special requirements. Allgood Associates 3600 Wilshire Blvd.. Los Angeles 5, Cal.
Phone 383-4443 ( 213)

31
 FREE! TRANSISTOR
Do\ RADIO
e.. SHACK
1964 Bargain RADIO
CATALOG
Write Today! HANDBOOK
Get the most popular electron-
ics catalog in the country FREE.
• Exclusive Items! See Radio Shack's fabulous
• Sale Bargains! Realistic audio and kit linel
Everything in solid state! Great•
• Hi•Fi Stereo!
est mail-order values in our 41
• Kits & Parts! Yearsl Just printed — newest
• CB & Amateur! catalog ovailablel Paste coupon
on postcard and mail NOW,

FANTASTIC SALE!

SAVE
40%
IMP
•

HALLICRAFTERS 3- Band Radio

$20 OFF AT RADIO SHACK!
EXCLUSIVE' Radio Shack bought
Hallicrof tors entire stock of S-119 —simplified circuit theory, plus
receivers to sell below dealer
cost while they last! Hear 2-5 .
mc and 5.7-16.4 lac shortwave,
5
Regularly practical construction projects
$
49e5
plus regular broadcasts. Wired,
not a kit. Made in USA. Metal Handbook covers a wide range of
cabinet; speaker; voice/code and
speaker/tone switches; straight communication uses for both ama-
AC superhet handwired circuit;
64- page shortwave booklet. Its teur radio and commercial applica-

2995 tions.
the fabulous " Sky Buddy", the
biggest bargain in Radio Shack
history and just in time for
Christmas giving. Order by mail Includes audio and speech amplifiers,
while supply lasts. Add shpg. 9
lbs. Tune in the world and save
V.H.F. transmitting and receiving
$S at Radio Shackl
equipment, single sideband exciters
Now 23 stores: Mass. — Brookline, Boston, Camb ,idge.
Worcester, Framingham, Springfield, Saugus, Braintree (both filter and phasing types), and
Conn. — New Haven, Hartford, Stamford. R.I. — Crans.
ton. N.H. — Manchester. Me. — Portland Texas - also a complete S.S.B. transceiver.
Ft. Worth, Dallas, Houston, San Antonio. Col. — So'
Leandro

rRADIO SHACK CORPORATION

BOOK $ 00 aen.u . ( foreign $ 5.50)
#044
730A Commonwealth Ave., Boston 17, Mass.
D Send 1964 Catalog — FREE Order from your favorite electronic parts distributor.

El Send HaIli. S-119 — $ 29.95 If he cannot supply, send us his name and your
remittance, and wr will supp/y.
Name
EDITORS and ENGINEERS, Ltd.

(4
Street Summerland 4, California 93067
Dealers: Electronic distributors, order from us.
Zone State Bookstores, libraries, newsdealers order from Baker &
Town
RAH64 Taylor, Hillside. N. J. Export ( exc. Canada), order
from H. J. Snyder Co., 440 Park Ave. So.. N.Y. 16.

32
RADIO AND ELECTRONIC BOOKS FROM
-,EDITORS and ENGINEERS Ltd. Summerland 4, Calif.
--comprehensive, up-to-the-minute data
on designing and building equipment
... on surplus radio ... preparation for
operator's licenses...world electronic
tubes
RADIO HANDBOOK-comprehensive theory, design, and construction data
The most valuable reference work for practical radiomen, radio technicians, and ad-
vanced amateurs. How to design, build, and operate standard types of radio trans-
mitting and receiving equipment, from medium to ultra-high frequencies. Also
hundreds of pages of basic theory and reference data; profusely indexed for easy
finding, clearly illustrated, easy to read.
New information on simplified TVI-proofing, bandswitching, fixed-station and
mobile transmitters, single-sideband exciters, complete station installations, and
many new ideas for improved operation. Frequently revised and brought up to date
in accordance with technical progress. Current edition has 800 pages, all editorial
Clothbound and gold stamped-the LARGEST "RADIO HANDBOOK" EVER PUB-
LISHED B oo k # 168 $9.50 in U.S.A. (Elsewhere, $ 10.50)
SURPLUS RADIO CONVERSION MANUALS-3volumes
VOLUME I/BC-221 Frequency Meter; BC-342 Receiver; BC-312 Receiver; BC-348
Receiver; BC-412 Radar Oscilloscope; BC- 645 Transmitter/Receiver; BC-946 Re-
ceiver; SCR-274 ( BC-453A Series) Revr.; SCR-274 ( BC-457A Series) Xmitters;
SCR-522 ( BC-625, 624) Transmitter/Receiver; TBY Tranceiver; PE-103A Dyna-
motor; BC-1068A/1161A Receiver; Electronics Surplus Index; Cross Index of A/N
yac. Tubes; Amateur Freq. Allocations; Television and FM Channels. Book #311
VOLUME II/BC-454 or ARC-5 Receivers; AN/APS-13 Transmitter/Rcvr.; BC-457 or
ARC-5 Transmitters; ARC-5 V.H.F. Transmitter/Rcvr.; GO-9/TBW Transmitters;
BC-357 Marker Receiver; BC-946B Receiver as Tuner; BC-375 Transmitter; Model
LM Frequency Meter; TA-12B Bendix Transmitter; AN/ART-13 ( Collins) Trans-
mitter; Simplified Coil-Winding Charts; Selenium-Rectifier Power Units; AVT-112A
Light Aircraft Xmtr.; AM-26/AIC to aHi- Fi Ampl.; Surplus Beam Rotating Mechs.;
ARB Rcvr. Diagram Only Book # 322
VOLUME III/APN-1; APN-4; ARC-4; ARC-5; ART-13; BC-191, 312, 342, 348, 375, 442,
453, 455, 456-459, 603, 624, 696, 1066, 1253; CBY-5200 series; COL-43065; CRC-7;
DM-34; DY-2; DY-8; FT-241A; LM Power Supply; MBF; MD-7/ARC-5;
R-9/APN-4; R-28/ARC-5; RM-52-53; RT-19/ ARC-4; RT-159; SCR-274N, 508, 522,
528, 538; T-15 to T-23/ARC-5; URC-4; WE-701-A. Schematics only: APA-10;
APT-2; APT-5; ARR-2; ASB-5; BC-659; BC- 1335A; CPR-46ACJ.
Book = 333 $3.00 per volume in U.S.A. ( Elsewhere, ; 350)
THE SURPLUS HANDBOOK, Volume I (Receivers and Tranceivers)
Schematic Diagrams and large photographs only on APN-1; APS-13; ARB; ARC-4; ARC-5
( L.F.); ARC-5 ( V.H.F.); ARN-5;ARR-2; ASB-7; BC-222, 312, 314, 342, 344, 348, 603,
811, 624, 652, 654, 659, 889, 883, 728, 745, 764, 779, 794, 923, 1000, 1004, 1066, 1206,
1306, 1335; BC-AR-231; CRC-7; DAK-3; CF- 11; MARK II; MN-28; RAK-5; BAL- 5;
RAX-1; SCR-522; Super Pro; TBY; TCS. Resistor and Capacitor Color Codes; Cross Index
of A/N V.T. and Commercial Tubes.
Book - 510 $3.00 in U.S.A. ( Elsewhere, $ 3.50)
RADIOTELEPHONE LICENSE MANUAL
One convenient volume helps you prepare for all USA commercial radiotelephone
license exams. Gives the basis for asound understanding of every pertinent subject.
Complete study-guide questions with clear, concise answers. Contains four sec-
tions: ( 1) Questions on Basic Law; (2) Basic Operating Practice; ( 3) Basic Radio-
telephone; (4) Advanced Radiotelephone.
Beek 030 $5.75 in U.S.A. ( Elsewhere, ; 6.25)
WORLD'S RADIO TUBES (Radio Tubes Vade Mecum)
Characteristics of all existing radio tubes made in all countries. The world's most
comprehensive and authoritative tube book. All types classified numerically and
alphabetically. To find agiven tube is only a matter of seconds! Also complete sec-
tion on base connections.
Book #471 $8.00 in U.S.A. ( Elsewhere, $ 8.50)
WORLD'S EQUIVALENT TUBES (Equivalent Tubes Vade Mecum)
All replacement tubes for agiven type, both exact and near-equivalents ( with points
of difference detailed). From normal tubes to the most advanced comparisons. Also
military tubes of 7nations, with commercial equivalents. Over 43,900 comparisons!
Book ± 493 $ 8.00 in U.S.A. (Elsewhere, $8.50)
WORLD'S TELEVISION TUBES ( Television Tubes Vade Mecum)
Characteristics of all TV picture, cathode ray, and many special purpose tubes.
Invaluable to technicians and all specialists in the electronic field.
Book # 482 $
8.00 in U.S.A. ( Elsewhere, $ 8.50)

33
 RHEOSTATS
when you specify Ohmite components..

you build reliability into your product

RESISTORS

RELAYS.
OHMITE
• "
TAP SWITCHE$,
INDUSTRY- PREFERRED COMPONENTS

TANTALU
CAPACITORS

VARIA1BL,
TRANSFORME

SEMICONDUCT
DIODES 1

RHEOSTATS-Insure permanently POWER RESISTORS- Wire- wound TAP SWITCHES-Compact, high -

smooth, close control. All- ceramic, vitreous- enameled resistors. Stock current rotary selectors for a- c
vitreous- enameled: 71
/ , 12 1
2 2 ,25,
/ sizes: 10, 25, 50, 100, 160, 200 use. All - ceramic. Self - cleaning,
50, 75, 100, 150, 225, 300, 500, watts; values 1 to 250,000 ohms. silver- to- silver contacts. Rated at
750, and 1000- watt sizes. "Brown Devil" fixed resistors in 5, 10, 15, 25, 50, and 100 amperes.
10, and 20- watt sizes; values from
OHMITE RELAYS- Five stock mod-
0.5 to 100,000 ohms. Adjustable PRECISION POWER RESISTORS-
els- DOS, DO, DOSY, CRU, GPR,
power resistors; quickly adjustable Insulated wire- wound; molded in
in 400 different types, three of which
to the value needed. Sizes 10 to silicone ceramic. Tolerances to
are enclosed. At 115 VAC or 32 VDC,
200 watts, to 100,000 ohms. Wire - .05%. Watts: 1, 3, 5, 7, and 10:
noninductive load, Models DOS and
wound axial lead resistors in stock Std. temp. coeff., O ± 2Oppm °C.
DOSY have a contact rating at 15
sizes of 1, 3, 5, & 10 watts; values, Hundreds of MIL- R- 26C and com-
amp; Model DO, 10 amp; Model
1 to 50,000 ohms. mercial values in stock.
CRU, 5 amp; Model GPR, 5, 10
amp. Wide range of coil operating R. F. CHOKES - Single-layer-
VARIABLE TRANSFORMERS-
voltages. wound on low power factor cores
Model VT2, 11 /
4 amp rating, output
with moistureproof coating. Seven
voltage, 0-120'132V; Model VT4,
TANTALUM CAPACITORS- Units stock sizes, 3 to 520 mc. Two units 31/ amp rating, output voltage
2
are available in three types: sub- rated 600 ma; others, 1000 ma.
0-120 140V; Model VT8, 71 / amp
2
miniature, insulated, wire- type, in
rating, output voltage 0-1 20 ' 140V;
13 sizes. All 5 MIL sizes of foil- type.
Model VT20, 20 amp rating, output
Seven sizes of slug- type tantalum OHMITE voltage, 0-120140V. Input volt•
capacitors. All feature high per-
age all models, 120V, 60 cycles.
formance in minimum space and a
Also 40 and 240- volt units. Seventy-
wide range of capacitance and
one stock models, cased, uncased.
voltage ratings.
OHMITE MANUFACTURING COMPANY
Write for Stock Catalog 3608 Howard Street, Skokie, Illinois
eoe
eff Jil Here's the low cost,
high quality set-up

you need to begin

your new hobby
of Amateur Radio ...

IIMINKIT
...

!
.1
•

«NW

IIR40 RECEIVER DX-60 TRANSMITTER

• Covers 80 through 10 meters • Tunes 9649191•160650111111599091, •90- watts phone or CW on 80
SSB, AM Eli CW signals • Prebuilt, through 10 meters • Neutralized
6146 final amplifier • Built-in low
prealigned tuning assembly • RF stage
for extra sensitivity • Lattice- type crys-
-• pass filter • Operates at reduced
tal filter for high selectivity power for novice operation
An ideal novice receiver! Easy to build An exceptionally fine transmitter for
with preassembled, aligned tuning unit, the novice! Provides CW operation
and precut, cabled wiring harness! Ver- HG- 10 VFO at the novice power limit and AM
satile controls, large slide- rule dial, •60 through 2meters coverage operation later as a general class
built-in " S" meter for easy tuning, built- • Plugs into DX- 60 for general license holder. Clean, rugged con-
in BFO for SSB & CW reception and a class operation • A tremen- struction, high quality components,
host of other high performance features dous savings over crystals for and easy to follow instructions make
to delight any amateur radio fan! Fea- similar coverage assembly an easy, fun- filled task.
tures amateur band coverage only for This high quality Heathkit VFO Controlled- carrier modulator and
maximum accuracy and stability. Pro- requires only plug-in connec- power supply are built-in. Single-
vision for plug-in 100 kc crystal calibra- tion to the DX- 60 Transmitter knob bandswitching and Pi- network
tor. 7- tube superheterodyne circuit. A (coaxial) output provide for complete
to tune any frequency, any band
perfect style & performance mate to the for complete amateur coverage. operating convenience. Panel meter
DX -60 Phone & CW Transmitter! Beautifully designed through- monitors final grid or plate current
out for years of top-notch per- for easy tuning. Less crystals.
Kit HR- 10...20 lbs.. $8mo... $ 79.95
Kit HRA-10-1, Plug-in 100 kc formance & high stability. 12 lbs. Kit DX-60...24
crystal calibrator. 1lb. $ 8.95 Kit HO- 10 $5mo. $ 34.95 $8 mo. $79.95

WANT CW ONLY? ... USE THE HX-11

Specially designed for CW work! Efficient circuitry provides 50- watt
plate power input for outstanding amateur communications. Covers 80
through 10 meters. Features built-in low pass filter, neutralized final
amplifier, switched antenna relay power, pi- network output coupling and
panel meter. Husky built-in power supply. Single knob bandswitching.
Kit HX-11...18 lbs....$5 mo $43.50

FREE 1964 CATALOG

HIEATHICIT-11104 HEATH COMPANY, Benton Harbor 9, Mich. 49023
Fully illustrates over 250
C.; Please send free 1964 HeathkIt catalog.
different Heathkits at
money- saving do-it-your- D Enclosed Is S plus postage send

self prices. Choose from a

complete line of " mobile" NAME
Alit
e (please print)
or " fined" station ama-
teur gear and accessories ADDRESS
at savings of 50% or more!
CITY ZONE STATE

35
 Belden
Wire and Cable
for every
ham application
service rated—quality controlled
easy-to- use packaged lengths

Coiled Microphone Cable. Provides

low impedance for mobile micro-
phone applications. Black neo-
prene jacket remains flexible at
low temperatures. Available with
Antenna Rotor Cables. Sturdy,
or without shielded conductors.
flexible, plastic insulated cable
for all Ham antenna rotor appli-
cations. Color coded for easier
hook-up. Chrome, vinyl plastic
jacket resists sun and aging.
WIHHIIIHIHIILU

Shielded Hook-up and Grid Wire. Provide most effective

TVI suppression. Vinyl insulated with tinned copper braid
shield. Available in wide range of capacities from 24 AWG
to 12 AWG.

•»;xek
— di

ne5 •

Ham Transmission Lines- 75 Ohm Foam Core RG/U

Power Supply Cables. Provide de- Type. Designed for lowest losses, longer service life, and
pendable service as power sup- maximum dependability. Cables are essentially flat with
ply cords, interconnecting cables no peaks in attenuation to reduce signal on either high
on electronic equipment, remote or low frequencies.
control circuits, special press-to-
talk microphone circuits, and
other ham applications. Designed
for long service life with excellent
mechanical and electrical charac- Balldan
teristics, and uniform quality.Spe-
cial jacket offers maximum resis-
tance to abrasion and ozone. Ham Transmission Lines— Parallel Type. Made with
brown virgin polyethylene for best weather resistance
and lowest losses. Uniform quality control prevents
standing waves and mismatches.

Belden
wIREIN•KIER ! OR INDUSVIeiv
Magnet Wire • Lead Wire • Power Supply Cords • Cord Sets
and Portable Cord • Aircraft Wires • Electrical tiousehold
Cords • Electronic Wires • Welding Cable- Automotive Wire
SINCE ' 902 CmICAGO and Cable
8-2-3

36
 the most
el Off
CMOs from
IlEATIKIT!

war

HX-30 6- METER SSB TRANSMITTER HA- 20 6- METER LINEAR AMPLIFIER

Most of the SSB signals on 6 meters today ema- A perfect style and performance mate for the
nate from Heathkit HX-30's because of the extra Heathkit HX-30 SSB Transmitter! The HA-20
value, quality, and features this fine transmitter Linear Amplifier provides the extra power you
offers. The versatile HX-30 provides three types need for reliable communications during band
of transmission, SSB ( upper/lower sideband), openings. Efficient design requires just 2.5 to 10
AM & CW. Its stable VFO with special anti- watts P.E.P driving power for a full 70-watts
backlash helical gear drive assures velvet-smooth P.E.P. output to the antenna. Its tuned-grid input
tuning and a phasing type SSB generator plus permits a 'variety of drive power levels and the
heterodyne circuitry permits operation as clean as tuned, link-coupled output easily matches any 50
any low band unit. An audio filter limits band- to 75 ohm coaxial transmission line. Complete
pass for improved sideband suppression... gives RF shielding minimizes TV interference and adds
your signal extra "punch" and readability under high circuit stability for consistently fine perform-
adverse conditions. Other features include grid- ance. The push-pull 6146 final amplifiers are neu-
block keying with key click filter, two crystal tralized for maximum stability and fan forced-air
positions for net or MARS operation, push-to-talk cooled for long tube life. Panel metering of final
circuitry and built-in VOX with anti-trip circuitry. grid current, plate current, and relative power
Delivers 10 watts P.E.P. RF output to antenna. output is also featured. Order these two fine rigs
Covers 50-54 mc in four 1 mc segments. Order now or add the linear at any time for extra power
your HX-30 now and save with Heathkit! on six!
Kit HX-30...46 lbs.... no money dn., Kit HA-20...38 lbs....no money dn.,
$18 mo. $ 189.95 $10 mo. $99.95

HEATH COMPANY,
Benton Harbor 9, Michigan 49023
FREE CATALOG D Please send Free 1964 Heathkit catalog.
See the wide array of Heathkit
Amateur Radio equipment avail- El Enclosed find $ plus postage. Send
able at tremendous do-it-your-
self savings! Everything you need model
in " mobile" and "fixed" station
gear with full descriptions and Name
specifications ... send for your
free copy today! Address

City State Zip No

37
 Choose from these

HIGH- EFFICIENCY PENTA TUBES

for your new rig or for replacement use

BEAM PENTODES
Excellent linearity, low distortion, high efficiency in
Class AB, SSB service.

Plate Plate Plate Screen

Tube Type
Diss., W V., Max. I., Max Volts, Max.

PL- 175A 400 4000 350 800

PL-177WA 75 2000 175 600
PL- 8295 172
*PL- 8295/172 1000 3000 1000 600
•PL- 8295A ( ceramic) 1000 3000 1000 600
*P1-8432 ( ceramic) 1000 3000 1000 600
PL-4E27A 125 4000 200 750

Special sockets, chimneys available

qUir-

GROUNDED-GRID TRIODES
PL-8432 High- mu power triodes designed especially for
grounded- grid rf ampliifer applications.

Plate Plate Plate

Tube Type
Diss., W. V., Max I., Max.

PL 6569 250 4000 300 45

PL- 6580 400 4000 350 45

POWER TETRODES
Popular power tubes, built for reliable performance,
long life, high efficiency.

Plate Plate Plate Screen

Tube Type
Diss., W. V., Max. I., Max Volts, Max.

°PL- 6775 400 4000 350 800

PL- 8165/4-65A 65 2000 150 600
PL- 8166/4-1000A 1000 6000 700 1000
PL- 4D21 ( 4-125A) 125 3000 225 600
IPL-4D21A 175 3000 225 600
PI- 177 WA
PL- 5D22 ( 4-250A) 250 4000 350 800
PL- 4-400A 400 4000 350 800
'Ruggedized version of 4-400A
fRuggedized version of 4D21 ( 4-125A)

PENTA LABORATORIES, INC.

312 N. NOPAL STREET • SANTA BARBARA, CALIFORNIA

Export Agents: Frazar & Hansen Ltd., San Francisco 11, Calif.

38
 3
1
THE
FIRSTAIN NEW
SERIES OF
DELUXE HEATHKIT
AMATEUR RADIO
GEAR

CHECK THESE FEATURES! ohm: 8 ohm speaker; line cord socket: heterodyne oscillator output; LMO
• Professional styling & features at 60% savings! • Complete output: BFO output; VHF converter switch. Tube complement: ( 1) 6I3Z6
RF amplifier; ( 1) 6AU6 Heterodyne mixer; ( 1) 6AB4 Heterodyne oscillator.
coverage of 80 through 10 meter amateur bands with all crystals
(I) 6AU6 LM osc.: ( 1) 6AU6 LMO miner; (2) 6BA6 IF amplifier; ( 1) 6AU6
furnished, plus provision for VHF converters • Prebuilt, calibrated Crystal calibrator; ( 1) EHF8 1s1 audio, audio output: ( 1)6AS11 Product cle•
linear master oscillator ( LMO) • 25 KC per tuning knob revolution tector. BFO. BFO, ampltla r. Power supply: Transformer operated with
offers bandspread equal to 10 feet per megacycle • Built-in silicon diode rectifiers. Power requirements: 120 volts AC. 50 60 cps.
crystal calibrator • 2.1 KC crystal bandpass filter • Stability 50 watts. Dimensions: 14% - W x 6X - H y 13% - D.
of 100 CPS after initial warmup • Wiring harness A two heavy-
duty circuit boards for easy assembly
The SB-300 SSB Receiver is the first in an exciting new series of
CHECK THESE SPECIFICATIONS! Heathkit SSB amateur gear designed to bring you the finest in
Frequency range ( megacycles): 3.5 to 4.0, 7.0 to 7.5, 14.0 to 14.5, 21.0 to communications facilities at great savings. Its professional styling,
71.5. 28.0 to 28.5. 28.5 to 29.0, 29.0 to 29.5, 29.5 to 30. Intermediate fre- quality and features offer performance never before found in
quency: 3.395 megacycles. Frequency stability: 100 cps after warmuO.
kit equipment.
Visual dial accuracy: Within 200 cps on all bands. Electrical dial ac.
curacy: v\htnin 400 cps on all bands. Backlash: No more than 50 cos. Features include a crystal- controlled front-end for same rate
Sensitivity: Less than 1 microvolt for 15 db signal plus noise•to.noise tuning on all bands; prebuilt, Linear Master Oscillator ( LMO) for
ratIo tor SSB operation. Modes of operation: Switch selected: LSB, USB.
linear tuning with 1 kc dial calibrations; built-in crystal calibrator;
CW, AM. Selectivity: SSS: 2.1 kc at 6 db down, 5.0 Mc at 60 db down
(crystal filter supplied). AM: 3.75 kc at 6 db down, 10 kc at 60 db down ( crys. hermetically- sealed 2.1 kc crystal bandpass filter; smooth, non-
tal filter available as accessory). CW: 400 cps at 6db down, 2.5 kc at 60 db backlash vernier dial drive mechanism; optional AM &CW filters;
down ( crystal filter available as accessory). Spurious response: Image high frequency I. F.; AGC control; provision for transceive opera-
and IF rejection better than 50 db. Internal spurious signals below egunm-
lent antenna input of 1 microvolt. Audio response: SSS: 350 to 2450 cps tion with matching transmitter available soon.
nominal at 6 db. AM: 200 to 3500 cps nominal at 6 db. CW: BOO to 1200 cps Kit SB-300...17 lbs.... no money dn., $25 mo $ 264.95
nominal at 6 (lb. Antenna input impedance: 50 ohms nominal. Muting:
SBA-300-1 CW Crystal Filter (400 cps) . 1 lb $ 19.95
Open external ground at Mute socket. Crystal calibrator: 100 kc crystal.
±.005%. Front panel controls: Main tuning dial; function switch; mode SBA-300-2 AM Crystal Filter ( 3.75 kc)...1 lb. $ 19.95
switch; AGC switch; band switch; AF gain control; RF gain control: pre.
selector: phone lack. Rear apron Ions: Accessory power plug; WATCH FOR ANNOUNCEMENT OF OTHER MODELS
HF antenna; VHF XI antenna; VHF #2 antenna; mute: spare; anti- trip: 500 IN THIS DELUXE HEATHKIT HAM SERIES!

FREE CATALOG
Send for your free copy HEATH COMPANY Benton Harbor 9, Mich. 49023
today! Fully describes
D Please send FREE 1964 catalog
over 250 exciting Heath' Please send model
D Enclosed is $ 264.95, plus postage.
kits at savings of 50% or
SB•300.
more! Choose from the
world's largest selection NAME
of quality ham gear ...
"Mobile" . . . " Fixed" ADDRESS
and Accessories.
CITY ZONE STATE

39
 Learn Code the EASY Way
Beginners, Amateurs and Ex-
perts alike recommend the MACHINES FOR RENT OR SALE
INSTRUCTOGRAPH, to learn code
and increase speed.

Learning the INSTRUCTOGRAPH way

will give you a decided advantage in
qualifying for Amateur or Commercial ex-
aminations, and to increase your words per
minute to the standard of an expert. The
Government uses a machine in giving
examinations.

Motor with adjustable speed and spacing

of characters on tapes permit a speed range
of from 3 to 40 words per minute. A large
variety of tapes are available — elemen-
tary, words, messages, plain language and
coded groups. Also an " Airways" series for
those interested in Aviation.

MAY BE PURCHASED OR RENTED

The INSTRUCTOGRAPH is made in sev-
eral models to suit your purse and all may
be purchased on convenient monthly pay-
ments if desired. These machines may also
be rented on very reasonable terms and if
when renting you should decide to buy the
equipment the first three months rental
may be applied in full on the purchase
price.

ACQUIRING THE CODE

It is a well-known fact that practice and
practice alone constitutes ninety per cent
of the entire effort necessary to " Acquire
the Code," or, in other words, learn teleg-
raphy either wire or wireless. The In-
structograph supplies this ninety per cent.
It takes the place of an expert operator in
teaching the student. It will send slowly at
._9n3lruclograph
first, and gradually faster and faster, until
one is just naturally copying the fastest ACCOMPLISHES THESE PURPOSES:
sending without conscious effort.
FIRST: It teaches you to receive telegraph symbols,
BOOK OF INSTRUCTIONS
words and messages.
Other than the practice afforded by the
Instructograph, all that is required is well SECOND: It teaches you to send perfectly.
directed practice instruction, and that is
just what the Instructograph's " Book of THIRD: It increases your speed of sending and
Instructions" does. It supplies the remain- receiving after you have learned the code.
ing ten per cent necessary to acquire the
code. It directs one how to practice to the With the Instructograph it is not necessary to impose
best advantage, and how to take advantage on your friends. It is always ready and waiting for you.
of the few " short cuts" known to experi- You are also free from Q.R.M. experienced in listening
enced operators, that so materially assists through your receiver. This machine is just as valuable
in acquiring the code in the quickest pos- to the licensed amateur for increasing his speed as to
sible time. Therefore, the Instructograph, the beginner who wishes to obtain his amateur license.
the tapes, and the book of instructions is
everything needed to acquire the code as
well as it is possible to acquire it.
postal Card WILL BRING FULL PARTIC-
ULARS IMMEDIATELY

THE INSTRUCTOGRAPH CO.

4707 SHERIDAN ROAD CHICAGO 40, ILLINOIS
4700 S. CRENSHAW BLVD. LOS ANGELES 43, CALIFORNIA

40
 Ileathkit
Off000 NO
every amateu needs!

QJ MONITOR SCOPE $59.95 RF POWER METER $ 12.95

Gives continuous indication of relative power output of
Specially designed for amateur radio use! Monitors envel-
ope, AF á RF trapezoid patterns. Automatic switching on transmitter by sampling the RF radiation near the transmitter
envelope pattern for transmit/receive. Standard coaxial antenna. Magnet in base holds it fast to any steel surface.
connectors for simple connection to antenna system feed Use with any transmitter operating between 100 kc to 250 mc.
Sensitivity is 0.3 volts RMS for full scale meter deflection.
line. Handles power outputs from 5watts to 1 KW. Built-in
No external power required. Built-in sensitivity control.
two-tone test oscillator. Covers amateur bands 160 through
6 meters. Works with any receiver I.F. below 500 kc. Three Model PM-2...2 lbs. Kit $12.95
inch CRT.
Model HO-10, 11 lbs.. $6 mo. Kit $59.95
(I) "TUNNEL DIPPER" $34.95
Functions as a " cordless grid dip meter" for checking
Ej REFLECTED POWER METER $15.95 resonant frequencies, identifying parasitics, tuning traps or
filters and many more in amateur applications. Uses tunnel
An accessory no amateur should be without! Shows an-
diode oscillator ... no tubes! 6 color- matched coils & dial
tenna/transmitter match for maximum signal output. Indi-
cates forward or reflected power and measures SWR scales. Self-contained and battery powered for portability.
(standing wave ratio) from 1:1 to 3:1. Handles up to 1 kilo- Less batteries.
Model HM - 10A...3 lbs... $ 5 mo Kit $34.95
watt power and may be left in antenna system feed line at
Model HMW-10A...$5 mo. Assembled $49.95
all times. Matches 50 or 75 ohm coaxial lines. Covers 160
through 6 meters.
Model HM - 11, 2 lbs Kit $15.95
(1) "CANTENNA" DUMMY LOAD $9.95
With the Heathkit " Cantonna" you can forget about illegal
100 KC CRYSTAL CAL1BRATOR....$14.95 transmissions, TV interference, or ORM while servicing or
Perfect for checking dial calibration of communication re- testing amateur and commercial transmitting equipment.
Handles power up to 1 kilowatt I.C.A.S. with less than 1.5
ceivers and transmitter VFO's! Connects to antenna termi-
nals. Produces precise signals from 100 kc to at least 54 mc VSWR up to 300 megacycles. Coaxial RF connector to trans-
at 100 kc intervals. Solid-state circuit uses transistors for mitter. Phono jack for connection to VOM or VTVM pro-
vides relative power measurements. Features a special oil-
long life and dependable performance. A single 9-volt bat-
tery furnishes all power, permits operation anywhere. cooled temperature stable resistive element. Impedance is
Crystal included. 50 ohms. Less oil.
Model HD-20. 1lb. Kit $14.95 Model HN-31, 3lbs Kit $9.95

CIEMBIND
FREE CATALOG HEATH COMPANY, Benton Harbor 9, Michigan 49023
Send for your free copy
today! Fully describes CI Please send Free 1964 Heathkit Catalog.
over 250 exciting Heath- Enclosed find $ plus postage. Send model
kits at savings of 50%
or more I Choose from
Name
the world's largest se-
lection of quality ham
Address
gear .. . '' Mobile" . . .
"Fixed" and Accesso-
City State Zip No.
ries.

41
 With SPRAGUE CAPACITORS and RESISTORS
you build Reliability into your equipment!
CAN-TYPE ELECTROLYTICS PAPER- FILM TUBULARS CERAMIC CAPACITORS
Twist-
Loir ° Capacitors
Hermetically sealed in
aluminum cases. With-
e
Cera- mite° Ceramics
stand high temperatures Black Beauty " Capacitors
Silvered flat- plate design for high
(85°C), high surge voltages, Dual dielectric ( polyester film and paper) by-pass efficiency, high self- resonant
high ripple currents. combines best features of both. Solid frequency.Tough moisture- proof coat-
impregnant, nothing to leak or drip. ing. Available in general application,
Molded case. Withstand high temper- high- K, temperature stable, and tem-
Screwbase Capacitors atures, high humidity. perature-compensating types.
Aluminum cases. Will with-
Butionhead Ceramics
stand high a- cripple. Avail-
able with lugs or insulated Flat- disc capacitor element
wire leads. Common or Orange Dro p® Capacitors sealed in top of hex head for
separate negative terminals. easy screw- mounting. Low
Dual dielectric ( polyester
self-inductance, high self-
film and paper), with solid
resonant frequency. Available for
impregnant. Double dipped

g
by-pass or feed-thru applications.
in epoxy resin. Radial leads,
High riF Capacitors ideal for printed wiring
Molded phenolic cases.
boards. MICA CAPACITORS
o
Ratings to 10,000 gF. De-
signed for low voltage
. • ( to 50V) filter circuits.
OIL CAPACITORS "Postage-stamp" Micas
Silvered 5% cap, tol.) or standard
Rectangular Oils
TUBULAR ELECTROLYTIC'S (±20% cap. toi.). Carefully- selec-
For transmitter power sup- ted, electrically graded raw mica
plies and other high voltage assures maximum quality
applications. Hermetically
sealed in rugged metal
At om ®Capacitors cases. Oil- impregnated, oi I-
filled. High insulation re-
Tiny, dependable single or multiple sistance.
section units. Have low leakage, long
shelf life. Metal case construction Transmitting Micas
with outer Kraft tube. Voltage ratings to 2500 WVDC, 5000 V
Screwbase Oils Test. R- Fcurrent tested before and
after molding.
Cylindrical screwbase can
Littl-Lytice Capacitors for easy single hole mount-
ing. Oil- impregnated, oil WIREWOUND RESISTORS
Ultra-small, excellent for transistor-
ized circuitry. All- welded construc- filled. Small size, will fit
tion— no pressure joints Lo cause tight spaces.
"opens". Low leakage, extremely
Iona shPlf life. Koolohm° Resistors
Insulated shell power resistors
HYPASS° CAPACITORS SK-ISUPPRESSIKIT` wound with ceramic- insulated wire.
Completely moisture- proof. Ratings
Contains every- to 120 watts in inductive and non- in-
thing needed for ductive types.
effective mobile
radio noise sup-
Exclusive 3- terminal feed-thru units pression of R- Fin-
which effectively by-pass vhf cur- terference up to Blue Jacket® Resistors
rents. Suppress TVI from trans- 400 mc. For autos Vitreous enamel coating guards
mitters, diathermy, line-conducted with 6 or 12 volt against humidity and failure from
radiation, etc. generators. electrolysis. Ratings from 2to 10 W.

For complete data on these and other Sprague compo-

SPRAGUE®
nents, get Catalog C-6/5 from your Sprague Distributor,
or write to Sprague Products Company, 505 Marshall St.,
North Adams, Massachusetts.
THE MARK OF RELIABILITY

42
 Whatever frequencies you plan to work...

there's a am n ANTENNA

designed to give you maximum performance

TENNAS FOR VHF AMATUER BANDS

Send for your FREE COPY of a Hy- Gain Full Line Catalog today.
Verticals — Beams — Mobiles — for 80 through 3/4 Meters ... every
antenna completely described and illustrated.

HY-GAIN ANTENNA PRODUCTS CORPORATION

8405 N.E. Highway 6- Lincoln, Nebraska

The World's Largest Manufacturer of HF Communications Antennas

43
E-ZWay AMATEUR & TV TOWERS
First in • DESIGN • DEPENDABILITY •SALES
CRANKS UP & DOWN TILTS OVER NO CONCRETE NO GUYS 55,000 PSI STEEL
Wonder Ground Post: E-Z Way Ground Post mounting
revolutionizes the installation of "tilt-over" towers. Mini-
mum yard space, not concrete, stays plumb. Stabilizing
fins below grade, insure a solid setting under most ground
conditions. Eliminates use of concrete.

mum height 25 ft. Supports tri.

band beams or equivalent at 60
MODEL HD- 40 MODEL R8X-40 ft. in winds up to 60 mph. No
Max ' mum tower height, 38 ft.; Heavy Duty tower. Maximum Guys! 140 mph winds when
minimum height 21 ft. Here is height 41 ft., minimum height 2$ cranked down. CDR-Ham-M rotors
low cost E-Z Way quality. Sup- ft. Supports -4el. 20M full or 9 el. fit in special head mount. 1.90
ports light beams, ground planes, triband at 41 ft in 90 mph winds. 0.0. x 7 ft. galv. steel mast sup-
and quads in 60 mph winds when No Guys! Stack 3 el. I5M & 3 el. plied.
cranked up, 125 mph wind 20M in winds up to 60 mph at 40 Three 21 ft. sections. Top sect. #9,
cranked down. No Guys! Rotor ft. Rotor mounts inside head. Two intermediate # 12, bottom sect.
mounts above tower. Mounting 21 ft. sections. Top sect. # 12, #15 plus rotor head.
stub and heavy-wall galv. steel bottom sect. # 15 plus rotor head. RBX-60-3P $335.00
mast 1.32 0.1). supplied. Two 20 RBX-40P $245.00 RBX-60-3G 410.00
ft. sections, top sect. #7, bottom RBX-40G 295.00 GPK-X60-3 Ground Post mount-
sect. # 9. GPK-X40 Ground Post mounting ing kit w/hardware.__ $ 120.00
HD-40P S 99.50 kit w/hardware 5105.00 BAK-X Wall Bracket mounfing
HD-40G 134.50 BAK-X Wall Bracket mounting kit S17.00
GPK-1340 Ground post mounting kit $17.00
kit w/hardware $50.00
BAK-D Wall bracket mounting Also available in 70, 85, 100, 115,
kit $6.75 145 & 175 ft. tower heights.
MODEL R85.50 MODEL 6046
Standard duty tower. Maximum
A 3sect, tower using #7top sect.,
height 51 ft., minimum height 30
MODEL R85-40 ft. Supports a 3 cl. Triband at 51 #9 center sect., # 12 bottom sect.
ft. in winds up to 60 mph. No Maximum tower height 55 ft. —
Standard duty tower. Maximum antenna height 60 ft. Tower
height 41 ft., minimum height 24 Guys! Rotor mounts inside. Two
26 ft. sections. Top sect. #9, bot- cranks down to* 22 ft. Will sup.
ft. Supports triband beams or port a 2 or 6 Meter beam at 60
equivalent at 41 ft. in 60 mph tom sect. # 12 plus rotor head.
RBS-50P $224.50 ft. No Guys!
wind cranked up and 125 mph
wind cranked down. No Guys! RBS-50G 279.50 8A-6046P $199.50
Accepts CDR— Ham M rotor inside GPK-S50 Ground Post mounting BA-6046G 259.50
rotor head. 1.5 0.0. x 7 ft. steel kit w/hardware $90.00 GP-6046P 264.00
mast supplied. Two 21 ft. sec- BAK-S Wall Bracket mounting GP-6046G 324.00
tions. Top sect. # 9, bottom sect. kit $10.50

II
#12, plus rotor head. MODEL TORBZ-66•30
RBS-40P ------..$169.50 Sheer brute strength with plenty
RBS-40G 209.50 to spare. Stacked arrays at 66 ft.
GPK-S40 Ground post mounting MODEL RBX-60-3 in 70 mph winds without guys!
kit w/hardware $75.00 Super construction puts your Maximum tower height 62 ft.;
BAK-540 Wall Bracket mounting beam where you want it. Maxi- minimum height 25 ft. Rotor head
kit ._ . $10.50 mum tower height 58 ft., mini- accepts CDR-Ham-M rotor without
modification. Comes complete
FINISHES with tilt-over post, 2 worm gear
All towers are finished in achoice of d p paint Goodyear Pliolite S-5 or Hot Dipped drive winches and all hardware.
Galvanized after fabrication. This method permits a permanent finish to coat inside (2" 0.13. mast additional.)
tower members as well as outside. Galvanizing in accordance with American Three sections. Top sect. 21 ft.
Society of Testing Materials, Designation A-123. #12, intermediate sect. 21 ft. # 15,
bottom sect. 25 ft. #20 plus rotor
Write for free catalog, state make and model of antenna and ' Mot. head. (Galvanized only.)
TORBZ-66-3G $985.00

"Moto- Winch" by E- Z Way

Here is the ultimate in crank-up tower convenience. E- Z Way " Moto- Winch" is designed for years
of trouble free operation. Weather sealed motor, fully enclosed doubled worm gear box, spiral
groove winch drum and remote control switch. Four sizes available: I /4 - 1 / 3 - 1 / 2 - 3/4 HP.

Us HP Moto-Winch alT1

$309 5 ° Oat

Easily adapts to models: RBS - 40, 50, 60, RBX - 40, 60-3, 6046

MOTO-
WINCH ACCESSORIES
• Limiter Switch Kit: Two limiter switches and • Coax Coil Rack: Coax coils in rack at base of
control mechanism. tower as it lowers—plays out as tower is raised.
• Coax Guides: Roller type, will accept three • Elevation Indicator: Beautiful color photo of
/
7 a " coax plus rotor cable. your tower with lights showing height of ele-
• Wind Actuated Safety Switch. Automatically vation of tower.
lowers tower when wind exceeds safe wind • Remote Console: Console switch with light
Oa S. panel indicating tower movement.
Write for complete details or see your nearest Amateur Radio dealer.

E-Z WAY TOWERS, Inc. TAMPA 5, FLORIDA

44
 the
inside
or

HX-50 HQ- 170A

$449 50 $ 379 00
(mcludes 24 hr. clock- timer)

• There's more to performance, quality, and

operating ease than meets the eye. Peel away the cabinet
of any Hammarlund unit and you will immediately note the BIG
DIFFERENCE. Sure we have good looking equipment in the HX-50 transmitter and
the HQ- 170A Ham Band Receiver, but the precision qualities are IN the cabinet. Here
is obvious superiority in design and workmanship — demonstrable quality ( matched by
performance) in a neat array of top-notch components professionally assembled. Let
us not waste words with " decorator" colors and " two-tone" styling— it's the Inside
Story that has made this equipment the 1st Choice of Radio Amateurs EVERYWHERE!

Please send complete data on the units checked.

HX-50 SSB Transmitter
HQ- 170A Amateur Band Receiver

NAME

HRMMRRLIJND ADDRESS
Manufacturing Company
CITY ZONE
A Giannini Scientific Company
STATE
53 West 23rd Street, New York 10, N. Y.
 HARRISON Ham Staff Experience
means you save with safety!
Bil

W2AVA IT MEANS— You save with complete safety because you can positively
rely on the friendly, expert advice you get from the Harrison staff
Ben
of fully qualified Ham specialists.
W2SOH IT RESULTS — in s-t-r-e-t-c-h-
i-n-g your dollars, all ways, because
Elliot
Harrison hams show you the way to top value and performance with
WA2HDP the best equipment for your needs.

Bernie IT IS — another important reason why hams have been flocking to

Harrison since 19e for their best equipment deals. And why
K2IMD Harrison is "Ham Headquarters, USA"!
Mark

K2C0N IT PAYS TO HAVE AN EXPERT AT YOUR

SIDE — You get so much more for
Select the equipment that meets
your every requirement — model,
Alan your money every time with a performance and budget, too! You'll
Harrison ham expert to assist you! be 100% satisfied. In fact, you must
K2VOE His wealth of radio know-how — be 100% satisfied at Harrison.
years of ham experience at IIarrison Every Piece of gear is backed by the
Bob and at home — helps you select Harrison Unconditional Satisfaction
Guarantee.
WA2SOZ equipment tailored to your actual
needs. His honest, practical advice Whether you're looking for new or
Charlie
can stop you from making costly used equipment, your best deal —
mistakes. In fact, you'll soon dis- the highest trade-in allowance is
K21.11. cover that a Harrison ham specialist
knows just about your every prob-
waiting for you at Harrison. Our
brisk turnover allows us to pass
lem. What's more, he's always de- along additional savings to you.
lighted to show you how to solve it
WAll
n2
ai economically. Add it up! You can't
You'll find many other reasons, too
— as thousands of hams already
help but choose right ... buy right have — why it's smarter to shop at
Dave
... with these experts guiding you. "Ham Headquarters, USA". Come
WA2E01 GUARANTEED SATISFACTION — TOP
on in today — browse, compare —
and discover for yourself how
Eddie TRADE-IN ALLOWANCE — Right now a Harrison helps you save with safety.
Harrison ham specialist is waiting
W2GMW
Paul
to show you the world's largest in-
ventory of new and slightly used 73, Viicv:4144«,W2AVA

KI4J
gear and give all the facts you need
to make the right, money- saving
decision.

HARRISON
225 GREENWICH ST.

HAM HEADQU ERS. U A NEW YORK 7. N. Y.

BArclay 7-7922
Long Island, 144-22 Hillside
Ave., Jamaica— RE 9-4102

Ifikkiso

-
D

46
 .1419E Sus,

SSB • ISB • CW • MCW • AM • FSK

illf/LF/MF/HF COMMUNICATIONS
u4emuniitee
r-.-

GPT-750 AN/URT-I 7A, AN/FRT-55. GPT-750 is a fully bandswitched,

continuously tunable ( 2-32 mcs) radio transmitter. The building block con-
cept makes this transmitter versatile, easy to install, operate and maintain.
Five models available for SSB, ISB, AM, CW, FAX, FSK modes. The GPT-750
is ideally suited for fixed station, mobile and shipboard operation.
REQUEST TB 1007

PTE-3A AN/GRM-33A RF SPECTRUM ANALYZER

• RF analysis from 1.5 to 64.5 mcs • Manual sweep for detailed
analysis • Calibration from 0 to — 60 db • Two tone RF and AF
signal generator • On casters for mobility. Model PTE- 3A is a very
useful operational and maintenance tool for sideband transmission
systems. Excellent as laboratory instrument in alignment of all
types of RF equipment, too.... REQUEST TB 6001

TTR-10, TTR-40 Four channel transistorized SSB trans-

mitter/receivers, completely compact, self-contained and ready for
operation. Front panel switching provides for the selection of pre-
tuned transmit/receive modules in 2-4, 4-8, 8-16, 16-32 mc
ranges with SSB ( upper and lower), AM equivalent, CW, FSK and
FAX modes of operation. These units may be used in duplex or
simplex circuit operation with local or remote control.
Model TTR-10 provides 100 watts PEP output; the TTR-40, 35
watts PEP output. Both models feature voice- operated relay con-
trol ( VOX). . . . REQUEST TB 1004

GPR-92 This receiver is patterned after the field

proven GPR-90RXD but incorporates a product de-
tector for the reception of SSB signals and provides
selectable IF bandpass up to 15 kc. A very low noise
figure provides excellent reception capabilities in ISB,
SSB, AM, CW, MCW, FSK and FAX modes of opera-
tion. An external oven crystal amplifier, TMC Model
TRX-1, provides stable 10 channel HFO crystal selec-
tivity.... REQUEST TB 3006

SPU-2 AM-3905/URT. Where critical voice communi-

cations are involved, Model SPU-2 provides a 40 db
dynamic range to prevent overload of transmitters and
to provide constant voice amplitude from receivers to
minimize voice hybrid " ringing." Speech clipping and
pre- emphasis may be switched in during periods of severe
atmospheric conditions to increase articulation by at least
BULLETIN 2026A

SME The SME -1 is a complete solid state SSB exciter

and the SMR-1 is a companion solid state fixed frequency
SSB receiver, capable of INSTANT SELECTION of any
one of 8 pre-set crystal controlled channels over the
2-32 mc frequency range.

SMR-1 The SMR-1 receiver features front end sensi-

tivity of below 1 microvolt with 100 db dynamic range.
Thirty-two distinct channels are instantly available with
oven stability of I part in 10 6 per day and sensitivity of
1 microvolt. Both units may be remote controlled. For full
detalls ... REQUEST TB 3010 SMR-1, TB 2030 SME -1.

11-IL TEGIINICAL MATLRIEL CORPORATION

and Sublidiariss MAMARONECK, NEW YORK
OTTAWA, CANADA • ALEXANDRIA, VIRGINIA • GARLAND, TEXAS • OXNARD, CALIFORNIA
SAN LUIS OBISPO, CALIFORNIA • LUZERN, SWITZERLAND • POMPANO BEACH, FLORIDA
 HARVEY
AUTHORIZED
DISTRIBUTORS

IF

(6146)

5762

RCA Tubes and Harvey Service...

For Double Dependability!

HARVEY's line of RCA tubes is so complete, that HARVEY

can fill virtually any requirement ... right from stock ... and
deliver at almost amoment's notice.

This is particularly important to AM, FM, and TV Broad-

casters, Industrial and Commercial users, Amateurs, and
Service-Technicians, all of whom depend on tubes for sus-
tained operation of important electronic equipment.

Write, Wire or Phone for

Telephone JUdson 2-1500
PROMPT HARVEY SERVICE
Lisit Harvey's Aetv Ham Radio
Center. The latest and best in
ham gear is always on display. HARVEY
103 West 43rd St., New York 36M. Y.
Visit our new subsidiary, FEDERAL ELECTRONICS, INC., Vestal, N. Y., for all your industrial needs.

48
 PIDERSIAN.PI_MQ.

hie radio MATEUR

APR,
amateur's
handbook
.....

.3.14

5iNeLr
BECOME: THE
eIPLUAND
A RADIQ RRI
AMATEU ANTENNA BOOK

S .
' 111•1C. 4.1.4/7.4..2. 14

Af08/11
MANUAL
.4 Comae út
eadó
fiutenrewià
o

••./ 1••••••••• 1=1>

cue

LIGHTNING
ARRL WORLD MAP CALCULATORS
Printed in eight colors on heavy map paper Quick and accurate answers with ABBE Light-
with 267 countries clearly outlined. Continental ning Calculators! Type A for problems involving
boundaries, time zones, amateur prefixes, frequency inductance, capacity. Type Bfor re-
plainly marked. Size: 30 • 40 inches $ 2.00 sistance, voltage, current and power. $ 1.50
each.
* QST Although primarily a ham magazine, QST is found on the desks of engineers, technicians
and ¡ ust about everyone in electronics. There is something for everyone in QST, from Novice to
Old Timer. QST and ARRL membership $ 5.00 in U.S.A., $ 5.25 in Canada, $ 6.00 elsewhere.

*THE RADIO AMATEUR'S HANDBOOK Internationally recognized, universally consulted.

Packed with information essential to the amateur and professional alike. Hundreds of photos,
diagrams, charts and tables. $ 3.50 U.S.A., $ 4.00 U.S. Poss. and Canada, $ 5.00 elsewhere;
Clothbound Edition, $ 6.00 in U.S.A. and Possessions and Canada, $ 6.50 elsewhere.

*A COURSE IN RADIO FUNDAMENTALS A complete course of study for use with the Radio
Amateur's Handbook. Applicable to home study or class use. $ 1U.S.A. proper, $ 1.25 elsewhere.

* UNDERSTANDING AMATEUR RADIO Written for the beginner. Explains elementary

principles in simple language. Tells how transmitters, receivers and antennas work, includes
complete how- to- build- it information on low-cost stations up to 150 watts. $ 2.00 U.S.A. proper,
$2.25 elsewhere.

*HOW TO BECOME A RADIO AMATEUR Tells what amateur radio is and how to get
started in this fascinating hobby. Emphasis is given to the needs of the Novice licensee, with three
complete simple amateur stations featured. 500.

*THE RADIO AMATEUR'S LICENSE MANUAL Complete with typical questions and answers
to all of the FCC amateur exams— Novice, Technician, General and Extra Class. Continually
kept up to date. 50e.

*LEARNING THE RADIOTELEGRAPH CODE For those who find it difficult to master the
code. Designed to help the beginner. Contains material for home study and classroom use. 50e.

*THE ARRL ANTENNA BOOK Profusely illustrated, the Antenna Book includes information
on theory and operation of antennas for all amateur bands; simple doublets, multi- element
arrays, rotaries, long wires, rhombics, mobile whios, etc. $ 2.00 U.S.A. proper $ 2.25 elsewhere.

*SINGLE SIDEBAND FOR THE RADIO AMATEUR A digest of the best SSB articles from
QST. Includes discussions of theory and practical "how- to- build- it" descriptions of equipment.
$2.00 U.S.A. proper, $ 2.25 elsewhere.

*THE MOBILE MANUAL FOR RADIO AMATEURS It's a collection of articles on tried and
tested equipment that have appeared in QST. A " must" for anyone interested in the installation,
maintenance and operation of mobile stations. $ 2.50 U.S.A. proper, $ 3.00 elsewhere.

*HINTS AND KINKS If you build equipment and operate an amateur radio station, you'll
find this a mighty valuable book in your shack and workshop. More than 300 practical ideas.
$1 U.S.A. proper, $ 1.25 elsewhere.

QST BINDERS SUPPLIES

No need to let your copies of QST rest Active amateurs need these supplies: ARRL Logbook, 500
in a disordered pile. A QST binder will U.S.A., 60e elsewhere. Mini log, 30e U.S.A., 350 elsewhere.
keep them neat and orderly. Each holds Radiogram blanks, 35 per pad postpaid. Message de-
o one-year file. $ 3.00 ( available in livery cards, 6 each stamped, 2¢ each unstamped.
U.S. and Possessions only). Members' stationery, 100 sheets $1.50; 250 sheets $3.00
500 sheets $ 4.50
 III ,letlicatio« jet Vtemdetddifr

AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE

Administrative Headquarters: Newington, Connecticut, U. S. A.

19....

AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE,

Newington 11, Conn., U. S. A.

Being genuinely interested in Amateur Radio, I hereby

apply for membership in the American Radio Relay
League, and enclose $ 5.00* in payment of one year's dues.
$2.50 of which is for a subscription to QST for the same
period. [Subscription to QST alone cannot be entered for
one year for $ 2.50, since membership and subscription
are inseparable.] Please begin my subscription with the
issue.

The call of my station is

The class of my operator's license is

I belong to the following radio societies

Send my Certificate of Membership D or Membership

Card II] ( Indicate which) to the address below:

Name

A bona fide interest in amateur radio is the only essential requirement, but full

voting membership is granted only to licensed radio amateurs of the

United States and Canada. Therefore, if you have a license,

please be sure to indicate it above.

*S5.00 in the United States and Possessions.

S5.25, U. S. funds, in Canada.
S6.00, U. S. funds, in all other countries.

52
 Sure You Would, even the last dollar. Mosley
engineers would bet that you couldn't find another antenna
that would compare to their 2 and 6 meter Scotch- Master
Beams. Why! Because Mosley Scotch- Master 2 and 6 meter
beams offer unmatched performance, dependability and
features not found in any competitive beam. When you in-
stall a Mosley Scotch- Master Beam there is no need to
bluff agood signal or fold because of QRM.

Please send me FREE of charge your brochure ( form no. SM-2-6)

on the 2 and 6 meter beams.

Name
Address
City/State

M endary
4610 N. Lindbergh Blvd., Bridgeton, Mo. 63044

53
 Accessories always available at ARROW
NUVISTOR CONVERTERS FOR 50. ALL BAND 2 Nuvistors in cascode give noise
144 AND 220 MC. HIGH GAIN, LOW NOISE figures of 1.5 to 3.4 db. depending
Has 3 Nuvistors ( 2 RF stages & NUVISTOR PREAMP on band. Weak signal performance,
image and spurious rejection on all
mixer) and 616 ° sc. Available in any
IF output and do NOT become ob- 6 THRU 160 METERS receivers are greatly improved. PCL's
overall gain in excess of 20 db.
solete as their IF is ea<ily changed
to match any receiver. Average gain Panel contains bandswitch, tuning
— 45 db. Noise figure — 2.5 db. at capacitor and 3 position switch
50 Mc., 3.0 db. at 144 Mc., 4.0 db. which puts unit into " OFF,"
"Standby" or " ON," and transfers
at 220 Mc, Power required 100-150V.
at 30 ma., 6.3V. at . 84A. See PS- 1 antenna directly to receiver or
through Preamp. Power required —
Power Supply. Model CN-50W, CN-
120 V. at 7 nia. and 6.3 V. at . 27 A.
144W or CN-220W wired. ( specify IF.) —can be taken from receiver or
$49.95. Model CN-50K, Ci4-144K or
CN-220K in kit form. ( specify IF.) $34.95 MODEL PCL $24.95 Ameco PS- 1 supply. Size: 3"x5"x3".

COMPACT 6 THRU 80 METER TRANSMITTER CB- 6K — 6 meter kit, 6ES8-rf Amp.

6U8-mix./osc. $ 19.9i
Handles 90 watts phone and CW on CB 6W — wired 8, tested $27.50
6 thru 80 meters. Final 6146 op- — 2 meter kit, 6ES8 1st rf
0- erates straight thru on all bands.
Size — only 5" x 7" 7 7" — ideal mo-
amp., 6U8 — 2nd rf amp/mix . 616
osc. $23.95
à ss
bile or fixed. Can take crystal or CB- 2W — wired and tested. $ 33.95

s .5
VFO. Model TX- 86 Kit $ 89.95 — Wired Model PS- 1 -- Matching Power Sup-
- Model TX 86W $ 119.95. Model PS- 3 ply — plugs directly into CB- 6. CE -
2
Wired 644.55. Model W612A Mobile and CN units. PS- 1K — Kit $ 10 50
Model TX 86 Supply wired $ 54.95. PS.1W — Wired $ 11.50

AUTHORIZED DISTRIBUTORS OF ELECTRONIC PARTS & EQUIPMENT

Arrow's Export Dept.
(N.Y.C. Store) Ships To
All Parts Of The World

ARROWPIEURÜNKS, INC
900 Broad Hollow Rd., Farmingdale, N.Y. • 516-MYrtle 4.6822 65 Cortlandt St., New York 7, N.Y. • 212.0Igby 9.4730
225 Main St., Norwalk, Conn. • 203. 1
1Ictor 7-5889 525 Jericho Turnpike, Mineola. N.Y. • 516-Ploneer 6-8686

• • • • • • • • •

LEARN CODE THE MODERN

ATKO WAY! NEW!
FROM ATKO
MINI-KEYER MODEL 10A
e.A new compact dimension from ATKO, makers of the standard
code training keyers now used by the Navy, Coast Guard, Air Force
and other governmental agencies in their code training programs.
The AT KO MIN I- KEYER is actually acomplete radio school, with
the added advantages that it can be used to automatically key your
transm itter, or monitor your sending.

FEATURES:
• Uses Wheatstone perforated tape. Standard the world over.
PRICE COMPLETE $ 49 .50
• Furnished with three reels of triple spaced tape. Additional • Equipped with built-in oscillator, speaker and Key jack
tapes, normal, double or triple spaced, available at nominal cost. for sending practice.
• Code speeds controlled by easily interchanged capstans. • Equipped with Phone jack. Will drive up to 25 pairs of
Capstan giving sending rate of 16 wpm, which is 5.3 wpm with head phones.
triple spaced tape, comes with Keyer. This provides excellent • At 10 words per minute. tapes run for Ihour.
means of practicing sending. With telegraph key connected, the
• All solid state design. Needs no warm-up. Operates from
10A sends a perfectly formed character, pauses while you
115 Volt 60 cycle AC power line. No batteries.
imitate what you have just heard.
• Includes 11 page Instruction Manual.
• Has Volume and Broad Band frequency controls.
• Other capstans available for 12, 14, 18, 20, 22, 25 and 30
• Will key outside tone source or your transmitter. wpm at $2each.
ATKO The most trusted name
in automatic code trainers. AUTOMATIC TELEGRAPH KEYER CORPORATION
33 WEST 42nd STREET NEW YORK 36, N. Y.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

54
 Get into this rapidly growing
field with 2nd Class Ticket and
LAMPKIN MOBILE- SERVICE METERS

1110111MAIMOM *MR»

LAMPKIN 105-B MICROMETER

FREQUENCY METER
FREQUENCY RANGE on local trans- LAMPKIN 205-A
mitters 0.1 to 175 MC — to 3000 MC by FM MODULATION METER
measuring in multiplier stages. ACCU- FREQUENCY RANGE — Continuous
RACY conservatively guaranteed better 25 MC to 500 MC. No coils to change.
than 0.0025(4—actually 9out of 10 results Rough and vernier tuning controls. PEAK
come within 0.001%. CALIBRATION FM swing shows directly on indicating
table for each meter; charts show percent- meter—calibrated 0-12.5 or 0-25.0 peak
age off-frequency from FCC assignment. KC, positive or negative. No charts or
DIAL 4" diameter, 40 turns, totals 8000 tables. ACCURATE—within 10% at full
divisions spread over 42 feet—resettable scale. FIELD STRENGTH METER —.
better than 5parts per million. CRYSTAL Reads relative transmitter output. PRO-
thermometer on panel automatically indi- TECTED — Panel components recessed
cates dial checkpoint. SIGNAL GENER- behind edges of the case. PORTABLE —
ATOR—apinpoint CW source for mobile- Just a 2-finger load.
receiver final alignment.
JUST THESE TWO METERS—WITH NO ADDITIONAL CRYSTALS OR FACTORY ADJUSTMENTS—
WILL CHECK FREQUENCY AND FM MODULATION ON HUNDREDS OF TRANSMITTERS.'
LAMPKIN METERS ARE PREFERRED TEST EQUIPMENT— BY MUNICIPALITIES, 50 OUT OF 50 F
STATE GOVERNMENTS, BY MOST 2-WAY RADIO MANUFACTURERS, AND BY THOUSANDS OF'
INDEPENDENT MOBILE-SERVICE ENGINEERS.
NOW . . . THE PPM METER .. . AN
ACCESSORY FOR THE TYPE 105-B . . .
ACCURACY BETTER THAN 0.0001%, AMPLE
FOR SPLIT-CHANNEL FREQUENCY CHECKS.

FREE BOOKLET— with facts

and figures—send for "HOW TO Measurements Section
MAKE MONEY IN MOBILE- Lampkin Laboratories, Inc.

RADIO MAINTENANCE". Bradenton, Florida

At no obligation to me, please send

MAIL COUPON TODAY! I1 " How To Make Money in Mobile- Radio Maintenance!"

E Technical data and prices on Lampkin Meters

LAMPKIN LABORATORIES, INC. Name

Address
BRADENTON, FLORIDA
City Tone State
 .40 COLL GRADS, TO $7M
Top nee, $ ales ° netted Jr wab.1 to
tYP deal ye/Moroni execs Dee) ex Mom«,
V 42 pre SM fee 04 14.0 A9tMCy w 12 —ELECTk..
*115
Rooter. radio.

Talent Wanted
RCIAL EXP .mrneol hemp o
ÇOrY HALL) CAKES AGENI
SpeC,aliseS
"CERS ELECTRONICS
DOT
ELECTRONIC TECHS
most be able to work oulepeodently
COrtipretterkSiVe tri.nq to roc
cessful arertlicentS. Send comelete re,u
inGiUd,nle Iliry « Wed. 3 T,

Because of their complexities, the day-to-day mercial Radio Operator's license, required for
servicing of FM two-way radios can be ahighly commercial two-way radio servicing. These
rewarding full-time vocation, or an extremely privately owned franchised C.E. service organi-
profitable sideline. zations are located throughout the nation.
Every year, thousands of new mobile and Take advantage of this outstanding opportu-
portable radio systems are installed by delivery nity today. Find out whether you can qualify.
services, taxicabs, utilities, industrial and con- Write: National Service Manager, General
struction firms and many other companies. All Electric Company, Communication Products
these systems require servicing by skilled pro- Department, Section 3-4-64, Lynchburg,
fessionals with highly specialized background Virginia, fisting your technical and professional
and all-around experience. experience.
What's more, working in an authorized
General Electric Service Station is an ideal way
to prepare for the second or first class Com- GENERAL ELECTRIC

111 10, -
1

Two-way mobile radios Two-way portables Voice paging receivers Base stations

56
 FREE
knigh " kit e
including the Ceti

ALLIED
ELECTRONICS
FOR EVERYONE send today for
196 4
car•LOG 230
your 444- page

n ALLIED
' 1964 CATALOG
lime in

E
ie1/4LL AVE
IED C040 Mt/
et/11.010
100 1.1. WEST 011 • CIOCAGO 0
Bac k
.11, • 11• 1-11•00 (*ego*
M world's largest
Satisfaction Guaranteed or ou'
electronics catalog

BIGGEST SELECTION
BIGGEST SAVINGS

EVERYTHING IN ELECTRONICS FOR THE AMATEUR

• Ham Receivers and Transmitters
get every ham •World's Largest Stocks of Station Supplies
• New Build- Your- Own Ham Knight- Kite
buying advantage
•Citizens Band 2- Way Radio
LARGEST SELECTION • Electron Tubes and Semiconductors
ALLIED stocks the station gear you •Test Instruments and Meters
need— at lowest, money- saving
• Everything in Stereo Hi -
Fi
prices. Same day shipment from
the world's largest stocks. •Tape Recorders and Tape
• Everything in Electronic Parts,
HAM - TO - HAM HELP Tools & Technical Books
Our staff of more than 60 licensed
hams goes all-out to give you the SEND FOR YOUR COPY TODAY
personal help you want. Whether
you write, call, or visit our Ham r"
Shack, you'll like the friendly in- ALLIED RADIO, Dept. 50-M
terest and attention you always 100 N. Western Ave., Chicago 80, III.
get at ALLIED.
El Send FREE 1964 ALLIED Catalog
EASY TERMS
Take full advantage of the ALLIED
Credit Fund Plan. Name
/LILO ( PRINT

ALLIED RADIO Address

serving the Amateur for 43 years

City Zone State

Ism -11

57
shurie.. THE HAMS' NO.! CHOICE
850
Series
-Shown
Actual
Size

Select the right meter from 258 catalog types. For instance, 0-1 DC Milliammeter at right
has 1000 ohms internal resistance, model at left 800 ohms, with bridge type design to
minimize effects of external magnetic forces.

350 Series
0.40 db S meter illustrated

550 Series 950 Series

Shown approximately three quarter size

CLEAR-PLASTIC CASES: Hams are enthusiastic about the mod- perature plastic material provides an ideal way to dress up a
ern, expensive- looking 850 series, and are pleased to find the panel. The clear jewel-like front is very rich looking, and gath-
meters cost only 15C more than equivalent metal cased ers light for easy reading of the long scale. Yet it takes very
meters. Equally good news is the longer, more visible scale little panel space and costs less than might be expected.
arc ... the removable front...the new high temperature case
material ... and the availability of zero adjusters on all AC or DEPENDABLE PERFORMANCE: Offering by far the best torque-
DC ranges. to-weight ratio in its price range, Shunte provides a sturdy
meter with fast responses and the ability to duplicate read-
ATTRACTIVE METAL CASES: For panel appearance or special- ings. Accuracy well within the standard 5%.
ized service conditions, also consider the long-time metal
favorites, the basic models 550 or 950 as illustrated. Although REASONABLE PRICES: Typical of the exceptional values are the
all have been modernized in appearance, each metal case con- meters illustrated, 0-50 DC Ma, $ 2.40 in the 550 or 950
tinues to fit 2%2" mounting hole. Zero adjusters are included Series, $ 2.55 in the 850 Series; 0-40 db S Meter in the 350
on some, and available on all DC ranges of these models. Series, $ 3.45; 0-1 DC Ma, at right above, including zero ad-
juster, $4.00 in the 550 or 950 Series) $ 4.15 in the 850
CHOICE OF MANY TYPES: AC and DC Ammeters, AC and DC Mil-
Series ;0-1 DC Ma at left without zero adjuster, $ 3.95; with
liammeters, AC and DC Voltmeters, new 0-500 DC Microam- zero adjuster, $ 4.30. 0-150 AC Volts, $ 4.05 in the 550 or
meters, DC Resistance Meters, VU, S, and new Field Strength 950 Series. Low costs are made possible by large quantity
Meters. AC meters are double-vane repulsion type with jeweled production.
bearing. DC are polarized-vane solenoid type, moving magnet
construction, or bridge-type design. Choice of sensitivity is GUARANTEED: For one year against defective workmanship and
available in popular DC Milliammeters as illustrated above. material. Will be repaired or replaced if sent postpaid to the
Ask for Catalog 94-E covering all types, and Bulletin VUS- 63 factory with 50C handling charge.
with application notes on VU, S, and Field Strength Meters.
WIDELY AVAILABLE: These American made meters are stocked
EDGEWISE METERS: The 350 series made with new high-tem- by leading electronic parts distributors for prompt deliveries.

SHURITE METERS 130 Wallace Street • New Haven, Conn. 06508 • P.O. Box 1818
 "BEAMED-POWER" ANTENNAS
and ANTENNA SYSTEMS
The Choice of the Discriminating
Communication Engineer ... the
Man who Never Settles for Any-
thing Less than THE-VERY- BEST!

You too— can enjoy World renowned TELREX

performance and value!
Send for PL77 condensed data and pricing cata-
log, describing the World's most Popular an-
tennas from $ 5.95 to $999.00. Expanded data
sheets— your favorite band, also available.

I
rex
ANTENNAS Communication and TV Antennas

with a SINCE
LABORATORIES
MATERIAL DIFFERENCE!" 19 21

3e
PEP s
16,2 NEVV 1 A COMPLETE PrION.0-BAND KIT- INCLUDES I KW
74:7 :_v5e8, , 5C 1080 " BAWN , WIRE, INSULATORS

1395-
=re. -
AND COMPLETE INSTRUCTIONS PEP

0)1,.1...1.. "
BALUN"
Mlle

111110AD-SAND TO PROPERLY INSTALL

80or4Oor2Oor15
"SALUN" oTlIor10 giter '
I2r-
......._
•100(1 3.* I0150 ell>
HIGH PERFORMANCE INVERTED"V" no+
30W PEP MODEL ANTENke
,0..81 tau
MFG.UNDER TELREK RAT No 2,576,929 II,
WRITE FOR FREE " BALUW:INVERTED .V. •
` TELREX LABORATORIES ASI3URY PARK N.a
BOOKLET or PL- 77

'FREE!
• 24 Hour
Scr4,;:c
• Low
PrIces

LAFAYETTE
422 Giant- SIZE PAGE CATALOG NO. 640
More in`64 to fill All Your Ham Needs Jent.. Aim

STARFLITE Tm
90- WATT PHONE and CW
TRANSMITTER KIT
Easy Pay Pla n ... As low As $ 5 MontblY
KT- 390 79 -50

ICé Deluxe
TIONS
8- Tube
RECEIVER
COMMUNICA -

PROFESSIONAL
FIE•30WX W,red 79.55
QUALITY 5- BAND
KT•320WX Semi- Kit .
64.95
COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVER
IMPORTED
HE-80 Wired only 129.50

IMPORTED

LAFAYETTE RADIO ELECTRONICS

P.O. BOX 10, SYOSSET, L. I., N. Y., DEPT. RAH- 4
1 Rush my FREE Lafayette 1964 Catalog 640

E Please send stock , $ enclosed

DELUXE
6- METER
TRANSCEIVER NAME
MADE IN

HE-45BWX 119.95 U.S.A. ADDRESS

ULF( ZONE. STATE —1

59
 FREDERICK ELECTRONICS CORPORATION...
o manufacturers
.14
of quality
di. it • e ..... *******
telegraph
***A dit 4s.••••••••, **** 444
equipment
• • • • • • • •

t MODEL 201 . r
.e nal.',2,Z, Z.;: -..•

PULSE PATTERN
GENERATOR
Simulates Virtually Any Digital
Data Signal t MODEL 660A

TELEPRINTER-
TO -
MORSE CODE
CONVERTER
for Simplified Morse Code Operation
116
• 4
• •
• • , o •
e ••

t MODEL 600

DATA TRANSMISSION
TEST SET •
for Wire Line, Radio and Recorded
Systems
t MODEL 400

TELEGRAPH MESSAGE
We invite your inquiry on telecom-
GENERATOR
munication equipment— write or
Replaces Most Tape and " Canned"
phone Message Transmitters

(FE) FREDERICK ELECTRONICS CORP.

Hayward Road, Frederick, Maryland • PHONE: 301-662-5901

60
 Gertsch Model FM- 9 photographed

with George ( Skipper) Maynard — K6RTD

NOW ... GERTSCH COMBINES

FREQUENCY METER
SIGNAL GENERATOR
DEVIATION METER
IN A SINGLE, PORTABLE PACKAGE - $1,495
—direct digital reading of every FCC assigned channel in the 150-162 me band.
With this Gertsch meter, you can measure and generate all allocated channels in
both 150-162 mc and 450-486 mc bands... with . 0002% ( 2 ppm) accuracy. Gener-
ated outputs can be attenuated to less than 0.5 1.tv for receiver sensitivity checks.
400-500 kc output also available for I.F. alignment.
As a deviation meter, instrument measures peak FM deviations ... two full scale
ranges of 5and 15 kc.
Simple operation. Just set dials to read desired frequency. No charts, curves or
calibration books needed.
Easily calibrated. Accuracy solely dependent on asingle 1-mc oven-controlled crys-
tal... easily checked against WWV.
All solid-state circuitry results in acompact package only 8" H x 12" W x 12" Long.
Weighs less than 25 pounds.
Operates anywhere...on 115/230 AC line, 12 volt DC, or optional rechargeable
battery pack.
Send for literature on FM-9Series

\,.....
bertsd
GERTSCH PRODUCTS, INC., 3211 SOUTH LA CIENEGA BLVD., LOS ANGELES 16, CALIF. • UPton 0-2761—YErrnont 9-2201

61
 hCLA,?Lgk;;;:t
NEW 1964 GIANT CATALOG

100's of 100's of pages

new ¡terns packed with
liste d for
savings
first time

Scatisiacti on
Gufemenill

r your moneY
o boat!

FOR 37 YEARS THE

OUTSTANDING
NO MONEY DOWN

Li`2L
PLUS NEW REVOLVING
CHARGE ACCOUNT

• DURSTEIN-APPLEDEE CO. Dept. M,

M./21C
1012-14 McGee St., Kansas City 6, Mo.
I El Rush me the FREE 1964 .B-A Catalog.

I NqmE
BUYING GUIDE FOR:
ADCRES • Ham Gear • Test Instruments and Kos • Citizens Band
• Stereo & Hi -
Fi Systems and Components • Tape Recorders
I CITY • Electronic Parts, Tubes. Books • Transistor & FM-AM Radios
• Cameras and Film • Public Address • Phonos & Records

62
 The wind blows just es herd
over your rooftop es it does
over the police steion...
The exceptional popularity of our M-91 and M-92 ( 10 and 6 meter)
Amateur Base Antennas is due in part to their towering resistance
to the elements. Nothing short of atornado will damage them or
impair performance Here's why:
They are mechanically identical to our ASP-350 Professional Base
Antenna — designed specifically, and field- proven in thousands of
effective installations, to meet the super- critical requirements of
police, fire departments and essential industrial users of two-way
radio.
Same rugged, heavy walled aluminum tubing, with telescope- interlock
feature for instant assembly and no bending ... same quality solid
aluminum radials . . . same accurate, hand- finished workmanship
throughout.
M-91 and M-92 match their professional twin in performance, too.
End- fed, 1
2 wavelength. Through exceptional improvement of signal-
/
to-noise ratio reception is improved 6 db. or more over conven-
tional single element omni antennas. Very low noise. Signal pattern
is intensified greatly by low radiating angle.
We've told you what we know. Your friends with the biggest signals
on the air can tell you better. So can your amateur equipment dealer
— see him soon.
m . 94 ( 10 meter) the antenna
1 $ 34.50 amateur net
specialists
(6meter)
g. $ 28.43 amateur net co.

Amateur Base Antennas

12435 Euclid Avenue,
Cleveland 6, Ohio
'Stripes of Qual,ty" Exp. Div. 15 Moore St., New York 4, N.Y.

.1
P.S.
i
yo M- 92.. won't
ur gale fail
but your

eleene power might!

New "ZEUS" portable power generator 'nth only one
mowng part Alternator prIncIple 1000, 1250 and 3000
watt models Wnte tor complete intormafion

63
 VIBROPLE X
THE PIONEER AND ALWAYS THE LEADER
WORLD'S NO. 1 KEY SEMI- AUTOMATIC
Never tires the arm
Never upsets the Nerves New Super DeLuxe

"PRESENTATION" VIBROPLEX
Presentation
The Super DeLuxe model's JEWEL
MOVEMENT completely revolutionises
sending. Makes it easy for every operator.
It has SUPER- SPEED CONTROL
mainspring; you go from slowest to high-
est speed without changing weights.
Vibroplex has TOUCH CONTROL.,
adjustable to your individual desire.
Vibroplex has FIRM STANCE. a very

74 important Item. The rubber feet are so

placed the key stays in position.
RICHLY DESIGNED — 24k gold-
2.t- K "BUG" plated base top, polished chromium
machine parta, red trim and jeweled
Gold - 1
•11a ted
movement. DeLuxe, only $33.95.
Base T. 1 1

ALL LABOR TAKEN OUT OF SENDING

SEND BETTER Vibroplex SEND FASTER — Vibroplex
makes uniformly good signals at gives you greater speed. More
any speed. They are sharp and speed than you can ever use. But
easy to read. You will like them. it's there if you need it.
SEND EASIER--Vibroplex is a SEND LONGER — Vibroplex
perfectly balanced key. You are keys last longer. Many keys are
relieved of all nervous and mus- still in use after 30 or more years.
cular tension. Nothing to get out of order.
Vibroplex Lightning Bug
Improved design with slotted weights that
can't work loose. A bridged damper frame
Replace your old-fashioned key with that protects key against damage. In-
all its annoyances with an Improved stantly adjustable dot contact spring may
be removed without disturbing speed
NEW VIBROPLEX. Enjoy sending
weights. Precision machining, trouble proof
as never before. Choose yours from and adjustable to any speed. Standard,
those illustrated here. with circuit closer, gray base and chrome
top parts, priced at $21.45. l)eLuxe model.
priced at $25.95.*

"VIBRO-KEYER"
Vibroplex Original
Acclaimed by thousands of the world's finest Supplies the answer to many years of
operators for ease of operation, clean signals requests for Vibroplex parta for a key-
and all around sending excellence, Precision ma- ing mechanism to be used with ELEC-
chined. trouble- proof and efficient. A strong TRONIC TRANSMITTING UNITS.
favorite of the elite. Standard, with circuit Features a beautiful base, size 3 by
closer, grey Anse and chrome top parts, $ 22.45: is" and weighing 2 pounds. Red
DeLuxc, %via, polished chromium base and top finger and thumb pieces, same large
parts. red trim and jewel movement. $ 24.95.• le contacts on main frame and trun-
nion lever as used in Vibroplex. A real
beauty, adjustable to suit your speed
requirements. Standard model, priced
at $ 17.95: Deluxe model. with Chrome
Plated Base, priced at only $ 22.45.

*Cord and wedge. $ 1.75 additional.

NEW SPECIAL ENLARGED Edition of

PHILLIPS CODE, $2.75 Postpaid
Also includes: United States Time Chart
Vibroplex Carrying Case Radio Code Signals " Commercial " Z" Code
International Morse Aeronautical " Q" Code
Keeps key like new. Black simulated American Morse Miscellaneous Abbrevia-
morocco. Flexible leather handle. Ru..ian, Greek. Arabic Ured on Interna -
Turkish and Japanese wire, submarine
Protects key against dust, dirt and
Morse Codes cable and radio telegraph
moisture, and insures safe- keeping World Time Chart circuits.
when not in use. With lock and
key. $6.75.

Avoid imitations! Every Vibroplex key

The " BUG" Trade Mark Prices subject to change without notice has 3/16 contacts and
Identifies the is available for left-
Genuine Vibroplex. hand operation, $ 2.50
Accept no substitute extra.

THE VIBROPLEX CO., Inc., 833 Broadway, New York 3, N. Y.

W. W. ALBRIGHT, Pr...ideal

IF YOU SEND YOU SHOULD USE THE VIBROPLEX

WHAT IS THE COMMON DENOMINATOR
OF AN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN PYRAMID
AND A SUCCESSFUL
MODERN ELECTRONICS CAREER?

A STRONG FOUNDATION!
The Egyptian pyramid was built on astrong foundation. What about your electronics career ?
Advancement in electronics depends on a solid understanding of basic principles. If you are
handicapped by a poor understanding of these vital "basics," you need training— the strong
foundation training offered by Grantham School of Electronics.
Beginning at the beginning, Grantham training progresses in a logical, step-by-step manner
up through the complex theory of the Missile Age— and all of the math you will need is taught
as an integral part of our lessons. Because we present these all-important basic principles
with maximum penetration, you will learn to think and reason electronics rather than relying
on half-understood concepts and rote-memory.
The Grantham program is made up of three consecutive steps, and each completed step increases
your value as an electronics man. The following is a "thumb-nail sketch" of the Grantham 3-step
program for electronics advancement:
ÁK Section IA leads to attainment of your First Class FCC License and may be completed in
the classroom or through home study.
Section IB gives you practical experience on a great variety of " live" electronics equipment
•
in four weeks of intensive, supervised training in the Grantham Student Laboratory.
*Section II offers Advanced Electronics Training through home study and is designed to assure
your advancement after you are on-the-job.
The above program may be taken as awhole, or you may complete only that step which best suits
your individual needs!
To obtain full details on Grantham training, fill out and •Mol in envelope o, posle on postal cord
mail the coupon on the right. We will be glad to send you
(without charge or obligation) our free 44-page booklet, To: GRANTHAM SCHOOL OF ELECTRONICS
NATIONAL HEADQUARTERS OFFICE
CAREERS IN ELECTRONICS. 1505 N. WESTERN AVE., LOS ANGELES, CALIF., 90027

GRANTHAM
e st.,

Please send me your FREE 44.page bmoklet.

"11 ,1
"CAREERS IN ELECTRONICS."

SCHOOL OF ELECTRONICS Name Age

(PLEASE PRINT)
FIVE CONVENIENT TRAINING DIVISIONS:
Address
1505 N. Western Ave., Los Angeles, Calif., 90027 HO 7-7727
9320 Long Beach Blvd., South Gate, Calif., 90280 564-3421 City

408 Marlon Street, Seattle, Wash., 98104 MA 2-7227

State
3123 Gillham Rd., Kansas City, Mo., 64109 JE 1-6320
IAM INTERESTED IN: D HOME STUDY 13 RESIDENT CLASSES 4-A
821- 19th Street, NW, Washington, IC., 20006 ST 3-3614

65
 •••

RADIO \+,

COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT t(ei

VHF RECEIVERS • AIRPORT VEHICLES ,
REMOTE CONTROLS jo, • AIRLINE GROUND STATIONS

VHF ANTENNAS • CONTROL TOWERS

11707
-1 1111r
-

COMCO
THE LEADIN6 MANUFACTURER OF RADIO EQUIPMENT FOR AIRPORT VEHICLES
OFFERS ACOMPLETE LINE FOR COMMERCIAL AND MILITARY APPLICATION

MODEL 278 CONTROLLER

MOBILE, PORTABLE 118.150 MC
6/12/24 VOLTS DC 3 WATTS OUTPUT

In production for past 12 years and recognized as

standard of the Aviation Industry, this pioneer
model now includes a new squelch and limiter cir-
cuit for noise free operation at the busiest airports.

MODEL 678 GROUND STATION

MOBILE, PORTABLE 118-150 MC
6/12 and/or 117 VOLTS AC
This popular 10 watt ground station is earning
an excellent reputation for performance and low
maintenance by many domestic airlines, ARINC,
municipal airports, and government agencies, and
for high quality unicorn stations. Mobile trans-
ceiver features all-transistor power supply.

MODEL 700 PORTACOM

MOBILE! PORTABLE/ BASE 225-400 MC
6/12/24 VDC OR 117 VAC 2 WATTS OUTPUT
Designed for military airport vehicles requiring
communication with control tower anchor aircraft
in vicinity of airport. Now being used by 1.1.S.A F.,
F.A.A., and other Government Agencies.

MODEL 707 JETCOM

AM/FM MOBILE 118-150/25-470 MC
6/12 OR 24 VOLTS DC 3/20-40 WATTS OUTPUT
A combination AM/FM radio for commercial air-
port vehicles requiring communication with tower
and a VHF- FM municipal or company frequency.
Simultaneously monitors both frequencies with
minimum battery drain.

For lull details, write today,

gier
3M1.4
4 me“

DESIGNERS AND MANUFACTURERS OF RADIO COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT

FOUNDED 1938 CORAL GABLES, MIAMI 34, FLORIDA

66
 Communications, mobile radio ...
Handbook
Companion. A First Class
FCC License
...or Your Money Back!

RADIO TEIMIONE OPERATOR LICENSE

PIRST CLASS
o'de 4:Pef„ke

A concise, clearly written text for

use with the Radio Amateur's
Handbook, A Course in Radio
Fundamentals is ideal for the be- Your key to future success in electronics is a First- Class
FCC License. It will permit you to operate and maintain
ginner but just as useful for the transmitting equipment used in aviation, broadcasting,
marine, microwave, mobile communications, or Citizens-
more advanced amateur who wants Band. Cleveland Institute home study is the ideal way
to get your FCC License. Here's why:
to brush up on his radio knowledge. Our training programs will quickly prepare you for
a First- Class Commercial Radio Telephone License
For radio theory classes it is one of with a Radar Endorsement. Should you fail to pass
the FCC examination after completing your course,
the most practical books available. you will get afu// refund of all tuition payments. You
get an FCC License ... or your money back!
You owe it to yourself, your family, your future to get
the complete details on our " proven effective" Cleve-
Complete with study assign- land Institute home study. Just send the coupon below
TODAY. There's no obligation.
ments, experiments and exam- MAIL COLIPUN TODAY Fon FRFE CATALOG

ination questions based on the Cleveland Institute of Electronics

1776 K. 17th St., I /opt. QT- 27

Cleveland 14, Ohio
Radio Amateur's Handbook. Please send FREE Career Informa-
tion prepared to help me get ahead in
Electronic., without further obligation.

"You get more fun out of a radio if you CHECK AREA OF MOST
INTEREST —
know how and why it works." D Firet-Class FCC License
D Electronics Technology
D Industrial Electronice D Electronic Communications

Broadcast Engineering
jel 00 POSTPAID
U.S.A. Proper Your p Ctupot,on

$1.25 Elsewhere Norne Ag•

(please print)

Address

The American Radio Relay League City Zone Stot•

Accredited Member National Home Study Council
NEWINGTON, CONN. 06111

67
 •

Variac® (,)
Continuously Adjustable
For Smooth Control
of A- C Voltage

;4
AUTOTRANSFORMERS
4
4-
e

The usefulness of General Radio Variac autotransformers

for voltage control applications is only limited by your im-
agination. Use aVariac for heater and plate-voltage control
— use it as akey element in avariable power supply — use
it to control soldering-iron temperature — use it as a light
dimmer — use it to reduce QRM by limiting power outpu
— use it to protect equipment during adjustments (lets you
run gear at an " idle") — use aVariac wherever you have an
a-cvoltage control problem.
Variacs are available with 2-, 5-, 8-, 10-, 20-, 30-, and
50-ampere ratings, 120- or 240-volt input. Variacs can be
used singly, ganged for higher power, or in polyphase con-
nections. Variacs can be supplied in cased or uncased
models for surface or behind-the-panel mounting. Also
available is a wide range of metered and motor-driven
models.
Want more information? Write to Westates Electronics
for the VARIAC BULLETIN for a complete listing of the
over 100 different models. Also available is the free HAND-
BOOK OF VOLTAGE CONTROL, 40 pages full of theory,
applications, and circuits for variable autotransformers.

Am
Model Input Output Rated Max. Price
W2 120 0-120 2.4 3.1 $U
W5 120 0-120 6.0 7.8 18
Selected TERMS: No COD's.
W5H 240 0-240 2.0 2.6 21 20% down, balance C.O.D..
Popular V.lie 120 0-120 10.0 13.0 33 F.O.B. destination. When
complete payment
W1OH 240 0-240 4.0 5.2 35 accompanies order,
Varlac
freight is prepaid.
W20 120 0-120 20.0 26.0 48
Models IN STOCK:
W2OH 240 0-240 8.0 10.4 50 Every cataloged General
Radio Variac is immediately
W30 120 0-120 30.0 36.0 81
available from Westates,
WIOH 240 0-240 12.0 15.6 u authorized Variac stocking
distributor. For further
Note: Above items are single units. uncased. 120 v- Information and technical
in put models can be connected for 0-140v output
at rated current only; 240v- input (H models). assistance, write to Walt,
for 0-280v. WA6BMG or Sam, WA6ZYB.

WESTATES ELECTRONICS CORP.

6344 Arizona Circle • Los Angeles, California 90045

Telephone: 776-1600 645-1100

68
 TELEX FOR HAM QUALITY
The quality of Telex headsets has become well known to hams over the last
twenty-five years. Here are three Telex headsets that deliver the
kind of top grade performance that hams expect from Telex —

MAGNA -
TWIN TELESET MONOSET

For absolute maximum intelli- Lightweight, economy version Feather- light at 1.2 oz.... Elim-
gibility under difficult QRM con- of the famous Magna- Twin ... inates headset fatigue...Sound
ditions ... Super- comfort foam High performance, shock- proof from replaceable driver is fed
cushions ... Rugged, moisture - Magna- Twin drivers... Designed directly into your ears through
proof magnetic drivers give especially for ham requirements. adjustable tone arms . .. Telex
broad response, excellent sen- quality construction assures re-.
sitivity ... Sturdy construction liability.
of high impact plastic.

Write for descriptive literature today. )TELEXI Acoustic Products

COMMUNICATIONS ACCESSORIES
3054 ExcelsiorBlvd.•Minneapolis16,Minn.

Because you've got to SEE it to BELIEVE it well sent' you a

FREE sample!
zs.ama texte4;41,
AREVOLUTIONARY NEW METHOD FOR
MARKING ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
Simply try the sample. You'll agree " Instant Lettering" is the easiest,
quickest way to get professional lettering you've ever seen. Self-adhesive
letters printed on a special plastic sheet are just pressed down into posi-
tion on any equipment, drawing, schematic, etc. Transfers instantly to
practically any surface. Looks like printing.
AVAILABLE IN THE FOLLOWING SETS
• TITLES FOR ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
...this set contains 24 sheets ... thousands of preprinted titles...researched to
give you up to 95% of all electronic panel marking. For labeling, marking, titling,
all electronic control panels, drawings, prototypes, etc.
No. 958 — Black $4.95 No. 959 — White $4.95
• TERMINAL & CHASSIS MARKING KIT
... 24 sheets of all the necessary letters, letter combinations and numerals for
marking chassis, printed circuit and terminal boards, rotating components, etc.
No. 966 — Black $4.95 No. 967 — White $4.95
• METER & DIAL MARKING KIT
...12 sheets ( 5" x .7") in black, red and white...containing arcs, dial patterns,
lines, dots, wedges, graduation lines, switch symbols, alphabets and numerals for
marking standard and special rotary tap switches, potentiometers, prototype and
especially calibrated meter dials. Color contrast on scales and switches simplify
usage of complex instruments.
No. 968 — METER & DIAL MARKING KIT $4.95

NOW...with these three kits you can completely mark prototype electronic
equipment from component parts to finished control panel and meters.
In stock at ALLIED, NEWARK,
SEND FOR FREE FOLDER AND SAMPLE
LAFAYETTE, ARROW, HARRI-
SON, FEDERATED and other THE DATAR CORPORATION
leading distributors or direct. 63 71st STREET • DEPT. 6110 • GUTTENBERG, NEW JERSEY

69
 FROMd1WORLD'S LEADING MANUFACTURER OF HIGH SPEED MORSE TELEGRAPH EQUIPMENT

MODERN

GMT
EQUIPMENT
FOR LEARNING MORSE CODE

INKERS, LINE COMMUTATORS,

._
PERFORATORS, TRANSMITTERS, ETC.

e
t
PROFESSIONAL TELEGRAPH KEYS
er....i, 4..,,itxx--.:t-ter...e.
;¡:„.e.r.-y,,.. • . •-
,: ,
.
eri:,,,,e.:41..r._";...,.f,>;:r.ii-,k.c.,
,,i,; .¡.¡%t; ...-,:;,
sr.itteee4ceezzAtufm., ,;...,ageie4axer.%.4.4.0r:,,C,i,I.N.,,...
,-4

r1*14.

GNT TRANSMITTER MODEL 115 GNT MORSEINKER MODEL 1532

A Ideal for learning Morse code, permitting insertion !.":,1C,i Operates from tone frequency signals or
.1. i by Morse Key. Especially designed for
..e.1.4., .
of extended pauses between letters and words. ?.
r
-egepez:tW‘ekee..t*, ,....tev 45.1 -.,)?‘•,si
e':•-clii.•;.•!';.!>-.. '+',:,' '..+ 4
•4
training purposes.

4.,4,
.1.4,4,-,,,,,
h4..,.,(44.,,..w.,,,,,,...,+x,,,z, I
e-4,,,
,,..,1--....,-• vet. — 1
"HOW TO LEARN MORSE"

Booklet describing

Morse training

Write for copy and send 25¢

to cover mailing charges
GNT KEYBOARD PERFORATOR MODEL 50
An instrument for preparing a perforated Morse
code slip for use in a transmitter. Maximum
speed of operation 750 characters per minute.
Provided with a special locking device prevent-
ing the simultaneous depression of two keys.

TELCOLAB CORPORATION
CHRYSLER BUILDING
.. ALSO COMPLETE RANGE OF
NEW YORK 17, N.Y.
AUTOMATIC INSTRUMENTS FOR HIGH
SPEED MORSE TELEGRAPHY.
U.S, Representatives of: •
slie, i'ne•Oere
. . .

GREAT NO TELEGRAPH WORKS, COPENHAGEN, DENMARK

Distributors in Canada: TMC Canada Limited, R.R. No. .

5, Ottawa, Ontario.
 STOCK ... CEILING HIGH!

THE
PENINSULA
AND
SAN FRANCISCO
BAY AREA'S
LARGEST!

ELIVIAR
ELECTRONICS
LONG ESTABLISHED DISTRIBUTORS
OF AMATEUR AND INDUSTRIAL
EQUIPMENT, PARTS, COMPONENTS.
ANTENNAS AND ACCESSORIES.

IN-DEPTH STOCKS OF ALL

NATIONALLY ADVERTISED BRANDS.

PROMPT, COURTEOUS, FRIENDLY

SERVICE- COUNTER, PHONE, MAIL.

SERVING
THE
ENTIRE ELIVIAR ELECTRONICS
WESTERN
REGION
140 11TH ST., OAKLAND 7, CALIFORNIA
FROM THE WU -FAX
S.F. BAY
AREA PHONE: 834-3311 • TWX B91-9252
(AREA CODE 415)

71
 Be Better Informed!
Radio Engineering Handbook, 5/e
Keith Henney, Editor- in-Chief; prepared by a Staff of 35 Specialists.
If you want to keep up-to-date on A vast store of concise, easy-to-understand data on design, manu-
facture, and operation of radio equipment. 1755 pps. $25.00
the numerous aspects of radio... Antenna Engineering Handbook
gain the "know how" of a profes- Henry Jasik, Editor-in-Chief; 36 Contributing Specialists. Details
information on many types of antennas and the use of antennas in
sional... realize your full potential numerous array arrangements. 1013 pps. $ 22.00
Radio Ray Propagation in the Ionosphere
in this complex and challenging field By John M. Kelso. Examines geometrical optics of radio signals.
Includes coverage on whistler propagation, electron density distri-
— here are just afew of McGRAW- bution, and ray paths. Avail. Dec. 1963. 450 pps. About $20.00

HILL'S books on radio that will help Two-Way Radio

By Allan Lytel. A comprehensive guide to two-way radio— from its
you achieve your goals. description and uses, to technical data. Covers both AM and FM
systems. 281 pps. $9.50

NAB Engineering Handbook, 5/e

Listed on the right are authoritative, highly- Prepared by the Nat. Assoc. of Broadcasters and Specialists. Con-
informative volumes covering important facts, tains vital facts and best practices — plus fundamentals, standards,
rules, and " how to" material. 1728 pps. $27.50
ideas, methods, and procedures you will want
Single Sideband Principles and Circuits
to have at your fingertips.
By E. W. Pappenfus, W. B. Bruene, and E. O. Schoenike. Complete
and up-to-date account of subject. Includes numerous tables and
charts, often overlooked circuit subtleties, and usable circuits with
component values. 405 pps. About $ 12.50

Wave Propagation in aTurbulent Medium

See these McGraw-Hill Books By V. I. Tatarski. Discusses magnetic and acoustic waves. Explains

at your local bookstore phase and amplitude fluctuation, scintillation of stars, radio scatter-
ing, and more. 285 pps. $9.75

Electronics Manual for Radio Engineers

By V. Zeluff and J. Marcus. Provides practical circuit information,
mathematical foundations, and measuring and operating techniques
for putting equipment at peak efficiency. 879 pps. $ 17.50

Prices subject to change without notice V- RAH- 64

MOBILE UDOWntil
two UNIVERTER 300XL
FEATURES

• 300 WATTS

• SELECTIVE OUTPUT VOLTAGE

• REVERSE POLARITY SAFE

FOOLPROOF ELECTRONIC
•
CIRCUIT BREAKER

• INTERNAL POWER RELAY

• CABLE ATTACHED

SPECIFICATIONS

VOL FACES 800, 700. 600 VDC H 8+

(infer row.)

775 VDC, Io8+

The TOPAZ UNIVERTER 300 XL: One rugged, reliable supply to power any
popular transceiver. A lifetime investment, built for rough weather, rough use, -50 I. - 120 VDC potonnomoto, bias
year after year, trouble-free. Dust- proof, spray-proof, kick-proof deep- drawn thleut 11 re 18 VDC
steel housing: Ideal for under-hood, but attractive for visible location. Quiet
WEIGHT 8 pounds
enough to mount anywhere. Ratings conservative. Rugged new transistors.
Impossible to damage by short circuit. All cables included: 8-ft. Red lead to Sal. 61/2 n5 • 4-11/16

battery, 5- ft. cable to transceiver, 18" ground lead. TEMP - MO' 130° f

Unconditionally guaranteed against defects in materials and workmanship for a period of 6 months

TOPAZ INCORPORATED 3802 HOUSTON STREET • SAN DIEGO, CALIF. 92110 • PHONE: (714) 297-4815

72
Manufacturers of the most complete line of Amateur, Industrial, Radio and Television R.F. Coils.
 COMPLETE OUTFITTERS
FOR THE

1HAM
F. S:
I
ce' ss
260 9
?asoci
w eet Gue 7

en0,
le es
-11052
COMMUNICATIONS
ELECTRONIC
ENGINEERS

EUGENE G.
W ILE
218-220 South 11th St. Philadelphia 7, Pa.
WAlnut 3-1343

Distributors of
Nationally Advertised Lines of
RADIO, TELEVISION and ELECTRONIC Parts

74
 FIELD ENGINEERING WITH A FUTURE

Mee
et
ia
.41e,
:awl ki
44'1
c;
-
t.;

The man in charge of

this efficient station is Ray
Remington, W1SBP. Ray
works his rig with the
dedication and enthusiasm
At Raytheon, field engineers are playing
that has helped him to
an increasingly important role in the instal-
become an important and
lation, maintenance and operation of com-
respected executive at
plex, sophisticated electronic systems. In
Raytheon. It was only a
space, on the ground, under the seas, in
little more than 10 years
every environment probed by electronics,
ago that Ray, aham with
Raytheon engineers are finding and meeting
Navy electronics experi-
new challenges. The opportunities for quali-
ence and ambition to get
fied people are many and rewarding.
ahead, answered a Ray- Today Ray Reming- Perhaps you can qualify for aRaytheon
theon field engineering ad ton is Programs Manager, field engineering future. Requirements in-
in QST. Field Engineering, of clude an E.E. or its equivalent in practical
Raytheon's Electronic experience in guided missiles, fire control,
Services Operation. After radar, sonar or communications equipment.
joining Raytheon's Field Among Raytheon benefits: attractive
Engineering organization,
starting salary with regular merit reviews;
Ray rose to assume over- life and hospitalization insurance; retirement
all responsibility for the plan; educational and relocation assistance.
complete test program For complete details, write Mr. R. E.
during the design and Guittarr, Electronic Services Operation,
development stages of the Raytheon Company, Equipment Division,
B-58 Hustler Search Northwest Industrial Park, Burlington, Mass.
Radar Program. Since
then, he has assumed ¿ver
more challenging posi-
tions until he now directs
a field engineering pro-
gram with world-wide
responsibilities. RAYTHEON
An equal opportunity employer.

75
 Electronic Tubes
at budget prices!
We are SPECIALISTS in tubes and semi- conductors,
ready to supply either one replacement tube or
major annual requirements covering the full
frequency spectrum, fgr:

AMATEURS

eCOMMERCIAL BROADCASTERS
IINDUSTRIAL USERS
ITELEPHONE COMMUNICATIONS

Partial list of representative types:

Type Number Price Type Number Price Type Number Price

1B24A $ 10.00 4CX300A $ 50.00 VA- 221 Series $ 110.00

1B63A 18.00 4C35 13.50 807 1.25
2C39A 11.00 4E27 18.00 810 16.75
2E24 3.00 4PR60A 45.00 813 13.50
2E26 2.75 4X150A 12.50 829B 9.50
2K25 10.00 4X150G 37.00 832A 8.00
2K28 22.00 4X250B 30.00 833A 40.00
3B28 2.25 5C22 19.00 1625 0.50
3CX100A5 21.00 6BL6 29.00 5721 100.00
4-65A 13.00 6BM6 35.00 5763 1.60
4-125A 27.00 UX-CV11 10.50 5837 45.00
4-250A 35.00 X-13 175.00 6080 2.50
4-400A 37.00 VA- 220 Series 100.00 6146 3.75

All tubes are warranteed, first quality, by major manufacturers

CURRENT CATALOGUE AVAILABLE ON REQUEST

S onoRA,.. ELECTROMATICS, INC.

295 Vreeland Ave. 3 Place Ville Marie
PATERSON, N. J. Montreal, P. Q., Canada

76
Remember When ...
RADIO AND TEST EQUIPMENT
LOOKED LIKE THESE? ( Known as wireless prior to World War I)

SPARK GAP
LOOSE COUPLER FROM THE LABORATORY OF AUDIBILITY METER CONDENSER
ADAMS MORGAN MAJOS E. H. ARMSTRONG GENERAL RADIO CO. MARCONI

During the 1940's ...

MEASUREMENTS LEAD THE WAY
WITH DEVELOPMENTS SUCH AS:

1940 1948
<
e
t]The first The most
commercially successful
built pulse grid-dip meter
generator ever produced. MODEL 59
MODEL 798

MEASUREMENTS...
CONTINUES TO LEAD THE WAY TODAY
WITH:

<:]The first
successful
Acompletely
new concept of
FM Signal Generator frequency
with asolid measuring
MODEL 560FM
state modulator equipment MODEL 760

"WATCH FOR MEASUREMENTS' FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS"

MEASUREMENTS
A McGraw-Edison Division
BOONTON, NEW JERSEY
 FINEST QUALITY- BEST SERVICE- AND
COSTS NO MORE . . . DEMAND CARLING

Carling Quality Switches are available in the widest

possible variety of styles and sizes and have

extensive applications in the radio

electronics field.

In addition to the popular distributor stocked

items pictured here are thousands

of variations and adaptations designed

for our customers' specific needs. We are

constantly engaged in the development of new

products and welcome the opportunity to serve you. 110-B-73 SP.- ST.

ROTARY SWITCHES PUSH SWITCHES 2BL63-73 D.P.-D.T

78
 Quality insulating mate-
rial for the best arc track-
ing control.

Positive make and break

action.

Precision handle operat-

ing forces.

Finer contact materials

2FA53-73 SP.- ST. 2GK250-73
for dependable perform-
2FB53-73 S.P.-D.T. 2GL250-73 D.P.-D.T.
ance under varying 2FC53-73 S.P.-D.T. 2GM250-73 D.P.-D.T.
loads (Center Off) (Center Off)

111
Stronger return springs
with minimum pressure.

H A multitude of circuit
arrangements available.

Easy to wire terminal

arrangements and
styles. HK250-73 3P.-S.T. IK250-73 4P.-D.T.
HL250-73 3P.-D.T. IL250-73 4P.-D.T.
HM250-73 3P.-D.T. IM250-73 4P.-D.T.
(Center OM (Center Off)
Exacting lever to bush-
ing seals.
Call or see your local distributor. •

Carling SWITCHES
WEST HARTFORD 10 CONNECTICUT to
794
 James F. Moody
To Manufacturers 2609 Sweet Gum St
Pasadena, Texas 77052
and Distributors of
Products Used in Short- Wave
Radio Communication

THE RADIO AMATEUR'S HANDBOOK iS the standard

reference on the technique of high-frequency radio
communication. Now in its forty-fir* edition, it
is used universally by radio engineers and tech-
nicians as well as by thousands of amateurs and
experimenters. Year after year it has sold more
widely, and now the Handbook has an annual
distribution greater than any other technical hand-
book in any field of human activity. To manu-
facturers whose integrity is established and whose
products meet the approval of the American Radio
Relay League technical staff, and to distributors
who sell these products, we offer use of space in the
Handbook's Catalog Advertising Section. This sec-
tion is the standard guide for amateur, commercial
and government buyers of short-wave radio equip-
ment. Particularly valuable as a medium through
which complete data on products can be made
easily available to the whole radio engineering and
experimenting field, it offers an inexpensive method
of producing and distributing a catalog impossible
to attain by any other means. We solicit inquiries
from qualified manufacturers and distributors.

ADVERTISING DEPARTMENT . . .

• American Radio Relay League

NEWINGTON, CONNECTICUT 06111

80
,t1M7, -M
 a