Applied Sciences: Recent Advancements in Non-Destructive Testing Techniques For Structural Health Monitoring

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applied

sciences
Review
Recent Advancements in Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
for Structural Health Monitoring
Patryk Kot 1, * , Magomed Muradov 1 , Michaela Gkantou 1 , George S. Kamaris 1 , Khalid Hashim 1,2
and David Yeboah 1

1 Built Environment and Sustainable Technologies (BEST) Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University,
Liverpool L3 3AF, UK; [email protected] (M.M.); [email protected] (M.G.);
[email protected] (G.S.K.); [email protected] (K.H.); [email protected] (D.Y.)
2 Engineering Faculty, University of Babylon, Hilla 51001, Iraq
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +44-0151-231-2420

Abstract: Structural health monitoring (SHM) is an important aspect of the assessment of various
structures and infrastructure, which involves inspection, monitoring, and maintenance to support
economics, quality of life and sustainability in civil engineering. Currently, research has been con-
ducted in order to develop non-destructive techniques for SHM to extend the lifespan of monitored
structures. This paper will review and summarize the recent advancements in non-destructive testing
techniques, namely, sweep frequency approach, ground penetrating radar, infrared technique, fiber
optics sensors, camera-based methods, laser scanner techniques, acoustic emission and ultrasonic
techniques. Although some of the techniques are widely and successfully utilized in civil engineering,
there are still challenges that researchers are addressing. One of the common challenges within the
techniques is interpretation, analysis and automation of obtained data, which requires highly skilled
 and specialized experts. Therefore, researchers are investigating and applying artificial intelligence,
 namely machine learning algorithms to address the challenges. In addition, researchers have com-
Citation: Kot, P.; Muradov, M.; bined multiple techniques in order to improve accuracy and acquire additional parameters to enhance
Gkantou, M.; Kamaris, G.S.; Hashim, the measurement processes. This study mainly focuses on the scope and recent advancements of the
K.; Yeboah, D. Recent Advancements Non-destructive Testing (NDT) application for SHM of concrete, masonry, timber and steel structures.
in Non-Destructive Testing
Techniques for Structural Health Keywords: concrete structures; non-destructive testing; sensors; steel structures; structural engineer-
Monitoring. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750. ing; structural health monitoring (SHM)
https://doi.org/10.3390/
app11062750

Received: 3 December 2020


1. Introduction
Accepted: 10 March 2021
Published: 18 March 2021
Structures and infrastructure systems, namely buildings, dams, bridges, and pipelines
require proper inspection, monitoring, and maintenance to support economics, quality of
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
life and sustainability in civil engineering. The conventional practice is based on human
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
visual inspection, which is not able to locate any hidden damages [1,2]. Therefore, there is
published maps and institutional affil- a need for better inspection techniques for monitoring the deterioration of infrastructure
iations. as assessing the condition of a structure is necessary for its safety and reliability. Nonde-
structive evaluation (NDE) provides methods for the detection of hidden damages, which
provides valuable information that can be utilized to extend the lifespan of monitored
structures. However, the structures’ large size gives a challenge for sensor implementation,
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
which is offering more localized inspection. In recent years, many researchers have investi-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
gated different techniques for structural health monitoring using different methods, namely
This article is an open access article
electromagnetic, acoustic and others. A number of commonly monitored parameters used
distributed under the terms and for Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) applications include the detection or measure-
conditions of the Creative Commons ment of strain, load, displacement, impact, pH-level, moisture, vibration signatures, and
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// presence of cracks [3].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ The working principle of nondestructive testing (NDT) techniques varies depending
4.0/). on the measuring parameter, type of the structure, and its physical properties. For instance,

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11062750 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci


Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 2 of 28

compressional and shear wave velocities and electrical resistivity must be considered in
terms of the building material and engineering properties of the structure. The considera-
tion takes into account an assumption about the structure, and it can also involve calibrating
the measurement, which is a requirement for most NDT surveys. There is usually a specific
NDT technique that is used for the measurement of a particular parameter based on the
physical properties of structures and reliability of the used method. Five major factors
should be considered during the selection of the design of the NDT survey, namely (1) the
penetration capability of the technique, (2) the resolution requirements for measurements,
(3) the contrast in physical properties between the target and its surroundings, (4) the level
of noise of the techniques, i.e., whether the provided information about the measured
structure is valid and (5) historical reputation of the method in its use in the construction
of the structure. The consideration of these factors should lead to the specification in the
design of the NDT method or provide an alternative to NDT techniques if it is not suitable
for solving a particular problem [4].
Therefore, in this paper, the working principle of various NDT techniques is discussed.
Focus is placed on the following NDT techniques for SHM: sweep frequency technique,
ground-penetrating technique, infrared methods, fiber optic sensors, camera-based meth-
ods, laser scanner techniques, acoustic emission sensors, and ultrasonic methods, which are
presented in Sections 2–9, respectively. The basic principles of each technique are explained,
and recent research advancements are critically reviewed.

2. Sweep Frequency Technique


The sweep frequency technique uses electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic (EM)
waves are defined as the energy that propagates through space at the speed of light [5].
EM waves are formed of oscillating electric and magnetic fields where the magnetic field
is oriented orthogonal to the electric field. The electromagnetic frequency range can be
divided into separate bands, with low-frequency (long wavelengths) radio waves, mi-
crowaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays at the high-frequency
(short wavelengths). The EM waves in each of those bands have different characteristics,
namely how they are produced, interaction with measured material, and their practical
applications [5,6].
The radio and microwaves are actively investigated for the purpose of detection of
various anomalies in materials under test [7]. Microwaves are EM waves with wavelengths
ranging from one meter to one millimeter, or equivalently, with frequencies between
300 MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz [8,9]. The benefit of this part of the EM spectrum is it is
none ionizing and providing high depth penetration through dielectric materials offering
great potential to be commercialized and applied across several industrial sectors. This
technique has been broadly used for water and wastewater quality control [10,11], detection
of substances deposited on various materials [12,13], cultural heritage [14] and healthcare
applications [15].
The Sweep Frequency Technique (SFT) is a microwave-based method that was inves-
tigated and proposed as a non-destructive measurement approach for structural health
monitoring (SHM). The proposed SFT technique consists of two wideband horn anten-
nas (transmitter and receiver), Vector Network Analyzer (Rohde & Schwarz ZVL13) and
PC with in-house developed LabVIEW graphical user interface (GUI). The antennas are
mounted on a bespoke frame that provides an ability to adjust the angle between the anten-
nas and control the distance between the system and measured material under test (MUT).
The antennas are connected to the vector network analyzer (VNA), which is controlled via
the GUI.
The SFT system operates in the frequency domain and is set to sweep frequency from
2 GHz to 13 GHz. Measurements of the system are provided by S-parameters (S21 ), i.e., the
incident wave is generated by the VNA and sent to the transmitter antenna via coaxial
cable. The reflected signal from the MUT is captured via the receiver antenna and analyzed
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 3 of 28

by the LabVIEW GUI in real-time. The dimensions of the bespoke frame with antennas
and block diagram of the SFT system is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1. (a) Sensor dimensions, (b) Proposed microwave Transmitter/Receiver setup and (c) block diagram of proposed
Sweep Frequency system for SHM [16].

The SFT was used for monitoring the excess moisture content caused by waterproof
membrane defects [17,18] and chloride level [16] in concrete structures. Kot et al. [18] has
first reported the use of the SFT for the detection of water infiltration for concrete roof
structures. In the study, researchers replicated the concrete flat roof designs according to
Malaysian standards and ran a series of experiments to monitor water infiltration, rebar
location and membrane fault detection. The initial experimental work was undertaken
with two flat roof specimens with and without reinforcement rebars. The obtained results
demonstrated significant shifts in both frequencies (from 3.8 GHz to 4 GHz) and amplitude
(from −38 dBm to −24 dBm) of the reflected signal from specimens with and without
rebar, respectively. The changes were caused by more microwave energy is being able to
penetrate through the specimen without rebar, i.e., microwaves are not able to penetrate
through steel rebar, so more energy is reflected in the case of the reinforced specimen.
The second study was carried out to detect membrane failure on concrete roof structures.
Two concrete specimens (with and without rebar) were used to test the technique. The
measurements were undertaken with and without faulty membranes (a hole with 20–30 mm
diameter was made in the middle of the membrane) to investigate the changes in microwave
signal, namely amplitude and frequency changes. The obtained results demonstrated
that membrane failure influenced the microwave signal. The changes were both in the
amplitude and frequency of the reflected microwave signal. The proposed technique
was also investigated to detect chloride level in reinforced concrete (RC) structures by
Omer et al. [16]. In this study, five concrete specimens were made and submerged first in
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 4 of 28

tap and then in salted (various concentrations of chloride) water. The aim was to investigate
the influence (if there is any) of the presence of chloride on the microwave signal. The
captured results demonstrated that the absorption of the microwave energy was lower
in specimens with lower chloride concentration owing to the lower conductivity, which
in turn influences the microwave signal, namely the amplitude. The obtained data was
pre-processed and analyzed using Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm, which demonstrated
that the technique can detect chloride level in concrete with R2 = 0.99 and RMSE = 0.00012
at 5.42 GHz.
Microwave sensing technology was also investigated by researchers as an embedded
solution for long term monitoring of concrete and masonry structures. A rectangular
patch antenna (resonating at 2.45 GHz) and a split ring resonator (SRR) (resonating at
3.4 GHz, 4.7 GHz, 5.7 GHz, 8.7 GHz and 10.6 GHz) were investigated to monitor the excess
moisture content in concrete specimens [19] and detect cracks in RC [20], respectively. Both
sensor structures were embedded inside the concrete specimens for real-time monitoring.
A model for the determination of moisture content and deterioration of concrete was
successfully developed and implemented. Moisture content inside concrete specimens and
crack development in RC specimens can be studied from the data of their interactions with
microwaves. This measurement is provided via S-parameter (reflection coefficient (S11 )),
i.e., in the form of complex data.
The experimental setup for the detection of moisture content with a rectangular patch
antenna is presented in Figure 2a. The setup consists of a concrete specimen with the
embedded antenna, which is connected to Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) and a PC
with a bespoke LabVIEW program to control VNA and capture data. The specimen was
submerged in water in order to increase the moisture content of the specimen and then was
placed on a digital weighing scale to monitor the drying off process. Both specimen weight
and microwave signal from the embedded antenna were recorded every 5 min for a period
of 48 h. The data analysis presented a strong linear relationship between the weight loss
of the specimen and changes in amplitude of the microwave signal from the embedded
antenna, with R2 = 0.98.

Figure 2. (a) Embedded Rectangular patch antenna setup for moisture detection [19], (b) Embedded SRR antenna setup for
crack detection [20].
Figure 2b shows the experimental setup for the detection of cracks in RC concrete
specimens. The SRR antenna was placed 100 mm from the bottom of the concrete specimen
in order to capture the crack propagation in the tensile zone just below the neutral axis
of the specimen. In addition, the strain gauges were attached to the tensile reinforcement
bars to measure the vertical deflection of the specimens while a load cell was used for the
recording of the load increments applied by a calibrated hydraulic 100 kN load actuator.
Synchronized data acquisition systems were used for the structural response measurements.
The full captured microwave signal (1–10 GHz) was analyzed in order to investigate a
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 5 of 28

relationship between the crack propagation and the signal. The strongest linear relationship
was identified between the 2.8 GHz and 3 GHz frequency range, with R2 varying between
0.90 and 0.94.
Both studies have demonstrated the potential use of microwaves to monitor excess
moisture in concrete structures as well as to detect crack propagation in reinforced concrete
structures, offering a low-cost option for structural health monitoring (SHM). Further
investigation is required to validate the results prior to the implementation of the proposed
embedded sensors into actual structures.

3. Ground Penetrating Radar


Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is one of the most used electromagnetic (EM) wave-
based techniques in civil engineering owing to the noninvasive, low costs, and rapid
monitoring nature of the technique. GPR is used for the evaluation of the stability of
concrete and masonry structures, maintenance of the structures, and structural health
monitoring of infrastructure conservation. In addition, the GPR technique is investigated
to inspect the asphalt pavements in order to detect voids, fractures, or other types of
defects [21,22].
The working principle of the GPR technique is the use of the microwave region of the
EM spectrum that employs a transmitter and a receiver (antennas) to send and capture
the reflected wave (as shown in Figure 3. Radiated short pulses of high-frequency EM
energy are generated by pulse mode GPR systems that penetrate through an object via
a transmitting antenna and then detected by a receiver. Various frequencies are used
depending on the requirement of the measurement, namely resolution versus penetration
depth, i.e., the higher the operating frequency, the higher the resolution, and the lower
the penetration depth of the system. To maintain the accuracy of the GPR systems, they
must be calibrated with a core sample of the tested material [4]. The measured signal is
amplified, processed, and analyzed based on the altered signal, i.e., the transmitted energy
is partially absorbed and transmitted by the material under investigation, and the rest is
reflected and captured by the system. The changes in the reflected energy, namely, electrical
conductivity, dielectric permittivity, and magnetic permeability, help to detect, for instance,
cables, pipes, rods inside structures [23] and to monitor the corrosion in reinforced concrete
(RC) structures [24].

Figure 3. Ground Penetrating Radar principle of work.

GPR inspections are often carried out in combination with other noninvasive geophys-
ical techniques, namely, acoustic techniques, infrared thermography (IRT) and, electrical
resistivity tomography (ERT) [21]. In the past five years, researchers focused on the devel-
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 6 of 28

opment of various GPR data analysis methods in order to overcome the limitations of the
technique.
One of the main drawbacks of the technique is the requirement for a highly skilled
specialist to interpret captured data from the system. Therefore, researchers have been
investigating various approaches to address the limitation, namely the implementation of
artificial intelligence techniques to analyze the data for the detection of objects. Typically,
there are three types of data obtained via the GPR system, namely A-, B- and C-scan data.
A-scan data is punctual time-domain data (z-axis) at a certain spatial point, while the B-scan
provides x-z domain data (x-axis) that are generated from numerous A-scan data along the
scanning route. The C-scan data is obtained from the x-y domain data by combining B-scan
images, which is acquired utilizing multiple antennas [25]. Khudoyarov et al. [26] proposed
the three-dimensional convolutional neural network to analyze the GPR data in order to
classify the underground objects. The 13 km of the 3D data was collected from urban roads
in Seoul, South Korea, using a multichannel antenna mounted on the vehicle. The data
consisted of various objects, namely, cavities, pipes, manholes and subsoil background.
The proposed classification demonstrated the accuracy for cavities, pipes, manholes, and
subsoil backgrounds 88%, 100%, 100% and 100%, respectively. The average classification
accuracy for four underground objects is 97%.
Researchers are exploring other methods to improve GPR data assessment. For
instance, Morris et al. [27] applied GPR for infrastructure assessment and SHM using
quantitative attribute analysis. The purpose of the study is to investigate how the physical
and mechanical properties of scanned objects are implicated in GPR data. The scans were
carried out on Streicker Bridge with a GSSI StructureScan 2.6 GHz antenna to maintain a
good balance between high resolution and a reasonable concrete penetration depth. The
longitudinal and transverse scans of the bridge deck were collected, where longitudinal
transects were collected at 15 cm line spacing with a nominal length of 8 m. The obtained
data were processed using a standard set of basic filters focusing on preserving the relative
amplitude of the data rather than absolute amplitude as the latter is influenced by the EM
properties of the material, surface roughness and other external factors. Findings from the
study demonstrated the potential of the attribute analysis method for the characterization
of material when combined with other SHM and NDE techniques.
One of the advantages of structural health monitoring is the possibility to monitor
structures over a long period of time in order to predict potential failures. On the other hand,
processing and analysis of such data may present various challenges. Hong et al. [28]
proposed a new method to address the challenges of processing long-term monitoring
data from the GPR system. The principle of the new signal processing procedure involves
individually pre-processing and energy mapping of each input GPR dataset. Then, the
GPR signal energy intensity mappings are further registered using Mutual Information
(MI) based image registration method. The final stage of the process is to normalize the
intensity of the aligned images. In this study, researchers analysed GPR data collected
to monitor the accumulative corrosion process over a period of 10 years. The proposed
method of GPR signal processing was able to align the monitoring images and normalize
their intensities in order to detect reinforcement corrosion in concrete.

4. Infrared Method
The infrared (IR) method is widely used in the civil engineering field in order to locate
the weak spots or deterioration of structures, which are caused by cracks or corrosion [2].
The working principle of the IR method utilizes the measurement of the temperature
changes on the surface of structures caused by compression or tension. The method uses
specialized scanning cameras to capture the emitted heat at any temperature and convert
the data into thermal images for further analysis.
Concrete structures with defects, namely debonding render and mosaic or delam-
inating concrete, emits infra-red radiation, which can be seen by the infra-red cameras
as the concrete surface will heat up faster under solar irradiation, and the generated hot
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 7 of 28

spots will be visible in the thermal record. The uniformity of the captured IR images of
surfaces with even color and texture indicates that the structure has no or insignificant
defects [4]. This method has been found effective for the rapid assessment of large struc-
tures, namely, high-rise apartment blocks. The advances in the development of high-end
IR cameras can potentially enhance the reliability, accuracy, and cost-effectiveness of the
technique [24].
Recent advancements of this technology have focused on the development of the
automated data processing and analysis methods and their deployment onto various plat-
forms (e.g., UAV). Hiasa et al. [29] proposed a new methodology for the enhancement
of the usability and efficiency of IR thermography for subsurface detection of damages
on concrete structures. The aim of this investigation was to address a challenge with
interpretation and detection of delamination from IR images as setting up the temperature
too high or too low might affect the identification of some defects. A finite element (FE)
model was designed and simulated using COMSOL software in order to obtain a threshold
for IR thermography data processing. Two thresholds were obtained for this investigation,
namely sound and delaminated areas from the IR image and FE model, respectively. In
this study, various sensitive parameters and factors to validate FE models, namely the size
of delamination (area, thickness and volume), ambient temperature and solar irradiance
conditions (different season), and the depth of delamination from the surface. The valida-
tion of the FE model demonstrated the potential of FEM analysis in the detectability within
a temperature difference range of approximately ±0.3–0.4 ◦ C band between delaminated
and sound areas. The undertaken FEM simulation provides the possibility to estimate a
detectable delamination depth by IRT prior to field inspection, which in turn will save time
and improve the efficiency of the measurement and detection procedure.
The infrared measurement technique has also been combined with other measurement
methods, which is a common practice in SHM. However, hybrid methods require highly
skilled specialists in multiple disciplines in order to interpret and/or analyze obtained data.
In recent years, artificial intelligence has become an important part of the interpretation
of complex data. Jang et al. [30] proposed the use of deep machine learning to automate
the concrete crack detection process. In this study, a hybrid image scanning (HIS) system
(see Figure 4) comprised of vision and infrared (IR) thermography was used. The system
was controlled via a bespoke LabVIEW program, and the obtained data were processed
using MATLAB. The working principle of the system is initiated via the control computer,
which activates the continuous-wave (CW) laser to emit the point laser beam. The laser
beam is then transformed into a line-shaped laser beam that is focused on a measured
surface. In addition, the vision and IR cameras are used to acquire the surface condition and
thermal waves responses. The scanned data is automatically saved in the control computer.
Both captured vision and IR images are first distortion-calibrated and then go through the
time–spatial-integrated (TSI) coordinate transformation. After the transformation process,
IR images are further processed via phase mapping and spatial derivative method for
precise multiple crack visualization, whilst vision images go through a deep convolutional
neural network (CNN) process for the automatic crack extraction. Then, the images are
matched and evaluated by the deep CNN process. The system was experimentally tested
and validated using concrete specimens with various cracks in laboratory conditions. The
results demonstrated the potential of the system to automatically visualize macro- and
microcracks by minimizing false alarms.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 8 of 28

Figure 4. Schematics of the proposed hybrid image scanning (HIS) system [30].

5. Fiber Optics
Fiber Optic Sensors (FOSs) have found their practical use in civil engineering ap-
plications for structural health monitoring, including crack detection, measuring strains,
pH level, vibration, corrosion, temperature monitoring, etc. The FOSs are designed to
manipulate transmitted or reflected light response, namely, intensity, polarization, and
spectral content of the phase from the measured object. A FOS is a cylindrical symmetric
structure, which comprises a central core with a diameter between 4 and 600 µm and a
uniform refractive index [31]. The FOS is enclosed in cladding with a relatively lower
refractive index. In this way, the light waves propagating within the core are trapped by the
cladding due to the reflection at the interface between the core and the cladding [32]. The
cladding is then covered with an external plastic coating, which provides environmental
and mechanical protection to the FOS. A FOS is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. An optical fiber along with light guiding and reflection [32].
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 9 of 28

The FOSs offer a number of advantages compared to traditional sensors, such as strain
gauges. Firstly, the light signal in the FOS is transmitted over a very long length leading to
insensitivity to electromagnetic radiation and very low signal transmission loss [3]. FOSs
are very durable since they are made of glass, and the protection cover is free from corrosion,
which increases their durability [33,34]. FOSs are not non-conductive, which means that
they are free of electromagnetic and radio-frequency interference. Thus, they can be used
in urban areas, in which the problem of signal interferences is severe. FOS are light and
of small size, and for this reason, they are suitable for embedding them permanently into
structures [3,33]. In addition, many FOSs can be joined together into one array, so one cable
is able to work for approximately 10 sensors, which is an advantage over the traditional
electrical strain gauges and accelerometers that require a larger amount of wiring for one
sensor. This results in simplification of the cable layout, and thus the installation period
of FOSs is less than that of traditional sensors, which leads to less installation costs [33].
FOSs can be divided into three main techniques, i.e., fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors,
distributed sensors and interferometric sensors [35]. In the following, the principles of each
method are provided, along with some recent application in Civil Engineering.

5.1. Fiber Bragg Grating


FBG sensors (Figure 6) can measure strain, deflection, temperature, damage, the dy-
namic behavior of structures, etc. An FBG is a periodic refractive index variation, which is
formed in the core of an optical fiber by exposure to an intense UV interference pattern [36].
The FBG sensor comprises a distributed Bragg reflector, which has a higher refractive index
than the rest of the glass core. There is also a sensing interrogator that transmits light to the
reflector [33]. The distance between each Bragg reflector is constant, and for this reason,
only one type of wavelength of light is reflected back to the interrogator. The interrogator
receives the wavelength and transfers it to a digital signal. Strain, temperature, pressure or
acoustic signals can change the distance between each Bragg reflector. When this distance
changes, the reflected wavelength of light (Bragg wavelength) also changes. Thus, the
optical sensing interrogator indicates the change of wavelength (wavelength shift) and
converts it to digital data and computer analyses and records the sensing information.

Figure 6. FBG sensor [37].


Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 10 of 28

There are expressions that relate the change of wavelength to strain, temperature,
pressure or acoustic signals. For example, the relationship between wavelength shift, δλB ,
and strain, ε, for a homogeneous and isotropic material is the following [36]:

δλ B
= (1 − p e ) ε (1)
λB

where λB is the Bragg wavelength and pe is given by the following expression:

n2
pe = [ p − µ( p11 + p12 )] (2)
2 12
where pij are he fiber Pockel’s coefficients and µ is the Poisson ratio. The Bragg wavelength
λB is given by the following equation:

λ B = 2neff Λ (3)

where neff is the modal index and Λ is the grating period.


FBG sensors have been extensively used in sensor technology and SHM. Bursi et al. [38]
have used FBG sensors to measure the inelastic cyclic response of reinforced concrete sec-
tions of tunnel linings located in seismic prone areas. A full-scale specimen that represented
the lining sections of a tunnel specimen and five substructure specimens were tested. Dif-
ferent sets of FBG packaging were used, including bonded and un-bonded sensors in
concrete and embedded and external sensors to monitor the inelastic strains of the speci-
mens. They concluded that un-bonded external FBG packaging is suitable for SHM of civil
infrastructures exhibiting an inelastic response. The seismic damage response of reinforced
concrete structures has also been monitored using FBG sensing technology [39]. Shake
table tests were performed to simulate the seismic response of a three-story reinforced
concrete building. The FBG sensors were embedded in the structure and were utilized
to measure dynamic strain response. This research concluded that FBG sensors are very
accurate and capable of detecting the initiation of a crack and the damages that occurred in
the beams [39]. Moreover, long-gauge FBG sensors were applied to measure the deflection
of tied-arch steel bridges by Zhang et al. [40]. A new method was proposed based on
long-strain measurements to determine the deflection of tied-arch bridges under both static
and dynamic loading. The accuracy of the proposed method was verified through the
experimental results of a real model of a tied-arch bridge. Fan et al. [41] investigated the
application of FBG sensors in monitoring strains in concrete dams subjected to earthquakes.
A novel friction type FBG sensor was used to measure strains during shaking table tests
of small gravity dam models. The FBG strain sensors were embedded in the dam models
and the packaging method used in this paper can prevent damage of FBG sensor during
the pouring process of concrete. The proposed sensor is suitable to monitor the dynamic
strain, determine the dynamic characteristics of the dam model, describe the crack position,
and monitor the cracking progress during the seismic events simulated by the shaking
table. The application of FBG sensors embedded in polymer composite materials was
investigated by Matveenko et al. [42]. A series of experiments were performed to measure
strain under different conditions, i.e., pronounced gradient nature of strain distribution,
compression and tension, a cyclic variation of strains with time and different temperatures.
The results of the experiments have shown that FBG sensors are very effective in measuring
strains in polymer composite materials. Temperature measurements with FBG sensing
technology were performed by Xiao et al. [33]. A steel-concrete composite bridge located
in Alaska was monitored with the aid of 11 fiber optic temperature sensors that are based
on the FBG technique. Real-time temperature data were obtained and combined with
other static and dynamic measurement data. These data were recorded on a computer
were used to establish the relationship between the bridge response and thermal loading.
Finally, FBG sensors have been implemented in monitoring damage in buildings due to
vibration from rock blasting by Norén-Cosgriff et al. [43]. Two buildings were constructed
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 11 of 28

and instrumented with FBG strain sensors to measure their damage when subjected to
blast loading. The results showed that the sensing technique was accurate and that today’s
vibration guideline limit values include a large safety margin for buildings.

5.2. Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors


Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors (DOFSs) provide the same benefits as FOSs, but
additionally, they can monitor variations of one-dimensional structural physical fields
along with the entire optical fiber in a truly distributed way. A single connection cable is
necessary by DOFSs to communicate the data to the reading, compared to the large number
of cables required by discrete sensors. This feature enables DOFSs to be very cost-effective
and increases their potential use in SHM of large civil engineering infrastructure [32].
When this technique is used, fibers are mounted to the surface or embedded inside the
material [44], and strain and temperature can be measured. When the variation of these
monitored parameters is transmitted to the FOS, the signal in the fiber is modulated by
these physical parameters. By measuring the variation of this modulated signal, distributed
fiber sensing is achieved. The methods that have been employed can be subdivided in
two main categories: optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR) and optical frequency
domain reflectometry (OFDR) [32]. When the above techniques are applied, different
types of scattering processes may occur in DOFSs, i.e., Rayleigh, Raman, and Brillouin
scattering [45].
When OTDR is used, a short optical pulse is launched into the optic fiber, and the
amount of light, which is backscattered, is processed by a photodetector. During this
process, Rayleigh scattering is produced due to the microscopic and random variations
of the fiber core refractive index. The spatial variations occurring in the fiber scattering
coefficient are detected by measuring the intensity of the Rayleigh backscattered signal.
These spatial variations in the fiber scattering coefficient are called attenuation [46]. The
attenuation decays exponentially with time when the fiber is not subjected to any external
perturbation, such as strain, temperature, etc. On the contrary, when the fiber is affected
by external conditions and is subjected to an external perturbation, a sudden variation
is exhibited in the attenuation, which is located at the point of the perturbation (Figure
7 [32]). This variation of the attenuation is utilized to provide information about the fiber
properties and the external environmental factors that affect the fiber. In addition, different
types of scattering have been employed to OTDR, such as Raman and Brillouin scattering.
The spatial resolution of an OTDR, ∆Zmin , is given by the following equation:

∆Zmin = (4)
2n
where c is the velocity of light, n is the refractive index of the optic fiber, and τ is the
pulse width.
In contrary to the OTDR method that measures the intensity of the Rayleigh backscat-
tered signal, the OFDR method is used for reading the interference fringes of the Rayleigh
scattered light in the frequency domain. Thus, the spectral response of the fiber is pro-
vided by the OFDR, which indicates the variation of the external conditions that affect the
fiber, i.e., strain, temperature variations, etc. In the case of the OTDR method, the spatial
resolution, ∆Z, is given by the following expression:
c
∆Z = (5)
2n∆F
where ∆F is the tunable laser source.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 12 of 28

Figure 7. OTDR method-Rayleigh backscattering [32].

There are several recent applications of the DOFS method in SHM in Civil Engineering.
DOFSs were used by Sierra-Pérez et al. [47] to evaluate damage in a 13.5 m composite
wind turbine blade, which was tested under static loading. Different sensing technologies
were used to measure strain: FBGs, DOFSs using an Optical Backscatter Reflectometer
(OBR) and strain gauges. Comparison of the methods showed that the FOSs effectively
measured strain and correspondent cracks induced during the test. A novel method,
based on distributed fiber optical Brillouin technique was employed by Zhao et al. [48] to
monitor corrosion expansion of steel reinforcement in reinforced concrete structures. The
proposed method was tested by embedding DOFSs in reinforced concrete specimens to
measure the expansion strain due to the corrosion of the reinforcement. The experimental
results have shown that the proposed method, based on DOFSs can accurately evaluate
reinforcement corrosion in RC structures. Acikgoz et al. [49] used DOFSs based on Bril-
louin optical domain reflectometry to monitor strain and location and width of resulting
crack openings of a historic masonry vault due to the pile construction of the London
Bridge Station Redevelopment. The results of this research indicated that DOFSs could
accurately estimate the location and width of new radial cracks that formed during piling.
Song et al. [50] monitored the response of a reinforced concrete pound lock structure during
the construction process. The variations of temperature and stress/strain were measured
using OTDR sensors based on Raman and Brillouin scattering. The results showed that
the integrated distributed optical fiber sensing technology is a powerful tool to monitor
the construction quality of a pound lock structure. DOFSs have also been used to measure
strain fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) strengthened reinforced concrete shear walls tested
under cyclic loading by Woods et al. [51]. The DOFSs were utilised instead of strain gauges
and could capture strain at any location along the length of a fiber, without knowing the
specific measurement locations before the test. The DOFSs provided accurate estimations
of the strain distribution and were not damaged during large reversals of the cyclic loading.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 13 of 28

Van Der Kooi and Hoult [52] used DOFSs to monitor strain in the members of the steel
model truss. The truss model was tested under both static and dynamic conditions, and
the results indicated that DOFSs could detect localized strain variations due to damage.
Wang et al. [53] used the Brillouin OFDR to monitor the tunnel lining segment joint of the
Suzhou Metro Line 1 tunnel. The results demonstrated the accuracy of the distributed fiber
sensing method. Finally, Lim et al. [54] installed DOFSs to measure the deformation of the
cross-section of a non-circular PVC pipe due to the dead weight of its carrying water. The
deformation was displayed as oscillations in strain measurements made by the DOFSs.

5.3. Interferometric FOS


When the light is emitted by a light source, it is divided through a prism into two
beams with the same frequency, polarization direction, and initial phase. One beam is a
signal light, and the other one is a reference light. When the two beams meet, interference
occurs. The interferometric sensors use the interference image to infer the effect of external
factors, such as strain, on the signal light. An interferometric FOS can be divided into four
main categories: Michelson FOS, Mach-Zehnder FOS, Sagnac FOS, and Fabry-Perot (FP)
FOS. Figure 8 shows the Fabry-Perot FOS [37].

Figure 8. Fabry-Perot FOS [37].

The principle of operation of interferometric sensors is based on the monitoring of


the phase-shift of the propagated light in fiber optic under an applied strain relative to
an unstrained reference fiber [3]. This light phase-shift is measured with the aid of an
interferometric setup. The advantage of this method is high precision and immunity to
fluctuation. In addition, the single-mode fibers used in this method are smaller in diameters
compared to their multi-mode counterparts and can be embedded in a material, such as
composite laminates, without resulting in discontinuity of the material. On the contrary,
the installation of these single-mode fibers should be done very carefully in the field
environment. The single-mode fibers should be successfully cleaved and coupled together
to ensure minimal coupling losses [3].
This type of sensors has also been used in Civil Engineering applications. Zou et al. [55]
used a fiber FP interferometer sensor to investigate the effects of the concrete hydration
process. Two experiments were conducted: a calibration experiment and a concrete hy-
dration experiment. Based on the results of the first experiment, the sensor showed a
linear response (a direct relationship). The results of the second experiment showed that
the sensor is suitable for reliable and stable monitoring of the concrete hydration heat.
Liu et al. [56] developed a partially multiplexed FP interferometric fiber sensor for in situ
strain measurement of composite structures. The proposed sensor is compact, robust,
low-cost and offers long-term stability with reasonable accuracy. Finally, Leng et al. [57]
used FP interferometric and FBG sensors to monitor the curing process of carbon FRP
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 14 of 28

composite laminates. The results showed that both embedded FP interferometric and FBG
sensors could be used to monitor the curing progress of composite materials and detect the
occurred damages during the fabrication process of composite structures.

6. Camera-Based Technique
In recent years, the use of computer vision techniques increased in the civil engineering
sector for structural health monitoring [14]. The primary use of this method is to monitor
the displacement of structures in different environments. The system uses either one or
more cameras, a zoom lens, and a computer to capture the collected data. The use of
real-time processing software enables to measure displacement time histories and display
results on the computer screen in real-time and automatically save data to the computer.
Alternatively, the images can be captured, and data analysis can be performed at a later
date [1].
Khuc and Catbas [58] suggested a completely contactless SHM technique of real-life
structures using cameras and computer vision. Their method was based on the fundamental
camera principle shown in Figure 9. By knowing the distance between predefined points
on the targeted structure in both the image and the world coordinate, a conversion ratio
between pixels and engineering units was determined.

Figure 9. Camera principle [58].

A vision-based system for real-time displacement measurement of high-rise buildings


was investigated by Shen et al. [59] and Lee and Kim [60] using a multiple vision-based
displacement measurement. The rust defect-recognition method based on color and texture
feature, which combines the Fourier transform and color image processing, was proposed
by Shen et al. [59] for steel structures assessment. Automatic process and analysis of large
volumes of images from different angles were studied as a vision-based technique for
crack identification by Yeum and Dyke [61]. FFT algorithm combined with digital image
correlation (DIC) data was recommended by Huňady et al. [62] in order to experimentally
determine the damping ratio value in steel structures. Target-tracking DIC was used in
Ngeljaratan and Moustafa [63], who presented a large-scale laboratory application where
DIC was utilized to monitor the response of a bridge structure and identify various modal
properties, such as natural frequency, damping ratio, and mode shapes. Park et al. [64]
proposed a novel vision-based displacement measurement by successive estimation of
relative displacements and rotational angles throughout a large flexible structure. The
technique was validated experimentally using two webcams installed on a flexible steel
column structure. Trebuňa and Hagara [65] proposed a high-speed correlation system
using Dantec Dynamics cameras to estimate the modal parameters of steel plates. They
suggested an automated tool to conduct image processing directly from data format files.
In order to overcome the limitations related to high-speed and high-resolution cameras,
Yoon et al. [66] used consumer-grade cameras and combined them with three algorithms
for structural system identification. Capturing images using the consumer-grade camera
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 15 of 28

and combining them with a deep learning algorithm was examined by Xu et al. [67] for
crack detection in steel structures. The use of subpixel virtual visual sensors to obtain the
modal shapes of structures and detect structural damage were experimentally studied by
Song et al. [68].

7. Laser Scanners Technique


Laser Scanners are part of the remote sensing technologies that have been widely ex-
plored in civil engineering applications, namely for detailed documentation and inspection
of large structures in recent years. The preference of laser scanners over traditional routine
procedures is the ability of laser scanners to collect a huge amount of accurate data, which
includes the geometry as well as different radiometric attributes [69].
Laser scanners can be considered as LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) or LaDAR
(Laser Detection and Ranging) systems [70–72]. The principle of a laser system is the use of
focused pulses of coherent light, where the system calculates the time of flight of the light
(converted to distance) while it is transmitted and returned back from the measured object,
see Figure 10. The generated scan offers a three-dimensional map of the collected points
commonly called a “point cloud”. The detailed 3D map (in millimeter accuracy) of the
measured object can be generated by formed polygons, which are created via connecting
the point clouds.

Figure 10. Laser monitoring system.

One of the limitations of this system is only able to measure and generate a 3D map
of visible surfaces of scanned objects, so its prime application is to measure deformations
of visible objects such as girders of a bridge, i.e., the laser system is not able to detect any
internal damages. Inadequate lighting and the low reflectivity of the scanned object can
compromise the quality of the image and a slower scan rate may be required to improve
the quality of the image [23].
Since the laser was applied in interferometry as an alternative for the traditional
discharge lamps more than 50 years ago, a new type of measurement became possible [73];
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 16 of 28

this section focusses on recent applications of laser in monitoring the health structures, as
discussed below.
Laser reflection is being used for defects detection in reinforced concrete systems. Qiu
and Lau [74] the experimental results demonstrated that laser reflection techniques instantly
and economically detect the occurrence of defects, but cannot measure the sizes of the
defects. Xu et al. [75] found, through simulations and experiments, the laser methods are
active in the inspections of the concrete systems compared to halogen lamps. Xu et al. [75]
showed that the laser methods offer a wider inspection ranges (more than five meters), high
sensitivity for damages, low power consumption (15 Watts laser excitation), and reduces
wrong alarms because of external noise.
The occurrence of cracks is also detectable by the laser scanners depending on the
difference between the temperatures of the cracked and the solid areas. Scalbi et al. [76]
used a Laser Spot Thermography (LST) for detecting cracks in the surfaces of concrete
slabs, the results showed that laser scanners not only detect the location of the surface
cracks, but the thermal gaps across the depth of the cracks distinguish between shallow
and deep cracks.
The sensitivity of the laser beams for the variation in the thermal gaps in the concrete
systems made it possible to use deep learning in the detection of cracks and fractures in
the concrete systems. Park et al. [77] used deep learning technology and laser sensors
for detecting and quantifying cracks on the surface of concrete systems. The YOLO
algorithm was employed in deep learning to provide real-time detections and quantifying
of the cracks.
The laser was not only used to scan the concrete systems for cracks, it was also used
to detect other defects and properties of concrete. Grigoriadis [78] used laser methods to
investigate the substrate roughness in patch repairs in concrete systems. Laboratory results
showed that the laser methods are active in the characterization of the substrate roughness.
The laser scanners generate a huge amount of data (big data) that is challenging to
store, process, and interpret for traditional data management systems. Although technol-
ogy has proven to be beneficial for SHM, the limitations of technology prevent it from
being more widely implemented in civil engineering. The great limitation of the method
is the laser methods cannot detect the internal cracks and damages in concrete [75], and
laser methods need manual processing of a large amount of data, which requires time and
training. As laser beams may not be applied in parallel because of mistakes in installation,
corrections for the laser alignment algorithm (in the deep learning approaches) is required
to increase the accuracy of the cracks detecting [77].
On the other hand, these limitations were decreased. With the recent developments in
AI/ML and high-performance and supercomputers, these limitations can potentially be ad-
dressed [69]. A combination of acoustic and laser techniques enables reliable measurements
of internal defects.

8. Acoustic Emission Technique


Acoustic non-destructive measurement technique uses transient elastic sound waves
that are emitted as bursts of energy into a material under test. The Acoustic Emission
(AE) monitoring process requires a material deformation, which is used as the source,
and transducers to capture the stress waves that are generated by the source. Sensors
located at the surface of the material (Figure 11a) are used to detect these waves. AE
sensors are the heart of the AE system as they transform waves into electrical signals.
In the case of non-integral sensors, the signal is amplified before transmitted to the AE
instrument, whereas for integral sensors with an embedded amplifier, the wave is directly
transferred to the AE instrument. The signal waveform is affected by the path from
source to the sensor, the sensor characteristics and the system measurement. The signal is
then transferred to the AE data acquisition system. The main AE features are shown in
Figure 11b and include: amplitude, energy, duration, hit, rise time (=delay between the
onset and highest peak of waveform) and count. Subsequent data analysis can include
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 17 of 28

signal strength versus location, amplitude versus location, intensity analysis and average
frequency (=number of counts/duration) versus RA (=rise time/peak amplitude) and can
be performed via different algorithms. The technique is very sensitive and, therefore, able
to real-time monitor microscopic events inside an object by separating background noise
from AE. The generated elastic waves by the release of energy within a material can be
utilized to detect/locate flaws as well as to evaluate their growth rate as a function of
the applied stress. The method is characterized as burst/distinct pulses and continuous
emissions for crack propagation and determination of fatigue crack activities in structures.
Accumulation of AE hits can be used in order to measure crack initiation and growth and
classify damage severity in structures. One of the AE advantages is that damage sources
can also be localised by using multiple sensors.

Figure 11. Acoustic emission principle: (a) AE sensor and medium; (b) AE parameters [79].

The use of acoustic techniques for structural health monitoring dates back to the
70s [80]; this section focusses on recent advancements in concrete, steel, composite, masonry,
timber and additively manufactured structures, as discussed below.

8.1. Concrete Structures


Crack monitoring is crucial for the safety and maintenance of concrete structures and
AE is attractive as an NDT technique as it can detect and locate in real-time damage in
concrete structures. The application of AE in reinforced concrete (RC) structures in order to
assess damage due to fatigue loading were presented by Noorsuhada [81], concluding that
the AE analyses (such as AE parameter, intensity analysis etc.) are limited, whereas the
application of AE in structures with increasing fatigue magnitude needs further considera-
tion. In order to overcome dispersion and attenuation issues of elastic wave based signals
that can be a crucial problem in heterogenous materials, Tayfur and Alver [79] suggested a
3d parameter correction technique. Their proposal was assessed on the basis of mechanical
observations from experimental testing of concrete beams. Artificial sources of 50 kHz
frequency were generated on each of the 48 attached nodes by a signal generator and
recorded by eight AE sensors attached to the beam. The relationship between the generated
and recorded amplitude data were used for the proposal of correction AE parameters.
In addition to RC concrete structures, the efficiency of AE for different types of concrete
structures has been evaluated. Rasheed et al. [82] used AE in order to study the crack
development in lightweight cellular concrete and to assess the effect of fibre reinforcement
on the fracture behaviour of these structures (see Figure 12a). Two types of sensors covering
a wide range of frequency were attached at predefined locations of beam specimens, and the
signal measurements were recorded. On the basis of tests results, the AE hits accumulation
was correlated with the crack initiation and propagation characteristics. Appropriate
AE sensor types are important in the fracture monitoring of concrete structures, and
since concrete is a highly attenuating material, lower frequency sensors are most suitable.
Xu et al. [83] applied two AE sensors together with multichannel monitoring and operating
in order to study cracking in crumb rubber concrete, showing that AE can allow for a
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 18 of 28

good understanding of micro-cracking and fracture monitoring. Prefabricated structural


elements were assessed by [84] and AE features provided information for concrete cracking,
bar debonding and bar plastic deformation. Laboratory-based bending tests of grouted
connections for offshore wind turbines were carried out by Tziavos et al. [85]. Four AE
resonant transducers were installed at the bottom and top of the connections for real-time
monitoring through a data acquisition system. The signals were amplified using pre-
amplifiers, and dB thresholds were set to eliminate background interference. The released
AE energy and counts were correlated with load-deflection data in order to identify damage
evolution and grout cracking; further to cracking, corrosion of RC structures is one of the
major issues of structural failure that early detection could help limit the location and extent
of repair and all associated costs. Zaki et al. [24] proposed AE as an efficient technique in
order to detect corrosion in real-time.

Figure 12. Examples of AE sensors application for crack monitoring.

Raw data obtained from structural monitoring system is nearly useless without rein-
terpretation, and hence neural network and machine learning techniques can be applied
for better understanding. A correlation between AE parameters and the structural perfor-
mance and design strength requirement through a deep neural network was proposed by
Ma and Du [86]. The method was implemented on two bridges, demonstrating its potential
for real-world applications. AE technique was used in order to characterise the source of
the mechanism of events with different energy dissipation levels. This classification was
based on experimental findings during the fracture of fibre reinforced concrete and was
carried out via neural network analysis [87]. On the basis of AE signal measurements, a
probabilistic crack classification for cementitious materials was proposed by Das et al. [88].
Implementing machine learning, a framework was designed and compared to a theoretical
approach, yielding a good qualitative prediction of the crack pattern. Recent research
work has also combined AE (“the ear”) with Digital Image Correlation (DIC) (“the eye”)
technique in order to characterise the mechanical performance. Omondi et al. [89] studied
prestressed concrete sleepers at the standard laboratory level, and it was suggested that
this combination could enhance understanding of concrete damage in practical applica-
tions. The combination of AE and DIC has also been examined by Alam et al. [90] and the
obtained damage mechanisms results were compared with Eurocode expressions. Further
to damage assessment, evaluation of the stress state of a concrete structure via AE has also
been examined by Liu and Ma [91]. Correlating the results of DIC from structural testing
along with AE measurements, they proposed an AE Intensity Distribution that allows
stress estimation.
Finally, conventional AE sensors are mounted on surfaces of structures. Li et al. [92]
investigated the efficiency of smart aggregates as AE sensors embedded in a concrete beam.
Smart aggregates in this study were piezoceramic transducers, and their performance in
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 19 of 28

monitoring structural damage was compared with conventional AE sensors, showing that
there is potential in this direction.

8.2. Steel Structures


Adamczak-Bugno et al. [93] presented the application of AE signals for in situ moni-
toring of the technical condition of steel structures and particularly assessed destruction
processes during construction work on the steel support structure of a cable car. Fatigue
crack growth was investigated by Krampikowska et al. [94], who tested 40CrMo steel beam
specimens with a single edge notch. The work-related selected parameters of AE signals
with the crack growth and fracture mechanics and concluded that there is a need for a
better characterization of AE parameters, for the integration of new analysis methods and
for developing an approach to link localized damage evolution with the global structural in-
tegrity. Improved characterisation of plastic deformation and crack growth was attempted
by Stankevych and Skalsky [95], who processed the AE signals by wavelet technique and
provided a correlation between AE measurements and fracture modes. To ensure good
data quality, the data acquisition system was initially calibrated with a pencil lead break
procedure. Moreover, the surface of the sensor was covered with silicon grease to provide
efficient acoustic coupling between the material and the sensor, and an indicating channel
was applied to avoid the effects of acoustic disturbance.

8.3. Composite Structures


Research on carbon fibre composites by Barile et al. [96] examined the effect of material
properties (ply number, fibre orientation, material thickness) on the propagation of the
acoustic waves. These variations were characterised as changes in amplitude and waveform
through AE descriptors, waveform and wavelet analysis. Crivelli et al. [97] tested a carbon
fibre panel with an artificial crack to fatigue loading and processed the AE signals using
neural network technique, thus allowing a good understanding of the structural mechanism.
Masmoudi et al. [98] examined the effect of the acoustic signal by either embedding sensors
on fibre composite structures or mounting them on the surface. It was demonstrated that
embedded sensors have good potential for SHM of composite structures.

8.4. Masonry Structures


Despite the fact that SHM of masonry structures is an engineering challenge, Wu et al. [99]
proposed an innovative procedure of using AE for assessing the damage. A uniaxial com-
pression test was conducted, and two AE sensors were used on each side of the specimen
close to the mortar joint; a thin layer of Vaseline was applied between the sensor and the wall
to allow for sufficient acoustic coupling. Initial spectrum analysis was carried out, and an
amplitude-frequency diagram through FFT transformation was developed in order to filter
signal measurements and eliminate environmental interference. The AE parameters were
assessed, and a linear between AE cumulative events and damage degree was suggested.
The application of AE in masonry structures has also been investigated by Han et al. [100].
Pencil-lead breaks which are widely used as a reproducible source for test signals in AE
applications have been used in the study of Han et al. [100]. Six sensors were installed at
increasing intervals on a masonry model bridge to analyse wave velocity (see Figure 12b). On
the basis of AE readings, the traditional procedure applied for crack source localisation in
concrete has been modified for masonry structures, and a crack characterisation approach
with good reliability was proposed.

8.5. Timber Structures


Multi-resonant sensors linearly distributed along a reinforced timber beam were
tested by Rescalvo et al. [101] and Rescalvo et al. [102]. To eliminate the effect of the
attenuation, the spectral energy is corrected by empirically derived attenuation curves.
The experimental findings showed that AE is a promising technique in real-life retrofitted
beams. A correlation between AE signal features and failure mechanisms for different
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 20 of 28

wood species on the basis of bending tests was performed by Perrin et al. [103]. In this
study, the AE activity was related to the degree of heterogeneity of the timber species.

8.6. Additive Manufactured Materials


In addition, to conventional structural materials, the possibility of using AE technique
damage assessment has also been examined for additive manufacture (AM) metals [104].
This study evaluated whether phenomena like the Kaiser effect and waveform parameters
would influence the results concluding that the damage condition of AM structure can be
correctly estimated via AE and other NDT methods.

9. Ultrasonic Method
9.1. Introduction and Principle of the Application
The ultrasonic waves are defined as sound waves with a frequency in excess of
20 kHz that exceeds the human hearing limit [105–107]. The ultrasonic method can be
used to detect defects that are embedded in sound conducting materials. Ultrasonic testing
(UT) is recognised in many industries, such as composite material production [108], and
electrical [109] and electronic components [110] manufacturing, as the most effective and
efficient inspection method [111,112].
A principle of UT is that induced stress waves generated from an actuator are used to
detect and analyze damage conditions, defects and variability of mechanical properties
of elements (ASTM E1316-16, 2016). During testing, signal analysis is used to determine
material properties such as modulus of elasticity because some wave characteristics differ
from the properties and geometry of the medium of propagation [113]. Ultrasonic pulses
are produced when an electric charge is applied to a piezoelectric crystal, causing it to
vibrate for a while at frequencies depending on the thickness of the material or crystal.
Figure 13 shows the basic description of the structure regarding the ultrasonic measurement
system [114].

Figure 13. Ultrasonic measurement system [114].

The ultrasonic technique uses various methods depending on how mechanical vi-
brations or waves are generated and detected within the specimens being tested [115].
Amongst the most used methods are the contact method, which uses piezoelectric trans-
ducers, and the non-contact method, which employs capacitive transducers [116]. In the
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 21 of 28

case of the contact method, the transducers are made to contact and press onto the surface
of the element with the aid of constant springs or weight. A couplant, such as gel or
electromagnetic material, is employed to intensify sound transmission. The non-contact
type is termed the air-coupled method (because it uses air as a couplant) have been applied
in industries. In this method, the transducers do not make contact with the element or
material surface for transmission and detection of stress waves. It has been demonstrated
that the non-contact method is more efficient in the detection of structural defects than
the corresponding contact ones [116]. A more advanced non-contact type that uses com-
puterised scanning technology has also been developed and applied in industries [117].
In addition, there is a Phased Array ultrasonic technique (PAUT) where phased array
ultrasonic probes are used [118].
The ultrasonic wave non-destructive method is based on the theory of acoustoelastic
laws. The theory states that the elastic wave that is propagated through an element depends
on the mechanical stresses as well as wave propagation, in addition to initial stress [119,120].
The following are some of the applications of the ultrasonic waves as non-destructive tool
in civil engineering:

9.1.1. Quality of Concrete


Pedreros et al. [121] investigated the quality of concrete using UPV. They measured
the velocities of acoustic waves travelling through the manufactured concrete samples and
found a correlation between the UPV and the compressive strength of the concrete. An
experiment has also been conducted to investigate the relationship between ultrasonic
pulse velocity (UPV), porosity and compressive strength of lightweight foam concrete sam-
ples [122]. In contrast to the results by Pedreros et al. [121], it was mentioned that several
factors such as composition, presence of cracks or defects of the concrete do not affect the
compressive stiffness of the concrete to the same extent as they affect the magnitude of
the UPV. Thus, the UPV results alone are not reliable for the prediction of the compressive
stiffness of the concrete. Instead, the combination of several NDT methods should be
employed for results that are more accurate [122]. Sokołowska and Zalegowski [123] used
ultrasonic wave propagation waves to assess the quality of polymer-cement concrete with
polyethene terephthalate (PET) as an aggregate. They found that the more PET was added
to the polymer-cement concrete, the more the ultrasonic wave velocity reduced. The results
also showed that the mechanical properties, namely flexural and compressive strengths,
were in correlation with the ultrasonic wave velocity. Thus, the higher the mechanical
property of the composite, the higher the wave velocity. Ultrasonic guided waves were
utilized by Sharma and Mukherjee [124] to monitor the progression of corrosion in steel
reinforcement in chloride and oxide environment.

9.1.2. Timber Structures


It is also possible to use UT methods to detect insect damage and delamination as well
as cracks in timber structures. Moreover, fungal growth in timber has been assessed by
transverse transmission methods of UT. In this method, waves propagating in the direction
perpendicular to the grain were used to detect the decayed portions of the wood through
wave attenuation, wave velocity as well as analysis of frequency spectrum. Two ultrasonic
methods, namely, pulse-echo and through-transmission and thermal camera, were used as
NDT methods to assess internal defects of pruned and unpruned eucalyptus wood samples
at 120% moisture content. The experiment aimed to determine the influence of defects on
the ultrasonic wave propagation and thermal camera. It was observed that, for standing
tress, several types of defects in various parts of the tree might not affect the wave velocity
but may influence other parameters such as wave amplitude [125].

9.1.3. Brick Masonry Members


Makoond et al. [126] have used ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) and Impulse Excitation
of Vibration (IEV) to evaluate the dynamic modulus of elasticity and shear modulus of brick
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 22 of 28

masonry members. They found that both NDT methods could be employed to determine
the dynamic properties of the brick samples. However, it was observed that the UPV
method was faster and simpler in comparison with the corresponding IEV method.

9.1.4. Composite Structures


The air-coupled magnetostrictive ultrasonic method has been used for non-contact
NDT methods for composite structures. In the experiment, four types of titanium horns
were manufactured and analysed for optimal horn configuration. It was observed that
there was a good correlation between the experimental and theoretical model regarding
the dependence of vibration amplitude on the unit power of the ultrasonic horns [127].
Additionally, an ultrasonic non-destructive method has been successfully used to evaluate
porosity in reinforced metal-matrix composites [128].

9.1.5. Fibre Reinforced Materials


Tiwari et al. [114] also used an ultrasonic guided waves system to extract informa-
tion on the detection of disband-type defects of glass fibre reinforced polymer material.
Rentala et al. [129] have also used a 2-D axis symmetry finite element model (FEM) to
estimate ultrasonic signal response from symmetrical defects. Liu et al. [130] have proposed
a non-contact laser ultrasonic method to estimate five engineering constants of carbon fibre
reinforced composites based on measurement of velocities of transverse and longitudinal
waves. Jakubczak and Bienias [131] employed an ultrasonic testing method to assess fibre
metal laminates (FML). They adopted a novel approach by performing quantitative and
qualitative transmission NDT tests on the FML under dynamic loads. The results were then
compared with the conventional pulse-echo ultrasonic approach. They observed that the
novel transmission phased array method was more effective and efficient in assessing the
condition of the FML in terms of detection of defects, quality and quantity, notwithstanding
the type and surface condition of the laminates.
The ultrasonic technique is able to identify internal flaws in an element over large
volumes. Another advantage is that there is a hand-held type, whose application is
relatively easy [113]. Moreover, the automation of the technique ensures the dependability
and repeatability of the NDT methods [132].
The main drawback in the ultrasonic non-destructive method is that there are no suit-
able methods to process the noise from the ultrasonic signals in order to estimate defects on
a structure effectively [133]. In addition, there is normally an influence of conditions of cou-
pling. It is also very difficult to interpret results, especially for irregular and heterogeneous
elements, such as timber. It is extremely difficult to acquire information on NDT parameters
because of certain complicated factors such as microstructure features, transmission, mode
of conversion, stress and diffraction [118,120]. However, such complexity can be overcome
by using several NDT methods depending on various physical approaches [120]. There are
also difficulties in identifying signals from the opposite side of tested elements or structures
emerging from secondary reflections from composite structures, which might lead to errors
in the analysis of results [131].
This technology was also used in sensing structural health. An ultrasonic sensing
network was developed by Ervin et al. [134] to evaluate corrosion of steel reinforcement.
The ultrasonic waves are defined as sound waves with a frequency that exceeds the hu-
man hearing limit [105–107]. This technology was also used in sensing structural health.
An ultrasonic sensing network was developed by Ervin et al. [134] to evaluate corrosion of
steel reinforcement. Guided ultrasonic waves were utilized to monitor reinforced mortar
specimens under accelerated uniform and localized corrosion. Ultrasonic guided waves
were utilized by Sharma and Mukherjee [124] to monitor the progression of corrosion in
steel reinforcement in chloride and oxide environment.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 23 of 28

10. Conclusions
This paper presented a review of the recent developments in techniques for SHM
together with their applications in different structural systems. The focus of this paper is on
the recent uses of sensors, as non-destructive tools, in the assessment of structural health.
To facilitate the topic of this paper, the commonly used sensing methods in the civil
engineering field for SHM, their working principles, and installation techniques were
presented and reviewed. The main techniques that were included in this paper are: sweep
frequency approach, ground penetrating radar, infrared technique, fiber optics sensors,
camera-based techniques, laser scanners, acoustic emission and ultrasonic techniques. The
advantages of each technique in SHM were presented, and different examples of the recent
applications of the reviewed sensing methods were provided.
The present paper proved several key facts about the application of sensing technology
in civil engineering which are the following:
• Sensors have been effectively used in different civil engineering applications during
the past five years providing very accurate measurements.
• Sensors significantly minimize the monitoring costs as they reduce the need for the
actual observations that require long testing time and expensive sources.
• Sensors can minimize the sudden failure accidents as they deliver accurate real-time
data about the invisible damages in the structures, such as corrosion of steel bars.

Author Contributions: P.K., M.M., M.G., G.S.K., D.Y. and K.H.; organized the conceptualization of
the idea and the methodology employed in this paper. Following that, P.K., M.M., M.G., G.S.K. and
K.H.; worked on the critical evaluation of the existing techniques. The original writing and draft
preparation were carried out by all authors. M.M., P.K. and K.H. carried out the review and editing.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

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