Applied Sciences: Recent Advancements in Non-Destructive Testing Techniques For Structural Health Monitoring
Applied Sciences: Recent Advancements in Non-Destructive Testing Techniques For Structural Health Monitoring
Applied Sciences: Recent Advancements in Non-Destructive Testing Techniques For Structural Health Monitoring
sciences
Review
Recent Advancements in Non-Destructive Testing Techniques
for Structural Health Monitoring
Patryk Kot 1, * , Magomed Muradov 1 , Michaela Gkantou 1 , George S. Kamaris 1 , Khalid Hashim 1,2
and David Yeboah 1
1 Built Environment and Sustainable Technologies (BEST) Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University,
Liverpool L3 3AF, UK; [email protected] (M.M.); [email protected] (M.G.);
[email protected] (G.S.K.); [email protected] (K.H.); [email protected] (D.Y.)
2 Engineering Faculty, University of Babylon, Hilla 51001, Iraq
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +44-0151-231-2420
Abstract: Structural health monitoring (SHM) is an important aspect of the assessment of various
structures and infrastructure, which involves inspection, monitoring, and maintenance to support
economics, quality of life and sustainability in civil engineering. Currently, research has been con-
ducted in order to develop non-destructive techniques for SHM to extend the lifespan of monitored
structures. This paper will review and summarize the recent advancements in non-destructive testing
techniques, namely, sweep frequency approach, ground penetrating radar, infrared technique, fiber
optics sensors, camera-based methods, laser scanner techniques, acoustic emission and ultrasonic
techniques. Although some of the techniques are widely and successfully utilized in civil engineering,
there are still challenges that researchers are addressing. One of the common challenges within the
techniques is interpretation, analysis and automation of obtained data, which requires highly skilled
and specialized experts. Therefore, researchers are investigating and applying artificial intelligence,
namely machine learning algorithms to address the challenges. In addition, researchers have com-
Citation: Kot, P.; Muradov, M.; bined multiple techniques in order to improve accuracy and acquire additional parameters to enhance
Gkantou, M.; Kamaris, G.S.; Hashim, the measurement processes. This study mainly focuses on the scope and recent advancements of the
K.; Yeboah, D. Recent Advancements Non-destructive Testing (NDT) application for SHM of concrete, masonry, timber and steel structures.
in Non-Destructive Testing
Techniques for Structural Health Keywords: concrete structures; non-destructive testing; sensors; steel structures; structural engineer-
Monitoring. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750. ing; structural health monitoring (SHM)
https://doi.org/10.3390/
app11062750
compressional and shear wave velocities and electrical resistivity must be considered in
terms of the building material and engineering properties of the structure. The considera-
tion takes into account an assumption about the structure, and it can also involve calibrating
the measurement, which is a requirement for most NDT surveys. There is usually a specific
NDT technique that is used for the measurement of a particular parameter based on the
physical properties of structures and reliability of the used method. Five major factors
should be considered during the selection of the design of the NDT survey, namely (1) the
penetration capability of the technique, (2) the resolution requirements for measurements,
(3) the contrast in physical properties between the target and its surroundings, (4) the level
of noise of the techniques, i.e., whether the provided information about the measured
structure is valid and (5) historical reputation of the method in its use in the construction
of the structure. The consideration of these factors should lead to the specification in the
design of the NDT method or provide an alternative to NDT techniques if it is not suitable
for solving a particular problem [4].
Therefore, in this paper, the working principle of various NDT techniques is discussed.
Focus is placed on the following NDT techniques for SHM: sweep frequency technique,
ground-penetrating technique, infrared methods, fiber optic sensors, camera-based meth-
ods, laser scanner techniques, acoustic emission sensors, and ultrasonic methods, which are
presented in Sections 2–9, respectively. The basic principles of each technique are explained,
and recent research advancements are critically reviewed.
by the LabVIEW GUI in real-time. The dimensions of the bespoke frame with antennas
and block diagram of the SFT system is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1. (a) Sensor dimensions, (b) Proposed microwave Transmitter/Receiver setup and (c) block diagram of proposed
Sweep Frequency system for SHM [16].
The SFT was used for monitoring the excess moisture content caused by waterproof
membrane defects [17,18] and chloride level [16] in concrete structures. Kot et al. [18] has
first reported the use of the SFT for the detection of water infiltration for concrete roof
structures. In the study, researchers replicated the concrete flat roof designs according to
Malaysian standards and ran a series of experiments to monitor water infiltration, rebar
location and membrane fault detection. The initial experimental work was undertaken
with two flat roof specimens with and without reinforcement rebars. The obtained results
demonstrated significant shifts in both frequencies (from 3.8 GHz to 4 GHz) and amplitude
(from −38 dBm to −24 dBm) of the reflected signal from specimens with and without
rebar, respectively. The changes were caused by more microwave energy is being able to
penetrate through the specimen without rebar, i.e., microwaves are not able to penetrate
through steel rebar, so more energy is reflected in the case of the reinforced specimen.
The second study was carried out to detect membrane failure on concrete roof structures.
Two concrete specimens (with and without rebar) were used to test the technique. The
measurements were undertaken with and without faulty membranes (a hole with 20–30 mm
diameter was made in the middle of the membrane) to investigate the changes in microwave
signal, namely amplitude and frequency changes. The obtained results demonstrated
that membrane failure influenced the microwave signal. The changes were both in the
amplitude and frequency of the reflected microwave signal. The proposed technique
was also investigated to detect chloride level in reinforced concrete (RC) structures by
Omer et al. [16]. In this study, five concrete specimens were made and submerged first in
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 4 of 28
tap and then in salted (various concentrations of chloride) water. The aim was to investigate
the influence (if there is any) of the presence of chloride on the microwave signal. The
captured results demonstrated that the absorption of the microwave energy was lower
in specimens with lower chloride concentration owing to the lower conductivity, which
in turn influences the microwave signal, namely the amplitude. The obtained data was
pre-processed and analyzed using Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm, which demonstrated
that the technique can detect chloride level in concrete with R2 = 0.99 and RMSE = 0.00012
at 5.42 GHz.
Microwave sensing technology was also investigated by researchers as an embedded
solution for long term monitoring of concrete and masonry structures. A rectangular
patch antenna (resonating at 2.45 GHz) and a split ring resonator (SRR) (resonating at
3.4 GHz, 4.7 GHz, 5.7 GHz, 8.7 GHz and 10.6 GHz) were investigated to monitor the excess
moisture content in concrete specimens [19] and detect cracks in RC [20], respectively. Both
sensor structures were embedded inside the concrete specimens for real-time monitoring.
A model for the determination of moisture content and deterioration of concrete was
successfully developed and implemented. Moisture content inside concrete specimens and
crack development in RC specimens can be studied from the data of their interactions with
microwaves. This measurement is provided via S-parameter (reflection coefficient (S11 )),
i.e., in the form of complex data.
The experimental setup for the detection of moisture content with a rectangular patch
antenna is presented in Figure 2a. The setup consists of a concrete specimen with the
embedded antenna, which is connected to Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) and a PC
with a bespoke LabVIEW program to control VNA and capture data. The specimen was
submerged in water in order to increase the moisture content of the specimen and then was
placed on a digital weighing scale to monitor the drying off process. Both specimen weight
and microwave signal from the embedded antenna were recorded every 5 min for a period
of 48 h. The data analysis presented a strong linear relationship between the weight loss
of the specimen and changes in amplitude of the microwave signal from the embedded
antenna, with R2 = 0.98.
Figure 2. (a) Embedded Rectangular patch antenna setup for moisture detection [19], (b) Embedded SRR antenna setup for
crack detection [20].
Figure 2b shows the experimental setup for the detection of cracks in RC concrete
specimens. The SRR antenna was placed 100 mm from the bottom of the concrete specimen
in order to capture the crack propagation in the tensile zone just below the neutral axis
of the specimen. In addition, the strain gauges were attached to the tensile reinforcement
bars to measure the vertical deflection of the specimens while a load cell was used for the
recording of the load increments applied by a calibrated hydraulic 100 kN load actuator.
Synchronized data acquisition systems were used for the structural response measurements.
The full captured microwave signal (1–10 GHz) was analyzed in order to investigate a
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 5 of 28
relationship between the crack propagation and the signal. The strongest linear relationship
was identified between the 2.8 GHz and 3 GHz frequency range, with R2 varying between
0.90 and 0.94.
Both studies have demonstrated the potential use of microwaves to monitor excess
moisture in concrete structures as well as to detect crack propagation in reinforced concrete
structures, offering a low-cost option for structural health monitoring (SHM). Further
investigation is required to validate the results prior to the implementation of the proposed
embedded sensors into actual structures.
GPR inspections are often carried out in combination with other noninvasive geophys-
ical techniques, namely, acoustic techniques, infrared thermography (IRT) and, electrical
resistivity tomography (ERT) [21]. In the past five years, researchers focused on the devel-
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 6 of 28
opment of various GPR data analysis methods in order to overcome the limitations of the
technique.
One of the main drawbacks of the technique is the requirement for a highly skilled
specialist to interpret captured data from the system. Therefore, researchers have been
investigating various approaches to address the limitation, namely the implementation of
artificial intelligence techniques to analyze the data for the detection of objects. Typically,
there are three types of data obtained via the GPR system, namely A-, B- and C-scan data.
A-scan data is punctual time-domain data (z-axis) at a certain spatial point, while the B-scan
provides x-z domain data (x-axis) that are generated from numerous A-scan data along the
scanning route. The C-scan data is obtained from the x-y domain data by combining B-scan
images, which is acquired utilizing multiple antennas [25]. Khudoyarov et al. [26] proposed
the three-dimensional convolutional neural network to analyze the GPR data in order to
classify the underground objects. The 13 km of the 3D data was collected from urban roads
in Seoul, South Korea, using a multichannel antenna mounted on the vehicle. The data
consisted of various objects, namely, cavities, pipes, manholes and subsoil background.
The proposed classification demonstrated the accuracy for cavities, pipes, manholes, and
subsoil backgrounds 88%, 100%, 100% and 100%, respectively. The average classification
accuracy for four underground objects is 97%.
Researchers are exploring other methods to improve GPR data assessment. For
instance, Morris et al. [27] applied GPR for infrastructure assessment and SHM using
quantitative attribute analysis. The purpose of the study is to investigate how the physical
and mechanical properties of scanned objects are implicated in GPR data. The scans were
carried out on Streicker Bridge with a GSSI StructureScan 2.6 GHz antenna to maintain a
good balance between high resolution and a reasonable concrete penetration depth. The
longitudinal and transverse scans of the bridge deck were collected, where longitudinal
transects were collected at 15 cm line spacing with a nominal length of 8 m. The obtained
data were processed using a standard set of basic filters focusing on preserving the relative
amplitude of the data rather than absolute amplitude as the latter is influenced by the EM
properties of the material, surface roughness and other external factors. Findings from the
study demonstrated the potential of the attribute analysis method for the characterization
of material when combined with other SHM and NDE techniques.
One of the advantages of structural health monitoring is the possibility to monitor
structures over a long period of time in order to predict potential failures. On the other hand,
processing and analysis of such data may present various challenges. Hong et al. [28]
proposed a new method to address the challenges of processing long-term monitoring
data from the GPR system. The principle of the new signal processing procedure involves
individually pre-processing and energy mapping of each input GPR dataset. Then, the
GPR signal energy intensity mappings are further registered using Mutual Information
(MI) based image registration method. The final stage of the process is to normalize the
intensity of the aligned images. In this study, researchers analysed GPR data collected
to monitor the accumulative corrosion process over a period of 10 years. The proposed
method of GPR signal processing was able to align the monitoring images and normalize
their intensities in order to detect reinforcement corrosion in concrete.
4. Infrared Method
The infrared (IR) method is widely used in the civil engineering field in order to locate
the weak spots or deterioration of structures, which are caused by cracks or corrosion [2].
The working principle of the IR method utilizes the measurement of the temperature
changes on the surface of structures caused by compression or tension. The method uses
specialized scanning cameras to capture the emitted heat at any temperature and convert
the data into thermal images for further analysis.
Concrete structures with defects, namely debonding render and mosaic or delam-
inating concrete, emits infra-red radiation, which can be seen by the infra-red cameras
as the concrete surface will heat up faster under solar irradiation, and the generated hot
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 7 of 28
spots will be visible in the thermal record. The uniformity of the captured IR images of
surfaces with even color and texture indicates that the structure has no or insignificant
defects [4]. This method has been found effective for the rapid assessment of large struc-
tures, namely, high-rise apartment blocks. The advances in the development of high-end
IR cameras can potentially enhance the reliability, accuracy, and cost-effectiveness of the
technique [24].
Recent advancements of this technology have focused on the development of the
automated data processing and analysis methods and their deployment onto various plat-
forms (e.g., UAV). Hiasa et al. [29] proposed a new methodology for the enhancement
of the usability and efficiency of IR thermography for subsurface detection of damages
on concrete structures. The aim of this investigation was to address a challenge with
interpretation and detection of delamination from IR images as setting up the temperature
too high or too low might affect the identification of some defects. A finite element (FE)
model was designed and simulated using COMSOL software in order to obtain a threshold
for IR thermography data processing. Two thresholds were obtained for this investigation,
namely sound and delaminated areas from the IR image and FE model, respectively. In
this study, various sensitive parameters and factors to validate FE models, namely the size
of delamination (area, thickness and volume), ambient temperature and solar irradiance
conditions (different season), and the depth of delamination from the surface. The valida-
tion of the FE model demonstrated the potential of FEM analysis in the detectability within
a temperature difference range of approximately ±0.3–0.4 ◦ C band between delaminated
and sound areas. The undertaken FEM simulation provides the possibility to estimate a
detectable delamination depth by IRT prior to field inspection, which in turn will save time
and improve the efficiency of the measurement and detection procedure.
The infrared measurement technique has also been combined with other measurement
methods, which is a common practice in SHM. However, hybrid methods require highly
skilled specialists in multiple disciplines in order to interpret and/or analyze obtained data.
In recent years, artificial intelligence has become an important part of the interpretation
of complex data. Jang et al. [30] proposed the use of deep machine learning to automate
the concrete crack detection process. In this study, a hybrid image scanning (HIS) system
(see Figure 4) comprised of vision and infrared (IR) thermography was used. The system
was controlled via a bespoke LabVIEW program, and the obtained data were processed
using MATLAB. The working principle of the system is initiated via the control computer,
which activates the continuous-wave (CW) laser to emit the point laser beam. The laser
beam is then transformed into a line-shaped laser beam that is focused on a measured
surface. In addition, the vision and IR cameras are used to acquire the surface condition and
thermal waves responses. The scanned data is automatically saved in the control computer.
Both captured vision and IR images are first distortion-calibrated and then go through the
time–spatial-integrated (TSI) coordinate transformation. After the transformation process,
IR images are further processed via phase mapping and spatial derivative method for
precise multiple crack visualization, whilst vision images go through a deep convolutional
neural network (CNN) process for the automatic crack extraction. Then, the images are
matched and evaluated by the deep CNN process. The system was experimentally tested
and validated using concrete specimens with various cracks in laboratory conditions. The
results demonstrated the potential of the system to automatically visualize macro- and
microcracks by minimizing false alarms.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 8 of 28
Figure 4. Schematics of the proposed hybrid image scanning (HIS) system [30].
5. Fiber Optics
Fiber Optic Sensors (FOSs) have found their practical use in civil engineering ap-
plications for structural health monitoring, including crack detection, measuring strains,
pH level, vibration, corrosion, temperature monitoring, etc. The FOSs are designed to
manipulate transmitted or reflected light response, namely, intensity, polarization, and
spectral content of the phase from the measured object. A FOS is a cylindrical symmetric
structure, which comprises a central core with a diameter between 4 and 600 µm and a
uniform refractive index [31]. The FOS is enclosed in cladding with a relatively lower
refractive index. In this way, the light waves propagating within the core are trapped by the
cladding due to the reflection at the interface between the core and the cladding [32]. The
cladding is then covered with an external plastic coating, which provides environmental
and mechanical protection to the FOS. A FOS is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. An optical fiber along with light guiding and reflection [32].
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 9 of 28
The FOSs offer a number of advantages compared to traditional sensors, such as strain
gauges. Firstly, the light signal in the FOS is transmitted over a very long length leading to
insensitivity to electromagnetic radiation and very low signal transmission loss [3]. FOSs
are very durable since they are made of glass, and the protection cover is free from corrosion,
which increases their durability [33,34]. FOSs are not non-conductive, which means that
they are free of electromagnetic and radio-frequency interference. Thus, they can be used
in urban areas, in which the problem of signal interferences is severe. FOS are light and
of small size, and for this reason, they are suitable for embedding them permanently into
structures [3,33]. In addition, many FOSs can be joined together into one array, so one cable
is able to work for approximately 10 sensors, which is an advantage over the traditional
electrical strain gauges and accelerometers that require a larger amount of wiring for one
sensor. This results in simplification of the cable layout, and thus the installation period
of FOSs is less than that of traditional sensors, which leads to less installation costs [33].
FOSs can be divided into three main techniques, i.e., fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors,
distributed sensors and interferometric sensors [35]. In the following, the principles of each
method are provided, along with some recent application in Civil Engineering.
There are expressions that relate the change of wavelength to strain, temperature,
pressure or acoustic signals. For example, the relationship between wavelength shift, δλB ,
and strain, ε, for a homogeneous and isotropic material is the following [36]:
δλ B
= (1 − p e ) ε (1)
λB
n2
pe = [ p − µ( p11 + p12 )] (2)
2 12
where pij are he fiber Pockel’s coefficients and µ is the Poisson ratio. The Bragg wavelength
λB is given by the following equation:
λ B = 2neff Λ (3)
and instrumented with FBG strain sensors to measure their damage when subjected to
blast loading. The results showed that the sensing technique was accurate and that today’s
vibration guideline limit values include a large safety margin for buildings.
There are several recent applications of the DOFS method in SHM in Civil Engineering.
DOFSs were used by Sierra-Pérez et al. [47] to evaluate damage in a 13.5 m composite
wind turbine blade, which was tested under static loading. Different sensing technologies
were used to measure strain: FBGs, DOFSs using an Optical Backscatter Reflectometer
(OBR) and strain gauges. Comparison of the methods showed that the FOSs effectively
measured strain and correspondent cracks induced during the test. A novel method,
based on distributed fiber optical Brillouin technique was employed by Zhao et al. [48] to
monitor corrosion expansion of steel reinforcement in reinforced concrete structures. The
proposed method was tested by embedding DOFSs in reinforced concrete specimens to
measure the expansion strain due to the corrosion of the reinforcement. The experimental
results have shown that the proposed method, based on DOFSs can accurately evaluate
reinforcement corrosion in RC structures. Acikgoz et al. [49] used DOFSs based on Bril-
louin optical domain reflectometry to monitor strain and location and width of resulting
crack openings of a historic masonry vault due to the pile construction of the London
Bridge Station Redevelopment. The results of this research indicated that DOFSs could
accurately estimate the location and width of new radial cracks that formed during piling.
Song et al. [50] monitored the response of a reinforced concrete pound lock structure during
the construction process. The variations of temperature and stress/strain were measured
using OTDR sensors based on Raman and Brillouin scattering. The results showed that
the integrated distributed optical fiber sensing technology is a powerful tool to monitor
the construction quality of a pound lock structure. DOFSs have also been used to measure
strain fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) strengthened reinforced concrete shear walls tested
under cyclic loading by Woods et al. [51]. The DOFSs were utilised instead of strain gauges
and could capture strain at any location along the length of a fiber, without knowing the
specific measurement locations before the test. The DOFSs provided accurate estimations
of the strain distribution and were not damaged during large reversals of the cyclic loading.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 13 of 28
Van Der Kooi and Hoult [52] used DOFSs to monitor strain in the members of the steel
model truss. The truss model was tested under both static and dynamic conditions, and
the results indicated that DOFSs could detect localized strain variations due to damage.
Wang et al. [53] used the Brillouin OFDR to monitor the tunnel lining segment joint of the
Suzhou Metro Line 1 tunnel. The results demonstrated the accuracy of the distributed fiber
sensing method. Finally, Lim et al. [54] installed DOFSs to measure the deformation of the
cross-section of a non-circular PVC pipe due to the dead weight of its carrying water. The
deformation was displayed as oscillations in strain measurements made by the DOFSs.
composite laminates. The results showed that both embedded FP interferometric and FBG
sensors could be used to monitor the curing progress of composite materials and detect the
occurred damages during the fabrication process of composite structures.
6. Camera-Based Technique
In recent years, the use of computer vision techniques increased in the civil engineering
sector for structural health monitoring [14]. The primary use of this method is to monitor
the displacement of structures in different environments. The system uses either one or
more cameras, a zoom lens, and a computer to capture the collected data. The use of
real-time processing software enables to measure displacement time histories and display
results on the computer screen in real-time and automatically save data to the computer.
Alternatively, the images can be captured, and data analysis can be performed at a later
date [1].
Khuc and Catbas [58] suggested a completely contactless SHM technique of real-life
structures using cameras and computer vision. Their method was based on the fundamental
camera principle shown in Figure 9. By knowing the distance between predefined points
on the targeted structure in both the image and the world coordinate, a conversion ratio
between pixels and engineering units was determined.
and combining them with a deep learning algorithm was examined by Xu et al. [67] for
crack detection in steel structures. The use of subpixel virtual visual sensors to obtain the
modal shapes of structures and detect structural damage were experimentally studied by
Song et al. [68].
One of the limitations of this system is only able to measure and generate a 3D map
of visible surfaces of scanned objects, so its prime application is to measure deformations
of visible objects such as girders of a bridge, i.e., the laser system is not able to detect any
internal damages. Inadequate lighting and the low reflectivity of the scanned object can
compromise the quality of the image and a slower scan rate may be required to improve
the quality of the image [23].
Since the laser was applied in interferometry as an alternative for the traditional
discharge lamps more than 50 years ago, a new type of measurement became possible [73];
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 16 of 28
this section focusses on recent applications of laser in monitoring the health structures, as
discussed below.
Laser reflection is being used for defects detection in reinforced concrete systems. Qiu
and Lau [74] the experimental results demonstrated that laser reflection techniques instantly
and economically detect the occurrence of defects, but cannot measure the sizes of the
defects. Xu et al. [75] found, through simulations and experiments, the laser methods are
active in the inspections of the concrete systems compared to halogen lamps. Xu et al. [75]
showed that the laser methods offer a wider inspection ranges (more than five meters), high
sensitivity for damages, low power consumption (15 Watts laser excitation), and reduces
wrong alarms because of external noise.
The occurrence of cracks is also detectable by the laser scanners depending on the
difference between the temperatures of the cracked and the solid areas. Scalbi et al. [76]
used a Laser Spot Thermography (LST) for detecting cracks in the surfaces of concrete
slabs, the results showed that laser scanners not only detect the location of the surface
cracks, but the thermal gaps across the depth of the cracks distinguish between shallow
and deep cracks.
The sensitivity of the laser beams for the variation in the thermal gaps in the concrete
systems made it possible to use deep learning in the detection of cracks and fractures in
the concrete systems. Park et al. [77] used deep learning technology and laser sensors
for detecting and quantifying cracks on the surface of concrete systems. The YOLO
algorithm was employed in deep learning to provide real-time detections and quantifying
of the cracks.
The laser was not only used to scan the concrete systems for cracks, it was also used
to detect other defects and properties of concrete. Grigoriadis [78] used laser methods to
investigate the substrate roughness in patch repairs in concrete systems. Laboratory results
showed that the laser methods are active in the characterization of the substrate roughness.
The laser scanners generate a huge amount of data (big data) that is challenging to
store, process, and interpret for traditional data management systems. Although technol-
ogy has proven to be beneficial for SHM, the limitations of technology prevent it from
being more widely implemented in civil engineering. The great limitation of the method
is the laser methods cannot detect the internal cracks and damages in concrete [75], and
laser methods need manual processing of a large amount of data, which requires time and
training. As laser beams may not be applied in parallel because of mistakes in installation,
corrections for the laser alignment algorithm (in the deep learning approaches) is required
to increase the accuracy of the cracks detecting [77].
On the other hand, these limitations were decreased. With the recent developments in
AI/ML and high-performance and supercomputers, these limitations can potentially be ad-
dressed [69]. A combination of acoustic and laser techniques enables reliable measurements
of internal defects.
signal strength versus location, amplitude versus location, intensity analysis and average
frequency (=number of counts/duration) versus RA (=rise time/peak amplitude) and can
be performed via different algorithms. The technique is very sensitive and, therefore, able
to real-time monitor microscopic events inside an object by separating background noise
from AE. The generated elastic waves by the release of energy within a material can be
utilized to detect/locate flaws as well as to evaluate their growth rate as a function of
the applied stress. The method is characterized as burst/distinct pulses and continuous
emissions for crack propagation and determination of fatigue crack activities in structures.
Accumulation of AE hits can be used in order to measure crack initiation and growth and
classify damage severity in structures. One of the AE advantages is that damage sources
can also be localised by using multiple sensors.
Figure 11. Acoustic emission principle: (a) AE sensor and medium; (b) AE parameters [79].
The use of acoustic techniques for structural health monitoring dates back to the
70s [80]; this section focusses on recent advancements in concrete, steel, composite, masonry,
timber and additively manufactured structures, as discussed below.
Raw data obtained from structural monitoring system is nearly useless without rein-
terpretation, and hence neural network and machine learning techniques can be applied
for better understanding. A correlation between AE parameters and the structural perfor-
mance and design strength requirement through a deep neural network was proposed by
Ma and Du [86]. The method was implemented on two bridges, demonstrating its potential
for real-world applications. AE technique was used in order to characterise the source of
the mechanism of events with different energy dissipation levels. This classification was
based on experimental findings during the fracture of fibre reinforced concrete and was
carried out via neural network analysis [87]. On the basis of AE signal measurements, a
probabilistic crack classification for cementitious materials was proposed by Das et al. [88].
Implementing machine learning, a framework was designed and compared to a theoretical
approach, yielding a good qualitative prediction of the crack pattern. Recent research
work has also combined AE (“the ear”) with Digital Image Correlation (DIC) (“the eye”)
technique in order to characterise the mechanical performance. Omondi et al. [89] studied
prestressed concrete sleepers at the standard laboratory level, and it was suggested that
this combination could enhance understanding of concrete damage in practical applica-
tions. The combination of AE and DIC has also been examined by Alam et al. [90] and the
obtained damage mechanisms results were compared with Eurocode expressions. Further
to damage assessment, evaluation of the stress state of a concrete structure via AE has also
been examined by Liu and Ma [91]. Correlating the results of DIC from structural testing
along with AE measurements, they proposed an AE Intensity Distribution that allows
stress estimation.
Finally, conventional AE sensors are mounted on surfaces of structures. Li et al. [92]
investigated the efficiency of smart aggregates as AE sensors embedded in a concrete beam.
Smart aggregates in this study were piezoceramic transducers, and their performance in
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 19 of 28
monitoring structural damage was compared with conventional AE sensors, showing that
there is potential in this direction.
wood species on the basis of bending tests was performed by Perrin et al. [103]. In this
study, the AE activity was related to the degree of heterogeneity of the timber species.
9. Ultrasonic Method
9.1. Introduction and Principle of the Application
The ultrasonic waves are defined as sound waves with a frequency in excess of
20 kHz that exceeds the human hearing limit [105–107]. The ultrasonic method can be
used to detect defects that are embedded in sound conducting materials. Ultrasonic testing
(UT) is recognised in many industries, such as composite material production [108], and
electrical [109] and electronic components [110] manufacturing, as the most effective and
efficient inspection method [111,112].
A principle of UT is that induced stress waves generated from an actuator are used to
detect and analyze damage conditions, defects and variability of mechanical properties
of elements (ASTM E1316-16, 2016). During testing, signal analysis is used to determine
material properties such as modulus of elasticity because some wave characteristics differ
from the properties and geometry of the medium of propagation [113]. Ultrasonic pulses
are produced when an electric charge is applied to a piezoelectric crystal, causing it to
vibrate for a while at frequencies depending on the thickness of the material or crystal.
Figure 13 shows the basic description of the structure regarding the ultrasonic measurement
system [114].
The ultrasonic technique uses various methods depending on how mechanical vi-
brations or waves are generated and detected within the specimens being tested [115].
Amongst the most used methods are the contact method, which uses piezoelectric trans-
ducers, and the non-contact method, which employs capacitive transducers [116]. In the
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 2750 21 of 28
case of the contact method, the transducers are made to contact and press onto the surface
of the element with the aid of constant springs or weight. A couplant, such as gel or
electromagnetic material, is employed to intensify sound transmission. The non-contact
type is termed the air-coupled method (because it uses air as a couplant) have been applied
in industries. In this method, the transducers do not make contact with the element or
material surface for transmission and detection of stress waves. It has been demonstrated
that the non-contact method is more efficient in the detection of structural defects than
the corresponding contact ones [116]. A more advanced non-contact type that uses com-
puterised scanning technology has also been developed and applied in industries [117].
In addition, there is a Phased Array ultrasonic technique (PAUT) where phased array
ultrasonic probes are used [118].
The ultrasonic wave non-destructive method is based on the theory of acoustoelastic
laws. The theory states that the elastic wave that is propagated through an element depends
on the mechanical stresses as well as wave propagation, in addition to initial stress [119,120].
The following are some of the applications of the ultrasonic waves as non-destructive tool
in civil engineering:
masonry members. They found that both NDT methods could be employed to determine
the dynamic properties of the brick samples. However, it was observed that the UPV
method was faster and simpler in comparison with the corresponding IEV method.
10. Conclusions
This paper presented a review of the recent developments in techniques for SHM
together with their applications in different structural systems. The focus of this paper is on
the recent uses of sensors, as non-destructive tools, in the assessment of structural health.
To facilitate the topic of this paper, the commonly used sensing methods in the civil
engineering field for SHM, their working principles, and installation techniques were
presented and reviewed. The main techniques that were included in this paper are: sweep
frequency approach, ground penetrating radar, infrared technique, fiber optics sensors,
camera-based techniques, laser scanners, acoustic emission and ultrasonic techniques. The
advantages of each technique in SHM were presented, and different examples of the recent
applications of the reviewed sensing methods were provided.
The present paper proved several key facts about the application of sensing technology
in civil engineering which are the following:
• Sensors have been effectively used in different civil engineering applications during
the past five years providing very accurate measurements.
• Sensors significantly minimize the monitoring costs as they reduce the need for the
actual observations that require long testing time and expensive sources.
• Sensors can minimize the sudden failure accidents as they deliver accurate real-time
data about the invisible damages in the structures, such as corrosion of steel bars.
Author Contributions: P.K., M.M., M.G., G.S.K., D.Y. and K.H.; organized the conceptualization of
the idea and the methodology employed in this paper. Following that, P.K., M.M., M.G., G.S.K. and
K.H.; worked on the critical evaluation of the existing techniques. The original writing and draft
preparation were carried out by all authors. M.M., P.K. and K.H. carried out the review and editing.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
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