Leadership & Organization Development Journal

The role of values in servant leadership

Robert F. Russell
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 The role of values in servant leadership

Robert F. Russell
Emory & Henry College, Emory, Virginia, USA

Keywords The topic of values has become an important Moral reasoning

Leadership, Values, Trust, item of debate in many arenas, particularly Values affect moral reasoning by influencing
Empowerment
in the field of leadership. Woodward (1994, judgments about ethical and unethical
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Abstract p. 95) postulated that, ``leaders lead from their behavior (Hughes et al., 1993). Individuals
This paper reviews the existing values and beliefs'', but we are experiencing with strong value systems tend to behave
literature regarding values in
a leadership crisis because self-interest more ethically than those with weak value
leadership. It identifies issues
relating to both personal values motivates many leaders. The primary combinations (Hughes et al., 1993). However,
and organizational values. The purpose of this article is to examine the males differ from females in their moral
literature indicates that values existing literature regarding the role of reasoning modes, with females showing
affect leader behavior, as well as
values in leadership. Secondarily, the paper higher relationship and caring
organizational performance. The
paper also provides an overview of extracts various portions of the values in characteristics (Butz and Lewis, 1996).
servant leadership theory and leadership literature and applies it to servant
extrapolates applications of the
Behavior
leadership. The fundamental proposition of
values in leadership literature to Personal values and value systems result in
three aspects of servant
the article is that the personal values of characteristics or attitudes that in turn affect
leadership: trust; appreciation of servant leaders distinguish them from other behavior (Malphurs, 1996; Rokeach, 1968).
others; and empowerment. Values leader types.
constitute the foundation of
Rokeach (1973) went so far as to say that
servant leadership. the definition of values includes their
Fundamentally, leader values may behavioral influence. England and Lee (1974)
be the underlying factors that The role of values in leadership identified seven ways in which values affect
separate servant leaders from all
other leadership types. Values are important parts of each leaders:
individual's psyche. They are core beliefs ± 1 Values affect leaders' perceptions of
the underlying thoughts that stimulate situations.
human behavior. Rokeach (1973) defined 2 Leaders' values affect the solutions they
values as prescriptive, enduring standards generate regarding problems.
that have cognitive, affective, and behavioral 3 Values play a role in interpersonal
components. Since values are prescriptive, relationships.
they play an important role in determining 4 Values influence perceptions of individual
the choices we make. Values are enduring and organizational successes.
standards that collectively form the value 5 Values provide a basis for differentiating
between ethical and unethical behavior.
systems of our lives.
6 Values affect the extent to which leaders
Personal values of leaders accept or reject organizational pressures
Kouzes and Posner (1993) postulate that the and goals.
process and practices of leadership are 7 Personal values may also affect
fundamentally amoral, but leaders are managerial performance.

Received: April 2000

themselves moral or immoral. Consequently, Development of personal values
Revised/Accepted: the personal values of leaders have very Personal values develop in a social context;
December 2000 significant effects on leader-follower therefore, they may be influenced by national
relationships (Burns, 1978; Deal and or regional culture, social institutions and
Kennedy, 1982; Kouzes and Posner, 1993). In family (Finkelstein and Hambrick, 1996).
addition, values affect leaders' moral Kuczmarski and Kuczmarski (1995) specified
Leadership & Organization reasoning and personal behavior. four factors that create values:
Development Journal
22/2 [2001] 76±83
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[ 76 ]
 Robert F. Russell 1 family and childhood experiences; internalized values with correct
The role of values in servant 2 conflict events which evoke self- transcendent principles.
leadership discovery;
Leadership & Organization 3 major life changes and experiential Essential values of good leaders
Development Journal
22/2 [2001] 76±83 learning; and The personal values of leaders become
4 personal relationships with ``important'' integrated into personal value systems
individuals (p. 43). (Rokeach, 1973), which define the character
Similarly, Massey (1979) identified myriad of individuals. Various researchers argue
influences on personal values, including: that certain values are essential to the value
. family; systems of good leaders. These primarily
. friends; include honesty and integrity, but also
. religion; encompass other important values such as
. education; concern for others, fairness, and justice.
. the media;
. geographic roots;
Honesty and integrity
Honesty is the most admired characteristic of
. technology; and
. current events. leaders, followed by their forward-looking
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nature, ability to inspire, and competence

Leaders' values may also be a function of (Kouzes and Posner, 1993; Posner and
education and cognitive style (Bass, 1990). In Schmidt, 1992). In addition, executive
addition, Hofstede (1980) documented the integrity is ``one of the key life-sustaining
strong effect of national culture on the values properties involved in the relational nature
of organizational members.
of organizational existence'' (Srivastva and
Lloyd (1998) and Oster (1991) argue there
Associates, 1988, p. 5). Clawson (1999)
are two dominant value cultures. One has a
maintains that honesty and integrity form
short-term perspective motivated by material
and monetary gain. The other is spiritually the moral foundation of effective leadership
and morally driven, and is more concerned through the four key values of:
with long-term issues. Similarly, Covey (1989) 1 truth telling;
maintained that two basic ethics have 2 promise keeping;
pervasively influenced ideas about important 3 fairness; and
values and personal success: 4 respect for the individual (pp. 46-9).
1 the historical character ethic; and Similarly, Snyder et al. (1994) delineated five
2 the modern personality ethic. essential personal values of leadership:
The character ethic emphasized personal 1 service to others;
integrity, humility, fidelity, courage, and 2 humility;
other traditional values. It defined success by 3 integrity;
adherence to internally consistent, morally 4 honesty; and
upright values. The personality ethic 5 hard work.
emphasizes public image, behaviors, skills, Furthermore, justice, personal restraint,
and other aspects of performance. It defines concern for the common good, and courage
success along the dimension of external may also be critical leadership values
approval. Covey argues for a re-emphasis on
(De Pree, 1992).
the character ethic in leadership.
Personal values in leadership Values and decision making
Position power is eroding in many Essentially, values serve as blueprints or
organizations; therefore, leaders must derive foundations for making decisions, solving
their influence from values (Huey, 1994). problems, and resolving conflicts (Kouzes
Leaders must clarify and understand their and Posner, 1993; Malphurs, 1996).
own belief systems in order to transmit good Executives' values:
organizational values to others (Anderson, . limit their field of vision;
1997; Bennis, 1989; Kouzes and Posner, 1995; . affect their selective perception;
Malphurs, 1996). Blanchard and Peale (1988) . influence their interpretation of
maintain that proper personal values yield a information; and
powerful form of leadership, which they call . reflect in their choices (Finkelstein and
ethical management. Likewise, Covey (1990) Hambrick, 1996).
called for principle-centered leadership. He
argued that effective leadership is In addition, values affect decision making at
``predicated upon certain inviolate principles the personal level, as well as at the
± natural laws in the human dimension'' organizational level (Learned et al., 1989;
(p. 18). The goal, in his opinion, is to align Malphurs, 1996).
[ 77 ]
 Robert F. Russell Organizational decision making Modeling
The role of values in servant The values culture of an organization can Modeling is an important means for
leadership
affect the amount of risk that decision establishing corporate values (Behr, 1998; De
Leadership & Organization Pree, 1992; Kouzes and Posner, 1995;
Development Journal makers are willing to undertake (Deal and
22/2 [2001] 76±83 Kennedy, 1982). March (1994) indicated that Malphurs, 1996; Manz and Sims, 1989; Schein,
decision making which includes several 1992). Effective leaders instill values as much
people involves increased complexity. In or more through deeds as through words
these situations, he stipulated that ``beliefs (Malphurs, 1996; Peters and Waterman, 1982).
are important'' and ``trust and loyalty are De Pree (1992) said the ``sacred relationships''
both valued and scarce'' (p. 110). between leaders and followers critically
Organizations that are developing open depend on the ``clearly expressed and
leadership styles have core values that guide consistently demonstrated values'' of leaders
(p. 126).
decision making (Huey, 1994).
Organizational values, as well as personal
values, may be good or bad (Malphurs, 1996).
Organizational values Organizations may implicitly or explicitly,
Every enterprise is driven by its leaders' consciously or unconsciously adopt values
individual and collective values, whether that complement one another or that conflict
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those values are consciously understood or with one another. Furthermore, good
unconsciously influential, spoken or organizational values can erode over time
unspoken, written or unrecorded (Bean, 1993, (Malphurs, 1996). Conflicts and compromise
p. 95). may cause organizational values to drift in
Organizational cultures consolidate the bad directions or poor leaders may purposely
shared beliefs, assumptions, goals, and redirect the central values of an
values of their members (Deal and Kennedy, organization.
1982; Hinings et al., 1996; Schein, 1992). In Summary
addition, various researchers suggest that Clearly, values significantly impact
the shared values of organizational members, leadership. Personal values affect moral
which their cultures encapsulate, contribute reasoning, behavior, and leadership style.
to the sustained success of the organizations The most critical values of good leaders are
(Barney, 1986; Deal and Kennedy, 1982; honesty and integrity. Values also
Fairholm, 1991; Malphurs, 1996; Peters and profoundly influence personal and
Waterman, 1982). organizational decision-making. The values
of leaders ultimately permeate the
Establishing organizational values organizations they lead. Leaders primarily
Most values come from senior leaders and
shape the cultures of their organizations
permeate all levels of organizations through modeling important values.
(Hambrick, 1987; Kilcourse, 1994; Schein, Ultimately, values serve as the foundational
1992). ``The institutional leader is primarily essence of leadership.
an expert in the promotion and protection of
values'' (Rowsell and Berry, 1993, p.18).
``Shared values give everyone an internal Overview of servant leadership
compass that enables them to act theory
independently and interdependently,
Robert K. Greenleaf (1904-1990) inspired the
responsibly and publicly'' (Kouzes and
servant leadership concept among modern
Posner, 1993, p. 53). Excellent leaders must
organizational theorists (Spears, 1996).
continually regenerate admirable values in
Leadership, according to Greenleaf, must
organizations (Gardner, 1990).
first and foremost meet the needs of others
Schein (1992) postulates that leaders who
(Greenleaf, 1977; Lloyd and Spears, 1996). In
impose their personal values on groups
addition to Greenleaf, various other writers
establish organizational cultures. If the espouse servant leadership as a valid,
groups succeed, they adopt and inculcate the modern theory for organizational leadership.
values. Thereafter, the cultural values self- For example, Covey (1998) said, ``the servant-
select leaders who fit the existing culture. leadership concept is a principle, a natural
However, as the organizations encounter law, and getting our social value systems and
new challenges they are again open to change personal habits aligned with this ennobling
and leaders have opportunities to establish principle is one of the great challenges of our
new or different values. Thus, the values of lives'' (p. xiv).
the organizational culture evolve through a The fundamental motivation for leadership
continuous interchange of leader and should be a desire to serve (Baggett, 1997;
corporate values. Batten, 1997; Block, 1993; Briner and
[ 78 ]
 Robert F. Russell Pritchard, 1998; Covey, 1990; De Pree 1997; organizational trust (Bennis, 1989; Bennis
The role of values in servant Fairholm, 1997; Gaston, 1987; Greenleaf, 1977; and Nanus, 1997; De Pree, 1997; Kouzes and
leadership Posner, 1993; Nanus, 1989; Neuschel, 1998;
Kouzes and Posner, 1993; Manz, 1998; Oster,
Leadership & Organization 1991; Pollard, 1996; Rinehart, 1998; Snodgrass, Yukl, 1998). ``Leaders with integrity inspire
Development Journal
22/2 [2001] 76±83 1993; Snyder et al., 1994). According to confidence in others because they can be
Neuschel (1998), ``it is not the lot of the leader trusted to do what they say they are going to
to be served but rather his/her privilege to do'' (Northouse, 1997, p. 18). ``Without
serve'' (p. 135). Servant leaders value human integrity, trust is never achieved'' (Bardwick,
equality and seek to enhance the personal 1996, p. 137).
development and professional contributions Trust is an essential ingredient in servant
of all organizational members. ``Servant leadership, as well as in other leadership
leaders give up personal rights to find styles (Covey, 1990; De Pree, 1989; 1997;
greatness in service to others'' (Wilkes, 1996, Fairholm, 1997; 1998; Ford, 1991; Greenleaf,
p. 15). 1977; Melrose, 1995; 1997; Neuschel, 1998;
Wilkes, 1998). Trust is ``unquestionably of
Values in servant leadership greatest importance'' in establishing leader
The values in leadership literature is very credibility and ``trust is at the heart of
fostering collaboration'' (Kouzes and Posner,
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pertinent to servant leadership. Leaders need

to ``develop a value system that serves'' 1993, pp. 24, 163). Trust provides the
(Kuczmarski and Kuczmarski, 1995, p. 83). foundation for people to follow their leaders
with confidence and enthusiasm. However,
Servant leaders assert the important place of
trust must be earned (Fairholm, 1998). ``Trust
values, beliefs, and principles in leadership
grows when people see leaders translate their
(Covey, 1990; Ford, 1991). According to many
personal integrity into organizational
writers, values are the core elements of
fidelity'' (De Pree, 1997, p. 127).
servant leadership; they are the independent
``Leaders who do not command our respect
variables that actuate servant leader
reduce the legitimacy of their leadership and
behavior (Batten, 1997; Covey, 1990; Farling et
lose our trust'' (Nair, 1994, p. 14). Conditional
al., 1999; Ford, 1991; Kouzes and Posner, 1993;
trust arises when people interact with
Malphurs, 1996; Melrose, 1997; Nair, 1994;
contingencies, but unconditional trust
Rinehart, 1998). Consequently, the internal develops when shared values permeate the
values of servant leaders yield functional, social situation (Jones and George, 1998).
distinguishable leadership attributes. Lack of trust in a work environment can lead
to decreased employee satisfaction
Servant leadership characteristics (Kuczmarski and Kuczmarski, 1995; Ryan
The literature regarding servant leadership and Oestreich, 1998). In addition, the failure
reveals many distinguishable attributes of to establish new levels of trust can impede
such leaders. These include: the success of organizational changes
. vision; (Heckscher et al., 1994). In the absence of
. credibility; trust, fear dominates organizations and
. trust; inhibits productivity (Ryan and Oestreich,
. service; 1998). The generation of ``trust between
. modeling; individuals and between groups within an
. pioneering; organization is a highly important ingredient
. appreciation of others; and in the long-term stability of the organization
. empowerment (Russell and Stone, 2000). and the well-being of its members'' (Cook and
While all of the attributes of servant Wall, 1980, p. 39).
leadership are important, this study focuses Appreciation of others
on the role of values in only three of the Servant leaders visibly appreciate, value,
functional attributes: encourage, and care for their constituents
1 trust; (Batten, 1997; Covey, 1990; Crom, 1998;
2 appreciation of others; and Greenleaf, 1977; Kouzes and Posner, 1993;
3 empowerment. 1995; Pollard, 1996; Wenderlich, 1997;
The following review expounds on the three Winston, 1999). They inspire hope and
courage in others by living out their
attributes and provides a discussion of the
convictions, facilitating positive images, and
importance of values in each of the areas.
by giving love and encouragement (Kouzes
Trust and Posner, 1993). Such actions reflect
According to the values in leadership appropriate, unconditional love in the
literature, the essential values of good workplace and they build relationships
leaders include honesty and integrity. These (Batten, 1997; Covey, 1990; Kouzes and
values build interpersonal and Posner, 1993; Manz, 1998).
[ 79 ]
 Robert F. Russell Appreciation of others by servant leaders (Manz, 1998, p. 99). In essence, servant
The role of values in servant reflects fundamental personal values that leadership involves turning the traditional
leadership esteem and honor people. Whereas organizational pyramid upside down
Leadership & Organization authoritarian leadership styles may demean (Blanchard, 1997). Miller (1995) suggests that
Development Journal
22/2 [2001] 76±83 followers, servant leaders respect those they servant leaders should establish vision and
serve. Winston (1999) maintains that direction, but delegate decisions about how
managers should love their subordinates, to reach the goals. He cautions, however, that
peers, and superiors, as well as their delegation is not abdication; rather, it
competitors (pp. 70, 38). Nix (1997) argues for involves both trust and accountability (pp.
the application of love in order to transform 160-61).
the workplace into something that is better Empowerment is the opposite of the
for everyone. He calls for an ``all- historical management practices that
encompassing love'' that practices patience, emphasized manipulation (Oster, 1991).
kindness, and forgiveness in work relations Leaders have often derived power through
(p.14). Optimally, ``work is love made visible'' coercion based on fear or through exploitive
(Batten, 1997, p. 50). rewards (Covey, 1990). Empowerment is the
Kouzes and Posner (1993) identified a shift relinquishing of traditional means of power
in focus from self to others among important and the delegation of decision-making
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trends in managerial values (p. 92). Showing responsibilities (Pollard, 1996). Leaders who
concern for others and putting their needs genuinely empower operate from a different
and interests as priorities demonstrates values foundation than do those leaders who
empathy and elicits trust (Bennis, 1997; desire to retain power and control. Servant
Block, 1993; Greenleaf, 1977; Kouzes and leaders respect the capabilities of their
Posner, 1993; Snodgrass, 1993). In addition to followers and enable them to exercise their
appreciating followers, servant leaders abilities and share power.
believe in and encourage the people they lead ``Servant leaders share their responsibility
(Pollard, 1996). Nix (1997) suggested people and authority with others to meet a greater
should practice ``intentional encouragement'' need'' (Wilkes, 1996, p. 24). Power sharing is a
in the workplace (p. 28). Commitment to the process of involving followers in planning
growth of people is one of the critical and decision making (Bass, 1990). Leaders
characteristics of servant leadership (Spears, enable others to act not by hoarding the
1998). Listening is also a key way through power they have but by giving it away
which leaders demonstrate respect and (Fairholm, 1998; Kouzes and Posner, 1995;
appreciation of others (Greenleaf, 1977; Melrose, 1997). According to Maxwell (1998),
Kouzes and Posner, 1993; Miller, 1995; Nix, ``only secure leaders give power to others''
1997; Sanders, 1994). Spears (1998) identified (p. 121).
healing, empathy, and listening among the Servant leadership involves ``delegating
ten essential ingredients of servant responsibility and nurturing participatory
leadership. leadership'' (Neuschel, 1998, p. 151). It
Empowerment involves offering choices and encouraging
Empowerment is a central element in followers to take ownership of
excellent leadership; it is especially responsibilities (Fairholm, 1997; Kouzes and
important in servant leadership (Block, 1993; Posner, 1993). Servant leaders empower their
Covey, 1990; De Pree, 1989; Fairholm, 1998; employees by providing opportunities for
Ford, 1991; Melrose, 1997; Miller, 1995; Oster, them to do their best (Oster, 1991; Winston,
1991; Pollard, 1996; Rinehart, 1998). 1999). Leaders can also influence and
Empowerment involves entrusting workers empower people by structuring their work
with authority and responsibility (Costigan environments in such a way that workers
et al., 1998). It emphasizes teamwork and feel more effective and motivated (Miles,
reflects the values of love and equality. 1997; Pollard, 1996). According to Sanders
``Servant leaders multiply their leadership by (1994), ``the degree to which a leader is able to
empowering others to lead'' (Wilkes, 1996, p. delegate work is a measure of his success'' (p.
25). In some respects, empowerment is a 138). Unfortunately, Argyris (1998) argues
dependent variable; it is an important that delegation and empowerment are still
consequence of other leadership behaviors mostly illusions because executives tend to
(Bennis, 1997; Bennis and Nanus, 1997). undermine genuine empowerment.
Empowerment creates a new type of leader
power ± one based on trust (Covey, 1990). Summary of the role of values in servant
The goal of empowerment is to create many leadership
leaders at all levels of the organization Values are core elements of servant
(Bennis and Nanus, 1997; Kotter, 1990). ``Wise leadership. The very concept of servant
leaders lead others to lead themselves'' leadership is based on the values of humility
[ 80 ]
 Robert F. Russell and respect for others. The primary Bass, B. (1990), Bass and Stogdill's Handbook of
The role of values in servant functional elements of servant leadership Leadership: Theory, Research, and
leadership grow out of proper leadership values. The Managerial Applications, 3rd ed., The Free
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Bean, W.C. (1993), Strategic Planning that Makes
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Things Happen: Getting from Where You Are
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to Where You Want to Be, Human Resource
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Development Press, Amherst, MA.
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Behr, E.T. (1998), ``Acting from the center: your
patience, and encouragement in their
response to today's leadership challenges
relational style. Empowerment of
must be grounded in personal values'',
organizational members also grows out of a
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