Chapter 1 Frequency Distributions and their

Graphic Representation
Introduction
This lesson contains a discussion of ways to organize and describe a data set.
Important characteristics to look for when organizing and describing a data
set are its center, its variability (or spread), and its shape. Learners will also
meet how to construct graphs using technology.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to
• organize data sets by grouping the data into intervals called classes and
forming a frequency distribution,
• use frequency distributions to construct different graphs, and
• analyze the constructed graphs.

Learning Contents
A frequency distribution is a table that shows classes or intervals of data
entries with a count of the number of entries in each class.

The frequency f of a class is the number of data entries in the class.

Table 1.1. Example of a Frequency Distribution

Class Limits Class Boundaries Frequency ( f ) Midpoint (X)
10 – 14 9.5 – 14.5 5 12
15 – 19 14.5 – 19.5 10 17
20 – 24 19.5 – 24.5 3 22
25 – 29 24.5 – 29.5 12 27
30 – 34 29.5 – 34.5 8 32

There are five (5) classes (K) in the frequency distribution table.

The frequencies (f ) for each of the 5 classes are 5, 10, 3, 12, and 8.

Class limits (or Apparent limits) is the highest and lowest values describing
a class.

Lower class limits are the smallest numbers that can belong to the different
classes. (Table 1 has lower class limits of 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30.)

Upper class limits are the largest numbers that can belong to the different
classes. (Table 1 has upper class limits of 14, 19, 24, 29 and 34.)

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Class boundaries (or Real limits) are the numbers used to separate the
classes but without the gaps created by class limits.

The lower class boundary is found by subtracting 0.5 from the lower class
limit. (Table 1.1 has lower class boundaries of 9.5, 14.5, 19.5, 24.5 and 29.5.)

The upper class boundary is found by adding 0.5 from the upper class limit.
(Table 1 has upper class boundaries of 14.5, 19.5, 24.5, 29.5 and 34.5.)

Figure 1.1 shows the gaps created by the class limits from Table 1. In
Figure 1, we see that the values of 14.5, 19.5, 24.5, and 29.5 are in the centers
of those gaps, and following the pattern of those class boundaries, we see that
the lowest class boundary is 9.5 and the highest-class boundary is 34.5.
Hence, the complete list of class boundaries is 9.5, 14.5, 19.5, 24.5, 29.5, and
34.5.

Observe that the classes do not overlap in class limits.

10 14 15 19 20 24 25 29 30 34 Class Limits

9.5 14.5 19.5 24.5 29.5 34.5 Class Boundaries

Figure 1.1. Class Boundaries and Class Limits of Table 1.1

Classmarks or midpoints (X) are the values in the middle of the classes. It
is the average of lower and upper class limits,
Lower class limit + Upper class limit
X = .
2
Table 1.1 has class midpoints of 12, 17, 22, 27, and 32.

Class width or class size (C) is the difference between two consecutive
lower/upper class limits (or two consecutive lower/upper class boundaries)
or upper class boundary minus lower class boundary of a specific class in a
frequency distribution. Table 1.1 uses a class width of 5.

For example, the class width in the frequency distribution shown is

15 – 10 = 5 (Lower limit from 2nd class minus Lower limit from 1st class) or
19 – 14 = 5 (Upper limit from 2nd class minus Upper limit from 1st class) or
14 – 10 + 1 = 5 (Upper limit minus lower class limit plus 1) or
14.5 – 9.5 = 5 (Upper class boundary minus Lower class boundary)

Class Interval is the range of values that belong in the class or category.

Range (R) is the mathematical difference between the maximum (highest) and
minimum (lowest) data entries or values. In symbol,
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 R = Highest value – Lowest value = HV – LV

In Table 1.1, assume the highest value is 33, and the lowest value is
10, then the range is 33 – 10 = 23.

Class Width

Class Interval

Lowest Highest
value Class Limits value
Class Boundaries
Range

Figure 1.2. Illustration of Range, Class Width, and Class Interval

The relative frequency (rf) of a class is the portion, or percentage, of the data
that falls in that class. To find the relative frequency of a class, divide the
frequency f by the sample size n.
Class frequency f
Relative frequency (rf ) = =
Sample size or total number of values n

A percentage is obtained by multiplying the relative frequency by 100%.

f
Percentage for a class ( % ) =  100%
n
= rf  100%
The cumulative frequency (cf) of a class is the sum of the frequencies of that
class and all previous classes. The cumulative frequency of the last class is
equal to the sample size n.

The less than cumulative frequency (<cf) distribution shows the number of
observations with values smaller than or equal to the upper class boundary.

The greater than cumulative frequency (>cf) distribution shows the

number of observations with values larger than or equal to the lower class
boundary.

Determining the Number of Classes (K) and Class Width or Class Size (C)
Denote the number of classes or the number of class intervals by K.
The choice for K will depend on the number of observations and the size of
the class interval. Generally, larger data sets will require more classes.
• There are no strict rules regarding the number of classes in a frequency
distribution.
• Use the best judgment to determine if there are enough classes to show
the essential characteristics of the data.
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 • The more classes we include, the more details we retain/keep in mind.
• But, if there are too many classes, then the frequency distributions will
already lose its value for effectively summarizing the data.
• Commonly, we end up using between 5 to 20 classes.

Rule 1. To determine the number of classes is to use the smallest

positive integer K such that
2K ≥ n
where n is the total number of frequencies or sample size.

Range HV − LV R
Suggested Class Width, C = = =
Number of Classes K K

Rule 2. With Sturges’ formula (Only for n > 200)

Range R
Suggested Class Width, C = =
1+3.322 log10 ( total frequencies ) K

Rule 3. The number of classes K is equal to n (round off to the nearest

whole number)
Range HV − LV R
Suggested Class Width, C = = =
Number of Classes K K

Rule 4. Have an ideal number of classes K from 5 to 20

Range HV − LV R
Suggested Class Width, C = = =
Number of Classes K K

Steps in Constructing a Frequency Distribution from a Data Set

1. Determine the range (R) and the number of classes (K) using Rule 1.

2. Compute for class width (C) and round up to the nearest whole number.

3. Find the class limits. Choose the value for the first lower class limit by
using the minimum or lowest value (LV). To find the remaining lower
class limits, add the class width (C) to the lower limit (LL) of the
preceding class. Then find the upper class limit (UL) of the first class.
Remember that classes cannot overlap. Find the remaining upper class
limits.

4. Find the class boundary.

Lower class boundary (LB) = Lower class limit (LL) – 0.5

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 Upper class boundary (UB) = Upper class limit (UL) + 0.5

5. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the row of the appropriate
class.

6. Count the tally marks to find the total frequency f for each class.

7. Determine the class marks/midpoints.

8. Determine the relative frequency.

9. Determine the percentage.

10. Determine the cumulative frequency.

Worked Example 1
Given the scores of 40 students on a 30-item Social Studies test. Construct a
frequency distribution with class limits, class boundary, frequency, class
marks/midpoints, relative frequency, percentage, and cumulative frequency.

11 14 23 9 20
8 15 26 26 13
3 7 16 10 22
12 23 8 4 10
20 14 11 21 28
18 20 21 27 26
22 9 5 19 14
10 15 17 12 20
Solution:
1. Determine the range (R) and the number of classes (K) using Rule 1.
HV = 28, Rule 1: 2K ≥ n, n = 40
LV = 3, 21 = 2 ≥ 40
R = HV – LV 22 = 4 ≥ 40
R = 28 – 3 = 25 23 = 8 ≥ 40
R = 25 24 = 16 ≥ 40
25 = 32 ≥ 40
26 = 64 ≥ 40, K = 6 is the smallest positive no.
27 = 128 ≥ 40
28 = 256 ≥ 40

2. Compute for class width (C), and round up to the nearest whole number.

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 R Note : Round UP to the nearest whole number
C= 1) 3.04 Answer : 4
K
2) 3.29 Answer : 4
25
= = 4.17 (round up ) 3) 3.65 Answer : 4
6
C =5
3. Find the class limits.
LV = 3, the first lower class limit
C=5
Lower Upper
Class Class
Found by Limits Found by Limits
LV 3 LV + C – 1 = 3 + 5 – 1 = 7
LV + C = 3 + 5 = 8 7+5= 12
8+5= 13 12 + 5 = 17
13 + 5 = 18 17 + 5 = 22
18 + 5 = 23 22 + 5 = 27
23 + 5 = 28 27 + 5 = 32

Class Limits
3–7
8 – 12
13 – 17
18 – 22
23 – 27
28 – 32

4. Find the class limits class boundary.

Lower Class Upper Class
Found by Boundaries Found by Boundaries
3 – 0.5 = 2.5 7 + 0.5 = 7.5
8 – 0.5 = 7.5 12 + 0.5 = 12.5
13 – 0.5 = 12.5 17 + 0.5 = 17.5
18 – 0.5 = 17.5 22 + 0.5 = 22.5
23 – 0.5 = 22.5 27 + 0.5 = 27.5
28 – 0.5 = 27.5 32 + 0.5 = 32.5

Class Limits Class Boundaries

03 – 70 02.5 – 7.50
08 – 12 07.5 – 12.5
13 – 17 12.5 – 17.5
18 – 22 17.5 – 22.5
23 – 27 22.5 – 27.5
28 – 32 27.5 – 32.5
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5. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the row of the appropriate
class.

Class Limits Tally

03 – 70 
08 – 12 --
13 – 17 -
18 – 22 -
23 – 27 -
28 – 32 

3 10 14 19 22
4 10 14 20 23
5 10 14 20 23
7 11 15 20 26
8 11 15 20 26
8 12 16 21 26
9 12 17 21 27
9 13 18 22 28

6. Count the tally marks to find the total frequency f for each class.

Class Limits f
03 – 70 4
08 – 12 11
13 – 17 8
18 – 22 10
23 – 27 6
28 – 32 1

7. Determine the class marks/midpoints (X).

Class Limits X Found by

03 – 70 5 = (3 + 7)/2
08 – 12 10 = (8 + 12)/2
13 – 17 15 = (13 + 17)/2
18 – 22 20 = (18 + 22)/2
23 – 27 25 = (23 + 27)/2
28 – 32 30 = (28 + 32)/2

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8. Determine the relative frequency (rf).

Class Limits f rf Found by

03 – 70 4 0.100 = 4/40
08 – 12 11 0.275 = 11/40
13 – 17 8 0.200 = 8/40
18 – 22 10 0.250 = 10/40
23 – 27 6 0.150 = 6/40
28 – 32 1 0.025 = 1/40
Total (n) 40 1.000 = 40/40

9. Determine the percentage.

Class Limits rf % Found by

03 – 70 0.100 10.0 =0.100×100
08 – 12 0.275 27.5 =0.275×100
13 – 17 0.200 20.0 =0.200×100
18 – 22 0.250 25.0 =0.250×100
23 – 27 0.150 15.0 =0.150×100
28 – 32 0.025 02.5 =0.025×100
Total (n) 1.000 100.0 1.000×100

10. Determine the cumulative frequency.

For <cf, start at the frequency with the lowest class interval, 3 – 7

Class Limits f <cf Found by

3–7 4 4
08 – 12 11 15 = 4 + 11
13 – 17 8 23 = 15 + 8
18 – 22 10 33 = 23 + 10
23 – 27 6 39 = 33 + 6
28 – 32 1 40 = 39 + 1
Total (n) 40

For >cf, start at frequency with the highest class interval, 28 – 32

Class Limits f >cf Found by
3–7 4 40 = 36 + 4
08 – 12 11 36 = 25 + 11
13 – 17 8 25 = 17 + 8
18 – 22 10 17 = 7 + 10
23 – 27 6 7 =1+6
28 – 32 1 1
Total (n) 40
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Table 1.2. A Frequency Distribution of a 30-item Social Studies Test Ordered
from the Highest to the Lowest Score: Test Scores of 40 Students
Class Limits Class Boundaries f X rf % <cf >cf
03 – 70 02.5 – 7.50 4 5 0.100 10.0 4 40
08 – 12 07.5 – 12.5 11 10 0.275 27.5 15 36
13 – 17 12.5 – 17.5 8 15 0.200 20.0 23 25
18 – 22 17.5 – 22.5 10 20 0.250 25.0 33 17
23 – 27 22.5 – 27.5 6 25 0.150 15.0 39 7
28 – 32 27.5 – 32.5 1 30 0.025 02.5 40 1
Total (n) 40 1.000 100.0

Graphic Representation
Graphs are used to communicate information by transforming numerical data
into a visual form. Graphs allow us to see relationships not easily apparent
by looking at the numerical data.

There are four (4) kinds of presenting the graph. These are (1) bar graph, (2)
line graph, (3) pictograph, and (4) circle graph.

Bar Graph. A bar graph is constructed by labeling each category of data on

either the horizontal or vertical axis, and the frequency (f) or relative frequency
(rf) of the category on the other axis. Rectangles of equal width are drawn for
each category. The height of each rectangle represents the category’s
frequency (f) or relative frequency (rf). The bars may or may not be separated
by small gaps.

Worked Example 2
MPC researchers conducted a survey in which 250 randomly sampled faculty
were asked, “How much time, if at all, do you personally spend using the
Internet—more than 1 hour a day, up to 1 hour a day, a few times a week, a
few times a month or less, or never?” The results of the survey were as follows:

Table 1.3. Frequency and Percentage of Response of the

MPC Faculty
Response Frequency Percentage
More than 1 hour a day 125 50.0
Up to 1 hour a day 66 26.4
A few times a week 44 17.6
A few times a month or less 10 4.0
Never 5 2.0
Total 250 100.0

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Construct a frequency bar graph using Excel
1. Bar Graphs from Summarized Data Enter the categories in column A
and the frequency or relative frequency in column B.
2. Highlight the data to be graphed.
3. Select the Insert menu. Click the “column” or “bar” chart type. Select
the chart type in the upper-left corner.
4. Click the “+” to enter axes labels and chart title.

Response of the MPC Faculty

140
120
Frequrncy (f)

100
80
60
40
20
0
More than 1 Up to 1 hour A few times a A few times a Never
hour a day a day week month or
less
Response

Analysis. The bar graph shows that MPC faculty personally spend using the
Internet the most on more than 1 hour a day.

Histogram. A frequency histogram is a bar graph that represents the

frequency distribution of a data set. The horizontal axis (x-axis) and the
vertical axis (y-axis) represent the midpoint (X) and class frequencies (f ),
respectively. A histogram has the following properties.
1. The horizontal scale is quantitative and measures the data entries.
2. The vertical scale measures the frequencies of the classes.
3. Consecutive bars must touch.
Because consecutive bars of a histogram must touch, bars must begin and
end at class boundaries instead of class limits. Class boundaries are the
numbers that separate classes without forming gaps between them.

Steps in Constructing a Histogram

1. Draw and label the x- and y-axes.
2. On the x-axis, label the class boundaries of the frequency distribution
and label the midpoints (X)
3. Plot the frequencies (f ) for each class, and draw the vertical bars for the
histogram.

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 Test Scores of 40 Students in Social Studies
12
11
10
9
Frequemcy (f) 8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2.5 2.5 55 7.5 10
10 12.5 15 17.5 20
20 22.5 25
25 27.5 30 32.5
30 32.5

Midpoint (X)

Analysis. As the histogram shows, the class with the highest number of data
scores (11) in a 30-item Social Studies Test is 7.5 – 12.5, followed by 10 for
17.5 – 22.5. The lowest number of data scores is 1 from class 27.5 – 32.5.

Construct a Histogram using Excel, see Table 1.2

1. Press [Ctrl]-N for a new workbook.

2. Enter the data from Table 1.2 in column A

(midpoint X) including the lowest class boundary
(2.5) and highest upper boundary (32.5), one
number per cell.

3. Enter the frequency (f ) into column B. The

frequency for the lowest class boundary (2.5) and
the highest upper boundary (32.5) is zero (0).

4. Select the Insert menu. Click the “clustered

column” chart type.

5. Click the “+” to enter axes labels and chart title.

6. Editing the Histogram. To move the vertical

bars of the histogram closer together: (a)
Right-click one of the bars of the histogram
and select Format Data Series. (b) Move the
Gap Width slider to the left to change the gap
width of the bars in the histogram to zero (0).

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 7. Click the “vertical or horizontal (value) axis” and select the Format Axis
to adjust the scale by Major Unit.

Line Graph. A line graph is used to show relationships between two variables,
which are depicted on the two axes. The horizontal axis indicates values that
are on a continuum (e.g., calendar years or months). The vertical axis can be
used for various types of data (e.g., test scores, temperatures, and amount of
income). A line connects the data points on the graphs.

Frequency Polygon. A frequency polygon is a line graph that uses points,

connected by line segments, to represent the frequencies for the classes. It is
constructed by plotting a point above each class midpoint (X) on a horizontal
axis at a height equal to the frequency (f ) of the class. Next, line segments are
drawn connecting consecutive points. Two additional line segments are drawn
connecting each end of the graph with the horizontal axis.

Steps in Constructing a Frequency Polygon

1. Draw and label the x- and y-axes. Label the x-axis with the midpoint (X)
of each class, and then use a suitable scale on the y-axis for the
frequencies (f).
2. Using the midpoints for the x-values and the frequencies as the y-
values, plot the points.
3. Connect adjacent points with line segments. Draw a line back to the x-
axis at the beginning and end of the graph, at the same distance that
the previous and next midpoints would be located.

Construct a Frequency Polygon using Excel, see Table 1.2

1. Press [Ctrl]-N for a new workbook.

2. Enter the data from Table 1.2 in column A

(midpoint X) including the lowest class boundary
(2.5) and highest upper boundary (32.5), one
number per cell.

3. Enter the frequency (f ) into column B. The

frequency for the lowest class boundary (2.5) and
the highest upper boundary (32.5) is zero (0).

4. Select the Insert menu. Click the “scatter” chart

type.

5. Click the “+” to enter axes labels and chart title.

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 6. Click the “vertical or horizontal (value) axis” and select the Format Axis
to adjust the scale by Major Unit.

Test Scores of 40 Students in Social Studies

12
11
10
9
Frequemcy (f)

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25 27.5 30 32.5 35
Midpoint (X)

Analysis. As the frequency polygon shows, the class with the highest number
of data scores (11) in a 30-item Social Studies Test is 7.5 – 12.5, followed by
10 for 17.5 – 22.5. The lowest number of data scores is 1 from class 27.5 –
32.5.

Ogive. A cumulative frequency graph, or ogive (read as “oh jive”), is a line

graph that displays the cumulative frequency (>cf or <cf ) of each class at its
upper class boundary (UB). The upper boundaries (UB) are marked on the
horizontal axis, and the cumulative frequencies (>cf or <cf ) are marked on
the vertical axis. Note that the intersection of the less than ogive and greater
than ogive is the mean or average of the data.

Steps in Constructing an Ogive (Cumulative Frequency Graph)

1. Construct a frequency distribution that includes cumulative
frequencies as one of the columns.
2. Specify the horizontal and vertical scales. The horizontal scale (x-axis)
consists of upper class boundaries, and the vertical scale (y-axis)
measures cumulative frequencies (less than or greater than).
3. Plot points that represent the upper class boundaries and their
corresponding cumulative frequencies (less than or greater than).
4. Connect the points in order from left to right with line segments.
5. The graph should start at the lower boundary of the first class and
should end at the upper boundary of the last class.

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 Ogive for Test Scores of 40 Students in Social Studies
45

40
 cf
35
Cumulative frequency

30

25

20

15

10
 cf
5

0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25 27.5 30 32.5 35
Upper class boundary

Analysis. The mean or average score in the Social Studies test of 40 students
is within 17.5 – 20.

Use the less than ogive (<cf ) or Table 1.2 to approximate

(a) the cumulative frequency for a score of 22.5.
Answer: 33
(b) the score for which the cumulative frequency is 15.
Answer: 12.5
(c) the number of students with a score from 17.5 to 22.5.
Answer: Cumulative frequency from 23 to 33,
there are 33 – 23 + 1 = 11 students
(d) the number of students that score is higher than 17.5.
Answer: Cumulative frequency higher or greater than 23,
from 24 to 40, there are 40 – 24 + 1 = 17 or
40 – 23 = 17 students

Use the greater than ogive (>cf ) or Table 1.2 to approximate

(a) the cumulative frequency for a score of 12.5.
Answer: 36
(b) the score for which the cumulative frequency is 25.
Answer: 17.5
(c) the number of students with a score from 12.5 to 27.5.
Answer: Cumulative frequency from 36 to 7,
there are 36 – 7 + 1 = 30 students
(d) the number of students that score is lower than 27.5.
Answer: Cumulative frequency less or lower than 7,

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 from 8 to 40, there are 40 – 8 + 1 = 33 or
40 – 7 = 33 students

Construct an Ogive using Excel, see Table 1.2

1. Press [Ctrl]-N for a new workbook.

2. Enter the data from Table 1.2 in column A (upper class boundaries,
UB), one number per cell.

3. Enter the less cumulative frequency (<cf

) into column B.

4. Enter the less cumulative frequency (<cf

) into column C.

5. Select the Insert menu. Click the

“scatter” chart type.

6. Click the “+” to enter axes labels and chart title.

7. Click the “vertical or horizontal (value)

axis” and select the Format Axis to
adjust the scale by Major Unit.

Circle Graph. A circle graph or pie chart is a graph that illustrates categorical
data as slices of a circle, in which the size of each slice is proportional to the
frequency count for the category. The purpose of the circle graph is to show
the relationship of the parts to the whole by visually comparing the sizes of
the sections. Percentages or proportions can be used. The variable is nominal
or categorical.

Steps in Constructing a Circle Graph

1. Finding the relative frequency (rf), or percentage, of each category.
2. Construct the pie chart using the central angle that corresponds to each
category. To find the central angle, multiply 360° by the category’s
relative frequency.
f
Central angle =  360
n
= rf  360
3. Using a protractor and a compass, draw the graph, using the
appropriate degree measures found in Step 2, and label each section
with the name and percentages.
15
Construct a frequency circle graph using Excel, see Table 3
1. Enter the categories in column A and the frequencies in column B.
2. Highlight the data to be graphed.
3. Select the Insert menu and click the “pie” chart type. Select the pie chart
in the upper-left corner.
4. Click the “+” to enter labels, chart title, and legend.

How much time spend using the Internet?

A few times a Never
month or less 2%
4%

A few times a
week 17.6%

More than 1
hour a day
50%
Up to 1 hour a
day
26.4%

Analysis. The circle graph shows that 50% of MPC faculty personally spend
using the Internet more than 1 hour a day.

Pictograph. A pictogram or pictograph is essentially a form of a bar chart in

which the rectangular bars are replaced by a pictorial representation
appropriate to the measures being summarized.

Steps in Constructing a Pictograph

1. Draw the x-axis and y-axis.
2. Label the x-axis or y-axis for a specific category.
3. Draw an appropriate figure or picture to represent the number of
objects.
4. Indicate the legend.

Month January February March April

No. of Math books 400 200 250 300

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 Number of Math Books Sold for Four Months
Legend:

=100 Math books

= 50 Math books

January February March April

(Months)

Analysis. The pictograph shows that in four months, January has the highest
number of Math books sold and followed by April.

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 SELF-CHECK No. 1
Name: ______________________________________________ Score: ___________
Course/Year/Section/Major: _______________________ Date: ____________

Multiple Choice
Directions. Write the correct letter of your answer in the blank before the
number.

___ 1. In a 120-item test, the highest score is 106 and the lowest score is
43. The range is:
a. 72 b. 63 c. 54 d. 44

___ 2. If the range (R) is 45 and the number of classes (K) is 7, the class size
(C) is:
a.5 b. 6 c.7 d. 8

___ 3. Find the class width (C) in a class interval of 34 – 57.

a. 23 b. 24 c. 25 d. 26

___ 4. If the sample size (n) is 64, determine the number of class (K) using
Rule 1.
a. 9 b. 8 c. 7 d. 6

___ 5. If the first lower class limit in a class interval is 12 and the class width
(C) is 8, find the upper class limit.
a. 19 b. 20 c. 22 d. 23

___ 6. If the first upper class boundary in a class interval is 23.5 and the class
width (C) is 6, find the lower class boundary.
a. 16.5 b. 17.5 c. 18.5 d. 19.5

___ 7. 50 students took the English test. The less than the cumulative
frequency of class limit, 83 – 87, is 31, the less than cumulative percentage
frequency is:
a. 38% b. 42% c. 48% d. 62%

___ 8. The meaning of Item 7 is:

a. 38% of the students got a score of 87 or below.
b. 38% of the students got a score of 83 or below.
c. 62% of the students got a score of 87 or below.
d. 62% of the students got a score of83 or below.

18
___ 9. 45 students took the Statistics test. The greater than the cumulative
frequency of class limit, 77 – 82, is 36, the greater than the cumulative
percentage frequency is:
a. 20% b. 50% c. 70% d. 80%

___ 10. The meaning of Item 9 is:

a. 20% of the students got a score 77 or above.
b. 20% of the students got a score 82 or above.
c. 80% of the students got a score 77 or above.
d. 80% of the students got a score 82 or above.

___ 11. A graph which represents data in vertical rectangles is:

a. bar graph b. circle graph c. line graph d. pictograph

___ 12. A graph which represents the data in symbols give information is:
a. bar graph b. circle graph c. line graph d. pictograph

___ 13. A graph that represents the data into its parts in percent is:
a. bar graph b. circle graph c. line graph d. pictograph

___ 14. A graph which is done by plotting with dots and connecting the dots
with straight lines is:
a. bar graph b. circle graph c. line graph d. pictograph

___ 15. A line graph that represents the frequencies and midpoints for the
classes is:
a. frequency polygon b. histogram c. ogive d. pictograph

Assessment
Computation and Analysis/Interpretation
1. A 100-item qualifying test in Mathematics is administered to 50 BS ECE
students. The scores of the students are as follows
68 68 69 70 65
52 52 92 70 51
84 60 77 63 45
87 61 78 64 48
88 62 78 65 50
91 90 90 70 79
83 58 75 67 51
81 81 82 88 84
55 56 57 95 58
73 73 74 78 77

19
Construct a frequency distribution with class limits, class boundary,
frequency, class marks/midpoints, relative frequency, percentage, and
cumulative frequency.
Solution:
1. Determine the range (R) and the number of classes (K) using Rule 1.
HV = Rule 1: 2K ≥ n, n =
LV = 21 = 2 ≥
R = HV – LV 22 = 4 ≥
R= 23 = 8 ≥
R= 24 = 16 ≥
25 = 32 ≥ 40
26 = 64 ≥ 40, K = 6 is the smallest positive no.
27 = 128 ≥ 40
28 = 128 ≥ 40

2. Compute for class width (C), and round up to the nearest whole number.
R
C=
K
25
= = 4.17 (round up )
6
C=

3. The first lower class limit is LV =3 and completes the table below
5
Class Limits Class Boundaries f X rf % <cf >cf
03 – 70 02.5 – 7.50 4 5 0.100 10.0 4 40
08 – 12 07.5 – 12.5 11 10 0.275 27.5 15 36
13 – 17 12.5 – 17.5 8 15 0.200 20.0 23 25
18 – 22 17.5 – 22.5 10 20 0.250 25.0 33 17
23 – 27 22.5 – 27.5 6 25 0.150 15.0 39 7
28 – 32 27.5 – 32.5 1 30 0.025 02.5 40 1
Total (n) 40 1.000 100.0

2. Using the constructed frequency table in number 1, create the following:

(a) Histogram
(b) Frequency polygon
(c) Ogive (<cf and >cf )
and make an analysis
Solution:
(a) Histogram

20
 12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
49 58 67 76 85 94

Analysis:

(b) Frequency polygon

12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99

Analysis:

(c) Ogive (<cf and >cf )

21
 54
52
50
48
46
44
42
40
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
53.5 62.5 71.5 80.5 89.5 98.5

Analysis:

3. There are three academic clubs in a school namely; iSipnayan, AghaMon,

and EnglisHero. The bar graph showed the number of members in each club.

95
90
85
80
75
70
Number of Students

65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
iSipnayan AghaMon EnglisHero

22
 (a) How many students are members of AghaMon club?

Answer:
(b) How many students are members of iSipnayan or EnglisHero club?

Answer:
(c) What is the percentage of iSipnayan members among the clubs?

Answer:
(d) What is the percentage of not EnglisHero members among the clubs?

Answer:

4. There are 40 students in Ms. Zobel's class. She surveyed how the students
in her class traveled to school. Her results are shown in the pie chart below.

(a) Find the number of students using a bicycle.

Answer:
(b) Find the number of students traveled by a jeepney.

Answer:
(c) Find the number of students who went to school not on walking.

Answer:

23
Chapter 2 Measures of Central Tendency

Introduction
This lesson contains the discussion of how to supplement graphical
representations with numerical statistics that describe the center and
variability of a data set.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to
• find the mean, median, and mode of a population and/or of a sample,
of ungrouped data, and
• determine the mean, median, and mode of a frequency distribution.

Learning Contents
The central tendency of a group of scores (a distribution) refers to the middle
of the group of values/observations.

Ungrouped data. The data that gives information on each member of the
population or sample individually.

Grouped data. It is usually referred to as the process by which a range of

values is combined specially to make trends in the data more apparent or
presented in the form of a frequency distribution table.

Mean
The arithmetic mean, often called the mean, is the sum of all the data values
in a data set divided by the total number of data values. One such average is
the mean.

Properties and Uses of Mean

1. The mean is found by using all the values of the data.
2. The mean varies less than the median or mode when samples are taken
from the same population and all three measures are computed for
these samples.
3. The mean is used in computing other statistics, such as the variance.
4. The mean for the data set is unique and not necessarily one of the data
values.
5. The mean cannot be computed for the data in a frequency distribution
that has an open‑ended class.
6. The mean is affected by extremely high or low values, outliers, and may
not be the appropriate average to use in these situations.

24
 Population Mean for Sample Mean for
Ungrouped Data Ungrouped Data

The mean calculated for population The mean calculated for sample data
data and is denoted by the symbol and is denoted by the symbol
 (Greek letter “mu”) 𝑥̅ (read as “x bar”)

=
x x=
x
N n
where x = Data values where x = Data values
N = Population size n = Sample size

Worked Example 3
The four master teachers with scores of 7, 6, 7, and 5 observed Ms. Cruz in
Filipino class. Find the mean score for the performance of Ms. Cruz.
Solution:

=
x
N
7 + 6 + 7 + 5 25
= =
4 4
 = 6.25

Thus, the performance of Ms. Cruz based on the mean score is 6.25.

Worked Example 4
The grades of six selected students in Science are as follows:
78, 82, 83, 87, 85, and 90.

Find the mean grade of the students.

Solution:

x =
x
n
78 + 82 + 83 + 87 + 85 + 90 505
= =
6 6
x = 84.17

Hence, the average grade of the selected students is 84.17.

25
 Population Mean for Sample Mean for
Grouped Data Grouped Data

=
 fX x=
 fX
N n
where where
X = Midpoint X = Midpoint
f = Frequency f = Frequency
 fX = Sum of all the product of  fX = Sum of all the product of
frequency and midpoint frequency and midpoint
N = Population size n = Sample size

Worked Example 5
Table 2.1 shows the scores of the selected 40 students in a 50-item Math test.
Find the mean score.
Table 2.1. Scores of the Students in Math Test
Scores f
04 – 11 4
12 – 19 2
20 – 27 23
28 – 35 10
36 – 43 8
44 – 51 3
Total (n) 50

Solution: Construct columns for X, and fX.

Scores f X fX Found by
04 – 11 4 7.5 30 = 4 × 7.5
12 – 19 2 15.5 31 = 2 × 15.5
20 – 27 23 23.5 540.5 = 23 × 23.5
28 – 35 10 31.5 315 = 10 × 31.5
36 – 43 8 39.5 316 = 8 × 39.5
44 – 51 3 47.5 142.5 = 3 × 47.5
Total 50 1375

x=
 fX
n
1375
=
50
x = 27.5

So, the mean score of the students in the Math test is 27.5.

26
 Some Modification of Mean
Weighted Mean Combined Mean
The weighted mean assigns weights The combined mean is the mean of
to each data value depending on the combination of several data sets
their relative importance. It is found given the means and number of
by multiplying the frequency (f) of observations of each data set. It is
each data value by its corresponding the grand mean of all the values in
weight (w) and dividing by the sum all groups when two or more groups
of all the frequency of each data are combined.
value. n x + n 2x 2 + ... + nn xn
xcomb = 1 1
f w + f 2w2 + ... + f n wn n1 + n 2 + ... + nn
xw = 1 1
f1 + f 2 + ... + f n
xcomb =
 nx
xw =
 fw n
f where
where  nx = Sum of all the
 fw = Sum of all the product product of the given
of frequency (f ) and sample (n) and mean
weight (w) of each value ( x ) of each sample
 f = Sum of all the frequency (f )  n = Sum of all the
of each value given samples

A weighted mean is also the mean of

a data set whose entries have varying
weights. The weighted mean is given
by
x w + x 2w2 + ... + xn wn
xw = 1 1
w1 + w2 + ... + wn

xw =
 xw
w
where w is the weight of each entry
x.

Worked Example 6
The scores and their percentage of the midterm grade for an algebra student
are shown below. What is the student’s mean score?
Score Percentage
Criteria
(x) (w)
Quizzes 87 20
Exam 90 30
Project 95 35
Assignment 92 15

27
Solution: Construct column for xw.
x w xw
87 0.20 87(0.20) = 17.4
90 0.30 90(0.30) = 27
95 0.35 95(0.35) = 33.25
92 0.15 92(0.15) = 13.8
 w = 1.00  xw = 91.45
Note: Change percentage to decimal

xw =
 xw
w
91.45
=
1.00
x w = 91.45

Therefore, the weighted mean for the Algebra is 91.45.

Worked Example 7
Rubric Assessment. One of the indicators from the survey questionnaire, "The
teacher exhibits an adequate degree of flexibility, joy and a sense of humor in
instructional skills". Of the 80 teacher participants,
35 teachers said Highly Competent (HC) or 5;
10, Competent (C) or 4;
25, Moderately Competent (MC) or 3;
5, Less Competent (LC) or 2; and
5, Least Competent (LtC) or 1.

Solution: Construct column for f, w, and fw.

f w fw
35 5 175 f w + f 2w2 + f 3w3 + f 4w4 + f 5w5
xw = 1 1
10 4 40 f1 + f 2 + f 3 + f 4 + f 5
25 3 75 35 ( 5 ) + 10 ( 4 ) + 25 ( 3 ) + 5 ( 2) + 5 (1)
5 2 10 xw =
35 + 10 + 25 + 5 + 5
5 1 5
175 + 40 + 75 + 10 + 5
 f = 80  f w = 305 xw =
80
305
= = 3.8125
80
xw =
 fw = 305 = 3.8125 x w = 3.81 (Competent)
 f 80

Analysis: The weighted mean value obtained is 3.81. This means that the
teacher exhibits an adequate degree of flexibility, joy and a sense of humor in
instructional skills is “Competent.”

28
 Worked Example 8
Assume that in a-50 item Araling Palipunan II test, the mean for section A of
15 students is 42 and that on the same test the mean for section B of 25
students is 37. Find the combined mean score of the two sections of students.
Solution:
Given:
Section A Section B
n1 = 15 n 2 = 25
x1 = 42 x 2 = 37

n1x1 + n 2 x 2
xcomb =
n1 + n 2
15 ( 42) + 25 ( 37 )
=
15 + 25
630 + 925
=
40
1555
=
40
xcomb = 38.88

Thus, the combined mean score of the two sections of students in the Araling
Palipunan II test is 38.88.

Median
The median is a measure of central tendency that is the middle value or the
middle term in a data set that has been ranked in increasing (or decreasing)
order.
It divides an ordered set of observation into two equal parts, if an
observation/ data value is smaller than the median, then it belongs in the
lower half of the ordered data; and if an observation is larger than the median,
then it belongs in the upper half of the ordered data. The first step in finding
the median is to arrange the observations/ data values in an array or in order
(either by ascending or descending order). The median calculated in an array
of data is denoted by the symbol
x (read as “x tilde”)

Properties and Uses of Median

1. The median is used to find the center or middle value of a data set.
2. The median is used when it is necessary to find out whether the data
values fall into the upper half or lower half of the distribution.
3. The median is used for an open-ended distribution.

29
 4. The median is affected less than the mean by extremely high or
extremely low values.

Median for Ungrouped Data Median for Grouped Data

Arranged first the set of values in To find the median of a grouped

increasing or decreasing order. data, we first determine the median
class of the frequency distribution.
Case 1: The number of values or
sample size n is an odd Median Class (Md) = the class
interval in the frequency
 n +1
th distribution where the median is
x =  position located
 2 
n 
 2 − cf bMd 
Case 2: The number of values or x = LB Md + C  
 f Md 
sample size n is an even
where
The median is halfway or averages LB Md = lower class boundary of
between the two middle values. the median class
C = class width/size
th th
n  n  n
  position +  + 1 position = number of values divided
2 2 2
x=   
2 by 2
cf bMd = less than cumulative
frequency before the
median class
f Md = frequency of the median
class

Worked Example 9
The number of freshmen in seven sections is as follows. Find the median.
45, 56, 38, 41, 52, 36, 40
Solution:
Arrange in ascending order
x 35, 38, 40, 41, 45, 52, 56
Position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Number of data values: n = 7

7 +1 8
x= = = 4th position
2 2
x = 41

30
Analysis: The median in seven sections is 41 freshmen. Thus, half of the
sections have at most 41 freshmen, or half of the sections have at least 41
freshmen.

Worked Example 10
The data show the number of chairs in 10 classrooms. Find the median of the
data.
42, 37, 53, 47, 35, 54, 42, 45, 50, 40
Solution:
Arrange in ascending order
x 35, 37, 40, 42, 42, 45, 47, 50, 53, 54
Position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
50% 50%

Median
Number of data values: n = 10
th th
 10   10 
  position +  + 1 position
2  2
x=  
2
5 position + 6 position
th th
=
2
42 + 45 87
= =
2 2
x = 43.5
Analysis: The median in 10 classrooms is 43.5 chairs. Hence, 50% of the
classrooms have less than 43.5 chairs and the other 50% of the classrooms
have more than 43.5 chairs.

Worked Example 11
Using the table below, compute the median score in a 30-item Statistics test.
Scores f
03 – 70 3
08 – 12 8
13 – 17 13
18 – 22 9
23 – 27 5
28 – 32 2
Total (n) 40
Solution:
1. Construct columns for lower class boundaries and <cf.

n n 40
2. Calculate . = = 20
2 2 2
31
 3. Determine the median class (Md).
n
If the = 20th position is within 12th - 24th position
2
then the median class is 13 – 17.

Lower Class
Scores f <cf
Boundaries
03 – 70 02.5 3 3 01st -03rd
08 – 12 07.5 8 11 04th - 11th
13 – 17 12.5 13 24 12th - 24th (Md)
18 – 22 17.5 9 33 25th - 33rd
23 – 27 22.5 5 38 34th - 38th
28 – 32 27.5 2 40 39th - 40th
Total (n) 40

4. Compute the median.

n 
 − cf bMd 
C = 8−3 = 5 x = LBMd + C  2 
 f Md 
LB Md = 12.5  20 − 11 
= 12.5 + 5  
f Md = 13  13 
 9 
cf bMd = 11 = 12.5 + 5  
 13 
= 12.5 + 3.46
x = 15.96

Checking: If 15.96 is inside the median class 13 – 17 or class boundaries

12.5 – 17.5, then the computed median is correct.

Analysis: Thus, the median score is 15.96. This means that half of the
students' scores in the Statistics test are higher than 15.96 and the other half
of the students' scores are lower than 15.96.

Mode
The mode is a French word that means fashion – an item that is most popular
or common. In statistics, the mode represents the most common value in a
data set. It is the data value that occurs with the greatest frequency in a data
set. The mode calculated in an ordered data set or a frequency distribution is
denoted by the symbol
x̂ (read as “x hat”).

32
Properties and Uses of Mode
1. The mode is used when the most typical case is desired.
2. The mode is the easiest average to compute.
3. The mode can be used when the data are nominal or categorical, such
as religious preference, gender, or political affiliation.
4. The mode is not always unique. A data set can have more than one
mode, or the mode may not exist for a data set.

Mode for Ungrouped Data Mode for Grouped Data

The mode is the score or value that To find the mode of a grouped data,
occurs most often in a set of data. we first determine the modal class of
Sets of data may contain: the frequency distribution.

1. no mode; that is, each score Modal Class (Mo) = the class interval
occurs once only in the frequency distribution with
the highest frequency.
2. one mode (unimodal)  f Mo − f b 
xˆ = LB Mo + C  
 2 f Mo − f b − f a 
3. two modes (bimodal) where

4. more than two modes

LB Mo = lower class boundary of
(multimodal).
the modal class
C = class width
f Mo = frequency of the modal
class
f b = frequency before the
modal class
f a = frequency after the modal
class

Worked Example 12
Ten BTVTED students were asked how many hours they spent practicing in
dance out of school hours. The results of the survey are:
2, 4, 2, 5, 4, 3, 3, 2, 5, 2.
Calculate the value of mode.
Solution:

The most repeated value in the set of data is 2 since it occurs 4 times.
The mode xˆ = 2 .

33
Analysis: Therefore, the most common amount of time that the BTVTED
students spend practicing in dance is 2 hours.

Worked Example 13
Using the table below, and find the value of mode score in a 30-item Statistics
test.
Scores f
03 – 70 3
08 – 12 8
13 – 17 13
18 – 22 9
23 – 27 5
28 – 32 2
Total (n) 40
Solution:
1. Find the modal class.
If the highest frequency is 13, then the modal class is 13 – 17.
Lower
Scores Class f
Boundaries
03 – 70 02.5 3 Start at the Lowest Class interval

08 – 12 07.5 8 fb
13 – 17 12.5 13 fMo
18 – 22 17.5 9 fa
23 – 27 22.5 5
28 – 32 27.5 2
Total (n) 40

2. Compute the mode.

 f Mo − f b 
C = 8−3 = 5 xˆ = LB Mo + C  
 2 f Mo − f b − f a 
LB Mo = 12.5
 13 − 8 
= 12.5 + 5  
f Mo = 13  2 (13 ) − 8 − 9 
fb = 8 5
= 12.5 + 5  
9
fa = 9
= 12.5 + 2.78
xˆ = 15.28
Checking: If 15.28 is within the modal class 13 – 17 or class boundaries
12.5 – 17.5, then the computed mode is correct.

The mode score is 15.28 or 15 (round off).

Hence, the most common score in the Statistics test is 15.

34
 SELF-CHECK No. 2
Name: ______________________________________________ Score: ___________
Course/Year/Section/Major: _______________________ Date: ____________

I. Multiple Choice (10 or 15 items)

Directions. Write the correct letter of your answer in the blank before the
number.

___ 1. The most reliable measure of central tendency.

a. median from below b. median from above
c. mean d. mode

___ 2. Measure of central tendency in which the class is determined on the

highest frequency.
a. median from below b. median from above
c. mean d. mode

___ 3. Best measure of central tendency when the distribution is regular.

a. median from below b. median from above
c. mean d. mode

___ 4. Measure of central tendency cannot be chosen if they have the same
frequency.
a. median from below b. median from above
c. mean d. mode

___ 5. The Best measure of central tendency when the distribution is irregular
or skewed.
a. combined mean b. median
c. mean d. mode

___ 6. The Math scores are 45, 46, 46, 47, 48, 48, 48, 49, 52, 55, and
55. Find the mode.
a. 48 b. 49 c. 52 d. 55

___ 7. The median score of Item 6 is:

a. 48 b. 47 c. 46 d. 45

___ 8. The mean score of Item 6 is:

a. 48 b. 49 c. 51 d. 53

___ 9. The range of Item 6 is:

a. 8 b. 10 c. 11 d. 13

35
___ 10. The number of observations (n) in the distribution of Item 6 is:
a. 11 b. 12 c. 13 d. 14

Assessment
Computation and Analysis/Interpretation
1. Given the boys’ height (meter) in Mr. Legazpi’s class:

Boy No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Height (x) 1.42 1.45 1.53 1.55 1.55 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.63 1.63 1.65 1.68

Find the mean, the median, and the mode height of the students.

Solution:
For the mean height,

For the median height,

For the mode height,

2. Mr. Soliven handled 4 sections of 7th graders in Filipino. The first quarter
test mean scores out of 60 items are as follows:
Section A's mean score is 51.2 with 40 students,
Section B's mean score is 46.3 with 42 students,
Section C's mean score is 45.1 with 43 students, and
Section D's mean score is 43.8 with 45 students.

Find the combined mean score in the Filipino test.

Solution:
Given:
Section A Section B Section C Section D
n1 = n2 = n3 = n4 =
x1 = x2 = x3 = x4 =

36
 n1x1 + n 2 x 2 + n 3 x 3 + n 4 x 4
xcomb =
n1 + n 2 + n 3 + n 4

15 ( 42) + 25 ( 37 ) + 15 ( 42) + 25 ( 37 )
=
15 + 25

630 + 925
=
40

1555
=
40

xcomb = 38.88

3. Evaluation of developed Computer-Aided Instruction in Precalculus using

Desmos.

Scale Range Verbal Interpretation

5 (w1 ) 4.50 – 5.00 Strongly Agree (SA)
4 (w2 ) 3.50 – 4.49 Agree (A)
3 (w3 ) 2.50 – 3.49 Moderately Agree (MA)
2 (w4 ) 1.50 – 2.49 Disagree (D)
1 (w5 ) 1.00 – 1.49 Strongly Disagree (SD)

Frequency
Criteria SA A MA D SD Total
(f 1 ) (f 2 ) (f 3 ) (f 4 ) (f 5 )
Appropriateness 8 9 12 1 0 30
Comprehensibility 12 9 8 1 0 30
Clarity 5 7 15 3 0 30
Usefulness 16 13 1 0 0 30
Relevance 17 9 4 0 0 30

Compute the weighted mean of each criterion and its combined mean.

Solution:
For the weighted mean of appropriateness,

37
 f1w1 + f 2w2 + f 3w3 + f 4w4 + f 5w5
x w(app ) =
f1 + f 2 + f 3 + f 4 + f 5

35 ( 5 ) + 10 ( 4 ) + 25 ( 3 ) + 5 ( 2) + 5 (1)
=
35 + 10 + 25 + 5 + 5

175 + 40 + 75 + 10 + 5
=
80

305
= = 3.8125
80

x w(app ) = 3.81 (Competent )

For the weighted mean of comprehensibility,

f w + f 2w2 + f 3w3 + f 4w4 + f 5w5
x w(comp ) = 1 1
f1 + f 2 + f 3 + f 4 + f 5

35 ( 5 ) + 10 ( 4 ) + 25 ( 3 ) + 5 ( 2 ) + 5 (1)
=
35 + 10 + 25 + 5 + 5

175 + 40 + 75 + 10 + 5
=
80

305
= = 3.8125
80

x w(comp ) = 3.81 (Competent )

For the weighted mean of clarity,

f w + f 2w2 + f 3w3 + f 4w4 + f 5w5
x w(clar ) = 1 1
f1 + f 2 + f 3 + f 4 + f 5

35 ( 5 ) + 10 ( 4 ) + 25 ( 3 ) + 5 ( 2) + 5 (1)
=
35 + 10 + 25 + 5 + 5

175 + 40 + 75 + 10 + 5
=
80

305
= = 3.8125
80

x w(clar ) = 3.81 (Competent )

For the weighted mean of usefulness,

38
 f1w1 + f 2w2 + f 3w3 + f 4w4 + f 5w5
x w(use ) =
f1 + f 2 + f 3 + f 4 + f 5

35 ( 5 ) + 10 ( 4 ) + 25 ( 3 ) + 5 ( 2) + 5 (1)
=
35 + 10 + 25 + 5 + 5

175 + 40 + 75 + 10 + 5
=
80

305
= = 3.8125
80

x w(use ) = 3.81 (Competent )

For the weighted mean of relevance,

f w + f 2w2 + f 3w3 + f 4w4 + f 5w5
x w(rel ) = 1 1
f1 + f 2 + f 3 + f 4 + f 5

35 ( 5 ) + 10 ( 4 ) + 25 ( 3 ) + 5 ( 2 ) + 5 (1)
=
35 + 10 + 25 + 5 + 5

175 + 40 + 75 + 10 + 5
=
80

305
= = 3.8125
80

x w(rel ) = 3.81 (Competent )

4. The table below displays the scores of selected students in a 50-item

Advanced Algebra examination. Find the mean score, the median score, and
the mode score.
Scores Frequency (f )
06 – 10 1
11 – 15 4
16 – 20 7
21 – 25 9
26 – 30 13
31 – 35 5
36 – 40 3
41 – 45 2
Total (n) 44

Solution:

39
 Scores LB f X fX <cf
06 – 10 5.5 1 8 8 1
11 – 15 10.5 4 13 52 5
16 – 20 15.5 7 18 126 12
21 – 25 20.5 9 23 207 21
26 – 30 25.5 13 28 364 34
31 – 35 30.5 5 33 165 39
36 – 40 35.5 3 38 114 42
41 – 45 40.5 2 43 86 44
Total (n) 44 1122

Solution:
For the mean score,

For the median score,

For the mode score,

40
Chapter 3 Measures of Variability

Introduction
This lesson contains the discussion of how to use quartiles to specify the
position of data entry within a data set, and describe how far data values are
spread or scattered from the center of each other using measures of variability
since the measures of central tendency are not enough to describe the data
set accurately.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to
• determine and interpret the quantiles, and
• compute the measures of variability of the ungrouped data and grouped
data.

Learning Contents
A dot plot is a statistical graph in which each data value is plotted as a
point (dot) above the horizontal axis.

Figure 3.1. Dot Plot of Grades in English

Quantiles
Quartiles are measures of location or position, denoted Q1, Q2, and Q3, which
divide a set of data into four groups with about 25% of the values in each
group.

25% of 25% of 25% of 25% of

the data the data the data the data

Lowest Q1 Q2 Q3 Highest
Value Median Value
Figure 3.2. Illustration of the Concepts of Quartiles

• The first quartile, denoted Q1, divides the bottom 25% of the data from
the top 75%.
• The second quartile, Q2, divides the bottom 50% of the data from the
top 50%; it is equivalent to the median.
• The third quartile, Q3, divides the bottom 75% of the data from the top
25%;
41
 Quartiles for Ungrouped Data Quartiles for Grouped Data

In finding quartiles, To find the quartile of a grouped

data, we first determine the quartile
1. Arrange the data in ascending
class of the frequency distribution.
order.
2. Determine the quartile using
the formula Quartile Class (Qt) = the class
interval in the frequency distribution
 k (n − 1) + 4 
th
where the median is located.
Qk =   position
 4  kn 
 4 − cf bQtk 
where Qk = LBQtk + C  
Q = Indicated quatile  f Qtk 
k
where
k = Quartile position (1,2,3)
LBQtk = Lower class boundary of
n = Number of data values the quatile class
C = Class width/size
k = Quartile position (1,2,3)
n = Number of data values
cf bQtk = Less than cumulative
frequency before the
quartile class
f Qtk = Frequency of the quartile
class

Worked Example 14
The scores of nine students in a 50-item Social Science examination:
30, 34, 42, 47, 18, 27, 40, 22, 38
Find the Q1, Q2, and Q3 of the data.
Solution:
Arrange in ascending order
x 18 22 27 30 34 38 40 42 47
Position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

For Q1, k = 1
Number of data values: n = 9
k (n − 1) + 4
Qk =
4
1(9 − 1) + 4
Q1 =
4
1(8) + 4 12
= = =3
4 4

42
 Q1 = 3rd position
Q1 = 27
It means that 25% of the scores are 27 and below or 75% of the scores are 27
and above.

For Q2, k = 2
Number of data values: n = 9
k (n − 1) + 4
Qk =
4
2(9 − 1) + 4
Q2 =
4
2(8) + 4 20
= = =5
4 4
Q2 = 5th position
Q2 = 34
It means that 50% of the scores are 34 and below or 50% of the scores are 34
and above.

For Q3, k = 3
Number of data values: n = 9
k (n − 1) + 4
Qk =
4
3(9 − 1) + 4
Q3 =
4 Dotplot of C1
3(8) + 4 28
= = =7
4 4
Q3 = 7th position
Q3 = 40
It means that 75% of the scores are 40 and below or 25% of the scores are 40
and above.

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47
C1
LV Q1 Q2 Q3 HV
Figure 3.3. Dot Plot of Scores in Social Science Test

Worked Example 15
The scores of twelve students in a 60-item Chemistry test:
34, 44, 53, 35, 40, 52, 31, 48, 55, 46, 27, 38

Compute the Q1, Q2, and Q3 of the data.

43
Solution:
Arrange in ascending order
x 27, 31, 34, 35, 38, 40, 44, 46, 48, 52, 53, 55
Position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

For Q1, k = 1
Number of data values: n = 12
k (n − 1) + 4
Qk =
4
1(12 − 1) + 4 34 35
Q1 =
4
1(11) + 4 15
= = = 3.75
4 4
Q1 = 3.75th position
The value of Q1 lies within the sum of the 3rd position and 75% of the
difference between the 4th and 3rd positions.
Q1 = 3rd position + 0.75(4th position − 3rd position)
Q1 = 34 + 0.75 ( 35 − 34 )
Q1 = 34 + 0.75 (1)
Q1 = 34.75
Thus, 25% of the scores are less than 34.75, or 75% of the scores are more
than 34.75.

For Q2, k = 2
Number of data values: n = 12
k (n − 1) + 4
Qk =
4
2(12 − 1) + 4
Q2 =
4
2(11) + 4 26
= = = 6.5
4 4
Q2 = 6.5th position
The value of Q2 lies within the sum of the 6th position and 50% of the
difference between the 7th and 6th positions.
Q2 = 6th position + 0.50(7th position − 6th position)
Q2 = 40 + 0.50 ( 44 − 40 )
Q2 = 40 + 0.50 ( 4 )
Q2 = 40 + 2 = 42
Hence, 50% of the scores are lower than 42, or 50% of the scores are greater
than 42.

44
 For Q3, k = 3
Number of data values: n = 12
k (n − 1) + 4
Qk =
4
3(12 − 1) + 4
Q3 =
4
3(11) + 4 37
= = = 9.25
4 4
Q3 = 9.25th position
The value of Q3 lies within the sum of the 9th position and 25% of the
difference between the 10th and 9th positions.
Dotplot of C2
Q3 = 9th position + 0.25(10th position − 9th position)
Q3 = 48 + 0.25 ( 52 − 48 )
Q3 = 48 + 0.25 ( 4 )
Q3 = 48 + 1 = 49
Hence, 75% of the scores are smaller than 49, or 25% of the scores are higher
than 49.

27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55
C2
LV Q1 Q2 Q3 HV
Figure 3.4. Dot Plot of Scores in Chemistry Test

Worked Example 16
Given the table below and compute the Q1, Q2, and Q3 score in a 60-item
English test of forty-five 10th graders.

Scores f
13 – 18 4
19 – 24 5
25 – 30 6
31 – 36 9
37 – 42 7
43 – 48 6
49 – 54 5
55 – 60 3
Total (n) 45
Solution:
1. Construct columns for lower class boundaries and <cf.

45
 kn kn 1( 45 )
2. For Q1, k = 1, n = 45, compute . = = 11.25
4 4 4

3. Determine the 1st quartile class (Qt1).

kn
If the = 11.25th position is within 10th – 15th position
4
then the 1st quartile class is 25 – 30.

Lower Class
Scores f <cf
Boundaries
13 – 18 12.5 4 4 1st - 4th
19 – 24 18.5 5 9 5th - 9th
25 – 30 24.5 6 15 10th – 15th
31 – 36 30.5 9 24 16th - 24th
37 – 42 36.5 7 31 25th - 31st
43 – 48 42.5 6 37 32nd - 37th
49 – 54 48.5 5 42 38th - 42nd
55 – 60 54.5 3 45 43rd - 45th
Total (n) 45

4. Compute the Q1.

 kn 
kn
= 11.25  4 − cf bQt1 
4 Q1 = LBQt1 + C  
 f Qt1
 
C = 19 − 13 = 6
 11.25 − 9 
= 24.5 + 6  
LBQt1 = 24.5  6 
 2.25 
f Qt1 = 6 = 24.5 + 6  
 6 
cf bQt1 = 9 = 24.5 + 2.25
Q1 = 26.75
Checking: If 26.75 is inside the 1st quartile class 25 – 30 or class boundaries
24.5 – 30.5, then the computed Q1 is correct.

The 1st quartile score is 26.75.

Analysis: Hence, 25% of the scores are less than 26.75or 75% of the scores
are greater than 26.75 in the English test.

For Q2,
kn kn 2 ( 45 )
1. k = 2, n = 45, compute . = = 22.5
4 4 4

2. Determine the 2nd quartile class (Qt2).

46
 kn
If the = 22.5th position is within 16th - 24th, position
4
then the 2nd quartile class is 31 – 36.

3. Compute the Q2.

 kn 
kn
= 22.5  4 − cf bQt 2 
4 Q2 = LBQt 2 + C  
 f Qt 2
 
C =6
 22.5 − 15 
= 30.5 + 6  
LBQt 2 = 30.5  9 
 7.5 
f Qt 2 = 9 = 30.5 + 6  
 9 
cf bQt 2 = 15 = 30.5 + 5
Q1 = 35.5
Checking: If 35.5 is inside the 2nd quartile class 31 – 36 or class boundaries
30.5 – 36.5, then the computed Q2 is correct.

The 2nd quartile score is 35.5.

Analysis: Hence, 50% of the scores are less than 35.5, or 50% of the scores
are greater than 35.5 in the English test.

For Q3,
kn kn 3 ( 45 )
1. k = 3, n = 45, compute . = = 33.75
4 4 4

2. Determine the 3rd quartile class (Qt3).

kn
If the = 33.75th position is within 32nd - 37th position
4
then the 3rd quartile class is 43 – 48.

3. Compute the Q3.

 kn 
kn
= 33.75  4 − cf bQt 3 
4 Q3 = LBQt 3 + C  
 f Qt 3
 
C =6
 33.75 − 31 
= 42.5 + 6  
LBQt 3 = 42.5  6 
 2.75 
f Qt 3 = 6 = 42.5 + 6  
 6 
cf bQt 3 = 31 = 42.5 + 2.75
Q3 = 45.25

47
 Checking: If 45.25 is inside the 3rd quartile class 43 – 48 or class boundaries
42.5 – 48.5, then the computed Q3 is correct.

The 3rd quartile score is 45.25.

Analysis: Hence, 75% of the scores are less than 45.25, or 25% of the scores
are greater than 45.25 in the English test.

10
9
8
7
Frequency

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
12.5 15.5 21.5 27.5 33.5 39.5 45.5 51.5 57.5 60.5
Q1 Q2 Q3 Midpoint
26.75 35.5 45.25
Figure 3.5. Illustration of Q1, Q2, and Q3 in Histogram

Measures of Variability
Measures of Variability. Statistics that indicate the amount of variety, or
heterogeneity, in a distribution of scores.

Variability provides a quantitative measure of the differences between scores

in a distribution and describes the degree to which the scores are spread out
or clustered together. It is also the amount of variety, or heterogeneity, in a
distribution of scores.

Range(R). The simplest measure of spread is the range. This is just the
mathematical difference between the highest value (HV) and the lowest value
(LV) in the data set.

LV HV
R = HV – LV

Outlier. It is an extremely high or extremely low data value when compared

with the rest of the data values.

48
Interquartile Range (IQR). It is the mathematical difference between the
third and first quartiles. It includes the middle 50% of score values in the
distribution when they are arranged in order of size.

Q1 Q2 Q3
IQR = Q3 – Q1

Midhinge (MH). It is used to overcome potential problems introduced by

extreme values (or outliers) in the data set. It is also the middle value of the
third and first quartiles.
Q + Q3
MH = 1
2
Quartile Deviation (QD). It indicates the distance we need to go above and
below the median to include midhinge or approximately the middle 50% of the
scores. In symbol,
Q − Q1 IQR
QD = 3 =
2 2
Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD). It is the sum of all of the absolute values
divided by the sample size. It measures how scores are dispersed around the
mean.

For Ungrouped Data For Grouped Data

MAD =
x −x MAD =
f X −x
n n
where where
x = Individual/data score f = Frequency
x = Sample mean X = Midpoint
n = Number of values x = Mean value
n = Number of values

Variance. Variance equals the mean of the squared deviations. Variance is

the average squared distance from the mean. In symbol, s2 represents the
variance of a sample; 2 (sigma squared) represents the variance of a
population. The most important and commonly used measure of variability in
statistics is the variance. Like the mean absolute deviation, the variance is a
more complete measure of variability than the range because it is not derived
from the highest and lowest scores only, but from a formula, that includes
each score in the relevant dataset. Like the average deviation, it also indicates
how far, on average, each score is from the mean. It is, however, not quite as
easy to calculate or interpret.

Standard Deviation. It is defined as the positive square root of the variance.

49
The most important and useful descriptive measure of dispersion; s
represents the standard deviation of a sample;  (sigma) represents the
standard deviation of a population.

Deviation. It is the distance from the mean or mathematical difference

between the score and the mean: deviation score x −  or x − x .

For Ungrouped Data For Grouped Data

Population Population
 (x − )
2
 f ( X − )
2
2  =
2
 =
N N

 f ( X − )
2 2

=
 (x − ) =
N N
where where
2 = Population variance 2 = Population variance
 = Population standard  = Population standard
deviation deviation
x = Data values f = Frequency
 = Population mean X = Midpoint
N = Population size  = Population mean
N = Population size
 (x − )
2
= Sum of squared
 f ( X − )
2
deviations = Sum of the product of
frequency and squared
Sample
2
deviations
s 2
=
 (x − x ) Sample
 f (X − x )
2
n −1
s 2
=
2 n −1
s=
 (x − x )
 f (X − x )
2
n −1
or s=
n −1
or
n  x 2 − ( x )
2

s =
2

n  fX 2 − (  fX )
2
n (n − 1) 2
s =
n (n − 1)
n  x 2 − ( x )
2

s=
n  fX 2 − (  fX )
2
n (n − 1)
s=
where n (n − 1)
where

50
 s2 = Sample variance
s 2
= Sample variance s = Sample standard deviation
s = Sample standard deviation f = Frequency
x = Data values X = Midpoint
x = Sample mean x = Sample mean
n = Sample size n = Sample size
 x = Sum of the data values  fX = Sum of all the product of
 x = Sum of the square of
2
frequency and midpoint
data values  fX 2
= Sum of all the product of
frequency and square of
midpoint

Remarks on Measures of Variability

For Range
• When the range value is large, the scores in the distribution are more
dispersed, widespread, or heterogeneous.
• When the range value is small, the scores in the distribution are less
dispersed, less scattered, or homogeneous.

For Quartile Deviation, Mean Absolute Deviation, Standard Deviation

• If there is a large amount of variation, then the data set of values will
be far from the mean/midhinge. Hence, the amount of variation will be
large.
• If there is only a small amount of variation, then the data set of values
will be close to the mean/midhinge. Hence, the standard deviation will
be small.

Coefficient of Variation
When comparing variation in two different sets of data, the standard
deviations should be compared only if the two sets of data use the same scale
and units and have approximately the same mean. If the means are
substantially different, or if the samples use different scales or measurement
units, we can use the coefficient of variation, defined as follows.

The coefficient of variation (or CV) for a set of a nonnegative sample or

population data, expressed as a percent, describes the standard deviation
relative to the mean, and is given by the following:

51
 For Population For Sample

 s
CV =  100% CV = 100%
 x
where where
 = Population standard deviation s = Sample standard deviation
 = Population mean x = Sample mean
Note: Round the CV to two decimal places (such as 34.59%)

Worked Example 17
The height (meter) of the two sections of 6th graders is as follows:
Section A: 1.32, 1.35, 1.37, 1.40, 1.42, 1.42, 1.52, 1.55
Section B: 1.32, 1.35, 1.37, 1.42, 1.52, 1.55, 1.55, 1.63

Find the range of their height.

Solution:
Section A: RA = 1.55 – 1.32 = 0.23

Section B: RB = 1.63 – 1.32Dotplot

= 0.31 of A, B

Analysis: The range of section B (0.31) is greater than the range of section A
(0.23). It implies that the heights in section B are more spread out than the
heights in section A or the scores in section A are less scattered than the score
in section B.
RA

RB
A

B
1.32
1.33
1.34
1.35
1.36
1.37
1.38
1.39
1.40
1.41
1.42
1.43
1.44
1.45
1.46
1.47
1.48
1.49
1.50
1.51
1.52
1.53
1.54
1.55
1.56
1.57
1.58
1.59
1.60
1.61
1.62
1.63

Figure 3.6. Dot Plot of Range for Data

Sections A and B

Worked Example 18
Using the table below, find the range of scores in a 30-item Math test.

Scores f
03 – 70 4
08 – 12 7
13 – 17 12
18 – 22 10
23 – 27 2
28 – 32 5
Total (n) 40
52
Solution:
R = ULHCI – LLLCI
where ULHCI = upper class limit of the highest class interval
LLLCI = lower class limit of the lowest class interval

R = 32 – 3 = 29

Worked Example 19
The score of 14 senior students in a 20-item Science quiz is as follows:
6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 17, 18, 19, 19

Compute IQR, MH, and QD.

Solution:
x 6 7 9 10 12 13 14 15 16 17 17 18 19 19
Score 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Find first the value of Q1 and Q3.

k (n − 1) + 4
For Q1, k = 1, n = 14 and use Qk =
4
1(14 − 1) + 4
Q1 = Q1 = 4th score + 0.25(5th score − 4th score)
4
1(13) + 4 17 Q1 = 10 + 0.25 (12 − 10 )
Q1 = = = 4.25
4 4 Q1 = 10 + 0.25 ( 2)
Q1 = 4.25th position Q1 = 10.5

k (n − 1) + 4
For Q3, k = 3, n = 14 and use Qk =
4
k (n − 1) + 4
Qk =
4 Q3 = 10th score + 0.75(11th score − 10th score)
3(14 − 1) + 4
Q3 = Q3 = 17 + 0.75 (17 − 17 )
4
3(13) + 4 43 Q3 = 17 + 0.75 ( 0 )
Q3 = = = 10.75
4 4 Q3 = 17
Q3 = 10.75th position

For IQR, MH, and QD.

Q1 + Q3 IQR
MH = QD =
IQR = Q3 − Q1 2 2
10.5 + 17 6.5
= 17 − 10.5 = =
2 2
IQR = 6.5
MH = 13.75 QD = 3.25

53
Analysis: The quartile deviation (QD) of the 14 scores of senior students is
3.25. This means that the value deviated from the midhinge of 13.75 is 3.25.

IQR

3.25 3.25
QD QD
10.5 13.75 17
Q1 MH Q3
Figure 3.7. Illustration of IQR, MH, and QD

Worked Example 21
The table below shows the score of Grade 10 students in a 60-item Science
test
Scores f
13 – 18 3
19 – 24 6
25 – 30 5
31 – 36 10
37 – 42 8
43 – 48 9
49 – 54 7
55 – 60 2
Total (n) 50
Find the IQR, MH, and QD.
Solution: Compute first the Q1, and Q3.
For Q1
1. Construct columns for lower class boundaries and <cf.

kn kn 1(50 )
2. For Q1, k = 1, n = 50, compute . = = 12.5
4 4 4

3. Determine the 1st quartile class (Qt1).

kn
If the = 12.5th position is within 10th – 14th position
4
then the 1st quartile class is 29 – 33.

Lower Class
Scores f <cf
Boundaries
19 – 23 18.5 3 3 1st - 3rd
24 – 28 23.5 6 9 4th - 9th
29 – 33 28.5 5 14 10th - 14th
34 – 38 33.5 10 24 13th - 24th
39 – 43 38.5 8 32 25th - 32nd

54
 44 – 48 43.5 9 41 33rd - 41st
49 – 53 48.5 7 48 42nd - 48th
54 – 58 53.5 2 50 49th - 50th
Total (n) 50

4. Compute the Q1.

 kn 
kn
= 12.5  4 − cf bQt1 
4 Q1 = LBQt1 + C  
 f Qt1
 
C = 24 − 19 = 5
 12.5 − 9 
= 28.5 + 5  
LBQt1 = 28.5  5 
 3.5 
f Qt1 = 5 = 28.5 + 5  
 5 
cf bQt1 = 9 = 28.5 + 3.5
Q1 = 32

For Q3
kn kn 3 (50 )
1. For Q3, k = 3, n = 50, compute . = = 37.5
4 4 4
2. Determine the 3rd quartile class (Qt3).
kn
If the = 37.5th position is within 33rd - 41st position
4
then the 3rd quartile class is 44 – 48.

3. Compute the Q3.

 kn 
kn
= 37.5  4 − cf bQt 3 
4 Q3 = LBQt 3 + C  
 f Qt 3
 
C =5
 37.5 − 32 
= 43.5 + 5  
LBQt 3 = 43.5  9 
 5.5 
f Qt 3 = 9 = 43.5 + 5  
 9 
cf bQt 3 = 32 = 43.5 + 3.06
Q3 = 46.56
For IQR, MH, and QD.
Q1 + Q3 IQR
MH = QD =
IQR = Q3 − Q1 2 2
32 + 46.56 14.56
= 46.56 − 32 = =
2 2
IQR = 14.56
MH = 39.28 QD = 7.28
Analysis: The quartile deviation (QD) of the 50 scores of grade10 students is
7.28. This shows that the value deviated from the midhinge of 39.38 is 7.28.
55
 11
10
9
8

Frequency (f)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
18.5 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 58.5
Q1 MH Q3 Midpoint
32 39.38 46.56
Figure 3.8. Illustration of Q1, Q3, and MH in Histogram

Worked Example 22
The mean NAT Math scores for selected high schools are represented.
54, 57, 59, 60, 61, 63, 65, 66, 66, 67, 71, 73
Find the mean absolute deviation.
Solution:
Score
School No. x −x x −x
x
1 54 54 – 63.5 = -9.5 9.5
2 57 57 – 63.5 = -6.5 6.5
3 59 59 – 63.5 = -4.5 4.5
4 60 60 – 63.5 = -3.5 3.5
5 61 61 – 63.5 = -2.5 2.5
6 63 63 – 63.5 = -0.5 0.5
7 65 65 – 63.5 = 1.5 1.5
8 66 66 – 63.5 = 2.5 2.5
9 66 66 – 63.5 = 2.5 2.5
10 67 67 – 63.5 = 3.5 3.5
11 71 71 – 63.5 = 7.5 7.5
12 73 73 – 63.5 = 9.5 9.5
Total 762 54
Note: -9.5 = 9.5, 2.5 = 2.5

x =
x MAD =
 x −x
n n
762 4
= =
12 12
x = 63.5 MAD = 4.5
56
 Dotplot of x

Analysis. The mean absolute deviation of the 12 mean NAT Math scores of
the selected high schools is 4.5. This means that on the average, the value
deviated from the mean of 63.5 is 4.5.

4.5 4.5
MAD MAD

54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73
63x.5
x
Figure 3.9. Dot Plot of Mean NAT Math Scores with Mean and MAD

Worked Example 23
The grade of selected senior students in Precalculus is as follows:
Grades f
73 – 76 3
77 – 80 7
81 – 84 9
85 – 88 10
89 – 92 8
93 – 96 3
Total(n) 40

Compute the MAD.

Solution: Construct columns for X, fX, X − x , X − x and f X − x

Grades f X fX X −x X −x f X −x
73 – 76 3 74.5
223.5 -10.2 10.2
3(10.2) = 30.6
77 – 80 7 78.5
549.5 -6.2 6.27(6.2) = 43.4
81 – 84 9 82.5
742.5 -2.2 2.29(2.2) = 19.8
85 – 88 10 86.5 865 1.8 1.8
10(1.8) = 18
89 – 92 8 90.5 724 5.8 5.88(5.8) = 46.4
93 – 96 3 94.5
283.5 9.8 9.83(9.8) = 29.4
Total 40 3388 187.6
 fX = 3388 ,  f X − x = 187.6 ,

x =
 fX MAD =
f X −x
n n
3388 187.6
= =
40 40
x = 84.7 MAD = 4.69

57
Analysis: The mean absolute deviation of the 40 grades of senior students in
Precalculus is 4.69. This indicates that the value deviated from the mean of
84.7 is 4.69.
11
10
9
Frequency (f ) 8
7
6
5
4
3 4.69 4.69
2 MAD MAD
1
0
72.5 74.5 78.5 82.5 86.5 90.5 94.5 96.5
80.01 84.70 89.39 Midpoint
Mean
Figure 3.10. Illustration of Mean and MAD in Histogram

Worked Example 24
Students in Biostatistics class were asked about the ideal number of children
for a family. The observations, categorized by student’s sex, were
Boy 0 0 0 1 2 3 3 3 4 4
Girl 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 4 4 4

Find the sample variance and standard deviation and make an analysis.
Solution:

Both boys and girls have a mean of 2 of

Dotplot and a range
Boy, Girl of 4.
Do the distributions of data have the same amount of variation around the
mean?

Let's check the dot plots below for the data.

Boy

Girl
0 1 2 3 4
Data
x
Figure 3.11. Dot Plot of the Number of Children for a Family

58
In the dot plot, it so hard to distinguish which of the two sets of data is close
or near around the mean.
If not, which distribution has more variability?
Since a range is just only for a rough estimation of variability, we are solving
for sample variance and standard deviation for accurate analysis.

Construct columns for x1 − x1 and ( x1 − x1 ) .

2

( x1 − x1 )
2
Boy No. x1 x1 − x1
1 0 0 – 2 = -2 (-2)2 = 4
2 0 0 – 2 = -2 (-2)2 = 4
3 0 0 – 2 = -2 (-2)2 = 4
4 1 1 – 2 = -1 (-1)2 = 1
5 2 2–2=0 (0)2 = 0
6 3 3–2=1 (1)2 = 1
7 3 3–2=1 (1)2 = 1
8 3 3–2=1 (1)2 = 1
9 4 4–2=2 (2)2 = 4
10 4 4–2=2 (2)2 = 4
Total 20 24

x1 =
x 1
=
20
= 2,  (x − x1 ) = 24 ,
2
1
n 10

Variance Standard deviation

s1 = s12
 ( x1 − x1 )
2
24 24
s12 = = =
n −1 10 − 1 9 s1 = 2.67
s1 = 2.67
2
s1 = 1.63

Construct columns for x 2 − x 2 and ( x 2 − x 2 ) .

2

( x2 − x2 )
2
Girl No. x2 x2 − x2
1 0 -2 4
2 0 -2 4
3 1 -1 1
4 1 -1 1
5 2 0 0
6 2 0 0
7 2 0 0
8 4 2 4
9 4 2 4
10 4 2 4
Total 20 22
59
 x2 =
x 2
=
20
= 2,  (x − x 2 ) = 22 ,
2
2
n 10
Variance Standard deviation
s2 = s22
 ( x2 − x2 )
2
22 22
s22 = = =
n −1 10 − 1 9 s2 = 2.44
s2 = 2.44
2
s2 = 1.56

Analysis: The observations for boys tended to be farther from the mean than
those for girls, as indicated by s1 = 1.63 > s2 = 1.56. In summary, the boys’
observations varied more around the mean.

Insight: The standard deviation is more informative than the range. For these
data, the standard deviation detects that the girls were more consistent than
the boys in their viewpoints about the ideal number of children. The range
does not detect the difference because it equals 4 for each sex.

Worked Example 25
Find the sample mean, variance, and standard deviation of the grades in
English from the two sections of eight graders.
Section A 77 78 79 80 81 82 85 87
Section B 75 79 80 81 81 82 85 88

Solution:
Construct columns for x1 and x12 .
For section A
n  x12 − (  x1 )
2
Section A x1 x12
s =
2
( Variance )
1 77 (77)2 = 5929 n (n − 1)
1

2 78 (78)2 = 6084
8 ( 52733 ) − ( 649 )
2
3 79 (79)2 = 6241
s =
2

8 ( 8 − 1)
1
4 80 (80)2 = 6400
5 81 (81)2 = 6561
421864 − 421201
6 82 (82)2 = 6724 =
8 (7)
7 85 (85)2 = 7225
8 87 (87)2 = 7569 663
=
Total 649 52733 56
s12 = 11.84
 x1 = 649,  x12 = 52733,
s1 = s12 ( Standard deviation )
x1 =
 x1 =
649
n1 8 s1 = 11.84
x1 = 81.13 s1 = 3.44
60
Construct columns for x 2 and x 22 .
For section B
n  x 22 − (  x 2 )
2
Section B x2 x 22
s =
2
( Variance )
n (n − 1)
2
1 75 5625
2 79 6241
8 ( 53081) − ( 651)
2
3 80 6400 s =
2

8 ( 8 − 1)
2
4 81 6561
5 81 6561
424648 − 423801
6 82 6724 =
8 (7)
7 85 7225
8 88 7744 847
=
Total 651 53081 56
 x 2 = 651, x 2
2 = 53081
s22 = 15.13

x2 =
x 2
=
651
s2 = s22 ( Standard deviation )
n2 8
s2 = 15.13
x 2 = 81.38
s2 = 3.89
Analysis. Since the standard deviation (3.44)
Dotplot of A, B of section A is less than the
standard deviation (3.89) of section B, then section B’s scores are more
dispersed around the mean of 81.38 or section A’s scores are less scattered
around the mean of 81.13. We can say that the performance of section A was
more consistent than section B in English subject although there is a slight
difference in their means as observed in Figure 3.12.

s1 s1

A x1
s2 s2
B
75 76 77 78 79 80 81x 82 83 84 85 86 87 88
2
Data
Figure 3.12. Dot Plot of the Grades in English
Worked Example 26
Given the table below for the scores of 7th graders in a 30-item Filipino chapter
test.
Scores f
03 – 70 2
08 – 12 4
13 – 17 11
18 – 22 8
23 – 27 9
28 – 32 6
Total (n) 40

61
Compute the sample mean, variance, and standard deviation.
Solution: Construct columns for X, f X , X − x , ( X − x ) and f ( X − x ) .
2 2

(X − x ) f (X − x )
2 2
Scores f X fX X −x
03 – 70 2 5 10 -14.5 (-14.5)2 = 210.25 2(210.25) = 420.5
08 – 12 4 10 40 -9.5 (-9.5)2 = 90.25 4(90.25) = 361
13 – 17 11 15 165 -4.5 (-4.5)2 = 20.25 11(20.25) = 222.75
18 – 22 8 20 160 0.5 (0.5)2 = 0.25 8(0.25) = 2
23 – 27 9 25 225 5.5 (5.5)2 = 30.25 9(30.25) = 272.25
28 – 32 6 30 180 10.5 (10.5)2 = 110.25 6(110.25) = 661.5
Total 40 780 1940

 f (X − x )
2

 fX  f (X − x ) =
2
= 780,
2
= 1940 s
n −1 s = s2

x =
 fX =
780
=
1940
s = 49.74
n 40 40 − 1
s = 7.05
x = 19.5 s 2 = 49.74

Analysis. The standard deviation of the 40 grade 7 students in the Filipino

test is 7.05. This shows that the value deviated from the mean of 19.5 is 7.05.

Worked Example 27
The table below shows the summary of the general average of 9th graders.
Grades f
75 – 78 6
79 – 82 14
83 – 86 10
87 – 90 7
91 – 94 5
95 – 98 2
Total (n) 44
Compute the sample mean, variance, and standard deviation.

Solution: Construct columns for X, f X , X2, and f X2.

Grades f X fX X2 fX2
75 – 78 6 76.5 459 (76.5)2 = 5852.25 6(5852.25)= 35113.5
79 – 82 14 80.5 1127 (80.5)2 = 6480.25 14(6480.25)= 90723.5
83 – 86 10 84.5 845 (84.5)2 = 7140.25 10(7140.25)= 71402.5
87 – 90 7 88.5 619.5 (88.5)2 = 7832.25 7(7832.25)= 54825.75
91 – 94 5 92.5 462.5 (92.5)2 = 8556.25 5(8556.25)= 42781.25
95 – 98 2 96.5 193 (96.5)2 = 9312.25 2(9312.25)= 18624.5
Total 44 3706 313471
62
 n  fX 2 − (  fX )
2
 fX = 3706,  fX 2 = 313471 s2 = ( Variance )
n (n − 1)
x =
 fX
44 ( 313471) − ( 3706 )
2
n
=
3706 44 ( 44 − 1)
=
44 13792724 − 13734436
=
x = 84.23 44 ( 43 )

58288
=
1892
s 2 = 30.81

s = s2 ( Standard deviation )
= 30.81
s = 5.55

Analysis. The standard deviation of the 44 general average grades of grade 9

students is 5.55. This means that the value deviated from the mean of 84.23
is 5.55.

Worked Example 28
Given below are the Math scores for the three sections of 8th graders,

Student Number Section A Section B Section C

1 5 6 6
2 7 6 7
3 7 8 8
4 8 8 9
5 8 8 9
6 9 10 9
7 10 10 10
8 10 10 10
9 12 11 11
10 13 11 12
Mean 8.9 8.8 9.1
Standard deviation 2.42 1.87 1.79

Find the coefficient of variation for each section and make an analysis.

63
Solution:
Section A Section B Section C
x1 = 8.9 x 2 = 8.8 x 3 = 9.1

s1 = 2.42 s2 = 1.87 s3 = 1.79

s1 s2 s3
CV1 =  100% CV2 =  100% CV3 =  100%
x1 x2 x3

2.42 1.87 1.79

=  100% =  100% =  100%
8.9 8.8 9.1
CV1 = 27.19% CV2 = 21.25% CV3 = 19.67%

Analysis: The scores in section C are less scattered (or more homogeneous)
than the scores in section A and section B or the scores in section A are more
dispersed (or heterogeneous) than the scores in section B and section C. We
can say that the performance of section C was the most consistent than the
two sections in Math subject.

64
 SELF-CHECK No. 3
Name: ______________________________________________ Score: ___________
Course/Year/Section/Major: _______________________ Date: ____________

Multiple Choice (10 or 15 items)

Directions. Write the correct letter of your answer in the blank before the
number.

___ 1. Measure of variability which is the difference between the highest score
and lowest score
a. deviation b. mean deviation
c. range d. standard deviation

___ 2. The other term for average deviation

a. deviation b. mean absolute deviation
c. range d. standard deviation

___ 3. It is the most dependable measure of variability.

a. average deviation b. percentile deviation
c. quartile deviation d. standard deviation

___ 4. Measure of variability that is also called mean square

a. mean deviation b. quartile deviation
c. standard deviation d. variance

___ 5. Measure of variability which is the most commonly used indicator of

the degree of dispersion
a. mean deviation b. quartile deviation
c. standard deviation d. variance

___ 6. The following are the selected grades of senior students in Chemistry:
78, 80, 81, 82, 82, 82, 85, 86
Compute the average score.
a. 84 b. 83 c. 82 d. 81

___ 7. The mean absolute deviation of Item 6 is:

a. 1.5 b. 1.75 c. 2.25 d. 2.5

___ 8. The standard deviation of Item 6 is:

a. 2.14 b. 2.27 c. 2.56 d. 2.65

___ 9. The first quartile of Item 6 is:

a. 80.75 b. 82.5 c. 82.75 d. 83.25

65
___ 10. The quartile deviation of Item 6 is:
a. 0.75 b. 1 c. 1.5 d. 2

Assessment
Computation and Analysis/Interpretation
1. Given the grade 1 pupils’ weight (kg) at age of 6:
17.6, 17.7, 17.9, 18.1, 18.4, 18.7, 18.8, 19.2, 19.5, 19.6, 19.9, 20.2.
Compute the mean absolute deviation (MAD) and quartile deviation (QD).
Analyze the computed values.
Solution:
Position Weight (x) x −x x −x
1 17.6 -1.2 1.2
2 17.7 -1.1 1.1
3 17.9 -0.9 0.9
4 18.1 -0.7 0.7
5 18.4 -0.4 0.4
6 18.7 -0.1 0.1
7 18.8 0 0
8 19.2 0.4 0.4
9 19.5 0.7 0.7
10 19.6 0.8 0.8
11 19.9 1.1 1.1
12 20.2 1.4 1.4
Total 225.6 8.8
For MAD,

x =
x MAD =
x −x
n n
762 4
= =
12 12
x = 63.5 MAD = 4.5
Analysis. The mean absolute deviation of the 12 mean NAT Math scores of
the selected high schools is 4.5. This means that on the average, the value
deviated from the mean of 63.5 is 4.5.

k (n − 1) + 4
For Q1, k = 1, n = 14 and use Qk =
4
1(14 − 1) + 4
Q1 = Q1 = 4th score + 0.25(5th score − 4th score)
4
1(13) + 4 17 Q1 = 10 + 0.25 (12 − 10 )
Q1 = = = 4.25
4 4 Q1 = 10 + 0.25 ( 2)
Q1 = 4.25th position Q1 = 10.5

66
 k (n − 1) + 4
For Q3, k = 3, n = 14 and use Qk =
4
k (n − 1) + 4
Qk =
4 Q3 = 10th score + 0.75(11th score − 10th score)
3(14 − 1) + 4
Q3 = Q3 = 17 + 0.75 (17 − 17 )
4
3(13) + 4 43 Q3 = 17 + 0.75 ( 0 )
Q3 = = = 10.75
4 4 Q3 = 17
Q3 = 10.75th position

For IQR, MH, and QD.

Q1 + Q3 IQR
MH = QD =
IQR = Q3 − Q1 2 2
10.5 + 17 6.5
= 17 − 10.5 = =
2 2
IQR = 6.5
MH = 13.75 QD = 3.25

Analysis: The quartile deviation (QD) of the 14 scores of senior students is

3.25. This means that the value deviated from the midline of 13.75 is 3.25.

2. In a 60-item Basic Calculus test, the scores of 35 senior students are as

follows:
Scores Frequency (f )
21 – 25 2
26 – 30 5
31 – 35 7
36 – 40 8
41 – 45 10
46 – 50 4
51 – 55 3
56 – 60 1
Total (n) 40

Compute the mean absolute deviation (MAD) and quartile deviation (QD).
Solution:

67
 Score LB f X fX <cf X −x X −x f X −x
21 – 25 20.5 2 23 46 2 -16 16 32
26 – 30 25.5 5 28 140 7 -11 11 55
31 – 35 30.5 7 33 231 14 -6 6 42
36 – 40 35.5 8 38 304 22 -1 1 8
41 – 45 40.5 10 43 430 32 4 4 40
46 – 50 45.5 4 48 192 36 9 9 36
51 – 55 50.5 3 53 159 39 14 14 42
56 – 60 55.5 1 58 58 40 19 19 19
Total 40 1560 274

For MAD,
 fX = 3388 , f X − x = 187.6 ,

x =
 fX MAD =
f X −x
n n
3388 187.6
= =
40 40
x = 84.7 MAD = 4.69

Analysis. The mean absolute deviation of the 40 grades of senior students in

Precalculus is 4.69. This indicates that the value deviated from the mean of
84.7 is 4.69.

For Q1
1n n 1(50 )
1. For Q1, k = 1, n = 50, compute . = = 12.5
4 4 4

2. Determine the 1st quartile class (Qt1).

1n
If the = 12.50th position is within 10th – 14th position
4
then the 1st quartile class is 29 – 33 .
3. Compute the Q1.
 kn 
kn
= 12.5  4 − cf bQt1 
4 Q1 = LBQt1 + C  
 f Qt1 
C = 24 − 19 = 5
 12.05 − 009 
= 28.5 + 05  
LBQt1 = 28.5  
 3.05 
f Qt1 = 5 = 28.5 + 05  
 
cf bQt1 = 9 = 28.5 + 3.5
Q1 = 32
68
For Q3
kn 3n 3 (50 )
1. For Q3, k = 3, n = 50, compute . = = 37.5
4 4 4

2. Determine the 3rd quartile class (Qt3).

3n
If the = 37.5th position is within 33rd - 41st position
4
then the 3rd quartile class is 44 – 48 .

3. Compute the Q3.

 kn 
3n
= 37.5  4 − cf bQt 3 
4 Q3 = LBQt 3 + C  
 f Qt 3 
C =5
 37.5 − 302 
= 43.5 + 05  
LBQt 3 = 43.5  
 5.05 
f Qt 3 = 9 = 43.5 + 05  
 
cf bQt 3 = 32 = 43.5 + 05
Q3 = 46.56

For IQR, MH, and QD.

Q1 + Q3 IQR
IQR = Q3 − Q1 MH = QD =
2 2
= 46.56 − 32
32 + 46.56 14.56
IQR = 14.56 = =
2 2
MH = 39.28 QD = 7.28

Analysis: The quartile deviation (QD) of the 50 scores of grade10 students is

7.28. This shows that the value deviated from the midhinge of 39.38 is 7.28.

3. JC and Peter play a Math mobile game every day and keep a record of their
scores. Their scores are shown in the table.

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
JC’s Score 20 21 26 25 21 19 23 27 22 19 29 30
Peter’s Score 21 23 25 20 22 21 20 28 20 23 30 29

Determine the sample mean, variance, and standard deviation of their scores
and make an analysis.
Solution:

69
 JC’s Score Peter’s Score
Day
x1 x12 x2 x 22
1 20 400 21 441
2 21 441 23 529
3 26 676 25 625
4 25 625 20 400
5 21 441 22 484
6 19 361 21 441
7 23 529 20 400
8 27 729 28 784
9 22 484 20 400
10 19 361 23 529
11 29 841 30 900
12 30 900 29 841
Total 282 6788 282 6774
For JC,
x 1 = 64009 n  x12 − (  x1 )
2
s1 = s12
s =2

n1 (n1 − 1)
1
x 2
1 = 52733 s1 = 11.84
8 ( 52733 ) − ( 6409 )
2

x1 =
x 1 s =2 s1 =
8 ( 8 − 1)
1
n1

649 421864 − 421201

= =
8
x1 = 81.13 663
=
56
s12 =

For Peter,
x 2 = 64009 n  x 22 − (  x 2 )
2
s2 = s22
s =
2

n 2 (n 2 − 1)
2
x 2
2 = 52733 s2 = 11 .84
8 ( 52733 ) − ( 6409 )
2

x2 =
x 2 s =
2 s2 =
8 ( 8 − 1)
2
n2

649 421864 − 421201

= =
8
x 2 = 81.13 663
=
56
s22 =

70
Analysis:

4. The scores in an IQ test for 50 grade 10 students are shown in the table.
Score Frequency (f )
100 – 106 7
107 – 113 11
114 – 120 20
121 – 127 9
128 – 134 3
Total (n) 50
Calculate the sample mean score and the standard deviation.
Solution:
(X − x) f (X − x )
2 2
Score f X fX X −x
100 – 106 7 103 721 -12.6 158.76 1111.32
107 – 113 11 110 1210 -5.6 31.36 344.96
114 – 120 20 117 2340 1.4 1.96 39.2
121 – 127 9 124 1116 8.4 70.56 635.04
128 – 134 3 131 393 15.4 237.16 711.48
Total 50 5780 2842

 fX = s = s2
 f (X − x )
2

s2 =
 f (X − x )
2
= n −1 s = 49.74

x =
 fX =
1940
s=
n 40 − 1

= s2 =

x =
Analysis. The standard deviation of the 40 grade 7 students in the Filipino
test is 7.05. This shows that the value deviated from the mean of 19.5 is 7.05.

5. Using the data below are the mean grades and standard deviations of the
three subjects from forty-five grade 9 students:
Subject Mean Standard Deviation
English 85.4 4.61
Mathematics 84.8 4.52
Science 86.5 4.58

Compute the coefficient of variation to answer the following:

71
Solution:

(a) Which subject of grades is less spread? Why?

(b) Which subject of grades is most scattered? Why?

Chapter 4 Measures of Skewness and Kurtosis

Introduction
This lesson contains the discussion of ways to describe and compute a data
set using measures of skewness and kurtosis as part of descriptive statistics.
Skewness means ‘lack of symmetry’. We study skewness to have an idea and
draw about the shape of the curve from a score or grade distributions of the
students. After the shape of a distribution is determined, kurtosis is another
measure for the relative peakness of its frequency curve.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to
• distinguish between asymmetrical and a skewed distribution;
• compute various coefficients to measure the extent of skewness in a
distribution;
• differentiate platykurtic, mesokurtic and leptokurtic distributions; and
• calculate the coefficient of kurtosis.

Learning Contents
Skewness

72
Skewness is a measure of symmetry. It is the degree or extent of asymmetry
in a frequency distribution.

The data that can be collected from the analysis of measures of central
tendency, and as result, the measures of variability or variation may be
incomplete, and sometimes misleading.

Consider the Math grades of 8th graders from sections A, B, and C.

Sections
Student Number
A B C
1 91 90 90
2 90 90 87
3 88 89 85
4 86 89 85
5 86 86 83
6 86 83 83
7 85 82 83
8 81 82 83
9 80 82 81
10 78 78 81
11 78 78 79
12 76 76 76
Mean (x ) 83.75 83.75 83
Median (x ) 85.5 82.5 83
Mode (x̂ ) 86 82 83
Standard deviation (s) 4.99 4.99 3.64

Observe in sections A and B, the mean and standard deviation for the set of
Math grades are the same or equal result except for the mean and standard
deviation of section C.

Figures 4.1 to 4.3 are the histograms for Math grades of the students.

73
 4

Frequency
2

0
76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91
x x x̂
Grades
Figure 4.1. Histogram for the Math Grades of Section A with
Measures of Central Tendency

For section A, somewhat more grades are located to the right of the mean
grade 83.75. It can be observed in Figure 4.1 that the median (85.5) is between
the mean (83.75) and the mode (86).
4

3
Frequency

0
76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
x̂ x x
Grades

Figure 4.2. Histogram for the Math Grades of Section B with

Measures of Central Tendency
For section B, moderately more grades are located to the left of the mean grade
83.75. It can be observed in Figure 4.2 that the median (82.5) is between the
mode (82) and the mean (83.75).

74
 5

Frequency
3

0
76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
x = x = ˆx
Grades

Figure 4.3. Histogram for the Math Grades of Section C with

Measures of Central Tendency

For section C, the same numbers of grades are found both left and right about
the mean grade of 83 as shown in Figure 4.3, where the mean, the median,
and the mode are equal.

The set of grades of sections A and B are examples of asymmetric or skewed

distribution and the set of grades of section C is an example of symmetric
distribution.

Figures 4.4 to 4.6 are the shape of various distributions based on the degree
of skewness of a distribution.

x  x  ˆx

Mean Mode
Median

Figure 4.4. Relative Positions of Measures of Central Tendency in

a Negatively Skewed Distribution
In a negatively skewed distribution as shown in Figure 4.4, the tail of the
distribution is pulled in the negative or left direction.

75
 x̂  x  x

Mode Mean
Median

Figure 4.5. Relative Positions of Measures of Central Tendency in

a Positively Skewed Distribution

In a positively skewed distribution as shown in Figure 4.5, the tail of the

distribution is pulled in the positive or right direction.

x = x = ˆx

Mean = Median = Mode

Figure 4.6. Symmetrical Distribution

Figure 4.6 displays a unimodal, symmetrical distribution showing that the

mode, median, and mean have identical values.

Note that when distributions are skew, then the median generally lies between
the mode and the mean, and the following relationship is satisfied
Mean – Mode  3 (Mean – Median)
Mode  3 Median – 2 Mean

Formulas for the degree and direction of skewness based on Pearson’s

coefficient
Pearson’s 1st Coefficient of Pearson’s 2nd Coefficient of
Skewness Skewness

Mean − Mode 3 ( Mean − Median )

sk1 = sk2 =
Standard deviation Standard deviation
x − ˆx 3(x − x )
sk1 = sk2 =
s s

76
If the mean > mode, the skew is If the mean > median, the skew is
positive. positive.

If mean < mode, the skew is negative. If the mean < median, the skew is
negative.
If mean = mode, the skew is zero, and
the distribution is symmetrical. If the mean = median, the skew is
zero, and the distribution is
symmetrical.

Generally, skewness can take any

value between -3 and 3.

Accurate Formulas for the Coefficient of Skewness based on Moments

For Ungrouped Data For Grouped Data
Population Population

 (x − )  f ( X − )
3 3

1 = 1 =
N 3 N 3
where Where
1 = Population Coefficient 1 = Population Coefficient
of skewness of skewness
(Gamma sub 1) (Gamma sub 1)
x = Data values f = Frequency
 = Population mean X = Midpoint
 = Population standard  = Population mean
deviation  = Population standard
N = Population size deviation
N = Population size
 (x − )
3
= Sum of cubed
 f (X − x )
3
deviations = Sum of the product
of frequency and
cubed deviation
Sample
Sample
 f (X − x )
3
n
n (x − x )
3
sk =
sk = (n − 1) s 3
n −1
(n − 1) (n − 2) s 3
where
where

77
 sk = Sample coefficient sk = Sample coefficient
of skewness of skewness
x = Data values f = Frequency
x = Sample mean X = Midpoint
s = Sample standard x = Sample mean
deviation s = Sample standard
n = Sample size deviation
 (x − x ) n = Sample size
3
= Sum of cubed
 f (X − x )
3
deviations = Sum of the product
of frequency and
cubed deviation

Worked Example 29
Find the Pearson’s 1st and 2nd coefficients of skewness for each of the Math
grades of grade 8 sections A, B, and C.

Sections
A B C
Mean (x ) 83.75 83.75 83
Median (x ) 85.5 82.5 83
Mode (x̂ ) 86 82 83
Standard deviation (s) 4.99 4.99 3.64
Solution:
For section A,
x − ˆx 3 (x − x )
sk1 = sk2 =
s s
83.75 − 86 3 ( 83.75 − 85.5 )
= =
4.99 4.99
sk1 = -0.45 3 ( -1.75 )
sk2 = = -1.05
4.99
Analysis: This indicates that there is a negative skewness in the grade
distribution. Most of the grades are high or above the mean, this means that
the students in section A have performed remarkably in Math subject.

For section B,
x − ˆx 3 (x − x )
sk1 = sk2 =
s s
83.75 − 82 3 ( 83.75 − 82.5 )
= =
4.99 4.99
sk1 = 0.35 3 (1.25 )
sk2 = = 0.75
4.99
78
Analysis: This means that there is a positive skewness in the grade
distribution. Most of the grades are below the mean. This shows that the
students did not perform well in Math subjects.

For section C,
x − ˆx 3 (x − x )
sk1 = sk2 =
s s
83 − 83 3 ( 83 − 83 )
= =
3.64 3.64
sk1 = 0 3 (0)
sk2 = =0
3.64

Analysis: This shows that the skewness in the grade distribution is

symmetrical. This concludes that the students performed moderately in Math
subjects.

Worked Example 30
Math grades of grade 8 section A:
91, 90, 88, 86, 86, 86, 85, 81, 80, 78, 78, 76.

Compute the coefficient of skewness based on the moment.

Solution:
(x − x ) (x − x )
2 3
Student No. x x −x
1 91 7.25 52.56 381.08
2 90 6.25 39.06 244.14
3 88 4.25 18.06 76.77
4 86 2.25 5.06 11.39
5 86 2.25 5.06 11.39
6 86 2.25 5.06 11.39
7 85 1.25 1.56 1.95
8 81 -2.75 7.56 -20.8
9 80 -3.75 14.06 -52.73
10 78 -5.75 33.06 -190.11
11 78 -5.75 33.06 -190.11
12 76 -7.75 60.06 -465.48
Total 1005 274.2 -181.12

 x = 1005,  (x − x )  (x − x )
2 3
n = 12, = 274.2, = -181.12

79
Sample mean Standard deviation Coefficient of Skewness

x =
x s=
 (x − x )
2
n (x − x )
3

sk =
n n −1 (n − 1) (n − 2) s 3
1005 12 ( -181.12 )
x = 274.2
12 s= sk =
12 − 1 (12 − 1) (12 − 2 ) ( 4.99 )3
x = 83.75
274.2 -2173.4
s= sk =
11 11 (10 ) (124. 25 )
s = 4.99 sk = -0.16

Analysis: The Pearson's coefficients of skewness (-0.45, -1.05) in Worked

Example 28 and the coefficient of skewness based on the moment (-0.16) are
similar because of a negative result.

Worked Example 31
Scores in a 60-item second quarter examination of Grade 10-Rizal in Science
Scores f
12 – 16 2
17 – 21 3
22 – 26 10
27 – 31 8
32 – 36 7
37 – 41 5
42 – 46 4
47 – 51 1
Total (n) 40

Compute the Pearson’s 1st and 2nd coefficients of skewness, and the coefficient
based on the moment.
Solution:
Scores LB f X fX fX2 <cf
12 – 16 11.5 2 14 28 392 2 1st -2nd
17 – 21 16.5 3 f b 19 57 1083 5 3rd - 5th
22 – 26 21.5 10 f Mo24 240 5760 15 6th - 15th
27 – 31 26.5 8 f a 29 232 6728 23 16th - 23rd
32 – 36 31.5 7 34 238 8092 30 24th - 30th
37 – 41 36.5 5 39 195 7605 35 31st - 35th
42 – 46 41.5 4 44 176 7744 39 36th - 39th
47 – 51 46.5 1 49 49 2401 40 40th
Total 40 1215 39805

80
For the mean,

x =
 fX
n
1215
=
40
x = 30.38

For the median,

n n 40
1. Calculate . = = 20
2 2 2

2. Determine the median class (Md).

n
If the = 20th position is within 16th – 23rd position
2
then the median class is 27– 31.

3. Compute the median.

n 
 2 − cf bMd 
C = 17 − 12 = 5 x = LB Md + C  
 f Md 
LB Md = 26.5
 20 − 15 
= 26.5 + 5  
f Md = 8  8 
5
cf bMd = 15 = 26.5 + 5  
8
= 26.5 + 3.13
x = 29.63
For the mode,
1. Find the modal class.
If the highest frequency is 10, then the modal class is 22 – 26.
2. Compute the mode.
 f Mo − f b 
C =5 xˆ = LB Mo + C  
 2 f Mo − f b − f a 
LB Mo = 21.5
 10 − 3 
= 21.5 + 5  
f Mo = 10  2 (10 ) − 3 − 8 
fb = 3 7
= 21.5 + 5  
9
fa = 8
= 21.5 + 3.89
xˆ = 25.39

For the standard deviation,

 fX = 1215,  fX 2 = 39805,
81
 n  fX 2 − (  fX )
2
2
s = ( Variance )
n (n − 1)

40 ( 39805 ) − (1215 )
2

=
40 ( 40 − 1)

1592200 − 1476225
=
40 ( 39 )

115975
=
1560
s 2 = 74.34

s = s2 ( Standard deviation )
= 74.34
s = 8.62

For Pearson’s Coefficients of Skewness,

x − ˆx 3 (x − x )
sk1 = sk2 =
s s
30.38 − 25.39 3 ( 30.38 − 29.63 )
= =
8.62 8.62
sk1 = 0.58 3 ( 0.75 )
sk2 = = 0.26
8.62
For the Coefficients of Skewness based on Moment,

(X − x) f (X − x )
3 3
Scores f X X −x
12 – 16 2 14 -16.38 -4394.83 -8789.66
17 – 21 3 19 -11.38 -1473.76 -4421.28
22 – 26 10 24 -6.38 -259.69 -2596.9
27 – 31 8 29 -1.38 -2.63 -21.04
32 – 36 7 34 3.62 47.44 332.08
37 – 41 5 39 8.62 640.5 3202.5
42 – 46 4 44 13.62 2526.57 10106.28
47 – 51 1 49 18.62 6455.64 6455.64
Total 40 4267.62

 f (X − x )
3
n = 40, x = 30.38, s = 8.62, =4267.62

82
  f (X − x )
3
n
sk =
(n − 1) s 3
n −1

4267.62 40
=
( 40 − 1)( 8.62)
3
40 − 1

4267.62 40
=
( 39 )( 8.62)
3
39

4267.62
= (1.01)
24979. 65
= ( 0.17 )(1.01)

sk = 0.17

Analysis: The computed coefficients of skewness (0.58, 0.26, 0.17) are

positive, this indicates that there is a positive skewness in the score
distribution as noticed in Figure 4.7. Most of the scores are lower than the
mean of 30.38. This shows that the tenth graders did not do well in a 60-item
Science test.

11
10
x̂  x  x
9
8
7
Frequency

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
11.5 14 19 24 29 34 39 44 49 51.5
x x̂ Midpoint
x
Figure 4.7. Histogram for the Science Scores of Grade 10 Students with
Measures of Central Tendency

Kurtosis
Kurtosis is a measure of peakedness or flatness of a normal distribution. It
measures how fat or thin the tails of a distribution are relative to a normal
frequency distribution. Kurtosis is more influenced by scores in the tails of
the distribution than scores in the center of a distribution.

83
There is a special symmetrical distribution known as the normal distribution.
This is bell-shaped, centered around the mean.

Here are two normal distributions with the same mean, but different standard
deviations.

Mean
There are two normal distributions with the same standard deviations but
different with means.

Mean1 Mean2
The normal curve is a theoretical, mathematical model that can be
represented by normal probability density function,

1 2
e ( )
− x − (22 )
y= where e ≈ 2.718 and  ≈ 3.14159.
 2

However, since many behavioral measures are distributed in a shape like the
normal curve, the model has practical implications in the behavioral sciences
and education.

Regardless of the exact shapes of the normal distributions, it has these

properties:
1. The normal curve is bell-shaped and is symmetric about the mean.
2. The total area under the normal curve is equal to 1 or 100%.
3. The curve is symmetrical around the vertical axis (half the scores are
on the right side of the axis, and half the scores are on its left).
4. The scores tend to cluster around the center (i.e., around the mean,
or the vertical axis in the center).
5. The mode, median, and mean have the same values.
6. The curve has no boundaries on either side (the tails of the
distribution are getting very close to the horizontal axis, but never
quite touch it)

84
The normal curve is divided into segments, and each segment contains a
certain percentage of the area under the curve (see Figures 4.8 to 4.10). The
distances between the various points on the horizontal axis are equal, but the
segments closer to the center contain more scores than the segments farther
away from the center.
68.26%
68.26%

34.13% 34.13%

x − 3s x − 2s x −s x x +s x + 2s x + 3s

Figure 4.8. Normal Curve with Approximately 68.26% of distribution lies

within x − s and x + s of the mean

95.46%

47.73% 47.73%

x − 3s x − 2s x −s x x +s x + 2s x + 3s
Figure 4.9. Normal Curve with Approximately 95.46% of distribution lies
within x − 2s and x + 2s of the mean

99.74%
99.74%

49.87% 49.87%

x − 3s x − 2s x −s x x +s x + 2s x + 3s
Figure 4.10. Normal Curve with Approximately 99.74% of distribution lies
within x − 3s and x + 3s of the mean
85
The normal curve can be used to describe, predict, and estimate many types
of variables that are normally distributed. If we know the distribution mean
and standard deviation, we can estimate the percentages of scores in different
parts of the distribution. We can use the normal curve to estimate the IQ
scores of people in the general population by using the information about the
areas under the normal curve.

Worked Example 32
The result of an IQ test of 600 students has a mean score of 95 and a standard
deviation of 11. Approximate the number of students who has IQ score within:
a. x − s and x + s
b. x − 2s and x + 2s
c. x − 3s and x + 3s

BinetScale of Human Intelligence

IQ Score Original Name Modern Term
Over 145 Genius
130 – 144 Superior
120 – 129 Bright or Smart
110 – 119 High Average
190 – 109 Average or Normal
80 – 89 Low Average
Borderline
70 – 79 Delayed
Impaired
55 – 69 Mildly Impaired
Moderately
40 – 54 Severe
Impaired
Mental
Below 20 Profound
Retardation
Solution:
Given: n = 600, x = 95 and s = 11
a. IQ score of students:
x − s = 95 − 11 = 84 and
x + s = 95 + 11 = 106
Percentage within x  s : 68.26%
Number of Students within x  s : (0.6826)(600) = 409.56 or 410

Analysis: Approximately 410 students are expected to have IQ scores from 84

to 106 and considered within the normal and the low average ranges based
on Binet Scale.

b. IQ score of students:
x − 2s = 95 − 2 (11) = 73 and
x + 2s = 95 + 2 (11) = 117
86
 Percentage within x  2s : 95.46%
Number of Students within x  2s : (0.9546)(600) = 572.76 or 573

Analysis: Approximately 573 students are expected to have IQ scores from 73

to 117 and reflected within the high average and the delayed ranges.

c. IQ score of students:
x − 3s = 95 − 3 (11) = 62 and
x + 3s = 95 + 3 (11) = 128
Percentage within x  2s : 99.74%
Number of Students within x  3s : (0.9974)(600) = 598.44 or 599

Analysis: Approximately 599 students are expected to have IQ scores from 62

to 128, and defined within bright or smart, and the mildly impaired ranges.

Main Types of Kurtosis

Some of these distributions are wider and more “flat,” while others are
narrower, with more of a “peak.” (see Figure 4.11)

Leptokurtic

Mesokurtic

Platykurtic

Figure 4.11. Three normal distributions with different levels of

“peakedness” (or “flatness”)

1. Leptokurtic. Distributions with too little variability and less flat-

topped than normal distributions or quite peaked or tall. If the
coefficient of kurtosis k > 0, then it is leptokurtic.

2. Mesokurtic. Distributions whose tops are about as flat as the tops

of normal distributions or neither very peaked nor very flat. If the
coefficient of kurtosis k = 0, then it is mesokurtic.

3. Platykurtic. Distributions with too much variability and more flat-

topped than normal distributions or rather flat. If the coefficient of
kurtosis k < 0, then it is platykurtic.

87
The coefficient of kurtosis is used to measure the peakedness or flatness of a
curve. It is based on the moments of the distribution.

For Ungrouped Data For Grouped Data

Population Population
 ( X −)  f ( X −)
4 4
2 = −3 2 = −3
N 4 N 4
where where
 2 = Population Coefficient  2 = Population Coefficient
of kurtosis of kurtosis
(Gamma sub 2) (Gamma sub 2)
x = Data values f = Frequency
 = Population mean X = Midpoint
 = Population standard  = Population mean
deviation  = Population standard
N = Population size deviation
N = Population size
Sample
n (n + 1)   ( x − x )4  Sample
k=  
(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)  s 4  n f ( X − x )
4
k= −3
3 (n − 1)
2
( n − 1) s 4
2
−
(n − 2)(n − 3) where
where k = Sample coefficient
k = Sample coefficient of kurtosis
of kurtosis f = Frequency
x = Data values X = Midpoint
x = Sample mean x = Sample mean
s = Sample standard s = Sample standard
deviation deviation
n = Sample size n = Sample size

Worked Example 33
In a 20-item Math quiz, the scores of Grade 9 sections A and B are as follows:
Section
Student No.
A B
1 7 6
2 8 9
3 8 9
4 10 9
5 12 12
6 12 12
88
 7 12 12
8 14 14
9 15 14
10 17 18

Determine the type of kurtosis of the given data.

Solution:

For section A
Scores
(x − x) (x − x)
2 4
Student No. x −x
x
1 7 -4.5 20.25 410.06
2 8 -3.5 12.25 150.06
3 8 -3.5 12.25 150.06
4 10 -1.5 2.25 5.06
5 12 0.5 0.25 0.06
6 12 0.5 0.25 0.06
7 12 0.5 0.25 0.06
8 14 2.5 6.25 39.06
9 15 3.5 12.25 150.06
10 17 5.5 30.25 915.06
Total 115 96.5 1819.6
 x = 115,  ( x − x ) = 96.5,  ( x − x )
2 4
n = 10, = 1819.6

 (x − x )
2
x s =
2

s 4 = (s 2 )
x = 2
n n −1
115 96.5
= (10.72)
2
= =
10 10 − 1
x = 11.5 s = 10.72
2 s 4 = 114.92

n (n + 1)   ( x − x )4  3 (n − 1)
2

k =  −
(n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3 )  s4  (n − 2) (n − 3 )
10 (10 + 1) 3 (10 − 1)
2
1819.6 
=   −
(10 − 1) (10 − 2) (10 − 3 ) 114.92  (10 − 2 ) (10 − 3 )
10 (11) 3 (9)
2

= (15.83 ) −
( 9) ( 8 ) ( 7 ) (8) (7)
= 3.45 − 4.34
k = -0.89

Analysis: Since the computed k value of -0.89 is lower than 0, then this
indicates that the set of scores of section A in the Math quiz is platykurtic.

89
 4

Frequency
2

0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Scores

Figure 4.12. Frequency Polygon of the Scores of Grade 9 sections A

For section B
Scores
(x − x) (x − x)
2 4
Student No. x −x
x
1 6 -5.5 30.25 915.06
2 9 -2.5 6.25 39.06
3 9 -2.5 6.25 39.06
4 9 -2.5 6.25 39.06
5 12 0.5 0.25 0.06
6 12 0.5 0.25 0.06
7 12 0.5 0.25 0.06
8 14 2.5 6.25 39.06
9 14 2.5 6.25 39.06
10 18 6.5 42.25 1785.06
Total 115 104.5 2895.6
 x = 115,  ( x − x ) = 104.5,  ( x − x )
2 4
n = 10, = 2895.6

 (x − x )
2
x s =
2
x = s 4 = (s 2 )
2
n n −1
115 104.5
= (11.61)
2
= =
10 10 − 1
x = 11.5 s = 11.61
2 s 4 = 134.79

n (n + 1)   ( x − x )4  3 (n − 1)
2

k =   −
(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3 )  s4  (n − 2)(n − 3 )
10 (10 + 1) 3 (10 − 1)
2
 2895.6 
=   −
(10 − 1)(10 − 2)(10 − 3 ) 134.79  (10 − 2)(10 − 3 )
10 (11) 3 (9)
2

= ( 21.48 ) − = 4.69 − 4.34

( 9 )( 8 )( 7 ) ( 8 )( 7 )
k = 0.35
90
Analysis: Since the computed k value of 0.35 is higher than 0, then this
indicates that the set of scores of section B in the Math quiz is leptokurtic.

3
Frequency

0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Scores

Figure 4.13. Frequency Polygon of the Scores of Grade 9 sections B

Worked Example 34
Given the scores of 40 students on a 30-item Social Studies test.
Scores f
03 – 70 4
08 – 12 11
13 – 17 8
18 – 22 10
23 – 27 6
28 – 32 1
Total (n) 40
Calculate the coefficient of kurtosis.
Solution:
(X − x) (X − x) f (X − x ) f (X − x )
2 4 2 4
Scores f X fX X −x
03 – 70 4 5 20 -10.75 115.56 13354.69 462.24 53418.76
08 – 12 11 10 110 -5.75 33.06 1093.13 363.66 12024.43
13 – 17 8 15 120 -0.75 0.56 0.32 4.48 2.56
18 – 22 10 20 200 4.25 18.06 326.25 180.6 3262.5
23 – 27 6 25 150 9.25 85.56 7320.94 513.36 43925.64
28 – 32 1 30 30 14.25 203.06 41234.38 203.06 41234.38
Total 40 630 1727.4 153868.27

 fX  f (X − x ) = 1727.4,  f (X − x ) = 153868.27
2 4
n = 40, = 630,

91
  f (X − x )
2
 fX s 2
=
x = s 4 = (s 2 )
2
n n −1
630 1727.4
= ( 44.29 )
2
= =
40 40 − 1
x = 15.75 s = 44.29
2 s 4 = 1961.6

n f ( X − x )
4
k = −3
( n − 1 )2 s 4
40 (153868.27 )
= −3
( 40 − 1)2 (1961.6 )
= 6154730.8 − 3
2983593.6
= 2.06 − 3
k = -0.94

Analysis. Since the computed k value of -0.94 is less than 0, and then
this indicates that the set of scores in the Social Studies test is platykurtic.

12
11
10
9
8
Frequency

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
Midpoint

Figure 4.14. Frequency Polygon of the Scores in Social Studies Test

92
 SELF-CHECK No. 4
Name: ______________________________________________ Score: ___________
Course/Year/Section/Major: _______________________ Date: ____________

True or False
Directions: Write T if the statement is true and F, if the statement is false.
Write your answer in the blank before the number.

___ 1. Skewness is asymmetrical distribution in a set of data on a scale

concerning its arithmetic mean.
___ 2. A negatively skewed distribution tapers at the right.
___ 3. The mean and median in a positively skewed distribution are found at
the left.
___ 4. In a negatively skewed distribution, more scores are above the mean.
___ 5. In a positively skewed distribution, more students are above the
average.
___ 6. In a negatively skewed distribution, the mean and median are at the
left of the mode.
___ 7. In a negatively skewed distribution, more students' scores are below
the mean.
___ 8. In a positively skewed distribution, more students are below the
average.
___ 9. Positively skewed distribution, has a long tail at the right.
___ 10. Leptokurtic distribution has a pointed curve at the top.
___ 11. The kurtosis value of platykurtic is more than 0.
___ 12. In a normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode have the same
values.
___ 13. Platykurtic has peaked distribution on the top.
___ 14. In a normal distribution, the kurtosis value is 0.
___ 15. Leptokurtic distribution has a flat-topped curve.
___ 16. Kurtosis value of leptokurtic is more than 0.
___ 17. In a negatively skewed distribution, few values are below the mean.
___ 18. In a positively skewed distribution, more values are below the mean.
___ 19. Negatively skewed distribution has a long tail at the left.
___ 20. Positively skewed distribution has more bright students.
93
Assessment
Computation and Analysis/Interpretation
1. Scores of nine grade 12 students in a 30-item Basic Calculus quiz.
13, 17, 17, 17, 18, 20, 22, 22, 25

Compute the Pearson’s 1st and 2nd coefficients of skewness, coefficient of

skewness based on the moment, and coefficient of kurtosis.
Solution:
(x − x ) (x − x ) (x − x )
2 3 4
Position x x −x
1 13 -6 36 -216 1296
2 17 -2 4 -8 16
3 17 -2 4 -8 16
4 17 -2 4 -8 16
5 18 -1 1 -1 1
6 20 1 1 1 1
7 22 3 9 27 81
8 22 3 9 27 81
9 25 6 36 216 1296
Total 171 104 30 2804

n= x =
 (x − x )  (x − x )  (x − x )
2 3 4
= 274.2 = -181.12 = -181.12

Sample mean Standard deviation Median

x =
x s=
 (x − x )
2
x=
n n −1
1005
x = 274.2
12 s= Mode
12 − 1
x = 83.75 ˆx =
274.2
s=
11
s = 4.99
s4 =
For Pearson’s 1st and 2nd coefficients of skewness,
3 (x − x )
x − ˆx sk2 =
sk1 = s
s
83.75 − 86 3 ( 83.75 − 85.5 )
= =
4.99 4.99
sk1 = 3 ( -1.75 )
sk2 = = -1.05
4. 9 9

94
For the coefficients of skewness based on the moment,
Coefficient of Skewness

n  (x − x )
3

sk =
(n − 1) (n − 2) s 3
12 ( -181.12 )
sk =
(12 − 1) (12 − 2) ( 4.99 )3

sk =
11 (10 ) (124. 25 )

sk =

Analysis. Pearson's coefficients of skewness (-0.45, -1.05) in Worked Example

28 and the coefficient of skewness based on the moment (-0.16) are similar
because of a negative result.

n (n + 1)   ( x − x )4  3 (n − 1)
2

k =   −
(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3 )  s4  (n − 2)(n − 3 )
10 (10 + 1) 3 (10 − 1)
2
1810090.6 
=   −
(10 − 1)(10 − 2)(10 − 3)  114.92  (10 − 2)(10 − 3)
10 (10 ) 3 ( 09 )
2

= (150.83 ) −
(10 )(10 )(10 ) (10 )(10 )
= 3.405 − 3.405
k =

Analysis. Since the computed k value of -0.89 is lower than 0, then this
indicates that the set of scores of section A in the Math quiz is platykurtic.

2. A private institution entered 40 senior students for the scholarship. The

results of the examination are shown in the table below.
Scores Frequency (f )
52 – 58 3
59 – 65 10
66 – 72 15
73 – 79 8
80 – 86 4
Total (n) 40

95
Find the Pearson’s 1st and 2nd coefficients of skewness, coefficient of skewness
based on the moment, and coefficient of kurtosis.
Solution:

Scores LB f X fX <cf
52 – 58 5.5 3 8 8 1
59 – 65 10.5 10 13 52 5
66 – 72 15.5 15 18 126 12
73 – 79 20.5 8 23 207 21
80 – 86 25.5 4 28 364 34
Total (n) 40 1122

(X − x) (X − x) (X − x)
2 3 4
Scores f X X −x
52 – 58 3 55 -14 196 -2744 38416
59 – 65 10 62 -7 49 -343 2401
66 – 72 15 69 0 0 0 0
73 – 79 8 76 7 49 343 2401
80 – 86 4 83 14 196 2744 38416
Total 40

f (X − x ) f (X − x ) f (X − x )
2 3 4
Scores f
52 – 58 3 588 -8232 115248
59 – 65 10 490 -3430 24010
66 – 72 15 0 0 0
73 – 79 8 392 2744 19208
80 – 86 4 784 10976 153664
Total 40 2254 2058 312130

 fX  f (X − x) =
2
n = 40 =

For the mean score(x ) Standard deviation

x =
 fX s=
 f (X − x )
2

n n −1
1005
x = 274.2
12 s=
12 − 1
x = 8 3 .7 5
274.2
s=
11
s = 4.99

96
For the median score ( x ),

For the mode score ( x̂ ),

For Pearson’s coefficients of skewness,

x − ˆx 3 (x − x )
sk1 = sk2 =
s s
30.38 − 25.39 3 ( 30.038 − 29.063 )
= =
8.62 8.62
sk1 = 0.58 3 ( 0.7005 )
sk2 = = 0.26
8.62
For the coefficients of skewness based on Moment,
 f (X − x) =
3
s=

 f (X − x )
3
n
sk =
(n − 1) s 3
n −1

40
=
( 40 − 1) ( 80.62)
3
40 − 1

40
=
( 40 ) ( 80.62)
3
40v

= (1.01)
24979. 65
= (1.01) (1.01)

sk =

97
Analysis. Since the computed k value of -0.94 is less than 0, and then this
indicates that the set of scores in the Social Studies test is platykurtic.

For the coefficient of kurtosis,

 f (X − x) =
4
s4=

n f ( X − x )
4
k = −3
( n − 1 )2 s 4
40 (153868.27 )
= −3
( 40 − 1)2 (1096 1.6 )
= 6154730.8 − 3
2 983593.6
= 2. 00 6 − 3
k =
Analysis. Since the computed k value of -0.94 is less than 0, and then this
indicates that the set of scores in the Social Studies test is platykurtic.

3. The mean height of the 250 male students at Matt Steven University is
5.4 feet with a standard deviation of 0.38 feet. Determine the number of
students that fall within the ranges:
(a) x − s and x + s
(b) x − 2s and x + 2s
(c) x − 3s and x + 3s
and make an analysis.
Solution:
Given: n = ,x = , and s =
(a) Height of male students:
x −s =
x +s =
Percentage within x  s : 68.26%
Number of Students within x  s :

Analysis. Approximately 410 students are expected to have IQ scores from 84

to 106 and considered within the normal and the low average ranges based
on Binet Scale.

Given: n = ,x = , and s =
(b) Height of male students:
x − 2s =
x + 2s =
Percentage within x  2s : 68.26%

98
 Number of Students within x  2s :

Analysis. Approximately 410 students are expected to have IQ scores from 84

to 106 and considered within the normal and the low average ranges based
on Binet Scale.

Given: n = ,x = , and s =
(c) Height of male students:
x − 3s =
x + 3s =
Percentage within x  3s : 68.26%
Number of Students within x  3s :

Analysis. Approximately 410 students are expected to have IQ scores from 84

to 106 and considered within the normal and the low average ranges based
on Binet Scale.

99
Chapter 5 Measures of Correlation

Introduction
Assume a teacher wants to know whether a relationship exists between the
number of hours a student sleeps each night and their general average. How
would he or she determine if any relationship exists? In this chapter, you will
study how to describe what type of relationship, or correlation, exists between
two quantitative variables.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to
• Draw and interpret scatter diagrams
• Compute and interpret the linear correlation coefficient
• Determine whether a linear relation exists between two variables

Learning Contents
Suppose we want to investigate the relationship between two variables x, and
y, for example
• the weight (x) and the height (y) of the students,
• the number of hours spent studying for a test (x) and the grade
achieved (y),
• a student’s grade in Mathematics (x) and the grade in Science (y)
• The length of the stem of the plant (x) and the average length of the
leaf of the plant (y)

Data connecting two variables are known as bivariate data. Bivariate data
are best represented using a scatterplot or scatter diagram. A scatterplot is
an excellent tool that assists in classifying the relationship between the two
variables.

y
A scatter diagram is a graph that shows
the relationship between two quantitative
variables measured on the same
individual. On a Cartesian plane, each
individual in the data set is represented by
a point in the scatter diagram. The
independent (or explanatory) variable (x) is
plotted on the horizontal axis, and the
dependent (or response or outcome)
variable (y) is plotted on the vertical axis.
x
(See Figure 5.1) Figure 5.1. Scatter diagram

Independent variable. The variable you manipulate or is studying.

100
Dependent variable. The variable that is studied to see if it has changed
significantly because of the manipulation of the independent variable.

A correlation is a relationship between two variables. A correlation exists

between two variables when the values of one variable are somehow
associated with the values of the other variable.

If a correlation exists, it can be classified according to its:

1. form – whether it is linear or non-linear,
2. direction – whether it is positive or negative, and
3. strength – whether it is strong, moderate, or weak.

A linear correlation exists between two variables when there is a correlation

and the plotted points of paired data result in a pattern that can be
approximated by a straight line.

Classified according to Figures

Linear and Non-linear
Relationships
y y
If a scatterplot is in the shape of a
‘corridor’ and fitting a straight line
to it seems reasonable, then the
relationship between the two
variables can be called linear.
Otherwise, the relationship is non- x x
linear. Linear relationships

Non-linear relations can be y y

classified further as being

quadratic, exponential, and so on.

x x
Non-linear relationships
Positive and Negative
y
Correlations

If one variable tends to increase as

the other variable increases, the
correlation between the two
variables is said to be positive. The x
data points on a scatterplot appear Positive Correlation
to form a path, directed from the
bottom left to the top right corner.
101
 y
If one variable tends to decrease
with the increase of the other, the
correlation is said to be negative.
The points on the scatterplot form a
path directed from the top left to the
bottom right corner. x
Negative Correlation
The Strength of the Correlation
y y

The narrower the path, the stronger

the correlation between the two
variables. The diagram below shows
examples of the correlation of
various strengths.
x x
Strong Positive and Negative
Correlations
y y

x x
Moderate Positive and Negative
y
Correlations
y

x x
Weak Positive and Negative
Correlations

y y
Sometimes the points on the
scatterplot form a straight line. In
such cases, we say that the
relationship between the variables
is perfectly linear.

x x
Perfect Linear Relationships

102
 y
Sometimes the points on the
scatterplot appear to be in no
particular order (that is, they are
randomly spread over the set of
axes). In such cases, we say that
there is no correlation between the
two variables. x
No Correlation

The linear correlation coefficient or Pearson Product Moment Correlation

Coefficient (PPMCC) is a measure of the strength and direction of the linear
relation between two quantitative variables. The Greek letter  (rho) represents
the population correlation coefficient, and r represents the sample correlation
coefficient.

Formulas for Computing Coefficient of Correlation

Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient
For the sample correlation coefficient

r =
 ( x − x )(y − y )
 ( x − x )   (y − y )
2 2

  
where
x = data values of the independent variable
x = sample mean of the independent variable
y = data values of the dependent variable
y = sample mean of the dependent variable
n = number of pairs of sample data
 ( x − x )(y − y ) = Sum of the product of deviations of x and y
Shortcut
n  xy − (  x )(  y )
r =
n ( x 2 ) − ( x )2  n ( y 2 ) − ( y )2 
       

where
x = observation of the independent variable
y = observation of the dependent variable
n = number of pairs of sample data

Properties of the Linear Correlation Coefficient

1. The linear correlation coefficient is a unitless measure of association.
So, the unit of measure for x and y plays no role in the interpretation
of r.

103
 2. The value of r will always be between −1 and +1 inclusively. That is −1≤
r ≤ 1.
3. If the values of x and y are interchanged, the value of r will be
unchanged.
4. If the values of x and/or y are converted to a different scale, the value
of r will be unchanged.
5. The value of r is sensitive to outliers and can change dramatically if
they are present in the data.
6. If r = +1, then a perfect positive linear relationship exists between the
two variables.
7. If r = -1, then a perfect negative linear relationship exists between the
two variables.
8. The closer r is to +1, the stronger is the evidence of a positive
association between the two variables.
9. The closer r is to -1, the stronger is the evidence of the negative
association between the two variables.
10. If r is close to 0, then little or no evidence exists of a linear relationship
between the two variables. Therefore, r close to 0 does not imply any
relation, just no linear relation.
11. The correlation coefficient is not resistant. Thus, an observation that
does not follow the overall pattern of the data could affect the value of
the linear correlation coefficient.

Correlation and Causation

Even a strong correlation does not necessarily mean that the increase or
decrease in the level of one variable causes an increase or decrease in the level
of the other. It is best to avoid statements such as:
'An increase in rainfall causes an increase in wheat growth.'

CAUTION Know that correlation does not imply causality.

The following guidelines should be closely followed to draw a conclusion about

the relationship between the two variables based on the scatterplot or linear
correlation coefficient.
The strength of the correlation Conclusion
The correlation between x and y is We can conclude that there is little
weak. evidence to show that the larger x is,
the larger (positive correlation) or
smaller (negative correlation) y is.

The correlation between x and y is We can conclude that there is

moderate. evidence to show that the larger x is,
the larger (positive correlation) or
smaller (negative correlation) y is.

104
 The correlation between x and y is We can conclude that the larger x is,
strong. the larger (positive correlation) or
smaller (negative correlation) y is.

Correlation Scale
The correlation scale, as illustrated in the table below, is a helpful tool
in describing the relationship between two variables. You may refer to the
scale on the next page before interpreting the calculated coefficient of
correlation.

Range of Linear Correlation Coefficient and Strength of Relationships

Range Strength of Relationships
No correlation
0.00
• no linear relationship
Very low correlation
• The changes in one variable cannot be expected to
±0.01 to ±0.20
signify a change in the other (Almost negligible
relationship)
Slight or Weak correlation
• The change in one variable may not be expected from a
±0.21 to ±0.40
change in the other. (Definite but small or low
relationship)
Moderate correlation
±0.41 to ±0.70 • The change in one variable is expected from a change
in the other. (Substantial relationship)
High correlation
±0.71 to ±0.90 • The change in one variable is expected with reliability
from a change in the other. (Marked Relationship)
Very high correlation
• The change in one variable is expected to happen with
±0.91 to ±0.99
greater reliability from a change in the other (Very
dependable relationship)
Perfect correlation
±1.00
• Perfect relationship

Assumptions for the Correlation Coefficient

1. The sample is a random sample.
2. The data pairs fall approximately on a straight line and are measured
at the interval or ratio level.
3. The variables have a bivariate normal distribution. (This means that
given any specific value of x, the y values are normally distributed; and
given any specific value of y, the x values are normally distributed.)
105
 Worked Example 35
The data obtained in the Math grade and the Science grade of the ten students
Math (x) 78 79 81 82 82 84 85 85 87 89
Science (y) 80 81 85 83 85 86 83 85 86 87

a. Construct a scatter diagram of the data.

b. Calculate its linear correlation coefficient.
Solution:
a. Scatter Diagram. Draw the scatterplot showing ‘Math Grades’ on the
horizontal axis (x-axis) and ‘Science Grades’ on the vertical axis (y-axis).
88

87

86
Science Grades

85

84

83

82

81

80

79
77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90

Math Grades

b. For the linear correlation coefficient

Student
No.
x y x −x y −y ( x − x )(y − y ) ( x − x )2 ( y − y )2
1 78 80 -5.2 -4.1 21.32 27.04 16.81
2 79 81 -4.2 -3.1 13.02 17.64 9.61
3 81 85 -2.2 0.9 -1.98 4.84 0.81
4 82 83 -1.2 -1.1 1.32 1.44 1.21
5 82 85 -1.2 0.9 -1.08 1.44 0.81
6 84 86 0.8 1.9 1.52 0.64 3.61
7 85 83 1.8 -1.1 -1.98 3.24 1.21
8 85 85 1.8 0.9 1.62 3.24 0.81
9 87 86 3.8 1.9 7.22 14.44 3.61
10 89 87 5.8 2.9 16.82 33.64 8.41
Total 832 841 57.8 107.6 46.9
n = 10,  x = 832,  y = 841,
x =
x =
832
= 83.2, y =
y =
841
= 84.1
n 10 n 10

106
  ( x − x )(y − y ) = 57.8,  ( x − x )  (y − y )
2 2
= 107.6, = 46.9

r =
 ( x − x ) (y − y )
 ( x − x )   (y − y ) 
2 2
  
57.8
=
(107.6 ) ( 46.9 )
57.8
=
5046.44
r = 0.81

Shortcut formula
Student
x y xy x2 y2
No.
1 78 80 6240 6084 6400
2 79 81 6399 6241 6561
3 81 85 6885 6561 7225
4 82 83 6806 6724 6889
5 82 85 6970 6724 7225
6 84 86 7224 7056 7396
7 85 83 7055 7225 6889
8 85 85 7225 7225 7225
9 87 86 7482 7569 7396
10 89 87 7743 7921 7569
Total 832 841 70029 69330 70775
n = 10,  x = 832,  y = 841,
 xy = 70029, x 2
= 69330, y 2
= 70775,

n  xy − (  x )(  y )
r =
n ( x 2 ) − ( x )2  n ( y 2 ) − ( y )2 
       
10 ( 70029 ) − ( 832)( 841)
=
10 ( 69330 ) − ( 832)2  10 ( 70775 ) − ( 841)2 
  
700290 − 699712
=
( 693300 − 692224)( 707750 − 707281)
578 578
= =
(1076)( 469) 504644
r = 0.81

Analysis: The grades obtained in both mathematics and science subjects by

10 students show a highly positive linear relationship. Thus, the student

107
obtained high grades in science they show the tendency of obtaining high
grades in mathematics also, and the student obtained fewer grades in science,
they show a tendency to getting fewer grades in mathematics also.

Worked Example 36
Given below are the number of hours spent studying for an English test in a
week and the grade achieved of Grade 10 students
Student Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Number of Hours (x) 5 7 7 8 9 9 10 11 11 12 13 14
English Grades (y) 87 89 84 88 85 82 79 82 80 81 80 83
a. Construct a scatter diagram of the data.
b. Compute the linear correlation coefficient.
Solution:
a. Scatter Diagram. Draw the scatterplot showing ‘Number of Hours’ on the
horizontal axis (x-axis) and ‘English Grades’ on the vertical axis (y-axis).
91
90
89
88
87
86
85
English Grades

84
83
82
81
80
79
78
77
76
75
74
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Number of Hours

108
b. For the linear correlation coefficient
Student
x y xy x2 y2
No.
1 5 87 435 25 7569
2 7 89 623 49 7921
3 7 84 588 49 7056
4 8 88 704 64 7744
5 9 85 765 81 7225
6 9 82 738 81 6724
7 10 79 790 100 6241
8 11 82 902 121 6724
9 11 80 880 121 6400
10 12 81 972 144 6561
11 13 80 1040 169 6400
12 14 83 1162 196 6889
Total 116 1000 9599 1200 83454
n = 12,  x = 116,  y = 1000,
 xy = 9599, x 2
= 1200, y 2
= 83454,

n  xy − (  x )(  y )
r =
n ( x 2 ) − ( x )2  n ( y 2 ) − ( y )2 
       
12 ( 9599 ) − (116 ) (1000 )
=
12 (1200 ) − (116 )2  12 ( 83454 ) − (1000 )2 
  
115188 − 116000
=
(14400 − 13456) (1001448 − 1000000 )
−812
=
( 944 ) (1448 )
−812
=
1366912
r = −0.69

Analysis: The computed r-value is -0.69, which indicates a moderate negative

correlation between the number of hours spent studying for an English test
in a week and the grade achieved Grade 10 students. Hence, those students
who are good at the subject spent less time studying, and the other students
need more time to study to improve their performance.

Rank Correlation Coefficient

109
The Spearman rank correlation coefficient is a nonparametric statistic that
uses ranks to determine if there is a relationship between two variables.
Instead of using precise values of the variables, or when such precision is
unavailable, the data may be ranked from 1 to n in order of size, importance,
etc. If x and y are ranked in such a manner, the coefficient of rank correlation,
or Spearman’s formula for rank correlation, is given by
6 D 2
 =1−
n (n 2 − 1)
where
D = Differences between the ranks of corresponding values
(
of x and y, R x − Ry )
n = Number of pairs of sample data
D 2
= Sum of the squared difference between ranks

Assumptions for Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient

1. The sample is a random sample.
2. The data consist of two measurements or observations taken on the
same individual.

For Repeated Ranks

In case, the common ranks are assigned to the repeated items. These common
ranks are the arithmetic mean of the ranks, which these items would have
got if they were different from each other and the next item will get the rank
next to the rank used in computing the common rank.

For example, let say an item is repeated at rank 4. Then the common rank to
be assigned to each item is (4 + 5)/2 = 4.5, which is the average of 4 and 5,
the ranks which these observations would have assumed if they were
different. The next item will be assigned the rank 6. If an item is repeated
thrice at rank 7, then the common rank to be assigned to each value will be
(7 + 8 + 9)/3 = 8 which is the arithmetic mean of 7, 8, and 9, the ranks these
observations would have got if they were different from each other. The next
rank to be assigned will be 10.

Remarks on Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient

1. The  D = 0 , which provides a check for numerical calculations.
2. Since Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, ρ, is nothing but
Pearson’s correlation coefficient, r, between the ranks, it can be
interpreted in the same way as the Pearson’s correlation coefficient.
3. Pearson’s correlation coefficient assumes that the parent population
from which sample observations are drawn is normal. If this
110
 assumption is violated then we need a measure, which is distribution-
free (or nonparametric). Spearman’s ρ is such a distribution-free
measure since no strict assumptions are made about the form of the
population from which sample observations are drawn.
4. Spearman’s formula is easy to understand and apply as compared to
Pearson’s formula. The values obtained by the two formulas, Pearson’s
r and Spearman's ρ are generally different. The difference arises
because when ranking is used instead of a full set of observations, there
is always some loss of information. Unless many ties exist, the
coefficient of rank correlation should be only slightly lower than the
Pearson’s r coefficient.
5. Spearman’s formula is the formula to be used for finding correlation
coefficient if we are dealing with qualitative characteristics, which
cannot be measured quantitatively but can be arranged in order. It can
be used where actual data are given. In case of extreme observations or
outliers, Spearman’s formula is preferred to Pearson’s formula.
6. Spearman’s formula has its limitations also. It is not practicable in the
case of a bivariate frequency distribution. For n > 30, this formula
should not be used unless the ranks are given.

Worked Example 37
The boy’s age and weight (kg) of the grade 7 students in the first quarter are
as follows:
Boy No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Age (x) 11 11 12 12 12 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 13 13 13.5
Weight (y) 25 21 28 30 28 29 28 39 33 29 32 38

(a) Construct a scatter diagram of the data.

(b) Determine the Spearman rank correlation coefficient.

Solution:
(a) Scatter Diagram. Draw the scatterplot showing ‘Age’ on the horizontal axis
(x-axis) and ‘Weight’ on the vertical axis (y-axis).

111
 41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
Weight
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14
Age

(b) For the Spearman rank correlation coefficient,

Convert the data into ranks.
The highest value is given the rank 1.
The next highest value is given rank 2 and so on.

x Rank Rx y Rank Ry
11 1 (1+2)/2 = 1.5 25 2 2
11 2 (1+2)/2 = 1.5 21 1 1
12 3 (3+4+5)/3 = 4 28 3 4
12 4 (3+4+5)/3 = 4 30 8 8
12 5 (3+4+5)/3 = 4 28 4 4
6 (6+7)/2 =
12.5 (6+7+8+9)/4 = 7.5 29 6
6.5
12.5 7 (6+7+8+9)/4 = 7.5 28 5 4
12.5 8 (6+7+8+9)/4 = 7.5 39 12 12
12.5 9 (6+7+8+9)/4 = 7.5 33 10 10
10 (6+7)/2 =
13 (10+11)/2 = 10.5 29 7
6.5
13 11 (10+11)/2 = 10.5 32 9 9
13.5 12 12 38 11 11

112
 Boy No. x y Rx Ry D = Rx – Ry D2
1 11 25 1.5 2 1.5 – 2 = -0.5 (-0.5)2 = 0.25
2 11 21 1.5 1 1.5 – 1 = 0.5 (0.5)2 = 0.25
3 12 28 4 4 4–4=0 (0)2 = 0
4 12 30 4 8 4 – 8 = -4 (-4)2 = 16
5 12 28 4 4 4–4=0 (0)2 = 0
6 12.5 29 7.5 6.5 7.5 – 6.5 = 1 (1)2 = 1
7 12.5 28 7.5 4 7.5 – 4 = 3.5 (3.5)2 = 12.25
8 12.5 39 7.5 12 7.5 – 12 = -4.5 (-4.5)2 = 20.25
9 12.5 33 7.5 10 7.5 – 10 = -2.5 (-2.5)2 = 6.25
10 13 29 10.5 6.5 10.5 – 6.5 = 4 (4)2 = 16
11 13 32 10.5 9 10.5 – 9 = 1.5 (1.5)2 = 2.25
12 13.5 38 12 11 12 – 11 = 1 (1)2 = 1
Total 75.5

n = 12, D 2
= 75.5
6 D 2
 =1−
n (n 2 − 1)
6 ( 75.5 )
=1−
12 (122 − 1)
453
=1−
12 (144 − 1)
453
=1−
12 (143 )
453
=1−
1716
= 1 − 0.26
 = 0.74

Analysis: The computed  value is 0.74, which indicates a high positive

correlation between the boy’s age and weight (kg) of the grade 7 students.
Thus, when the boys getting older, they gained more weight.

Worked Example 38
Eight entries of Grade 11 students are submitted for a filmmaking contest.
Three judges study each entry and list the eight in rank order. Their rankings
are as follows:

Rank by Judges
Entry
J1 J2 J3
A 2 1 2

113
 B 6 4 3
C 3 2 1
D 7 8 7
E 8 5 4
F 5 6 8
G 1 3 5
H 4 7 6

Compute the Spearman rank correlation coefficient in order to answer the

following questions:
(a) Which pair of judges agree the most?
(b) Which pair of judges disagree the most?

Solution:
Entry J1 J2 J3 D1 = J1 − J 2 D12 D2 = J 1 − J 3 D 22 D3 = J 2 − J 3 D 32
A 2 1 2 1 1 0 0 -1 1
B 6 4 3 2 4 3 9 1 1
C 3 2 1 1 1 2 4 1 1
D 7 8 7 -1 1 0 0 1 1
E 8 5 4 3 9 4 16 1 1
F 5 6 8 -1 1 -3 9 -2 4
G 1 3 5 -2 4 -4 16 -2 4
H 4 7 6 -3 9 -2 4 1 1
 D12 = 30  D22 = 58  D32 = 14
n = 8,
For J1 and J2, For J1 and J3, For J2 and J3,
6 D12 6 D22 6 D32
1 = 1 − 2 = 1 − 3 = 1 −
n (n 2 − 1) n (n 2 − 1) n (n 2 − 1)
6 ( 30 ) 6 ( 58 ) 6 (14 )
=1− =1− =1−
8 ( 8 − 1)
2
8 ( 8 − 1)
2
8 ( 82 − 1)
180 348 84
=1− =1− =1−
8 ( 63 ) 8 ( 63 ) 8 ( 63 )
= 1 − 0.36 = 1 − 0.69 = 1 − 0.17
1 = 0.64 2 = 0.31 3 = 0.83
(Moderate) (Weak) (High)

Thus, (a) Judges J2 and J3 agree the most.

(b) Judges J1 and J3 disagree the most.

114
 SELF-CHECK No. 5
Name: ______________________________________________ Score: ___________
Course/Year/Section/Major: _______________________ Date: ____________

Multiple Choice
Directions. Write the correct letter of your answer in the blank before the
number.

___ 1. Perfect positive correlation has a correlation value of:

a. -1 b. 0 c. 1 d. 2

___ 2. A correlation value of 0.33 denotes:

a. low relationship b. negligible relationship
c. moderate relationship d. marked relationship

___ 3. Perfect negative correlation has a correlation value of:

a. -2 b. -1 c. 0 d. 1

___ 4. Which of the following denotes a slight or weak relationship?

a. 0.11 b. 0.42 c. 0.35 d. 0.59

___ 5. A correlation value of -0.79 denotes:

a. high relationship b. low relationship
c. marked relationship d. moderate relationship

___ 6. Which of the following shows a very low correlation?

a. -0.13 b. -0.35 c. -0.44 d. -0.68

___ 7. A correlation value of 0.82 denotes:

a. high relationship b. low relationship
c. marked relationship d. moderate relationship

___ 8. Which of the following value denotes a low relationship?

a. 0.93 b. 0.75 c. 0.48 d. 0.22

___ 9. A correlation value of -0.95 denotes:

a. low relationship b. high relationship
c. moderate relationship d. very high relationship

___ 10. Which of the following correlation value denotes a marked

relationship?
a. -0.96 b. -0.75 c. -0.66 d. -0.48

115
___ 11. A correlation value of 0.15 denotes:
a. high relationship b. marked relationship
c. moderate relationship d. very low relationship

___ 12. A correlation value of -0.64 denotes:

a. low relationship b. moderate relationship
c. negligible relationship d. very low relationship

___ 13. Which of the following has a high correlation?

a. 0.13 b. 0.45 c. 0.69 d. 0.81

___ 14. A correlation value of 0.08 denotes:

a. low relationship b. moderate relationship
c. negligible relationship d. very high relationship

___ 15. Which of the following correlation value denotes a substantial

relationship?
a. -0.33 b. -0.58 c. -0.71 d. -0.92

Assessment
Computation and Analysis/Interpretation
1. The table below shows the scores in Mathematics and English
examinations.

Mathematics English
Student No.
(x) (y)
1 34 30
2 40 33
3 28 31
4 30 41
5 31 28
6 27 25
7 44 38
8 37 37
9 36 40
10 29 35
11 41 34
12 35 30

Find the Pearson r correlation coefficient and interpret the result.

116
Solution:
Student
x y xy x2 y2
No.
1 34 30 1020 1156 900
2 40 33 1320 1600 1089
3 28 31 868 784 961
4 30 41 1230 900 1681
5 31 28 868 961 784
6 27 25 675 729 625
7 44 38 1672 1936 1444
8 37 37 1369 1369 1369
9 36 40 1440 1296 1600
10 29 35 1015 841 1225
11 41 34 1394 1681 1156
12 35 30 1050 1225 900
Total 412 402 13921 14478 13734
n = 10,  x = 832,  y = 841,
 xy = 70029, x 2
= 69330, y 2
= 70775,

n  xy − (  x )(  y )
r =
n ( x 2 ) − ( x )2  n ( y 2 ) − ( y )2 
       
10 ( 700029 ) − ( 8002)( 8041)
=
100 ( 693030 ) − ( 8032 )2  100 ( 693030 ) − ( 8032 )2 
  
7002900 − 6997012
=
( 6903300 − 6920224 )( 6903300 − 6920224 )
578
=
(10706 )( 40069 )
578
=
5004644
r = 0.81

Analysis:

2. Division supervisor wondered whether the class size and national

achievement test of grade 10 students are related. Classes from district
schools are randomly selected. Determine if the variables are linearly related.

117
 Class Size NAT (%)
School No.
(x) (y)
1 37 78
2 42 75
3 45 80
4 49 74
5 50 71
6 52 74
7 54 73
Solution:
School No. x y x −x y −y ( x − x )(y − y ) ( x − x ) 2
(y − y )
2

1 37 78 -10 3 -30 100 9

2 42 75 -5 0 0 25 0
3 45 80 -2 5 -10 4 25
4 49 74 2 -1 -2 4 1
5 50 71 3 -4 -12 9 16
6 52 74 5 -1 -5 25 1
7 54 73 7 -2 -14 49 4
Total 329 525 -73 216 56

n = 10,  x = 832,  y = 841,

x =
x =
8032
= 830.1, y=
 y = 8401 = 84.1
n 10 n 10

 ( x − x )(y − y ) = 570.8,  ( x − x )  (y − y )

2 2
= 107.6, = 46.9,

r =
 ( x − x )(y − y )
 ( x − x )   (y − y )
2 2

  
57.8
=
(107.6 )( 46.9 )
57.8
=
5046.44
r = 0.81
Analysis:

3. The table below shows the weights to the nearest pound, heights to the
nearest inch, and ages to the nearest year, of 10 students.
118
 Student No. Age Height Weight
1 8 57 64
2 10 59 71
3 6 49 53
4 11 62 67
5 8 51 55
6 7 50 58
7 10 55 77
8 9 48 57
9 10 52 56
10 6 42 51
Compute and interpret the Spearman  between:
(a) Age and Height;
(b) Age and Weight; and
(c) Height and Weight.
Solution:
(a) Age and Height
Student Age Height D
Rx Ry D2
No. (x) (y) (Rx – Ry)
1 8 57 1.5 2
2 10 59 1.5 1
3 6 49 4 4
4 11 62 4 8
5 8 51 4 4
6 7 50 7.5 6.5
7 10 55 7.5 4
8 9 48 7.5 12
9 10 52 7.5 10
10 6 42 10.5 6.5
Total
n = 12, 6 D 2
 = 1 − Analysis:
D = 2
n (n 2 − 1)
6 ( 705.5 )
=1−
12 (1022 − 1)
453
=1−
12 (144 − 1)
453
=1−
12 (1443 )
453
=1−
17016
= 1 − 0.26
 = 0.74
119
(b) Age and Weight

Student Age Weight D

Rx Ry D2
No. (x) (y) (Rx – Ry)
1 8 64 1.5 2
2 10 71 1.5 1
3 6 53 4 4
4 11 67 4 8
5 8 55 4 4
6 7 58 7.5 6.5
7 10 77 7.5 4
8 9 57 7.5 12
9 10 56 7.5 10
10 6 51 10.5 6.5
Total
n = 12,
6 D 2 Analysis:
D 2
=  =1−
n (n − 1)
2

6 ( 705.5 )
=1−
12 (1022 − 1)
453
=1−
12 (144 − 1)
453
=1−
12 (1443 )
453
=1−
17016
= 1 − 0.26
 = 0.74
(c) Height and Weight
Student Height Weight D
Rx Ry D2
No. (x) (y) (Rx – Ry)
1 57 64 1.5 2
2 59 71 1.5 1
3 49 53 4 4
4 62 67 4 8
5 51 55 4 4
6 50 58 7.5 6.5
7 55 77 7.5 4
8 48 57 7.5 12
9 52 56 7.5 10
10 42 51 10.5 6.5
Total

120
 n = 12,
6 D 2 Analysis:
D 2
=  =1−
n (n − 1)
2

6 ( 705.5 )
=1−
12 (1022 − 1)
453
=1−
12 (144 − 1)
453
=1−
12 (1443 )
453
=1−
17016
= 1 − 0.26
 = 0.74

121
Chapter 6 Assessment of Teaching and Learning
Performance
Introduction
This lesson contains the discussion of the relationship between the teaching
and learning process in order to produce graduates who can respond to the
socio-economic development of the community in particular and to the
country in general. If teaching is very high, having the outstanding and very
satisfactory performance of teachers' learning is also very high. If teaching is
very low due to the unsatisfactory performance of teachers, there is a big
possibility that learning becomes very low as well.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to
• assess the teaching performance of the faculty/student teacher with
the use of a rubric assessment checklist, and
• measure the learning performance of students with the use of norm-
referenced measures based on the given data.

Learning Contents
Rubric Assessment of Teaching Performance
Assessment of teaching performance is usually done at the end of a semester
for instructors and professors and at the end of the academic year for
elementary and secondary school teachers. The teachers' performance is
evaluated by self, peer, headteacher, and principal for elementary and
secondary school teachers.

For instructors and professors, their performance is assessed by self, peer,

program chairman, and dean where they belong. If an instructor/professor is
teaching professional education subjects for teacher education students,
hence, his performance is finally evaluated by the dean of the College of
Teacher Education. If he/she is teaching Trigonometry, general education
subject common to all courses, he/she is finally rated by the dean of the
College of Arts and Sciences or Education. If he/she is teaching Computer
Technology, a major subject for Bachelor of Computer Technology students,
his performance is finally assessed by the dean of Information
Communication Technology (ICT).

Table 6.1. Sample Rubric Assessment Checklist of Faculty Teaching

Performance in the Tertiary Level

Name of Instructor/Professor: ________________________ College: _____________

Subject: _________________________ Time: _____________ Date: ________________
122
 Scale Range Interpretation
5 4.50 – 5.00 Outstanding (O) Excellent
4 3.50 – 4.49 Very Satisfactory (VS) Very Good
3 2.50 – 3.49 Satisfactory (S) Good
2 1.50 – 2.49 Fairly Satisfactory (FS) Fair
1 1.00 – 1.49 Unsatisfactory (U) Poor

O VS S FS U
I. Personal Qualities (20%)
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. Neat and well-groomed
2. Observes proper posture
3. Speaks with a pleasing and well-modulated
voice
4. Pronounces/enunciates words correctly
and clearly
5. Observes correct grammar
6. Starts the class promptly
7. Knows individual students by name
8. Possesses a happy disposition
II. Teaching Competencies (25%)
1. Arouses students’ curiosity, attention, and
interest
2. Shows significance/relevance of the
subject matter
3. Shows mastery of subject matter
4. Presents lesson from simple to complex
III. Strategies/Methods/Techniques (25%)
1. Utilizes suitable strategies/methods/
techniques for the lesson
2. Uses appropriate teaching aids and devices
3. Explains concepts clearly through
examples, illustrations, demonstrations,
etc.
4. Provides students with enough practice
and exercises
IV. Teaching Style (15%)
1. Asks thought-provoking questions
2. Encourages class participation
3. Praises students’ responses, whenever
necessary
V. Assessment of Learning (15%)
1. Summarizes important points
2. Generalizes/states conclusions reached
3. Provides evaluation exercises congruent to
objectives and contents
Based on the MPC Rubric Field Study Assessment

123
 Worked Example 39
Chairperson, head, and dean of the College of Arts and Sciences using the
Rubric Assessment Checklist of Faculty Teaching Performance evaluate the
performance of Prof. XYZ in a certain private university. Their results are
shown below.

Table 6.2. Summary of Scores and Overall Means of the Teaching

Performance of Prof. XYZ
I. Personal Qualities (20%) Chairman Head Dean
1. Neat and well-groomed 5 5 5
2. Observes proper posture 5 4 4
3. Speaks with a pleasing and well-
4 4 3
modulated voice
4. Pronounces/enunciates words correctly
3 3 3
and clearly
5. Observes correct grammar 4 4 4
6. Starts the class promptly 5 5 5
7. Knows individual students by name 5 5 5
8. Possesses a happy disposition 5 4 4
Overall Mean 4.50 4.25 4.13
II. Teaching Competencies (25%)
1. Arouses students’ curiosity, attention,
4 3 3
and interest
2. Shows significance/relevance of the
5 4 4
subject matter
3. Shows mastery of subject matter 5 5 4
4. Presents lesson from simple to complex 5 4 5
Overall Mean 4.75 4.00 4.00
III. Strategies/Methods/Techniques (25%)
1. Utilizes suitable strategies/methods/
5 5 5
techniques for the lesson
2. Uses appropriate teaching aids and
4 4 4
devices
3. Explains concepts clearly through
examples, illustrations, demonstrations, 4 3 3
etc.
4. Provides students with enough practice
4 3 3
and exercises
Overall Mean 4.25 3.75 3.75
IV. Teaching Style (15%)
1. Asks thought-provoking questions 4 4 3
2. Encourages class participation 5 5 4
3. Praises students’ responses, whenever
5 5 5
necessary
Overall Mean 4.67 4.67 4.00
124
V. Assessment of Learning (15%)
1. Summarizes important points 4 4 4
2. Generalizes/states conclusions reached 4 3 3
3. Provides evaluation exercises congruent
4 4 4
to objectives and contents
Overall Mean 4.00 3.67 3.67

Solution:
4.50 + 4.25 + 4.13
xI = = 4.29
3

4.75 + 4.00 + 4.00

xII = = 4.25
3

4.25 + 3.75 + 3.75

xIII = = 3.92
3

4.67 + 4.67 + 4.00

xIV = = 4.45
3

4.00 + 3.67 + 3.67

xV = = 3.78
3

Table 6.2. Summary of Mean Scores and Qualitative Interpretation of the

Teaching Performance of Prof. XYZ
Criteria Mean Interpretation Percent Equivalent
I. Personal Qualities 4.29 Very Satisfactory 20 0.858
II. Teaching
4.25 Very Satisfactory 25 1.063
Competencies
III. Strategies/Methods
3.92 Very Satisfactory 25 0.980
/Techniques
IV. Teaching Style 4.45 Very Satisfactory 15 0.668
V. Assessment Of
3.78 Very Satisfactory 15 0.567
Learning
Grand Mean 4.135
Qualitative Interpretation VS
Note: Change the percent to decimal

Analysis: Based on Table 6.2, the teaching performance of Prof XYZ has a
grand mean of 4.135 or “Very Satisfactory”.

125
Assessment of Learning Performance with the Use of Norm-Referenced
Measure
The learning performance of students is assessed individually with the use of
Rubric Assessment. The learning performance of students is assessed as a
group with the use of the norm-referenced measure. Mean and standard
deviation are the statistical techniques to determine the performance of
students whether it is within the norm, above the norm, or below the norm.
The learning performance of students is compared with the norm.

Worked Example 40
Forty Grade 10 students took an Aptitude Test in a certain public school.
Teacher A would like to determine the learning performance of the students.
The table below presents the Aptitude Test scores of the students.
91 133 128 92
93 118 115 131
113 98 96 103
88 113 114 93
105 113 117 116
88 138 136 137
92 113 91 135
118 129 113 126
108 115 116 117
123 116 94 113
Compute the mean and standard deviation and make an analysis.
Solution:
Table 6.3. Descriptive Statistics Using Excel
Mean 112.2
Median 113.5
Mode 113
Standard Deviation 14.97
Sample Variance 224.22
Kurtosis -0.96
Skewness -0.05
Range 50
Minimum 88
Maximum 138
Sum 4488
Count 40

Table 6.3 shows the result of descriptive statistics; minimum is the lowest
score that is 88; maximum, highest score, 138; sum, the total score of 4488;
and count, number of cases/students, 40.

126
The mean score ( x ) is 112.2 and the standard deviation (s) is 14.97 of the
Aptitude Test of grade 10 students in a certain public school. The value of one
standard deviation above the mean ( x + s )is 112.2 + 14.97 equals 127.17,
and one standard deviation below the mean ( x − s )is 112.2 – 14.97 equals
97.23. Figure 6.1 displays the Aptitude Test scores fall on one standard
deviation above the mean (Very Satisfactory), within the mean (Satisfactory),
and one standard deviation below (Unsatisfactory).

Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Very Satisfactory

x −s x x +s
97.23 112.2 127.17 
Figure 6.1. Normal Curve for Aptitude Test Scores Fall on One Standard
Deviation above the Mean, Within the Mean, and One Standard
Deviation below the Mean of the 10th Graders in a certain School

Suppose the School Division Aptitude Test mean score ( x ) is 100, and the
standard deviation (s) is 13.5. One standard deviation above the mean ( x + s )
or 100 + 13.5 = 113.5 and one standard deviation below the mean ( x − s ) or
100 – 13.5 = 86.5. Figure 6.2 presents Division School Aptitude Test scores
fall on one standard deviation above the mean ( x + s ), within the mean, and
one standard deviation below the mean ( x − s ) .

Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Very Satisfactory

x −s x x +s
86.5 100 113.5 
Figure 6.2. Normal Curve for School Division Aptitude Test Scores Fall on
One Standard Deviation above the Mean, Within the Mean, and
One Standard Deviation below the Mean of the 10th Graders

Comparing the results of Aptitude Test scores one standard deviation above
the mean ( x + s ), within the mean, and one standard deviation below the
mean ( x − s ), it seems that the Aptitude Test mean score (112.2 ) of grade 10
127
students in a certain public school is higher than the mean score of the
School Division Aptitude Test score (100). One standard deviation below the
mean is 86.5 and one standard deviation above the mean is 113.5. It indicates
that the Aptitude Test of grade 10 students in a certain public school ranged
from “Satisfactory” to “Very Satisfactory” since the lowest score is 88 and the
highest score is 138.

Similarly, students who got score of one standard deviation above the mean
obtained “Very Satisfactory”, within the mean, “Satisfactory”, and one
standard deviation below the mean, “Unsatisfactory.”

128
 SELF-CHECK No. 6
Name: ______________________________________________ Score: ___________
Course/Year/Section/Major: _______________________ Date: ____________

Multiple Choice
Directions. Write the correct letter of your answer in the blank before the
number.

___ 1. If Teacher A has a teaching performance of "Very Satisfactory" the

mean is:
a. 4.42 b. 4.53 c. 4.76 d. 4.89

___ 2. If the NAT score of a student is one standard deviation above the mean,
this means his achievement is:
a. fairly satisfactory c. unsatisfactory
b. satisfactory d. very satisfactory

___ 3. If the mean teaching performance of Teacher B is 2.70, it means:

a. fairly satisfactory c. unsatisfactory
b. satisfactory d. very satisfactory

___ 4. Which of the following mean values has an excellent learning

performance?
a. 4.91 b. 4.38 c. 4.26 d. 3.97

___ 5. If teaching performance of faculty A is mean = 3.22, it means:

a. fair c. poor
b. good d. very good

___ 6. Which of the following mean values has poor or unsatisfactory

teaching performance?
a. 3.28 b. 4.42 c. 4.56 d. 4.73

___ 7. If the score of the student falls within the mean, this means his
achievement is:
a. fairly satisfactory c. very satisfactory
b. satisfactory d. unsatisfactory

___ 8. The student’s learning performance has a mean of 4.29, which

means:
a. fairly satisfactory c. very satisfactory
b. satisfactory d. unsatisfactory

129
 ___ 9. The learning performance of student B, has a mean of 1.35. This
means his learning performance is:
a. fairly satisfactory c. unsatisfactory
b. satisfactory d. very satisfactory

___ 10. The score of the student, which belongs to one standard deviation
above the mean, is:
a. average c. good
b. fair d. outstanding

Assessment
1. Below are the criteria for student teaching demonstration of in a certain
college evaluated by high school chairman, and focal professor using Rubric
Assessment such as 5, Outstanding; 4, Very Satisfactory; 3, Satisfactory; 2,
Fairly Satisfactory; and 1, Unsatisfactory. Determine the mean, grand mean,
and state the qualitative interpretation.

I. Personal Qualities (20%) Chairman Professor

9. Neat and well-groomed 5 4
10. Observes proper posture 5 5
11. Speaks with a pleasing and well-
4 4
modulated voice
12. Pronounces/enunciates words
4 3
correctly and clearly
13. Observes correct grammar 5 4
14. Starts the class promptly 4 5
15. Knows individual students by
5 5
name
16. Possesses a happy disposition 5 4
Overall Mean
II. Teaching Competencies (25%)
5. Arouses students’ curiosity, attention,
4 3
and interest
6. Shows significance/relevance of the
4 4
subject matter
7. Shows mastery of subject matter 4 4
8. Presents lesson from simple to complex 5 4
Overall Mean
III. Strategies/Methods/Techniques (25%)
5. Utilizes suitable strategies/methods/
5 3
techniques for the lesson
6. Uses appropriate teaching aids and
3 3
devices
7. Explains concepts clearly through
examples, illustrations, demonstrations, 4 4
etc.
130
 8. Provides students with enough practice
4 3
and exercises
Overall Mean
IV. Teaching Style (15%)
4. Asks thought-provoking questions 4 4
5. Encourages class participation 4 3
6. Praises students’ responses, whenever
5 5
necessary
Overall Mean
V. Assessment of Learning (15%)
4. Summarizes important points 3 3
5. Generalizes/states conclusions reached 4 3
6. Provides evaluation exercises congruent
4 4
to objectives and contents
Overall Mean

4.500 + 4.500
xI = =

4.500 + 4.500
x II = =

4.500 + 4.500
x III = =

4.500 + 4.500
x IV = =

4.500 + 4.500
xV = =

Criteria Mean Interpretation Percent Equivalent

I. Personal
20
Qualities
II. Teaching
25
Competencies
III. Strategies/Methods
25
/Techniques
IV. Teaching Style 15
V. Assessment Of
15
Learning
Grand Mean
Qualitative Interpretation

131
Analysis: Based on Table 6.2, the teaching performance of Prof XYZ has a
grand mean of 4.135 or “Very Satisfactory”.

2. Scores of 32 teacher education students (who major in Mathematics) in an

80-item test in mathematics. Solve for the mean [=AVERAGE(A1:A32)] and
sample standard deviation [=STDEV.S(A1:A32)] with the use of Excel.

46 52 59 65
47 53 59 68
48 54 60 69
49 54 60 72
50 55 61 73
50 55 61 73
51 55 63 75
52 57 64 78

1. Find the one standard deviation above the mean ( x + s ).

2. What scores fall under one standard deviation above the mean or
“Very Satisfactory” rating?

3. Find the one standard deviation below the mean ( x − s ) .

4. What scores below to “Unsatisfactory” rating?

132
Chapter 7 Assessment of Multiple Talents

Introduction
Conventionally, the intelligence of an individual is measured by the
'Intelligence Quotient" or IQ. People's IQs are categorized into genius, very
superior, above average, average, below average, imbecile, idiot, and a moron.
Based on their scores in the Intelligence tests, for instance, Standard-Binet
Intelligence Test, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), Culture Fair Intelligence Test Forms A
and B, Safran Culture-Reduced Intelligence Test, Seguin form board for
abnormal persons, and many others.
In reality, some individuals are intelligent but not diligent and there are also
those who are not intelligent but diligent. As a result, some people excel and
achieve more than others for being diligent and studious.
Nowadays, the talents of individuals whether intelligent or diligent are
recognized and assessed especially those having a well-rounded personality.
They are not only skilled in their own craft, but in all fields of endeavors as
well.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, the learners should be able to
• assess the multiple talents of the students according to categories

Learning Contents
Categorization of Multiple Talents
Multiple talents are recognized into: (1) linguistic, (2) mathematical, (3)
visual-spatial, (4) people-oriented, (5) task-oriented (6) self-centered, (7)
music-oriented, (8) sports-minded, (9) dance-oriented, (10) dramatist, (11)
research-oriented, (12) economist, (13) naturalist and (14) sociologist.

1. Linguistic. Linguistic students have to ability to speak fluently and

effectively and can easily influence people verbally. They excel in writing
stories, poems, scripts, and are good extemporaneous speakers.

2. Mathematical. Mathematically talented individuals can easily solve

problems logically. Their proficiency in concepts of numbers and
abstract patterns are extraordinary. They can work with numbers and
formulas effectively with the facility.

3. Visual-spatial. Persons with visual-spatial ability can easily sketch,

draw, and paint. They love scenery, color, and design as well as enjoy
video presentation and photographs (Gutierrez, 2008)

133
4. People-oriented. People-oriented students are friendly and can easily
get along with people whether rich or poor. They like to share their ideas
and achievements with others. They are outgoing and gregarious.

5. Task-oriented. Task-oriented individuals are workaholic. They enjoy

their work with ease and enthusiasm without regard to difficulty in
performing it.

6. Self-centered. Self-centered persons are sensitive to their own feelings

and temper. They like to work alone.

7. Music-oriented. Music students are fond of listening and playing music

with instruments, for example, guitar, piano, violin, saxophone, and
many others. They can easily compose songs on their own and can deftly
remember the melodies and tones of the music. They are music lovers.

8. Sports-minded. Sports minded individuals are physically active and

fond of playing any sports like basketball, volleyball, softball,
badminton, lawn tennis without feeling drained.

9. Dance-oriented. Dance oriented persons are dance lovers whether it is

a modern dance, ballroom, folk, or the like. Once they hear the music,
they tend to dance, say in a ballroom party. This leaves them feeling
happy and healthy.

10. Dramatist. Dramatist students are fond of joining plays or dramas to

portray characters, be it in leading or supporting roles. They can easily
adjust an act on any role given to them.

11. Research-oriented. Research-oriented students are fond of conducting

research. They like to participate always in "Investigatory Projects" to
discover things which are not known before. Their achievements are
marked extraordinary especially if their research projects are original
and presentable.

12. Economist. Economist students apply always the "Invest-Harvest"

principle. This means that if persons invest or spend money, they earn
money .in business and even in research projects, businessmen or
researchers spend money; in turn, they gain money. Hence, researchers
must conduct research with the return of investment (ROI) so that the
capital will not be exhausted. Economists always think of the return of
investment.

134
 13. Naturalist. Naturalist individuals are lovers of nature, they are fond of
conducting experimental research about plants and animals that thrive
in terrestrial and aquatic environments.

14. Sociologist. Sociologist persons are lovers of society. They want to study
the most privileged down to the poorest, and even the ills of the society:
why activities of criminals, rapists, vandals, and drug addicts are
rampant. They want to study the causes of depressed, disadvantaged,
and underserved (DDU) society.

Worked Example 41
Rubric Assessment of Multiple Talents. The multiple talents of students can be
evaluated with Rubric Assessment. They are made to choose which among
the options in the questionnaire pertains to them. For example, student XY is
to assess himself 14 multiple talents. He is going to rate himself by checking
( ) any of the following scales on the right side of each item. Thus,

Scale Range Qualitative or Verbal Interpretation

5 4.50 – 5.00 Outstanding (O) – Exceptional
4 3.50 – 4.49 Very Good (VG) – Well-Rounded
3 2.50 – 3.39 Good (G) – Average
2 1.50 – 2.49 Fair (F)
1 1.00 – 1.49 Poor (P)

Table 7.1. Sample Questionnaire of Multiple Talents

O VG G F P
1. Linguistic
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I can speak fluent English, Spanish, French,
and Japanese.
2. I can easily influence people.
3. I have a good sense of humor which makes
conversation lively.
4. I am fond of giving riddles and sharing jokes
in a group.
5. I can easily write a poem.
6. I am an articulate extemporaneous speaker.
7. I am a good listener when one is talking.
8. I can easily write scripts in English and
Filipino.
9. I can easily discuss things effectively.
10. I can write an essay easily
Mean 3.40
Interpretation Good

135
Solution:
4 ( 4) + 6 ( 3) 34
x = = = 3.40
10 10
O VG G F P
2. Mathematical
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I can multiply 2-digit by 2-digit factors with
regrouping easily.
2. I can solve simple problems on multiplying
2-digit by 2-digit without regrouping easily.
3. I can solve complex problems by multiplying
2-digit by 2-digit with regrouping easily.
4. I can divide the 3-digit dividend by a 2-digit
divisor without regrouping easily.
5. I can divide 3-digit by 2-digit by regrouping
correctly.
6. I love numbers.
7. I can solve simple problems by dividing 3-
digit by 2-digit without regrouping.
8. I can solve complex problems on dividing 3-
digit by 2-digit without regrouping easily
9. I can solve complex problems by dividing 3-
digit by 2-digit with regrouping correctly.
10. I can solve statistical tools easily and
correctly using a computer.
Mean 5.00
Interpretation Outstanding
Solution:
10 (5 ) 50
x = = = 5.00
10 10
O VG G F P
3. Visual-spatial
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. Ilove to draw.
2. Ienjoy video presentations.
3. Ilove painting.
4. Ican draw pictures easily.
5. Ienjoy paintings on different designs.
6. Ilove sceneries.
7. Ienjoy looking at beautiful stage backdrops.
8. Ilove color combinations.
9. Ienjoy sketching and drawing.
10. I
enjoy color design and photographs.
Mean 4.00
Interpretation Very Good
Solution:
2 (5 ) + 6 ( 4) + 2 ( 3) 40
x = = = 4.00
10 10
136
 O VG G F P
4. People-oriented
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I am friendly.
2. I can get along with people.
3. I am gregarious.
4. I want to work with people.
5. I like to have friends.
6. I enjoy entertaining friends.
7. I enjoy sharing my ideas with other people.
8. I appreciate people with a good standing
9. I want to help people especially the poor.
10. I enjoy having many friends.
Mean 4.00
Interpretation Very Good
Solution:
2 (5 ) + 6 ( 4) + 2 ( 3) 40
x = = = 4.00
10 10
O VG G F P
5. Task-oriented
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I love to work always
2. I enjoy working alone.
3. I am a workaholic.
4. I enjoy producing outputs every day.
5. I love to perform my work with ease.
6. I perform my work effectively.
7. I love to work efficiently.
8. My task is important to me.
9. I am proud of my work.
10. My work is my bread and butter.
Mean 4.50
Interpretation Outstanding
Solution:
5 (5 ) + 5 ( 4) 45
x = = = 4.50
10 10
O VG G F P
6. Self-centered
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I like to work alone.
2. I am concerned with self-improvement.
3. I express my feelings alone.
4. I share my own ideas alone.
5. I appreciate my own work only.
6. I love myself.

137
 7. I enjoy praising myself.
8. I am sensitive to my own feelings.
9. I always talk about my own achievements.
10. Ianalyze the situation alone.
Mean 4.40
Interpretation Very Good
Solution:
4 ( 5) + 6 ( 4) 44
x = = = 4.40
10 10
O VG G F P
7. Music-oriented
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I love listening to music.
2. I use music to express my ideas.
3. Music relieves me of my problems.
4. I compose original music.
5. I play a musical instrument.
6. I read notes easily.
7. I collect musical videos.
8. I interpret notes with feelings.
9. Music solves my worries.
10. I use music to communicate with others.
Mean 4.00
Interpretation Very Good
Solution:
2 (5 ) + 6 ( 4) + 2 ( 3) 40
x = = = 4.00
10 10
O VG G F P
8. Sports-minded
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I love sports.
2. I enjoy playing with my friends.
3. I watch basketball consistently on TV.
4. I constantly play basketball.
5. I love to play any events.
6. A enjoy doing a physical fitness activity.
7. I love to perform aerobics.
8. I love to swim in all styles.
9. I love to swim backstroke.
10. I can swim fast.
Mean 4.30
Interpretation Very Good
Solution:

138
 4 (5 ) + 5 ( 4) + 1( 3) 43
x= = = 4.30
10 10
O VG G F P
9. Dance-oriented
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I love dancing.
2. I can dance gracefully.
3. I love to dance cha-cha.
4. I enjoy dancing boogie.
5. I like to dance tango.
6. I love to dance with a graceful partner.
7. I love to dance modern.
8. I always join folk dance.
9. I like a creative dance.
10. Ilike to swing and others.
Mean 4.70
Interpretation Outstanding
Solution:
7 (5) + 3 ( 4) 47
x= = = 4.70
10 10
O VG G F P
10. Dramatist
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I love to join drama.
2. Performing drama is my hobby.
3. I enjoy watching drama.
4. I love to see drama inculcating good lessons.
5. I appreciate the characters in the drama.
6. I learn morals from drama.
7. Plays are educational.
8. Drama is recreational.
9. Drama lightens problems.
10. I enjoy watching scripts.
Mean 4.70
Interpretation Outstanding
Solution:
7 (5) + 3 ( 4) 47
x= = = 4.70
10 10
O VG G F P
11. Research-oriented
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I like to conduct descriptive research.
2. I enjoy conducting an experimental study.
3. I love to conduct patentable research.
4. I enjoy conducting research with ROI
5. I conduct hands-on experimental research.
139
 6. I join the ‘Investigatory Project” contest.
7. I join the science club.
8. I enjoy collecting seaweeds in the sea and
classifying them.
9. I like to conduct research on waste
materials.
10. I enjoy commercializing my research
products.
Mean 3.40
Interpretation Good
Solution:
4 ( 4) + 6 ( 3) 34
x = = = 3.40
10 10
O VG G F P
12. Economist
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I want to practice the ‘Invest-Harvest”
principle.
2. I love my family who practices economy.
3. The economy is one way of creating a
progressive country.
4. Economy coupled with industry and honesty
is one of my values.
5. The economy alleviates poverty.
6. The economy improves the quality of life.
7. I love my fellowmen who practice the
economy.
8. I love my teachers who integrate the
economy in our lessons.
9. I practice the economy in my daily life.
10. The economy minimizes corruption.
Mean 4.40
Interpretation Very Good
Solution:
4 ( 5) + 6 ( 4) 44
x = = = 4.40
10 10
O VG G F P
13. Naturalist
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I love being a naturalist.
2. I collect, mount, and classify seaweeds.
3. I do hands-on experiments on crustaceans.
4. I love to conduct experiments on mollusks.
5. I enjoy conducting experiments on
coelenterates.
6. I enjoy collecting beautiful univalve
mollusks.
7. I like to culture crab in the fishpond.
140
 8. I enjoy planting cabbage in pots due to
limited space.
9. I love culturing tilapia in our backyard.
10. I enjoy planting seaweeds using lantay
method.
Mean 3.20
Interpretation Good
Solution:
2 ( 4) + 8 ( 3) 32
x = = = 3.20
10 10
O VG G F P
14. Sociologists
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I enjoy living in a peaceful society.
2. I like to study the ills of society.
3. I love society with honest and industrious
people.
4. I enjoy advising out-of-school youths.
5. I love to help jobless adults.
6. I join extension classes in the community.
7. I like society with busy people involved in
performing livelihood projects.
8. I reform people in society to have income
Generating Powers.
9. I encourage people in the society to have
Income Generating Powers.
10. I enjoy demonstrating technology transfer in
DDU areas.
Mean 3.40
Interpretation Good
Solution:
2 (5 ) + 4 ( 4) + 4 ( 2) 34
x = = = 3.40
10 10

Table 7.2. Mean, Grand Mean and Qualitative Interpretation of

Multiple Talents of Student XY
Categories Mean Qualitative Interpretation
1. Linguistic 3.40 Good
2. Mathematical 5.00 Outstanding
3. Visual-spatial 4.00 Very Good
4. People-oriented 4.00 Very Good
5. Task-oriented 4.50 Outstanding
6. Self-centered 4.40 Very Good
7. Music-oriented 4.00 Very Good
8. Sports-minded 4.30 Very Good
9. Dance-oriented 4.70 Outstanding

141
 10. Dramatist 4.70 Outstanding
11. Research-oriented 3.40 Good
12. Economist 4.40 Very Good
13. Naturalist 3.20 Good
14. Sociologists 3.40 Good
Total 57.40
Grand Mean 4.10 Very Good

Analysis: It can be viewed in Table 7.2 that student XY has a well-rounded

personality for having multiple talents, getting “Very Good” of the 6 areas of
14. However, in terms of mathematical, task-oriented, dance-oriented, and
dramatist, his talents are "Outstanding" and the rest is "Good."

142
 SELF-CHECK No. 7
Name: ______________________________________________ Score: ___________
Course/Year/Section/Major: _______________________ Date: ____________

Multiple Choice (10 or 15 items)

Directions. Write the correct letter of your answer in the blank before the
number.

___ 1. A person who can easily draw has a talent of:

a. dramatist c. task-oriented
b. self-centered d. visual-spatial

___ 2. An individual who loves numbers has a talent of:

a. economist c. research-oriented
b. mathematical d. sociologist

___ 3. A student who is a good extemporaneous speaker is categorized into:

a. economist c. people-oriented
b. linguistics d. visual-spatial

___ 4. A person who loves painting is categorized into:

a. visual-spatial c. self-centered
b. task-oriented d. sports-minded

___ 5. An individual who easily gets along with anybody has a talent of:
a. dramatist c. people-oriented
b. self-centered d. sociologist

___ 6. A student who is a lover of plants and animals is categorized into:

a. economist c. research-oriented
b. naturalist d. self-centered

___ 7. An individual who can easily create poems has a talent of:
a. dramatist c. linguistics
b. economist d. task-oriented

___ 8. A workaholic person is categorized into:

a. people-oriented c. sports-minded
b. self-centered d. task-oriented

___ 9. A student who is a lover of society has a talent of:

a. dance-oriented c. dramatist
b. economist d. sociologist

143
___ 10. An individual who is fond of aerobics to achieve a slim physique is
categorized into:
a. dance-oriented c. self-centered
b. music-oriented d. sports-minded

___ 11. A student who participates on investigatory project has a talent of:
a. economist c. research-oriented
b. naturalist d. sociologist

___ 12. A person who applies “Invest-Harvest” principle is categorized into:

a. dramatist c. naturalist
b. economist d. sociologist

___ 13. The categorization of an individual who has a patent is:

a. naturalist c. research-oriented
b. people-oriented d. task-oriented

___ 14. A student who enjoys swimming backstroke is categorized into:

a. naturalist c. sports-minded
b. sociologist d. visual-spatial

___ 15. An individual who plays saxophone is categorized into:

a. dance-oriented c. sports-minded
b. sociologist d. visual-spatial

Assessment
Given the talents of Grade 12 students, solve for mean, and interpret each.
O VG G F P
1. Linguistic
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I can speak fluent English, Spanish, French,
and Japanese.
2. I can easily influence people.
3. I have a good sense of humor which makes
conversation lively.
4. I am fond of giving riddles and sharing jokes
in a group.
5. I can easily write a poem.
6. I am an articulate extemporaneous speaker.
7. I am a good listener when one is talking.
8. I can easily write scripts in English and
Filipino.
9. I can easily discuss things effectively.
10. I can write an essay easily
144
 Mean
Interpretation
Solution:

x=

O VG G F P
2. Mathematical
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I can multiply 2-digit by 2-digit factors with
regrouping easily.
2. I can solve simple problems on multiplying
2-digit by 2-digit without regrouping easily.
3. I can solve complex problems by multiplying
2-digit by 2-digit with regrouping easily.
4. I can divide the 3-digit dividend by a 2-digit
divisor without regrouping easily.
5. I can divide 3-digit by 2-digit by regrouping
correctly.
6. I love numbers.
7. I can solve simple problems by dividing 3-
digit by 2-digit without regrouping.
8. I can solve complex problems on dividing 3-
digit by 2-digit without regrouping easily
9. I can solve complex problems by dividing 3-
digit by 2-digit with regrouping correctly.
10. I can solve statistical tools easily and
correctly using a computer.
Mean
Interpretation
Solution:

x=

O VG G F P
3. Visual-spatial
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I love to draw.
2. I enjoy video presentations.
3. I love painting.
4. I can draw pictures easily.
5. I enjoy paintings on different designs.
6. I love sceneries.
7. I enjoy looking at beautiful stage backdrops.
8. I love color combinations.
9. I enjoy sketching and drawing.
10. I enjoy color design and photographs.
Mean
145
 Interpretation
Solution:

x=

O VG G F P
4. People-oriented
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I am friendly.
2. I can get along with people.
3. I am gregarious.
4. I want to work with people.
5. I like to have friends.
6. I enjoy entertaining friends.
7. I enjoy sharing my ideas with other people.
8. I appreciate people with a good standing
9. I want to help people especially the poor.
10. I enjoy having many friends.
Mean
Interpretation
Solution:

x=

O VG G F P
5. Task-oriented
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I love to work always
2. I enjoy working alone.
3. I am a workaholic.
4. I enjoy producing outputs every day.
5. I love to perform my work with ease.
6. I perform my work effectively.
7. I love to work efficiently.
8. My task is important to me.
9. I am proud of my work.
10. My work is my bread and butter.
Mean
Interpretation
Solution:

x=

O VG G F P
6. Self-centered
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

146
 1. I like to work alone.
2. I am concerned with self-improvement.
3. I express my feelings alone.
4. I share my own ideas alone.
5. I appreciate my own work only.
6. I love myself.
7. I enjoy praising myself.
8. I am sensitive to my own feelings.
9. I always talk about my own achievements.
10. I analyze the situation alone.
Mean
Interpretation
Solution:

x=

O VG G F P
7. Music-oriented
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I love listening to music.
2. I use music to express my ideas.
3. Music relieves me of my problems.
4. I compose original music.
5. I play a musical instrument.
6. I read notes easily.
7. I collect musical videos.
8. I interpret notes with feelings.
9. Music solves my worries.
10. I use music to communicate with others.
Mean
Interpretation
Solution:

x=

O VG G F P
8. Sports-minded
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I love sports.
2. I enjoy playing with my friends.
3. I watch basketball consistently on TV.
4. I constantly play basketball.
5. I love to play any events.
6. A enjoy doing a physical fitness activity.

147
 7. I love to perform aerobics.
8. I love to swim in all styles.
9. I love to swim backstroke.
10. I can swim fast.
Mean
Interpretation
Solution:

x=

O VG G F P
9. Dance-oriented
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I love dancing.
2. I can dance gracefully.
3. I love to dance cha-cha.
4. I enjoy dancing boogie.
5. I like to dance tango.
6. I love to dance with a graceful partner.
7. I love to dance modern.
8. I always join folk dance.
9. I like a creative dance.
10. I like to swing and others.
Mean
Interpretation
Solution:

x=

O VG G F P
10. Dramatist
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I love to join drama.
2. Performing drama is my hobby.
3. I enjoy watching drama.
4. I love to see drama inculcating good lessons.
5. I appreciate the characters in the drama.
6. I learn morals from drama.
7. Plays are educational.
8. Drama is recreational.
9. Drama lightens problems.
10. I enjoy watching scripts.
Mean
Interpretation
Solution:
148
 x=

O VG G F P
11. Research-oriented
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I like to conduct descriptive research.
2. I enjoy conducting an experimental study.
3. I love to conduct patentable research.
4. I enjoy researching with ROI
5. I conduct hands-on experimental research.
6. I join the ‘Investigatory Project” contest.
7. I join the science club.
8. I enjoy collecting seaweeds in the sea and
classifying them.
9. I like to research on waste materials.
10. I enjoy commercializing my research
products.
Mean
Interpretation
Solution:

x=

O VG G F P
12. Economist
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I want to practice the ‘Invest-Harvest”
principle.
2. I love my family who practices economy.
3. The economy is one way of creating a
progressive country.
4. Economy coupled with industry and honesty
is one of my values.
5. The economy alleviates poverty.
6. The economy improves the quality of life.
7. I love my fellowmen who practice the
economy.
8. I love my teachers who integrate the economy
in our lessons.
9. I practice the economy in my daily life.
10. The economy minimizes corruption.
Mean
Interpretation
Solution:

149
 x=

O VG G F P
13. Naturalist
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I love being a naturalist.
2. I collect, mount, and classify seaweeds.
3. I do hands-on experiments on crustaceans.
4. I love to conduct experiments on mollusks.
5. I enjoy conducting experiments on
coelenterates.
6. I enjoy collecting beautiful univalve mollusks.
7. I like to culture crab in the fishpond.
8. I enjoy planting cabbage in pots due to limited
space.
9. I love culturing tilapia in our backyard.
10. I enjoy planting seaweeds using lantay
method.
Mean
Interpretation
Solution:

x=

O VG G F P
14. Sociologists
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)
1. I enjoy living in a peaceful society.
2. I like to study the ills of society.
3. I love society with honest and industrious
people.
4. I enjoy advising out-of-school youths.
5. I love to help jobless adults.
6. I join extension classes in the community.
7. I like society with busy people involved in
performing livelihood projects.
8. I reform people in society to have income
Generating Powers.
9. I encourage people in the society to have
Income Generating Powers.
10. I enjoy demonstrating technology transfer in
DDU areas.
Mean
Interpretation
Solution:

150
 x=

Categories Mean Qualitative Interpretation

1. Linguistic
2. Mathematical
3. Visual-spatial
4. People-oriented
5. Task-oriented
6. Self-centered
7. Music-oriented
8. Sports-minded
9. Dance-oriented
10. Dramatist
11. Research-oriented
12. Economist
13. Naturalist
14. Sociologists
Total
Grand Mean

Based on the results, does 12th grader have multiple talents? Why? Does he
have an exceptional personality? Why?

151
Definition of Terms

circle graph A graph that illustrates categorical data as slices of a circle, in

which the size of each slice is proportional to the frequency count for
the category.

class boundaries The numbers used to separate the classes, but without the
gaps created by class limits.

class interval The range of values that belong in the class or category.

class limits The highest and lowest values describing a class.

class marks The values in the middle of the classes. It is the average of lower
and upper class limits.

correlation A relationship between two variables

cumulative frequency The sum of the frequencies of that class and all
previous classes. The cumulative frequency of the last class is equal to
the sample size.

dance-oriented The persons who are dance lovers whether it is a modern

dance, ballroom, folk or the like.

dependent variable The variable that is studied to see if it has changed

significantly because of the manipulation of the independent variable.

deviation The distance from the mean or mathematical difference between

the score and the mean.

dotplot A statistical graph in which each data value is plotted as a point (dot)
above the horizontal axis.

dramatist The students who are fond of joining plays or dramas to portray
characters, be it in leading or supporting roles.

152
E

economist The students who apply always the “Invest-Harvest” principle.

This means that if persons invest or spend money, they earn money .in
business and even in research projects, businessman or researchers
spend money; in turn they gain money.

frequency distribution A table that shows classes or intervals of data entries

with a count of the number of entries in each class.

frequency polygon A line graph that uses points, connected by line

segments, to represent the frequencies for the classes.

grouped data The process by which a range of values are combined together
especially to make trends in the data more apparent or presented in the
form of a frequency distribution table.

histogram A frequency histogram is a bar graph that represents the

frequency distribution of a data set.

independent variable The variable you manipulate or are studying

kurtosis A measure of peakedness or flatness of a normal distribution.

leptokurtic Distributions with too little variability and less flat-topped than
normal distributions or quite peaked or tall.

linguistic The students who have to ability to speak fluently and effectively
and can easily influence people verbally.

153
M

mathematical The talented individuals who can easily solve problems

logically. Their proficiency of concepts of numbers and abstract
patterns are extraordinary.

mean absolute deviation The sum of all of the absolute values divided by the
sample size. It measures how scores are dispersed around the mean.

mean The sum of all the data values in a data set divided by the total number
of data values.

median The middle value or the middle term in a data set that has been
ranked in increasing (or decreasing) order.

mesokurtic Distributions whose tops are about as flat as the tops of normal
distributions or neither very peaked nor very flat.

mode The most common value in a data set. The data value occurs with the
greatest frequency in a data set.

music-oriented The students who are fond of listening and playing music
with instruments, example, guitar, piano, violin, saxophone and many
others.

naturalist The individuals who are lovers of nature, they are fond of
conducting experimental research about plants and animals that thrive
in terrestrial and aquatic environments.

ogive A line graph that displays the cumulative frequency of each class at its
upper class boundary.

outlier An extremely high or an extremely low data value when compared with
the rest of the data values.

Pearson product moment correlation coefficient A measure of the strength

and direction of the linear relation between two quantitative variables.

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people-oriented The students who are friendly and can easily get along with
people whether rich or poor. They like to share their ideas and
achievements to others.

pictograph A form of bar chart in which the rectangular bars are replaced by
a pictorial representation appropriate to the measures being
summarized.

platykurtic Distributions with too much variability and more flat-topped than
normal distributions or rather flat.

quartile deviation The distance to go above and below the median to include
midhinge or approximately the middle 50% of the scores.

quartiles The measures of location or position, denoted Q1, Q2, and Q3, which
divide a set of data into four groups with about 25% of the values in
each group.

range The mathematical difference between the maximum (highest) and

minimum (lowest) data entries or values.

research-oriented The students who are fond of conducting research. They

like to participate always in “Investigatory Projects” to discover things
which are not known before.

scatter diagram A graph that shows the relationship between two

quantitative variables measured on the same individual.

self-centered The persons who are sensitive to their own feelings and temper.
They like to work alone.

skewness The degree or extent of asymmetry in a frequency distribution.

sociologist The persons who are lovers of society. They want to study the
most privileged down to the poorest, and even the ills of the society: why
activities of criminals, rapist, vandals, and drug addicts are rampant.

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Spearman rank correlation coefficient A nonparametric statistic that uses
ranks to determine if there is a relationship between two variables.

sports-minded The individuals who are physically active and fond for playing
any sports like basketball, volleyball, softball, badminton, lawn tennis
without feeling drained.

task-oriented The individuals who are workaholic. They enjoy their work with
ease and enthusiasm without regard of difficulty in performing it.

ungrouped data The data that give information on each member of the
population or sample individually

visual-spatial The persons who can easily sketch, draw, and paint. They love
scenery, color, and design as well as enjoy video presentation and
photographs.

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Bibliography

Books

Agresti, Franklin, and Klingenberg (2017). Statistics: The Art and Science of
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The University of the Philippines Press

Bluman, Allan G. (2014). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach,

Ninth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Education

Calmorin, Laurentina P. (2011). Assessment of Student Learning 2. Sampaloc,

Manila: Rex Book Store

Cramer, D., and Howitt, D. (2004). The SAGE Dictionary of Statistics. London:
SAGE Publications Ltd

Durrheim, K., and Tredoux, C. (2002). Numbers, Hypotheses & Conclusions:

A Course in Statistics for the Social Sciences. Lansdowne, USA: UCT
Press

Gravetter, Frederick J., and Wallnau, Larry B. (2017). Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences, Tenth Edition. Boston, USA: Cengage Learning

Howell, David C. (2011). Fundamental Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences,

Seventh Edition. Belmont, USA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning

Joseph F. Healey (2009). Statistics: A Tool for Social Research, Eighth Edition.
Belmont, USA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning

Larson, R., and Farber, B. (2015). Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World,
Sixth Edition. Boston, USA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Lovely Professional University (2012). Educational Measurement and

Evaluation. New Delhi, India: USI Publications

Ravid, Ruth (2011). Practical Statistics for Educators, Fourth Edition. United
Kingdom: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

Salkind, Neil J. (2007). Encyclopedia of Measurement and Statistics.

California, USA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

157
Sirug, Winston S. (2011). Basic Probability and Statistics: A Step by Step
Approach. Intramuros, Manila: Mindshapers Co., Inc.

Sullivan, Michael III (2017). Statistics: Informed Decisions Using Data, Fifth
Edition. Boston, USA: Pearson Education, Inc.

Triola, Mario F. (2015). Essentials of Statistics, Fifth Edition. Boston, USA:

Pearson Education, Inc.

Internet Sources

https://www.coursehero.com/file/24595560/Intro-To-Statisticspdf/

http://www.jaconline.com.au/page/news/165-maths-quest-for-victoria-7-
10-australian-curriculum-page-proofs

https://www.slideshare.net/PaulineVeneracion/chap-7-assessment-of-
intelligence

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 SELF-CHECK – Answer Key

Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4

1. b 1. c 1. c 1. T 11. F
2. c 2. d 2. b 2. F 12. T
3. b 3. c 3. d 3. F 13. F
4. d 4. d 4. d 4. T 14. T
5. a 5. b 5. a 5. F 15. F
6. b 6. a 6. c 6. T 16. T
7. d 7. a 7. b 7. F 17. T
8. c 8. b 8. c 8. T 18. T
9. d 9. b 9. a 9. T 19. T
10. c 10. a 10. b 10. T 20. F
11. a
12. d
13. b
14. c
15. a

Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7

1. a 1. a 1. c
2. b 2. d 2. d
3. c 3. b 3. b
4. a 4. a 4. a
5. a 5. b 5. d
6. c 6. c 6. c
7. d 7. b 7. b
8. d 8. c 8. a
9. b 9. c 9. c
10. d 10. d 10. d
11. b 11. b
12. d 12. a
13. c 13. d
14. b 14. c
15. a 15. a

159