AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE

THEATER
PERFORMANCES
INTRODUCTION
Proper microphone selection and placement in theater applications
can dramatically improve and reinforce the impact of the action
and emotion on the stage. From large Broadway shows to small
community stages, any theater experience relies on having good
sound to emotionally connect with the audience. In acoustically
amazing venues, simply projecting the voice may be all that is
necessary for everyone to hear. That was how it was done for
hundreds of years before the development of modern sound
reinforcement. Now, in modern larger theaters and for more complex
productions, microphones and sound reinforcement systems have
become absolutely necessary.

While the physical design of the theater environment and its acoustic
qualities must be considered in the design of a sound reinforcement
system, the topics we will focus on in this book include microphone
selection and placement for both wired and wireless microphone
systems. This text will examine how microphones, both wired and
wireless, can be used to ensure that every word is heard while taking
into account the complexities of costuming or staging. Some of the
text in this booklet is borrowed from several of Shure Incorporated’s
Applications Bulletins and educational booklets which can be found on
the Shure Inc. website, www.shure.com. It also contains new material,
which covers microphone techniques specific to theater productions.
These techniques can be useful in all theater applications regardless
of venue size.
INDEX
I. MICROPHONE DESIGN
Dynamic Microphones
4
4
Condenser Microphones 4
Microphone Directionality 5

II. MICROPHONE SELECTION AND PLACEMENT 7

Lavalier Microphones 8
Headset Microphones 12
Boundary Microphones 12
Overhead Microphones 13

III. WIRELESS MICROPHONE SYSTEMS 14

Frequency Ranges 15
Frequency Coordination 16
Digital and Analog Wireless 17
Bodypack Transmitters 18
Batteries 20
Receivers And Antennas 21
Automatic Frequency Selection 22

IV. INTERCOM SYSTEMS 23

V. PERSONAL MONITOR SYSTEMS 23

VI. CONCLUSION 24

VII. ABOUT THE AUTHORS 24

VIII. GLOSSARY 25

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 3

I. MICROPHONE DESIGN
A microphone is a type of transducer, which is a device that converts one form of energy into another. A microphone captures
acoustic energy and converts it into electrical energy. The electrical energy produced is the electrical representation of the
acoustic sound wave. This energy is then transferred to the next device in the audio chain through the microphone cable, or
via a wireless system, which sends the audio signal through space using radio waves. There are several types of microphone
designs that perform this task using different methods. For our purposes in this guide, we will concentrate on the two most
common types of microphones used in professional audio today, dynamic microphones and condenser microphones.

DYNAMIC MICROPHONES
Dynamic microphones use an assembly consisting of a thin diaphragm, a voice coil,
and a magnet. As sound waves strike the diaphragm, which is usually made of a very
thin plastic, it causes the attached voice coil to vibrate within the magnet’s field. This
action, known as electro-magnetic induction, generates the electrical representation
of the sound wave. This miniature electric generator is a very simple design, yet it
is a very cost-effective way of creating an audio signal. Dynamic microphones tend
to be more resistant to rough handling, humidity, and temperature change. They can
also handle extremely loud sounds and are almost impossible to overload. For these
reasons, dynamic microphones are widely, though not exclusively, used in live sound
Dynamic
Dynamic Microphone
Microphone
reinforcement.
Condenser Microphone

CONDENSER MICROPHONES
Shure Condenser microphones use an assembly consisting of a diaphragm and an
electrically charged backplate. The assembly is essentially a capacitor, which is a electronic
device that can store a charge. In this design, a thin layer called an insulator separates the
metal or metal-coated backplate, which is rigid, and the diaphragm, which is flexible. When
the condenser element is charged, an electrical field is created between the diaphragm
and the backplate. The charge is proportional to the space between them. As sound waves
strike the diaphragm and cause it to vibrate, the spacing in between the two surfaces
varies, affecting the electrical charge in the assembly. This fluctuation creates the electrical Cardioid (Unidirectional) Mic
CondenserMicrophone
Condenser Microphone
representation of the sound wave.

Omnidirectional Microphone

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 4

There are two common types of condenser microphones, and they are distinguished by the method used to charge the
element.

Electret condenser microphones have a permanently charged backplate. Electret microphones typically require a small
amount of DC voltage (often around 5VDC) to power the FET electronics in the circuit in order to amplify the very small
voltage created and produce a useable sound. When using electret microphones with wireless systems, this supply voltage
comes from the wireless transmitter itself. There are also preamplifiers available to connect an electret lavalier to a
traditional XLR cable which supplies phantom power.

Non-electret, or "externally biased" condensers also require power to charge the backplate. This power is usually supplied
also by phantom power, normally from a mixer, preamp, recorder, or similar. Phantom power is normally supplied over the
same XLR cable the microphone is connected to. The name “phantom power” was coined because the power seems to come
out of ‘nowhere’ since there is only one cable connected to the microphone which carries audio as well as power.

All condensers have active circuitry incorporated into the design, which is required to supply a usable voltage level to the next
audio device, and also to convert the microphone output to low impedance.

Because of their design, condenser microphones can be considerably more expensive than dynamic microphones. They
are also more sensitive to temperature, dust, rough handling and humidity changes. Even with these caveats, condensers
provide a great advantage over dynamics in theater applications for a couple of reasons. First, condensers can be made much
smaller than dynamics, making them much easier to hide in costuming. Secondly, they generally have much better frequency
response and higher sensitivity. This makes condensers better-suited for overhead or boundary microphone techniques
where the microphones are placed much further from the performers.

MICROPHONE DIRECTIONALITY
Whenever you are choosing a microphone for an application, it is important to consider its directionality, sometimes referred
to as its polar pattern or pick-up pattern. There are several directional patterns available, the primary being omnidirectional,
unidirectional, and bi-directional. A microphone’s directional pattern is usually illustrated on its specification sheet or user
guide by a polar graph that shows the microphone’s sensitivity to sound arriving from different angles. The graphs show the
"receiving" end of the microphone at 0 degrees.

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 5

An omnidirectional microphone has equal sensitivity at any
angle. Sounds are reproduced equally whether arriving at
0 degrees (on axis) or at 180 degrees (the rear of the mic).
The important thing to remember is that omnidirectional
microphones will pick up ambient or room sound as well
as the sound you intend to amplify or record. This can
contribute to feedback issues in a live sound reinforcement
system. Feedback is the unwanted, high-pitched squeal or
howl produced when sound from a loudspeaker is picked up
by a nearby microphone and re-amplified. For this reason,
omnidirectional microphones are often used for direct Omnidirectional Microphone
Omnidirectional Microphone
recording and theater applications (most productions rarely Dynamic Microphone
employ onstageCondenser Microphone
monitor loudspeakers, so omnidirectional
Dynamic Microphone
microphones are acceptable). The vast majority of lavalier
Condenser Microphone
microphones used in theatre are omnidirectional.

A unidirectional microphone is most sensitive to sound

arriving on axis and less sensitive to sound as it moves off
axis. Unidirectional microphones can allow higher gain levels
from the sound system before feedback becomes a problem.
There are two primary types of unidirectional microphones.
Cardioid microphones exhibit an upside-down, heart-shaped
pattern with a 130-degree pickup angle in front. Sound is
greatly attenuated at 180 degrees and is sometimes referred
3-to-1 Rule
to as the null point. Supercardioid microphones exhibit a Cardioid (Unidirectional)
Cardioid (Unidirectional) Microphone
Microphone
narrower pickup angle of around 115 degrees in front and
therefore are even less sensitive to ambient sounds. This Cardioid (Unidirectional) Microphone
can provide still higher gain before feedback. However, they
Omnidirectional
do have some sensitivity directly rear of theMicrophone
microphone
at 180 degrees, making placement even more critical.
Omnidirectional Microphone
Any unidirectional microphone can be very effective in an
application with a high level of undesirable ambient sound.
This is of great benefit when trying to achieve maximum gain
before feedback.

Since unidirectional microphones pick up less ambient

sounds than omnidirectional microphones, they can be used Supercardioid Microphone
in situations where you may need to mic a sound source
Supercardioid
Supercardioid Microphone
Microphone
from a slightly farther distance, yet still maintain the direct to
ambient mix of an up close omni. Unidirectional microphones
3-to-1 Rule
tend to lose high frequency sensitivity first as the sound
source moves further off axis. Because of this, the sound may become "muddy" and less bright when the mic is not pointed
3-to-1 Rule
directly at the sound source. Unidirectional mics also exhibit proximity effect, which is an increase in bass response as
the sound source moves closer to the mic. This may cause the sound source to sound "boomy" or "bassy". Depending on
the application, this may or may not be desired. Omnidirectional microphones do not exhibit proximity effect and are less
susceptible to wind and breath noise. This is an important thing to consider when choosing mics for an outdoor performance.

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 6

Bi-directional microphones are most sensitive at 0 degrees and 180 degrees, while being least sensitive at 90 degrees (at
the sides). These microphones are also known as “figure-8” microphones. The coverage angle at either front or back is about
90 degrees. These mics are used mainly for pickup of two opposing sound sources. They are often used in certain stereo
recording techniques and are incorporated in the design of an MS (mid-side) stereo microphone. They are rarely used in live
sound reinforcement or theater applications.

II. MICROPHONE SELECTION AND PLACEMENT

Choosing the proper microphone for any given application can also be based on several other factors not yet discussed:
price, quality, and especially in theater, physical size and color. Whichever microphone is chosen, it is the first step towards
an effective sound system. The goal of any sound reinforcement system is to project the program material to an audience in
a manner that allows the person furthest away from the performance area to hear sufficiently. An efficient system will allow
enough amplification to occur before audio feedback is a problem. You may often hear the term “gain before feedback” which
refers to this principle. Feedback can be devastating to any production and severely distracting to the audience and the talent,
not to mention the damage it can do to the sound system and your hearing. The system’s efficiency can be greatly affected
by room acoustics, system components, and the performers themselves, but there are several ways to minimize feedback.
Solutions include: making the room less reverberant by treating it with absorptive materials, moving the loudspeakers
further away from the microphones, and using unidirectional microphones. Some of these solutions are sometimes costly
and not practical for smaller venues with limited resources. One of the most effective ways of minimizing feedback is to
move the microphone closer to the sound source. In theater applications when it is not practical to use a typical handheld
vocal microphone, the use of either a lavalier or headset microphone will best allow you to "close mic" the performers. Most
modern lavalier and headset designs are lightweight and discreet. Both do an excellent job of increasing potential gain
before feedback. Boundary microphones and overhead microphones can also provide good performance. These mics do not
get as close to the sound source and, therefore, may not provide the same amount of potential gain, however, they can be
less expensive in the long run and still quite inconspicuous. Let’s look at each of these types of microphones, their physical
qualities, and the techniques involved in their use.

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 7

Theatrical productions are moving to wireless microphones for many reasons, but most importantly – better sound quality.
Wireless mics provide better isolation and a more consistent sound especially when it concerns EQ and volume.

LAVALIER MICROPHONES
Lavalier microphones are made of small elements, usually condenser, designed
to be mounted via clip or pin to clothing. They are generally connected to an
XLR terminated pre-amp assembly, or for wireless applications, they are be
terminated with a variety of connector types. The design of these mics makes
TwinPlexTM TL46 Lavalier Microphone
them inconspicuous enough to be used in TV broadcast, video production, and
of course, theater. Early designs used large dynamic elements and were usually
hung around the neck on a lanyard. Contemporary designs almost exclusively use electret condenser elements. They can
now be as small as a few millimeters in diameter and weigh only an ounce or so (not including the pre-amp assembly). They
are often available in several colors such as black, white, cocoa, and tan. Lavaliers can be mounted with an array of mounting
clips or pins; some include a magnet mount that will avoid creasing or putting holes in clothing. The same small capsules that
are used in lavaliers are often used for wire frame headset microphones as well.

In an effort to make lavaliers as flexible as possible for different mounting positions, manufacturers have made some lavaliers
available with swappable frequency response caps. These caps do not alter any circuitry; rather, they alter the high-frequency
(treble) response of the mic in one of two ways. They either provide acoustic resistance to the opening of the cartridge, which
attenuates the natural high-end frequency response, or they create an acoustical chamber on the front of the cartridge, which
enhances the high-end frequency response of the microphone. Note that only omnidirectional microphones are available
with this feature as the acoustical characteristics of unidirectional microphones cause them to sound worse when used with
response shaping caps.

Lavaliers allow you to place the mic much closer to the actor’s mouth than other microphone types, which increases gain
before feedback. Lavaliers, therefore, allow you to minimize pick up of room noise, stage vibrations, and other unwanted
sounds. They are also more easily hidden and less cumbersome than larger microphones. When used with wireless systems,
they give performers almost unlimited mobility.

In theater applications where a lavalier is preferred, omnidirectional condensers are the most popular. It is true that using
unidirectional microphones is one of the general rules to minimizing feedback due to their rejection of off-axis sounds;
however, an omnidirectional in these applications is still very effective because of the improved proximity to the performer’s
mouth. This distance stays consistent as the performer moves around the stage when using wireless lavaliers. An actor which

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 8

moves around a lot, will have minimal volume fluctuations when using and omnidirectional mic compared to a directional mic.
Omnidirectional microphones do not exhibit proximity effect, reducing the need to cut low frequency response at the mixer.
Another advantage omnidirectional mics have, is that the frequency response of the mic stays consistent even if the sound
source is off axis, or if the mic is in an unusual position. This is an important attribute given that mic technique in theater
productions involves the creative positioning of the microphone on a performer. Wardrobe may not allow for the usual lavalier
positioning on the chest. Often times, the lavalier may be hidden in the performer’s costume, or planted in a wig or hairline.
While indoor theatre applications may not be affected as much by wind, it is useful to know that omnidirectional microphones
pick up less wind noise than their directional counterparts.

Let’s examine some lavalier techniques that will help get the best performance out of your microphones:

PLACEMENT
• It is suggested to place the mic center on the hairline first (if possible).
The result will be a natural sound with minimal additional EQ. If the
hairline is not an option, try placing the mic above the ear. This can be
useful especially with an actor wearing a hat or who has no hair.

• Before placing a lavalier on or near the hairline, consult with the

wigmaster to determine the best method to hold it in place. Discuss
which actors are wearing hats and when with the costume dept. Mics
and cables can be secured in the hair using clips, comb clips, bobby pins, Hairline Placement
or even elastic headbands. You can also sew them into wigs or barrettes. If
the actor will be wearing glasses, the mic can be mounted on the temple
area of the glasses. A small piece of clear tape should hold it steady.

• If placement above the ear is best for your production, you can construct
an "ear clip" using a hanger, pipe cleaner, florist’s wire or purchase a
pre-made clip. Make a loop on the end that goes over the ear to hold
the microphone cartridge. Then, form the wire around the back of the
ear and curl the opposite end up around the front of the earlobe to until
there is 1/4 of an inch exposed. Cut any excess wire. For added comfort, Tie Clip Placement
and to hold the cable, slide some snug fitting surgical tubing or apply heat
shrink tubing over the microphone cable and wire.

KEEPING THEM STABLE

• Never use gaffer tape to affix cable to the skin. The glue on this tape can cause skin irritation and may be too sticky. As
an alternative you can use surgical tape, spirit gum, medical adhesive, or clear bandage tape. 3M brand Transpore™ or
Tegederm™ are industry standard medical tapes used for hold cables to actors heads and necks. It’s a good idea to have
an actor use “skin Prep” alcohol wipes to clean the skin area first and making the tape hold the cable even when the
actor sweats during a performance.

• Be sure to provide strain relief for the cable. When mounting a lavalier on the head, the cabling at the point at which the

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 9

 neck bends needs to be the most secure. Make sure there is slack or a sudden movement can pull the microphone out of
place. Again, surgical tape is the best choice for securing the cable to the neck. For example, if you’re taping the actor’s
left side, have them turn their head far right for the extreme range of motion to make sure they have enough slack.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE

• Be careful not to get makeup or hairspray into the grill or the element. Use a makeup cap or similar to protect the
mic whenever possible. Any makeup or hairspray that gets inside can alter the frequency response or worse, destroy
the element altogether. Do not use liquid or soap to clean the mic; this can be more damaging than the makeup. It
is generally best to replace the grill of the mic if it becomes covered with makeup. Some lavalier microphones have
replaceable caps and grills. If you must attempt to clean the mic, hold it upside down and brush it lightly with a soft
brush or cloth. This will help prevent residue from getting down into the element. To clean adhesives off of the cable,
you can use a mix of warm distilled water and no more than 10% alcohol. Check with the manufacturer for any specific
cleaning methods for their microphones in order to maximize the life of the microphone.

• It is not uncommon for a microphone capsule to "sweat out", which occurs when the cartridge becomes drenched
with perspiration and ceases to work properly. In many cases, this is temporary. Many top theatre productions will
use a double-mic technique on their top talent to avoid interruptions during the performance. Some newer lavalier
microphones contain a hydrophobic coating that repels water. To remedy a capsule which shows signs of “sweat out,”
shaking the sweat out of the element can often be effective. If more maintenance is necessary, the microphone can be
placed in an airtight box containing a silica gel packet. The silica gel packet will absorb moisture in the box. To avoid
sweat out, you may try to not use a windscreen. Also, try to move the mic off the actor’s skin and also out of hair and
beards where sweat can collect.

• Sweat can drip down the cable to the capsule. To prevent this, you can affix a small cotton or gauze patch around the
cable in an inconspicuous position. Some manufacturers offer "sweat rings" on their lavalier mics, which are small plastic
or rubber collars that hug the cable and keep moisture from dripping into the capsule. Many will use a what is known as
a Hellerman sleeve to try and avoid this.

• To ensure sweat doesn’t enter the connector and cause an electrical short, make sure that the connector has a rubber
flex-relief and that it fits snuggly around the cable so that there is no opening for the sweat to drip into the connector.
Sweat which finds its way into the connector can result in corrosion and subsequently, a poor electrical connection. You
may also add a drip-loop near the connector, which will route the sweat down the loop instead of into the connector.
Adding a small piece of heat shrink tubing around the cable and over the solder contacts can help close a gap between

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 10

 the cable and the flex-relief, or add an additional level of assurance in active performances. Some types of connectors
offer improved water/sweat resistance and further protection against corrosion. You can also use neoprene mic pouches
to keep sweat off the pack. Some wrap the transmitters in dry condoms-wrapped and taped shut.

• The day-to-day maintenance of your microphones should include drying them thoroughly in a cool, dry space after each
use. In cases where your microphones are being used extensively in unusually harsh environments like the outdoors,
in direct sunlight, in extreme humidity, or any combination of the three, it might be prudent to obtain an airtight box as
mentioned above to store and dry your microphones overnight. Try to use shoe bags that are made of a mesh material
that promotes good air flow so they can dry. Putting a fan on them will help this process. This is a frequent practice at
theme parks and on Broadway.

• Storage of a lavalier microphone is important to ensuring long-lasting performance. When putting the microphone
away for storage, it is advised to not wrap the lavalier cable around the wireless transmitter pack tightly. Wrapping the
cable tightly around the transmitter can put undue stress on the cable in the same areas, especially near the connector.
Over time, this can lead to breakage of the cable in those spots. A better alternative is to gently wind the cable up into a
uniform circular coil. Ask the actors to please not wrap them. A common way to store wireless bodypacks with lavaliers
in theatre is to use a shoe bag which is designed to hang from a door/closet. Each shoe pocket can hold a transmitter
with lavalier neatly and organized for the next use.

GETTING THE BEST SOUND

• If the microphone cable is run inside of clothing, tape the cable to the fabric to prevent contact noise, which is caused
by cable and clothing rubbing together. Consider sewing a "channel" or "tube" of fabric on the inside of the costume to
prevent excess rubbing against the cable. It is common to try and place the mics so actors can change costumes quickly
without the mics getting in the way. Some prefer to attach the mic to the actor directly, while others prefer to embed the
mic/transmitter combo in the costume itself.

• Noise from materials in costuming rubbing together can be difficult to prevent. Synthetic materials make more noise
than other materials. Consult with wardrobe to see if there is a practical way to isolate the mic and cable from noise.
When in doubt, test various materials to listen to how much noise they make.

• If using a directional lavalier mic in the chest area, remember that those types of microphones exhibit proximity effect,
which enhances bass frequencies the closer the microphone is to the sound source. Because the mic is much closer to
a resonating chest cavity, it may sound “boomy.” You can compensate for this by using equalization to decrease the low
frequencies. Employing a high pass (low cut) filter is a common approach to correcting this unwanted sound.

• Don’t be afraid to use equalization. High frequency boost can help brighten a mic that is covered by clothing or positioned
in the hairline. Low frequency reduction can help reduce cable noise, breath pops, or wind noise. Experimentation is key
to finding the best sound for your particular setup.

Be prepared, keep spare mics on hand. Lavalier mics may eventually need replacement in an abusive environment like
theater. Sweat, makeup, and constant tugging on cables and connectors can take their toll on lavaliers. Inspect your mics
before every performance by plugging them in and listening for odd noises, crackling, or degradation of frequency response.
Wiggle the cables and connectors to check for loose connections. Remember that some physical damage may not be covered
by the manufacturer’s warranty so exercise care.

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 11

HEADSET MICROPHONES
Let’s revisit the concept of micing a sound source as closely as possible to increase gain before feedback. In most theater
applications, the actor’s mouth is the sound source. A lavalier does a good job of close micing, especially when mounted on
the hairline. However, the ultimate position would be at the performer’s mouth, as it is the closest. After all, the closer you can
get the microphone to the wanted sound source, the better. The best way to do this for theatre applications is with a headset
microphone. While not quite as discreet as a lavalier, most modern headsets are very lightweight and comfortable for the
wearer. Headsets are often available in various colors which can blend in with the performer and become nearly invisible in
practical use. Many basic headsets have a frame that goes over the head. Professional quality headsets have a lightweight
wire frame that sits on one or both ears and wraps around the back of the head. These headsets usually have a short boom
arm that holds a condenser element at the corner of the mouth. The corner of the mouth is the preferred placement area for
the headset capsule so it can be close to the sound source, but out of the way of the performer’s breath (which can cause
unwanted wind noise when exhaling). Condenser headsets have the required pre-amplifier assembly or are terminated with
an appropriate connector for use with a wireless transmitter. There are omnidirectional headsets and unidirectional headsets,
the choice of which can be determined by reviewing the characteristics of each and determining which is best for your
application.

All headsets should be stable enough to maintain the microphone position at the mouth regardless of the head movements of
the actors. More and more large-scale productions are using headsets, especially in high-energy musical performances; and
manufacturers are consistently updating their designs to maintain the best performing mix of comfort and sound quality.

BOUNDARY MICROPHONES
Boundary microphones (also known as pressure zone or PZM microphones) are
an alternative to micing each individual performer, and an alternative to overhead
microphones. Boundary mics are designed to be laid flat on an acoustically reflective
surface, in this case the stage itself. The surface which the microphone becomes an
important part of how the microphone picks up sound. Again, these mics usually
consist of condenser elements in a low-profile housing. The necessary pre-amp can be
self-contained or the in-line type found in overheads. They should be placed along the
lip of the stage, with a unidirectional polar pattern aiming back at the action on stage.
They obviously need to be out of the actors’ way as far downstage as possible. You
should follow the 3-to-1 Rule with these mics as well to avoid phasing issues.
Example of unidirectional boundary
microphones being used to provide area
coverage for an on-stage application

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 12

The drawbacks to these microphones are some of the same drawbacks we have seen with overhead mics, primarily the
distance from the sound source and the proximity to the loudspeakers. Additionally, because the microphones are on the
stage, the pickup of stage noise from the actors’ feet, scenery movements, etc. can also be a problem. You can alleviate some
stage noise by placing a soft felt or foam pad in between the mic and the stage, and/or decreasing the low frequencies on the
EQ. Small boundary microphones can be hidden in permanent scenery, as a “plant mic”, such as on a table in the center of a
room scene. Polar pattern for this method is dictated by the microphone’s position relative to the actors.

Overhead and boundary microphones work best with experienced actors whose voices project well. People with softer voices
and some children do not have the ability to project their voices enough for overhead or boundary microphones. In many
cases with overhead or boundary mics you may be tempted to turn up the system volume to compensate for the increased
distance from the actors, but beware that this can push the system into feedback. A headset or lavalier may still be the
best answer for your production because they allow for greater gain before feedback than either overhead or boundary
microphones.

OVERHEAD MICROPHONES
The microphone techniques we’ve been covering up to this
point have involved the use of one microphone on every
performer. However, this can be cost prohibitive in many
smaller theaters, schools, community theater, or church
pageants. An alternative method uses overhead or hanging
microphones, sometimes called choir microphones. These
capture sound by hanging down from above the stage.
Overhead mics usually are comprised of a condenser element
mounted on a short gooseneck, which then leads to a thin
cable. The length of cable can be up to 20-30 feet long and
ends in the necessary pre-amplifier assembly. Often times, Illustrative example of overhead microphone
placement being used to provide area coverage
the cable is of a thinner variety than the traditional XLR cable
in order to be less noticeable. They can be found in various colors and polar patterns. A high-quality probe style or "end-
address" condenser microphone can also be used, although they are quite a bit larger. There are adapters available that will
suspend these more traditional microphones by the cable for overhead use and maintain their position.

Using overhead microphones to capture sound from above can provide decent sound reinforcement, but you should be
realistic as to what to expect. These microphones are further away from the sound source than even a microphone on a
floor stand would be and will pick up more ambient sound than preferred. This, in addition to the possibility of these mics
actually being closer to loudspeakers than to the sound source, can lead to significantly reduced gain before feedback.
Another factor contributing to feedback is the number of open microphones (often abbreviated NOM) being used. The more
open microphones in a sound reinforcement system, the less potential gain before feedback. Therefore, the idea to put in
more mics to cover the area better or to "make it louder" will in fact worsen the situation. It is a must to use as few overhead
microphones as necessary.

Other things to remember when using overhead microphones:

• Placement of these microphones is often dictated by the constraints of the stage set. Take into consideration when
possible, the position of the actors on stage and install mics accordingly. Planned scenery for a production may make
installed overheads unusable due to scenery changes, space limitations, or reflection of sound. Always aim for direct
line-of-sight (LOS) from the performer to the microphone.

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 13

 • Remember that most actors project their voice to the audience. An overhead microphone, if pointed straight down, is
pointed at the top of someone’s head. Speech is not as intelligible from that vantage point as the high frequency content
is lost. At the same time, the microphone can be picking up both the reflected sound off the surface of the stage, as well
as mechanical or air handling noise from above. When combined with direct sound, this will provide poor audio quality.

• For most reinforcement applications, you should stick with a unidirectional polar pattern. Whenever possible, you should
hang an overhead mic 2 to 3 feet in front of the nearest actor downstage. The capsule should be aimed slightly upstage.
These mics work best when installed 2 to 3 feet above head level. Increasing this variable will reduce your potential gain
before feedback.

• Always observe the 3-to-1 Rule when spacing multiple microphones

to cover a larger area. The 3-to-1 Rule states that the microphone to
microphone distance should be three times the microphone to sound
source distance. This will reduce interference effects such as comb
filtering and phasing issues. Remember that overhead microphones will
not give you the same performance as a lavalier.

III. WIRELESS MICROPHONE SYSTEMS

To achieve the ultimate in mobility and still maintain the highest potential gain before feedback requires the use of wireless
lavalier microphones. In fact, some of the earliest use cases of wireless microphones were borne from needs of the theatre
industry. Without wireless lavalier microphones in larger productions, movement would be restricted, scene and wardrobe
changes would be difficult, and walking or dancing around stage would become dangerous. Through advances in wireless
microphone technology, and the availability of more affordable systems, stage productions now have freedom of movement
onstage and off. Bodypack transmitters are now easier to conceal than ever, and many wireless systems can be used

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 14

simultaneously even in congested RF environments. There are rules to using wireless however, which you must follow for
interference-free performance. Most of these rules pertain to frequency selection and antenna usage. Much of what has
been learned about placement of mics and bodypack transmitters has been learned through years of trial and error and use
in real-world situations. Every production yet to come will no doubt present unique challenges and solutions however by
following some basic guidelines, you will prepare yourself for the best performance possible.

FREQUENCY RANGES
Wireless microphones are now available in a variety of different frequency ranges. As available RF spectrum becomes less
available, it is important to understand the different frequency ranges available for wireless microphones as well as their
pros and cons. RF coordination is a very complex topic, however we will cover the basics as it pertains to usage in theatre
environments.

• VHF – (around 174 – 216 MHz) frequencies were once extremely popular in the early days of RF wireless microphones.
VHF offers good performance, however due to the wavelength of the frequency being longer, antenna sizes also become
longer. For the receiver antennas, this isn’t a huge issue. As you can imagine, having an unsightly long antenna on the
performers can become a hindrance. As UHF wireless technology became more popular and affordable, the industry has
seen a decline in VHF wireless usage. More recently, as UHF frequencies are becoming more scarce due to government
auctions, we are seeing a resurgence in VHF technology once again. Especially when paired with newer digital wireless
microphone technology, VHF is now a more popular frequency range once again especially when UHF is not an option or
too crowded.

• UHF – (around 470-616 MHz for USA) is one of the most popular and longest used frequency ranges for theatre
productions. UHF offers great range and wave propagation with little output power, making it a great choice for wireless
microphones. These same virtues have also made it very desirable for other uses besides wireless microphones. Since
around 2009, UHF frequencies are becoming more scarce due to government auctions of these frequencies for other
wireless uses (namely cellular phones). The majority of professional theatre wireless users are using frequencies in the
UHF band. The largest obstacle for use of UHF frequencies are terrestrial TV broadcast stations. Wireless microphones
must not use the same frequencies as local broadcast TV stations, and must operate where there are vacancies in this
frequency range.

• STL (Studio Transmission Link – 941.5-960 MHz) This subset of the UHF frequencies is an option, especially for FCC
license holders.

• 1.9 GHz (DECT) frequencies are popular with wireless conferencing and video applications due to their easy setup. 1.9
GHz mics are less popular with theatre applications simply due to the latency of the audio (typically around 19ms). High
latency can result in an undesirable “echo” effect when used with a live sound reinforcement scenario as we often see
with theatre.

• 2.4 GHz (ISM) frequencies are quite popular with users and manufacturers alike due to being able to be used in many
different places internationally. These systems are often digital in nature and are easy-to-use due to automatic setup
and often are license-free. The main challenge with using 2.4 GHz wireless is that many other devices, such as Wi-Fi, and
other consumer devices (baby monitors, wireless video, etc.) are all trying to use this same spectrum. In a clean 2.4 GHz
environment we can normally use around 8-12+ microphones. In a congested environment we may not be able to use any
microphones at all.

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 15

FREQUENCY COORDINATION
Careful coordination of frequencies must be employed when operating any number of UHF or VHF wireless microphones for
trouble-free performance. Wireless microphones must follow three basic rules:

1. Operate on a clean frequency to avoid interference

2. Operate with enough spacing between other signals to not have interference with each other

3. Be frequency coordinated to avoid interference from what is known as intermodulation

NOTE: Wireless microphones in the 1.9 GHz (DECT) and 2.4 GHz (ISM) bands typically take care of coordination automatically.

• A receiver channel can only demodulate one radio signal at a time. In other words, a wireless receiver on any given
frequency can only receive a signal from one transmitter on that frequency. If there are two signals present on the same
frequency, the stronger of the two may block out the other, or the output of the receiver can be unusable noise, strange
sounds, or muting of the audio with digital systems. The analogy most often referred to in explaining this concept is
commercial FM radio. In any city, only one station is broadcasting on any given frequency. Many receivers (e.g. car radios)
may be tuned to say, 97.9FM, but only one station is broadcasting on that frequency. If you reach an area between two
cities, both having stations on 97.9FM, the signal reception is poor and very noisy as both are competing for dominance
to the receiver.

• Broadcast TV channels should be avoided. As mentioned previously, the great majority of wireless microphone systems
operate in the UHF range and share this frequency range with broadcast television, per FCC regulations. Normally,
these unused areas of spectrum in between active broadcast television stations are referred to as “whitespaces” and are
where UHF wireless microphones are best operated. FCC regulations normally prohibit the use of wireless microphone
systems on occupied TV frequencies. Recent FCC rule changes do permit “co-channel operation” from licensed wireless
microphone users if those TV signals are weak due to building shielding; for example, indoors in a brick building. The
strength of RF from broadcast TV antennas can be millions of times stronger than wireless microphone signals and will
often wash out the intended RF wireless signal. If wireless microphone frequencies are on an occupied TV frequency,
wireless systems will not operate reliably . Manufacturers of wireless microphones can assist you in determining your
proximity to TV broadcast antennas and determine which frequencies are open for use and compatible with each other in
your area. There are also internet-based tools available for determining open frequencies in your particular usage area.

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 16

 • When using multiple wireless UHF/VHF microphones, each wireless system must operate on its own frequency. Each
manufacturer’s system has its own parameters for how close these frequencies can be located next to each other.
Typically, this can be anywhere from 400 kHz to 125 kHz. Consult the manufacturer of your wireless system for exact
frequency spacing parameters for your specific system.

• Frequencies chosen for multiple wireless systems in the same venue must
also be calculated to avoid Intermodulation Distortion, or IMD. When multiple
wireless systems are used, IMD products (frequencies) are created in addition

amplitude
to the specific carrier frequencies the wireless systems are tuned to. If these
IMD products happen to be near or close to the frequencies selected for
your wireless systems, you will have problems. IMD products can be thought
of as “virtual frequencies” or “ghost frequencies” as these are unintended
frequencies created by simply using 2 or more wireless systems. The more
Dynamic frequency
wireless systems that are used inMicrophone
the same area, the number of IMD products
Condenser Microphone
increases exponentially making it difficult to operate wireless mics unless IMDs created
IMDs createdbybytwo
twotransmitters
transmitters
proper frequency placement is done.

The technical explanation why IMD products are created is that non-linear circuits in wireless system designs generate
weaker radio signals on various multiples (harmonics) of the intended operating frequency. To determine exactly where IMD
products may be created, wireless system manufacturers have computer software that can calculate these IMD products to
ensure compatibility. These software programs will place wireless microphones in clear spectrum and avoid IMD products for
best performance. Additionally, manufacturers often provide pre-calculated sets of frequencies which avoid issues from IMD
OK
products. These are often pre-programmed into the receivers and transmitters as “Groups” and “Channels” or similar.

NO
DIGITAL AND ANALOG WIRELESS SYSTEMS
Cardioid (Unidirectional) Microphone
Analog wireless systems have been a staple of many theatre productions since the invention of wireless microphones.
They are well understood, and proven reliable for decades. With the recent shrinking of the UHF spectrum, due to recent
Omnidirectional Microphone
government auctions, users are more interested than ever in getting more wireless channels into the same amount of space.
Digital wireless systems are often more efficient than their analog counterparts due to a number of factors. In one 6MHz TV
channel, we can typically get around 8-12 wireless analog microphones working together. In that same 6MHz TV channel,
digital systems can place around 17 to 47 channels in that same 6MHz TV channel. As you can see, digital wireless systems
show great ability to pack more wireless channels in the same space versus analog wireless.

Digital wireless systems often are less affected from IMD not because they are digital, but because of the way digital
Supercardioid
systems need to be engineered. Digital wireless Microphone
must operate with great precision, and this means the usage of linear
components which are less likely to create IMD. Digital systems also enjoy clearer sound and less coloration of the audio. As
wireless microphone users are continually forced to deal with less spectrum for operation, digital systems are a welcome
3-to-1advancement
Rule for wireless users and are here to stay. As of the time of writing, many analog wireless systems are being
discontinued in favor of their digital counterparts. Alkaline vs. rechargeable batteries

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 17

BODYPACK TRANSMITTERS
Bodypack placement is often a test of the imagination and innovation of
the sound designer and wardrobe master. After all, the goal of the theatre
sound designer is to hear the performer while having the technology
invisible to the audience. Luckily, both lavalier microphones and wireless
bodypack transmitters have continually become smaller and more
advanced over the years. Bodypack transmitters of yesterday used to be big
and hard to conceal. Advancements in wireless bodypack technology have
made this easier to accomplish due to smaller available sizes. The smallest
bodypacks are often referred to as “micro-bodypacks.”

Because bodypack transmitters are now available in multiple different form

factors, with a little ingenuity and creativity, they can be mounted almost
anywhere. Since most come with a standard belt clip, the obvious easy
option is to clip the bodypack onto an actor’s clothing at the beltline or on
the hip area. The standard for theatre applications is an elastic/neoprene
Examples of transmitters
mic belt with a pouch for the transmitter. This method keeps the pack (left to right: handheld, bodypack)
close to the actor and avoids issues with costume quick changes. Micro
bodypacks are commonly used under actor’s wigs to hide the lavalier cable.
When actors need to roll on their backs due to stage combat or dancing-
sometimes mic transmitters are put higher up on the actors backs instead
of their waist. Each situation is different, it’s a good idea to have a mic fitting
prior to the first tech session so that changes can be made. The small of the
back can be used for placement if a fanny pack or similar harness is used
instead of a clip. A bodypack can be held between the shoulder blades and
under costuming using a shoulder harness made up of a pouch for the pack
and a couple of loops to go around the shoulders. There are specialty-made Example of portable receiver

cloth or neoprene/elastic straps, which are designed to hold bodypacks on

arms and thighs. Smaller bodypacks can be even hidden in wigs or hair.
Creative ways of affixing bodypacks to actors are being developed at all
levels of theater every day, because every situation is unique. Tops of hats, Example of fixed receiver
and in wigs are some useful hiding spots.

When hiding wireless bodypacks, here are some useful tips to remember:

• RF signal can be blocked and reflected by metallic surfaces. This can include any costuming that has metal threading
or metal plating, the extreme case being your knight in shining armor. Additionally, costumes made with polyester
metallic film or other similar metallic material can sometimes cause problems due to unintended RF shielding. Wearing a
bodypack under these types of materials, will severely degrade RF performance.

• Antennas of bodypacks should always be kept as clear as possible from obstructive surfaces or materials. As stated
earlier, the bodypack antenna should never be curled up and stuffed into pockets. This can cause the antenna to fold and
touch the housing of the bodypack itself. When this occurs, the antenna will temporarily be detuned and RF performance
will suffer.

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 18

 IMDs created by two transmitters

• Allow for strain relief on the mic connector and antenna, so that movement
of the actor will not crimp the cable or antenna with their movements.
Repetitive strain on the cable will cause failure sooner rather than later
due to a broken cable. Remember to check cables thoroughly before each
OK
performance for issues.
NO
• You can utilize the power/menuCardioid
lock features of some bodypacks
(Unidirectional) to make
Microphone
sure the actor cannot accidentally power off the transmitter during a
performance, or in the case of frequency-agile systems, accidentally change
the operating frequency.
Omnidirectional Microphone

• Make sure to leave the battery as accessible as possible, as you may need to
do a quick change unexpectedly.

• Ask the costume department if they are using magnets for any costume pieces. Magnets can sometimes cause issues
with the packs/mic elements.
Supercardioid Microphone
• The human body is comprised of mostly salt water, and this can cause some RF transmission issues with bodypack
transmitters located on or near the body. RF body absorption can decrease wireless system performance. Repositioning
the bodypack or the receiving antennas (or both) can overcome this occurrence. Additionally, if an actor perspires during
3-to-1 Rule the performance, the actors sweat can become an issue. Antennas which come in contact with a shirt or costume that is
drenched in sweat can become temporarily detuned and hurt RF performance. Alkaline vs. rechargeable batteries

• Sweat can be also potentially harmful to the electronics of a bodypack transmitter. There are many methods sound
designers have used to protect bodypacks from sweat. A simple solution is to wear a Neoprene transmitter pouch when
practical. While not completely waterproof, it will protect the bodypack from low-level sweat and moisture. Sometime
putting the neoprene pack upside down helps to keep sweat and moisture out. Another more protective method is to use
an unlubricated condom to cover the bodypack.

• As unusual as it sounds, this technique is very effective when used properly. An un-powdered, dry surgical glove can
also be used. Remember that there are people allergic to latex or other materials, so check with the talent ahead of time
before using any method of covering a bodypack next to skin.

• As discussed previously, it is common to double mic lead actors and any actors who may sweat a lot and/or have little
to no time offstage. Having a spare transmitter and mic on the talent is the ultimate in backup reliability.

• It is a good idea to clearly label your bodypacks in some manner to identify the intended user. Any mix-ups can destroy
the continuity of the show and cause the sound engineer to search for the right mixer channel to operate. You may
choose to use labels affixed to the transmitters as well as naming the bodypacks in the LCD display.

• It is a good idea to label the lavs as well with actor names and the date went into service.

• Do not leave transmitters, especially analog transmitters, bunched together on a table or in a bin when they are on.
Intermodulation distortion becomes more prevalent when wireless transmitters are close together. In fact, many
seasoned RF techs will use aluminum bread pans (or similar) to put each powered-on transmitter in when powering up
all the transmitters before a show. The bread pans will contain the RF and minimize the chance of IMD being created.
Digital wireless is less likely to create IMD than analog wireless when the transmitters are close together, but it is good
practice to avoid this when possible.

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 19

 • Having a A2 listening station is very important backstage. This helps the A2 troubleshoot before actors go onstage and
gives a chance to fix problems before they become major show stopping issues.

Bodypack transmitters are made with a variety of input connectors, depending on the manufacturer. Just about all
transmitters will supply DC bias voltage to make condenser elements work. Using one manufacturer’s wireless lavalier
microphone with another manufacturer’s transmitter common. To ensure compatibility of a given lavalier and wireless
transmitter, it is important to ensure the “pin out” is correct. When in doubt if a mic is compatible, it is suggested to contact
the manufacturer of the lavalier and/or the wireless bodypack. Many theatre users sometimes purchase a mic without a
connector or rewire the proper connector on to the lavalier to match the bodypack. Do not assume that if the connector is the
same between manufacturers the mic will work, as the proper wiring must be observed for proper operation as well as to
prevent damage to the microphone itself.

amplitude
Regarding output power of transmitters, it should be noted that output power is not only regulated by government agencies,
but it is also carefully determined by the manufacturer. It is true that higher output power may increase the transmission
range of the RF signal (antenna efficiency can also affect range), however higher output power can also exacerbate the
likelihood of IMD being created when using multiple channels. Therefore, higher output power is not always better. With the
recent advancements Dynamic wireless systems, lower output digital wireless systems can oftenfrequency
of digitalMicrophone outperform higher output
Condenser Microphone analog systems when it comes to transmission distance. Regardless of analog or digital,IMDs
lower output
created bypower will translate to
two transmitters
longer battery life.

OK

NO
Cardioid (Unidirectional) Microphone

Omnidirectional Microphone

BATTERIES
Batteries are a very important for the operation of a wireless bodypack
transmitter. If a battery goes flat during a performance, it will certainly
result in a disaster. We must ensureSupercardioid
the batteries Microphone
are completely
full before a performance and ensure that they will last for the
duration. Battery life of a bodypack varies from model to model and
manufacturer to manufacturer. Up until fairly recently, most bodypack
3-to-1 Rule
transmitters solely used alkaline cells such as 9V, “AA” or “AAA”
Alkalinevx.
Alkaline vs.rechargeable
rechargeable batteries
batteries
batteries. Before every performance, each bodypack got a new fresh
battery. As you can imagine, this was costly and not environmentally
friendly. Rechargeable batteries of yesterday were considered not reliable enough for professional theatre use. Recent
advancements in rechargeable battery technology has not only made it a great choice for performances, but also mandatory
for certain digital transmitters. The latest rechargeable battery packs now are be equipped with “smart” microchips which

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 20

keep track of vital statistics. This may include run time until empty, time until charged, cycle count, battery health, and more.
It is possible to know exactly how many hours and minutes a battery will last until it is depleted. This data can be observed at
the receiver or through computer monitoring software during a performance. Having this data at one’s disposal during a show
increases confidence when using rechargeable batteries and is better for the environment, saves money, and is less hassle
than procuring disposable batteries. Additionally, some digital bodypacks can only use rechargeable packs due to their power
consumption requirements as well as their small size. Some micro-bodypacks on the market are so small that even two “AAA”
batteries wouldn’t fit!

RECEIVERS AND ANTENNAS

Most wireless mic receivers have detachable antennas which can either be outfitted with whip antennas or remote antennas.
BNC style connectors are used most commonly and allow for either scenario. In most cases, antennas are attached to the
rear of the receiver. If the receiver is to be mounted in a metal rack the antennas must be brought to the outside of the rack
for best performance. Some designs allow the antennas to be moved to the front of the receiver, while others provide an
accessory panel for front mounting. Again, the receiver should be mounted high enough in the rack so that the antennas are
essentially in the open.

General rules concerning setup and use of receiver antennas:

• Maintain line-of-sight between the transmitter and receiver antennas as much as possible. Avoid metal objects,
walls, and large numbers of people between the receiving antenna and its associated transmitter. Ideally, this means
that receiving antennas should be in the same room as the transmitters and elevated above the audience or other
obstructions.

• Keep the receiver antenna at a reasonable distance to the transmitter. The maximum distance is not constant but
is limited by transmitter power, intervening objects, interference, and receiver sensitivity. The closer you can get the
transmit antennas to the receiver antennas is better, but a minimum distance of about 10 feet is recommended to avoid
potential intermodulation products in the receiver and RF overload. Ideally, it is better to have the antenna/receiver
combination near the transmitter (just off stage) and run a long audio cable back to the mix position, than it is to run a
long antenna cable or to transmit over long distances. It is much more difficult to run RF signals long distances through
cables than it is to run audio signals long distances through cables.

• Use the proper type of receiver antenna. A 1/4-wave antenna can be used if it is mounted directly to the receiver, to an
antenna distribution device, or to another panel that acts as a ground-plane. Hanging a ¼ wave antenna from a cable
without a ground plane will not be effective. If the antenna is to be located at a decent distance from the receiver, a
1/2-wave dipole antenna is recommended. This antenna type has somewhat increased sensitivity over the 1/4-wave
and does not require a ground-plane. For installations requiring more distant antenna placement or in cases of strong
interfering sources, it may be necessary to use a remote omnidirectional or directional antenna suitably aimed.

1/4 wave and 1/2 wave antennas UHF range

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 21

 • Select the correctly tuned receiver antennas. Most antennas have a specified bandwidth making them suitable for
receivers operating within only a certain frequency band. When antenna distribution systems are used, receivers should
be grouped with antennas of the appropriate frequency band as much as possible.

• To get the best RF reception from a diversity receiver (those with 2 antennas), the minimum separation between its
antennas should be 1/4 wavelength (about 16 inches for VHF, 4 inches for UHF). The effect improves somewhat up to
a separation of about one wavelength. Diversity performance does not change substantially beyond this separation
distance. However, overall coverage of very large areas may be improved by further separation. The idea is that if one
antenna is having trouble receiving the signal, you want the other antenna at a more favorable position.

• Locate receiver antennas away from any suspected sources of interference. These include other receiver antennas as
well as digital equipment, LED lights and walls, digital effects units, lighting control systems, etc. All of these devices
have the potential to emit electromagnetic interference, which can result in poor RF reception, noise, and other problems.

• Mount receiver antennas away from metal objects. Ideally, antennas should be in the open or perpendicular to metal
structures such as racks, grids, metal studs, etc. They should be at least 1/4 wavelength from any parallel metal
structure. All antennas in a multiple system setup should be at least 1/4 wavelength apart.

• Orient receiver antennas properly. If transmitter antennas are generally vertical, then receiver antennas should be
approximately vertical as well. If transmitter antenna orientation is unpredictable then receiver antennas may be
oriented up to 45 degrees from vertical. This is known as antenna polarization. Transmit and receiving antennas in the
same orientation will perform best.

• Use the proper low-loss antenna cable for remotely locating receiver antennas. Typically, this is 50ohm cable for UHF
wireless systems. A minimum length of the appropriate low-loss cable equipped with the proper connectors will give
the best results. It is advised to use the lowest loss cable you can afford rather than trying to make up signal loss with
antenna boosters.

• Antenna boosters should only be used to make up for long cable runs or other RF signal losses (from splitters etc.)
Using excess boost when it is not required will actually hurt your RF system performance.

• Use an antenna distribution system when possible. This is advised when using two or more wireless systems. This
will minimize the overall number of antennas and may reduce interference problems with multiple receivers. For two
receivers a passive splitter may be used. For three or more receivers, active splitters are strongly recommended.

• When you perform a walk test to check your wireless, try to have any kind of video walls or LED devices turned on which
will be on during the production. This will give the best ‘real world’ scenario as it concerns RF.

AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY SELECTION

Most wireless microphone receivers today have a “scan” feature. The scan feature will sweep the RF environment and report
back to the user which frequencies are cleanest and recommended for use. The receiver scans the set of frequencies while
measuring RF signal strength. The RF signal can be other RF sources such as local TV broadcast, other wireless microphone
systems, or RF "noise". In any case, the manufacturer has programmed into the receiver an acceptable threshold level for
RF strength from these outside sources. When the RF signal strength on a scanned frequency is below the threshold, the
receiver determines that the frequency is usable. Some systems can be networked together and share the sweep data with
each other. Once the user selects the suggested frequencies for the receiver(s), the transmitters must be programmed to the
same frequencies. Most often, the transmitters can be programmed to these frequencies via an infrared communication link
from the receiver to the transmitter.

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 22

IV. INTERCOM SYSTEMS
Intercom systems are communication networks designed to allow production
staff to talk to one another from different areas of the venue. These systems
are separate from any sound reinforcement equipment reproducing the
performance but of equal importance. To monitor the performance itself, these
systems can provide for an input from the main sound reinforcement system
so staff can synchronize cues or other staff actions. Intercom systems most
often are permanently installed systems that have individual stations located in
different key areas of the venue. They are found at the front of house (FOH) mix
position, spotlight positions, backstage, dressing rooms, etc. To allow two-way
communication, intercom stations may have a built-in speaker/mic, or provide
inputs for wearable headsets and microphones. Some stations may be in
bodypack form for easy use by semi-mobile staff, or for use in portable systems.
Other stations can be wall mounted, rack mounted, table top, or telephone
SM2 Headworn Microphone.
handset type.
An example of a microphone
used in intercom systems
Intercoms can be configured in many different ways, from a simple 2-station
system, to systems of 60 or more with digital control panels and switching
systems for multiple channels. There are many wireless intercom systems
available, which often can work in the same frequency range as wireless
microphones. In these cases, it is important to include these wireless intercom
systems in a frequency coordination to ensure that they will not interfere with
the wireless microphones occupying the same RF spectrum.

V. PERSONAL MONITOR SYSTEMS

Monitor speaker wedges are commonplace for performers to hear themselves or other sounds during a performance.
Additionally, wireless in-ear monitoring is very common in theatre. To understand how it works, think of a traditional wireless
microphone system - in reverse. Instead of the performer wearing a mic and sending the sound to a receiver, it is the
opposite. An AC powered transmitter sends audio wirelessly to a battery powered bodypack receiver which the performer
wears. The audio is amplified and the performer wears one or two earpieces. In-ear monitor systems are engineered to
provide full range, high quality stereo sound. In addition, the earpieces which the performers wear are designed to seal out
ambient sound to provide greater control of the mix and a degree of hearing protection.

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 23

The audio source for in-ear systems is usually a combination of auxiliary mix outputs and/or direct channel outputs from
the main sound reinforcement system, depending on the requirements of the listener. There may be a dedicated “monitor
engineer” and separate console which sole purpose is to mix audio for the performers. It is possible to customize a different
mix for individual performers if each has his or her own transmitter/receiver. In theater applications, a director’s feed can
be mixed into the signal the performer is hearing in-ear. The director can then talk directly to the talent to provide cues,
direction, and even dialogue prompts, all without the knowledge of the audience. If there are live musicians accompanying the
show, they can use personal monitors to hear director’s cues as well as monitor their own performance. In addition, the sound
designer will be able to improve the overall sound in the house due to not using traditional monitor loudspeakers normally
used by live musicians.

VI. CONCLUSION
Theater sound design and microphone selection, wireless microphone application, and associated audio processing are
undoubtedly going to continue to evolve and expand. Each new production will have a unique set of requirements and
parameters that the sound designer and sound engineer will need to meet. While new technologies such as digital wireless
microphones and rechargeable “smart” batteries are already being found in more affordable and user-friendly products, the
core physics of audio, microphones and audio systems will remain the same.

VII. ABOUT THE AUTHORS

CRISPIN TAPIA
Crispin Tapia is an Applications Engineering Supervisor at Shure Incorporated. He has been active in the Chicago music
scene for many years as a performer, and has experience in both live sound and studio recording. He has earned his B.A. in
Psychology from the University of Illinois at Chicago, and a B.A. in Audio Engineering from Columbia College Chicago.

BEN ESCOBEDO
Ben Escobedo is a Senior Market Development Specialist at Shure Incorporated. Ben focuses on Professional Audio with an
emphasis on Theatre and Broadcast. As an audio professional, he often presents and discusses on wireless best practices,
spectrum issues, and microphone optimization. In his free time, he enjoys playing guitar and designing circuit boards for DIY
guitar pedals. Ben has a B.A. in English from the University of Connecticut.

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 24

VIII. GLOSSARY
IMD – Intermodulation distortion, another name for IM.

Impedance – In an electrical circuit, opposition to the flow of alternating current, measured in

ohms. A high-impedance microphone has an impedance of 10,000 ohms or more. A low-imped-
ance microphone has an impedance of 50 to 600 ohms.

Lavalier microphone – Generally a small, condenser element worn on the chest area and
mounted via a lanyard, clip, or pin.

Omnidirectional microphone – A microphone that picks up sound equally in all directions.

Phantom power – A method of providing power to the electronics of a condenser microphone

through the microphone cable.

Receiver – Device that is sensitive to radio signals and recovers information from them.

RF – Radio frequency

Sensitivity – A rating to express how "hot" the microphone is by exposing the microphone to a
specified sound field level.

Supercardioid microphone – A unidirectional microphone with tighter front pickup angle (115
degrees) than a cardioid, but with some rear pickup. Angle of best rejection is 126 degrees from
the front of the microphone, that is, 54 degrees from the rear.

Transducer – A device that converts one form of energy to another.

Transmitter – device which converts information to a radio signal.

Wavelength –The physical distance between successive complete cycles of a wave, inversely
proportional to frequency, dependent on properties of medium.

© 2019 Shure Incorporated. SHURE and the SHURE logotype are registered trademarks of Shure Incorporated or Shure Acquisition Holdings, Inc.

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 25

AUDIO SYSTEMS GUIDE: THEATER PERFORMANCES 26