APRIL JOY D. PALAHANG and SHEENA MAE M.

SABADO
COMP 11 – BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS

INTRODUCTION
TO
COMPUTER

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A computer is an electronic device that can

perform activities that involve mathematical,
logical and graphical manipulations.
Generally, the term is used to describe a
collection of devices that function together as
a system.

It performs the following three operations in

sequence:
1. It receives data & instructions from the input device.
2. Processes the data as per instructions.
3. Provides the result (output) in a desired form.

Data: It is the collection of raw facts, figures & symbols.

Ex: Names of students and their marks in different subjects listed in random order.

Information: It is the data that is processed & presented in an organized manner.

Ex: When the names of students are arranged in alphabetical order, total and
average marks are calculated & presented in a tabular form, it is information.

Program: Set of instructions that enables a computer to perform a given task.

◦◦◦ EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS ◦◦◦

The computers of today are vastly different in appearance and performance as compared
to the computers of earlier days. But where did this technology come from and where is
it heading? To fully understand the impact of computers on today’s world and the
promises they hold for the future, it is important to understand the evolution of computers.

 The First Generation (1946-1954)

The first generation of computers made use of:
o Vacuum tube technology,
o Punched cards for data input,
o Punched cards and paper tape for output,
o Machine Language for writing programs,
o Magnetic tapes and drums for external storage.

The computers of the first generation were very bulky and emitted large amount of
heat which required air conditioning. They were large in size and cumbersome to
handle. They had to be manually assembled and had limited commercial use. The
concept of operating systems was not known at that time. Each computer had a

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different binary coded program called a machine language that told it how to
operate.

Punch Cards Paper Tape Vacuum Tube

The Abacus, which emerged about 5000 years ago in Asia Minor and is still in use
today, allows users to make computations using a system of sliding beads
arranged on a rack. Early merchants used Abacus to keep trading transactions.

Abacus Pascaline

Arithmometer Analytical Engine

Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician invented the first mechanical machine, a

rectangular brass box, called Pascaline which could perform addition and
subtraction on whole numbers. This was in the seventeenth century. Colmar, a
Frenchman invented a machine that could perform the four basic arithmetic
functions of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Colmar’s mechanical
calculator, “Arithmometer”, presented a more practical approach to computing.
With its enhanced versatility, the “Arithmometer” was widely used until the First
World War, although later inventors refined Colmar’s calculator, together with

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fellow inventors, Pascal and Leibniz, he helped define the age of mechanical
computation.

Blaise Pascal Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar Charles Babbage

Charles Babbage a British mathematician at Cambridge University invented the

first analytical engine or difference engine. This machine could be programmed
by instructions coded on punch cards and had mechanical memory to store the
results. For his contributions in this field Charles Babbage is known as “the father
of modern digital computer”.

Some of the early computers included:

o Mark I – This was the first fully automatic calculating machine. It was
designed by Howard Aiken of Harvard University in collaboration with IBM.
This machine was an electronic relay
computer. Electromagnetic signals were
used for the movement of mechanical
parts. Mark I could perform the basic
arithmetic and complex equations.
Although this machine was extremely
reliable, it was very slow (it took about 3-5
seconds per calculation) and was complex
in design and large in size.

o Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) – This

computer developed by John Atanasoff
and Clifford Berry was the world’s first
general purpose electronic digital
computer. It made use of vacuum tubes for
internal logic and capacitors for storage.

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o ENIAC (Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator) – The first all-

electronic computer was produced by a partnership between the US
Government and the University of
Pennsylvania. It was built using
18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000
resistors and 1,500 relays and
consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical
power. The ENIAC computed at
speed about thousand times faster
than Mark I. However, it could store
and manipulate only a limited amount
of data. Program modifications and
detecting errors were also difficult.

o EDVAC – In the mid 1940’s Dr. John von Neumann designed the
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer with a memory to
store both program and data. This was the first machine which used the
stored program concept. It had
five distinct units - arithmetic,
central control, memory, input
and output. The key element
was the central control. All the
functions of the computer were
co-ordinate through this single
source, the central control.
The programming of the
computers was done in
machine language.

o UNIVAC • I – Remington Rand

designed this computer specifically for
business data processing
applications. The Universal
Automatic Computer was the first
general purpose commercially
available computer.

 The Second Generation (1955-1965)

In the second generation computers, the:
o Vacuum tube technology was replaced by transistorized technology,
o Size of the computers started reducing,
o Assembly language started being used in place of machine language,
o Concept of stored program emerged,

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o High level languages were invented.

This was the generation of Transistorized Computers. Vacuum tubes were
replaced by transistors. As a result, the size of the machines started shrinking.
These computers were smaller, faster, more reliable and more energy efficient.
The first transistorized computer was TX-0. The first large scale machines that took
advantage of the transistor technology were the early supercomputers, Stretch by
IBM and LARC by Sperry Rand. These machines were mainly developed for
atomic energy laboratories. Typical computers of the second generation were the
IBM 1400 and 7000 series, Honeywell 200 and General Electric.

Transistors

IBM 1401 was universally accepted throughout the industry and most large
businesses routinely processed financial information using second generation
computers. The machine language was replaced by assembly language. Thus, the
long and difficult binary code was replaced with abbreviated programming code
which was relatively easy to understand.

The stored program concept and programming languages gave the computers
flexibility to finally be cost effective and productive for business use. The stored
program concept implied that the instructions to run a computer for a specific task
were held inside the computer’s memory and could quickly be modified or replaced
by a different set of instructions for a different function. High level languages like
COBOL, FORTRAN and AL- GOL were dev eloped. Computers started finding
vast and varied applications. The entire software industry began with the second
generation computers.

 The Third Generation (1968-1975)

The third generation computers were characterized by:
o Use of Integrated circuits,
o Phenomenal increase in computation speed,
o Substantial reduction in size and power consumption of the machines,
o Use of magnetic tapes and drums for external storage,
o Design-of Operating systems and new higher level languages,
o Commercial production of computers.

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This generation was characterized by the invention of Integrated Circuits (ICs).

The IC combined electronic components onto a small chip which was made from
quartz.

Integrated Circuit

Later, even more components were fitted onto a single chip, called a
semiconductor. This reduced the size even further. The weight and power
consumption of computers decreased and the speed increased tremendously.
Heavy emphasis was given to the development of software. Operating systems
were designed which allowed the machine to run many different programs at once.
A central program monitored and co-ordinate the computer s memory.
Multiprogramming was made possible, whereby the machine could perform
several jobs at the same time. Computers achieved speeds of executing millions
of instructions per second. Commercial production became easier and cheaper.
Higher level languages like Pascal and Report Program Generator (RPG) were
introduced and applications-oriented languages like FORTRAN, COBOL, and PL/1
were developed.

 The Fourth Generation (1976-1980)

The general features of the fourth generation computers were:
o Use of Very Large Scale Integration,
o Invention of microcomputers,
o Introduction of Personal Computers,
o Networking,
o Fourth Generation Languages.

Very Large Scale Integration (VSLI)

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The third generation computers made use of ‘Integrated Circuits that had 10-
20 components on each chip, this was Small Scale Integration (SSI).
The Fourth Generation realized Large Scale Integration (LSI) which could fit
hundreds of components on one chip and Very Large Scale integration (VLSI)
which squeezed thousands of components on one chip. The Intel 4004 chip,
located all the components of a computer (central processing unit, memory, input
and output controls) on a single chip and microcomputers were introduced. Higher
capacity storage media like magnetic disks were developed. Fourth generation
languages emerged and applications software’s started becoming popular.

Computer production became inexpensive and the era of Personal Computers

(PCs) commenced. In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer for use in office,
home and schools. In direct competition, the Macintosh was introduced by Apple
in 1984. Shared interactive systems and user-friendly environments were the
features of these computers.

As the computers started becoming more and more powerful, they could be linked
together or networked to share not only data but also memory space and software.
The networks could reach enormous proportions with local area networks. A global
web of computer circuitry, the Internet, links the computers worldwide into a single
network of information.

 The Fifth Generation (1980 – present)

Defining the fifth generation computers is somewhat difficult because the field is
still in its infancy. The computers of tomorrow would be characterized by Artificial
Intelligence (AI). An example of Al is Expert Systems. Computers could be
developed which could think and reason in much the same way as humans.
Computers would be able to accept spoken words as input (voice recognition).

Many advances in the science of computer design and technology are coming
together to enable the creation of fifth generation computers. Two such advances
are parallel processing where many CPUs work as one and advance in
superconductor technology which allows the flow of electricity with little or no
resistance, greatly improving the speed of information flow.

The components used in fifth generation are Ultra Large Scale Integrated
Circuits (ULSI)—over 1 million transistors per IC and Microprocessor (Silicon
Chip)—containing millions of very small components including transistors,
resistors, and diodes that work together.

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Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuits (ULSI) Microprocessor (Silicon Chip)

◦◦◦ CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS ◦◦◦

Computers are classified according to the storage capacity, speed and the purpose for
which they are developed. These can be classified into three types:

 Analog computers: They operate by ―measuring instead of ―counting. The

name (derived from a Greek word analog) denotes that the computer functions by
establishing similarities between the two quantities. They are powerful tools for
solving differential equations.

 Digital Computers: These computers operate by ―counting. All quantities are

expressed as discrete digits or numbers. These are useful for evaluating arithmetic
expressions and manipulations of data.

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 Hybrid Computers: Computers which combine the features of analog and digital
computers are known as Hybrid computers.

A majority of the computers that are in use are digital. These computers were essentially
developed for computations. Later, the developments in the computers led to the use of
digital computers in variety of applications. Depending on the use of applications, the
digital computers are classified into:

 Special Purpose Computers: These are developed with a specific purpose.

Some of the areas where these computers are being used are – soil testing, drip
irrigation, medical scanning, traffic signals, spacecraft, rocket technology etc.,

 General Purpose Computers: These are developed to meet the requirements of

several areas such as simulation, solving mathematical equations, payroll and
personnel database. These computers are available in different sizes and
capabilities and are further classified (based on memory, speed, storage) as
follows.

o Super Computers: These have extremely large storage capacities and

computing speeds which are at least 10 times faster than other computers.
These are used for large scale numerical problems in scientific and
engineering disciplines such as electronics, weather forecasting etc. The
first super computer was developed in U.S.A. by CRAY computers. In India
the indigenous super computer was developed under the name Param.

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o Mainframe Computers: They also have large storage and high computing
speed (but relatively lower than the super computers). They are used in
applications like weather forecasting, space applications etc., they support
a large number of terminals for use by a variety of users simultaneously, but
are expensive.

o Mini Computers: It is a medium sized computer with moderate cost,

available indigenously and used for large volume applications. It can serve
multi-users simultaneously.

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o Micro Computers: A microcomputer is the smallest general-purpose

processing system. Micro computers are also referred as ―personal
computers (PC). These are self-contained units and usually developed for
use by one person at a time but can be linked to very large systems. They
are cheap, easy to use even at homes and can be read for variety of
applications from small to medium range. These are available in three
models: (a) Personal Computer (PC), (b) PC with Extended Technology
(PC-XT), and (c) PC with Advanced Technology (PC-AT).

(a) (b) (c)

o Notebook and Laptop Computers: These are portable in nature and are
battery operated. Storage devices like CDs, floppies etc. and output devices
like printers can be connected to these computers. Notebook computers are
smaller in physical size than laptop computers. However, both have
powerful processors, support graphics, and can accept mouse driven input.

Laptop Netbook Tablet PC

o Handheld Computers: These types of computers are mainly used in

applications like collection of field data. They are even smaller than the note
book computers.

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o Embedded Computers: A tiny computer embedded into a product and

designed to perform specific tasks or functions. Another term often used for
an embedded computer is a micro controller.

o Mobile Computers: These are personal computer that you can carry from
place to place.

◦◦◦ APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS, ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ◦◦◦

Today computers find widespread applications in all activities of the modern world. Some
of the major application areas include:

 Scientific, Engineering and Research

This is the major area where computers find vast applications. They are used in
areas which require lot of experiments, mathematical calculations, weather
forecasting, and complex mathematical and engineering applications. Computer
Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) help in designing
robotics, automobile manufacturing, automatic process control dev ices etc.

 Business
Record keeping, budgets, reports, inventory, payroll, invoicing, accounts are all the
areas of business and industry where computers are used to a great extent.
Database management is one of the major areas where computers are used on a
large scale. The areas of application here include banking, airline reservations,
etc. where large amounts of data need to be updated, edited, sorted, searched
from large databases.

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 Medicine
Computerized systems are now in widespread use in monitoring patient data like,
pulse rate, blood pressure etc. resulting in faster and accurate diagnosis. Modern
day medical equipment is highly computerized today. Computers are also widely
used in medical research.

 Information
This is the age of information. Television, Satellite communication, Internet,
networks are all based on computers.

 Education:
The use of computers in education is increasing day by day. The students develop
the habit of thinking more logically and are able to formulate problem solving
techniques. CDs on a variety of subjects are available to impart education. On line
training programs for students are also becoming popular day by day. All the major
encyclopedias, dictionaries and books are now available in the digital form and
therefore are easily accessible to the student of today. Creativity in drawing,
painting, designing, decoration, music etc. can be well developed with computers.

 Games and Entertainment:

Computer games are popular with children and adults alike. Computers are
nowadays also used in entertainment areas like movies, sports, advertising etc.

Advantages of Computers

 Speed
The speed of a computer is measured in terms of the number of instructions that
it can perform or execute in a second. The speeds of computers are measured in
milliseconds (10~3 sec), micro-seconds (10*6 sec), and nano-seconds (10~9sec).
Computers are superfast machines and can process millions of instructions per
second. Smaller computers can execute thousands of instructions per second,
while the more complex machines can execute millions of instructions per second.

 Accuracy
Computers are very accurate. They are capable of executing hundreds of
instructions without any errors. They do not make mistakes in their computations.
They perform each and every calculation with the same accuracy.

 Efficiency
The efficiency of computers does not decrease with age. The computers can
perform repeated tasks with the same efficiency any number of times without
exhausting their selves. Even if they are instructed to execute millions of
instructions, they are capable of executing them all with the same speed and
efficiency without exhaustion.

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 Storage Capability
Computers are capable of storing large amounts of data in their storage devices.
These dev ices occupy very less space and can store millions of characters in
condensed forms. These storage devices typically include floppy disks, tapes, hard
disks, CDs etc., the data stored on these devices can be retrieved and reused
whenever it is required in future.

 Versatility
Computers are very versatile. They are capable not only of performing complex
mathematical tasks of science and engineering, but also other nonnumerical
operations fielding air-line reservation, electricity bills, data base management etc.

Limitations of Computers

Although the computers of today are highly intelligent and sophisticated, they have their
own limitations. The computer cannot think on its own, since it does not have its own
brain. It can only do what is has been programmed to do. It can execute only those jobs
that can be expressed as a finite set of instructions to achieve a specific goal. Each of the
steps has to be clearly defined. The computers do not learn from previous experience nor
can they arrive at a conclusion without going through all the intermediate steps. However,
the impact of computers on today’s society in phenomenal and they are today an
important part of the society.

◦◦◦ ANATOMY OF COMPUTERS ◦◦◦

The computer system consists of three units:
 Input device
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Output device

Block Diagram of a Computer

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The various functions of these units can be summarized as:

Unit Function
1. Input device : Reads information from input media and enters to the
computer in a coded form
2. CPU
(a) Memory unit : Stores program and data
(b) Arithmetic Logic unit : Performs arithmetic and logical functions
(c) Control Unit : Interprets program instructions and controls the input
and output devices
3. Output device : decodes information and presents it to the user

Input Devices

Input dev ices are the dev ices which are used to feed programs and data to the computer.
The input system connects the external environment with the computer system. The input
dev ices are the means of communication between the user and the computer system.
Typical input devices include the keyboard, floppy disks, mouse, microphone, light pen,
joy stick, magnetic tapes etc. The way in which the data is fed into the computer through
each of these devices is different. However, a computer can accept data only in a specific
form. Therefore, these input devices transform the data fed to them, into a form which
can be accepted by the computer. These devices are a means of communication and
inter1 station between the user and the computer systems.

The functions of the input unit are:

 accept information (data) and programs,
 convert the data in a form which the computer can accept,
 provide this converted data to the computer for further processing.

Central Processing Unit

It is the part of the computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program. It is
the unit that reads and executes program instructions. Hence it is known as the ―brain
of the computer. The CPU consists of storage or memory unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
and control unit.

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(a) Memory Unit: It is also known as the primary storage or main memory. It stores
data, program instructions, internal results and final output temporarily before it is sent
to an appropriate output device. It consists of thousands of cells called ―storage
locations‖. These cells activate with ―off-on or binary digits (0,1) mechanism. Thus,
a character either a letter or numerical digit is stored as a string of (0,1) Binary digits
(BITS). These bits are used to store instructions and data by their combinations.

(b) Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU): It is the unit where all Arithmetic operations
(addition, subtraction etc.) and logical functions such as true or false, male or female
are performed. Once data are fed into the main memory from input devices, they are
held and transferred as needed to ALU where processing takes place. No process
occurs in primary storage. Intermediate generated results in ALU are temporarily
placed in memory until needed at later time. Data may move from primary memory to
ALU and back again to storage many times before the process is finalized.

(c) Control Unit: It acts as a central nervous system and ensures that the information
is stored correctly and the program instructions are followed in proper sequence as
well as the data are selected from the memory as necessary. It also coordinates all
the input and output devices of a system.

Output Unit

The output devices give the results of the process and computations to the outside world.
The output units accept the results produced by the computer, convert them into a human
readable form and supply them to the users. The more common output devices are
printers, plotters, display screens, magnetic tape drives etc.

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COMPUTER
SYSTEMS
(HARDWARE & SOFTWARE)

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A modern computer consists of three major components:

 Hardware – the physical stuff that you can touch or hold in your hand
 Operating System – controls the hardware and enables you to tell the computer
what to do
 Applications or programs – enable you to do specialized tasks on a computer

◦◦◦ COMPUTER HARDWARE ◦◦◦

Multifunction device,
System unit or case Monitor with printer, scanner,
and more

Speakers
Keyboard Mouse

The physical components of the computer are known as ―Hardware. It refers to the
objects that we can actually touch.

The devices which are a means of communication between the computer and the outside
world are called as peripheral devices.

Those peripheral devices which supply information i.e. data and programs from the
outside world to the computer are the input devices. Those peripheral devices which
give information from the computer to the user or store them in secondary storage
devices, like floppy disks or tapes for future use are called output devices.

The processors which are required to convert the input data into machine readable form
and to convert the output generated by the computer into human readable form are known
as input/output (I/O) interfaces. There are two concepts related to the way in which data
is input to the computer:
 On-line Data Input – the data is directly transferred to the computer
 Off-line Data Input – the data is not immediately transferred to the computer

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Input Devices

The various types of input devices most commonly used are:

 Keyboard: The keyboard is used for typing text into the computer. It is also known
as standard Input device. A computer keyboard is similar to that of a type writer
with additional keys. The most commonly available computer keyboard has 104
keys.

There are different types of keys on the keyboard. The keys are categorized as:
o Alphanumeric keys, including letters & numbers.
o Punctuation keys, such as colon (:), semicolon (;) Question mark (?), Single
& double quotes (‘, “)
o Special keys such as arrow keys, control keys, function keys (F1 to F12),
HOME, END etc.

 Mouse: It is a device that controls the movement of the cursor on a monitor. A

mouse will have 2 buttons on its top. The left button is the most frequently used
button. There will be a wheel between the left and right buttons. This wheel enables
us to smoothly scroll through screens of information. As we move the mouse, the
pointer on the monitor moves in the same direction. Optical mouse is another
advanced pointing device that uses a light emitting component instead of the
mouse ball. Mouse cannot be used for entering the data. It is only useful to select
the options on the screen.

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 Light Pen: The light pen is a picking device. The light pen contains a photocell
placed in a small tube. This photo-cell detects the presence of light on the CRT
(monitor). The tip of the pen is moved on the surface of the screen to write or
sketch data. The light pen is especially useful in Computer Aided Design (CAD)
applications.

 Joy Stick: The position and speed with which the joystick is moved is converted
into digital signals by the use of a lever. These signals are then sent to the
computer system. This in turn controls the movement of the cursor on the screen.
The joystick is mainly used in video games applications.

 Track Ball: The track ball uses a hard sphere to control cursor movement. The
bail can be rotated in any direction by hand and this is translated into a digital
signal to control the cursor movement on the screen.

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 Touchscreen: A touch panel is a transparent plate which is fitted over the CRT.
Input is registered when a finger or any other object comes in contact with the
plate. There are two types of touch panels:
o Optical touch panels
o Electric touch panels

 Digitizer: A digitizer converts a graphical or pictorial data into digital form which
can be directly entered and stored in a computer. A digitizer is also called as a
graphics tablet. There are two types of digitizers:
o Image scan digitizer
o Flatbed digitizer

In the image scan digitizer, the entire image is scanned and reproduced
automatically. Therefore, the image scan digitizers are more powerful as compared
to flatbed digitizers. Flatbed digitizers are mainly used in simple drawings, graphs
etc. whereas image scan digitizers are used for photographs and pictures.

 Scanner: It is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper
and translate into digital form. The main advantage of these scanners is that the
data need not be entered separately resulting in saving lot of time.

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Scanners are of two types:

o Optical scanners: The optical scanner uses a light source and sensor for
reading the information on the paper. It can read characters, pictures, and
graphics from the paper. The common types of optical scanners are:

 Optical character Recognition (OCR): In this, characters are read

with the help of a light. This is used in office atomization,
documentation in library etc.

 Optical mark recognition (OMR): It is a technology where an OMR

device senses the presence or absence of a mark such as a pencil
mark. OMR is used in tests such as aptitude tests.

 Optical barcode recognition (OBCR): Barcode readers are

photoelectric scanners that read the bar codes or vertical zebra
striped marks printed on product containers. This is used in super
markets, book shops etc.

OCR OMR OBCR

o Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): This is widely used in banks

to process the cheques. This allows the computer to recognize characters
printed using magnetic ink. MICR characters (cheque No., Acc. No., etc)
are printed in special ink usually containing iron oxide. When a document
that contains the ink needs to be read, it passes through a machine which
magnetizes the ink and there will be a reader sorter unit which translates
the magnetic information into characters. MICR provides a secure, high
speed of scanning and processing information. It scans about 2600
cheques/min.

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 Voice Recognition Systems: This system allows the user to talk with the
computer. The Voice Recognition System consists of a microphone or telephone
into which the operator speaks. The speech is converted into electrical signals.
The signal is input as the voice of the operator. This is matched with an already
entered pre-stored pattern of words called vocabulary. When the closest match is
found the word is recognized. Since each operator may have a different style of
speaking, all Voice Recognition systems are highly operator dependent. Also, a
separate vocabulary for each operator is required to be maintained. The
advantages of the Voice Recognition systems are that they reduce the cost of data
entry. Also, the operator can move freely while talking into the computer.

Output devices

The various types of output devices are:

 Video Display Terminal/ Monitor

o Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) – An electron beam is moved across a phosphor
coated screen to produce the image. The CRT can be monochrome or
colored. This screen normally has 25 lines and 80 characters.

o Flat Panel Display – The most common flat panel display is the Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD). This does not have a picture tube. The other type of
display is the gas plasma screen.

o Video Display Terminal – The most popular output device in direct access
processing is the Video Display Terminal. These terminals display
information instantaneously. The monitor and the keyboard together are
called a terminal. The types of terminals are:

 Dumb Terminal – This is a combination of a keyboard and monitor

which can send or receive data, but cannot process the data.

 Smart Terminal – A smart terminal has an inbuilt microprocessor. It

can perform arithmetic, logic and control functions. They also have

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some memory capacity. So, they can store the data before sending
to the processor. They can also control the cursor movement.

 Intelligent Terminal – This type of terminal also has an inbuilt

microprocessor which can be programmed by the user. These
terminals also have limited processing capability. They can
communicate with other terminals and processors.

CRT Flat Panel Display Video Display Terminal

 Printer: A printer produces the output from the computer on the paper. It is the
most commonly used output device. The printers produce a hard copy i.e. a
permanent copy of the results which can be stored and read later. Printers are
classified as:

o Impact Printer – Impact printers are similar to typewriters. They use

hammer to strike a character against an inked ribbon and the impact of the
hammer causes the image of the character to be printed on paper.

Advantages of impact printers:

 Their functioning is relatively easy
 Multiple copies can be produced at the same time with the help of
carbon paper.
 Impact printers are noisy in operation and are subject to wear and
tear of mechanical parts.

Dot Matrix Printer Daisy Wheel Printer

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Line Printer

Types of impact printers:

 Dot Matrix Printers
Dot matrix printer prints each character as a pattern of dots. The
printer has a printer head with a matrix of pins (needles). Typical
heads have a matrix of 7 rows and 9 columns. These pins produce
a pattern of dots to form the individual characters.

These printers are relatively low in cost and print at speeds of 50-
500 characters per second. The programmer can also define the
shape of characters for this printer. Therefore, it is possible to print
many special characters, characters in various sizes as well as
charts and graphs on such printers. Dot matrix printers are very
commonly used in most computer systems.

 Daisy Wheel Printer

These printers are also called as letter quality printers. These printers
have a daisy wheel with a number of petals. A character is embossed
on each wheel. There is a motor which spins the wheel at a fast rate.
When the desired character is brought to the correct position, a
hammer strikes the petal to produce the output. Thus, these printers
are impact printers. The letter quality of these printers is much
superior as compared to the dot matrix printers. But they are slow
and typically print in the range of 10-50 characters per second.

 Line Printer
Line printers are very fast printers which print at speed of 200-2500
lines per minute. These printers are impact printers and normally
have 132 print positions per line. Different types of character set are
available for different printers. Line printers are normally used in
applications where large volumes of data are to be printed.

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The two types of line printers are:

 Drum printers
This consists of a metallic cylinder. On the surface of this drum
there are characters in bands. Each column or band on the
drum contains all the characters. Opposite to each band there
is a hammer located behind the paper. The drum rotates at a
fast rate. The hammer strikes the paper along with the inked
ribbon and produces the output. One line is printed in each
revolution of the printer.

 Chain printers
In the chain printers there is one print hammer for each print
position on a line. There is a fast-moving chain called the print
chain. When this chain rotates, the print hammer and the
inked ribbon strike the paper against the proper character on
the chain.

o Non-Impact Printer – They use thermal, chemical, electrostatic and inkjet

technologies for printing as against the hammer mechanism of impact
printers.

Inkjet Printer Laser Printer

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 Ink Jet Printer

Ink jet printer is a non-impact printer. It prints characters by spraying
ink from tiny nozzles onto the paper. A special type of ink which has
a high iron content is used. This ink is charged electrically when it
comes out of the nozzle. This ink is absorbed by the paper and dries
instantly. The output of the ink jet printer is of a superior quality. Also,
it is possible to obtain colored output. A number of character styles
and sizes are available. However, being a non-impact printer, it is not
possible to prepare carbon copies with this printer.

 Laser Printers
These printers are used where a very superior quality output is
desired. The image is created on a photo sensitive drum; with a laser
beam. The laser is turned on and off when it moves back and forward
across the drum. It leaves a negative charge on the drum to which a
positively charged black toner powder sticks. When the paper rolls
by the drum, the ink is transferred to the paper. Laser printers have
a buffer memory to store entire pages and hence their speed is very
fast. The biggest advantage of these printers is that no mechanical
movement is involved, therefore they are noiseless in operation.
However, there are comparatively expensive.

 Plotter: A plotter is an output device used in applications where printouts of graphs

and drawings are required. Plotters are of two types:

o Flatbed i.e. X-Y plotter – This plotter plots on a paper which is fixed on a
rectangular flatbed table. One recording pen moves in the x direction and
one in the y direction to plot on the paper. Color plotting is also possible by
using pens of different colors.

o Drum Plotter – In this plotter the paper on which the output is to be

obtained, is placed over a drum. The drum rotates back and forth to produce
motion. The pen is mounted horizontally across the drum and the horizontal
motion of the pen is achieved with the help of the pen holder. The drum and
the holder move simultaneously to produce output. Multi-coloured printing
is possible by changing the pens. The speed of plotters is very slow.
Therefore, normally the output is first sent to some secondary storage
device like a magnetic tape and then directed to the plotter.

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Flatbed Plotter Drum Plotter

 Computer Output Microfilm (COM): This technology is used to record the

computer output as microscopic filmed images. Information is recorded on a roll of
microfilm. A microfilm recorder displays the information onto a screen. An inbuilt
camera then takes pictures of this information. A microfilm reader is used to view
this information. COM devices are normally used in application where there are
large volumes of data. COM devices are much faster than the normal printers.
Also, since the size of these films is very small the space required for storage is
very less as compared to printed output. However, since COM systems are highly
sophisticated, they are relatively expensive and are mainly used where there are
high volumes of data.

◦◦◦ PRIMARY STORAGE AND SECONDARY STORAGE ◦◦◦

A storage unit is that part of the computer system which is used to store the data and
instructions to be processed. There are two types of storage:

 Primary storage/memory is also known as internal memory or main memory.

This is a section of the CPU which holds program instructions, input data and
intermediate results.

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 Secondary storage is a memory that is stored external to the computer. It is used

mainly for permanent and long-term storage of programs and data.

Characteristics of Storage Units

The storage units have special characteristics which decide the speed of operation of the
computer, its efficiency, cost and the amount of data which the computer can store. The
storage unit of the computer is graded according to the following characteristics (whether
primary or secondary):

 Access time: This is the time required to locate and retrieve a particular data from
the storage unit. A fast access to data and programs always yields higher
efficiency.

 Storage Capacity: Storage capacity is the amount of data that can be stored by a
storage unit. Large capacity of data storage is always desirable. As seen earlier,
the smallest unit of data which the computer understands is the bit. A group of 8
bits forms a byte. The storage capacity of a computer system is defined in terms
of bytes or words. One kilobyte (1 KB) is 2^ or 1024 bytes, eg. 4 KB memory implies
that it can store 4 x 1024 bytes or characters. Storage capacities of primary and
secondary units are measured in Kilobytes, megabytes, gigabytes.

 Cost: Low cost storage media are always desirable. Thus, storage units with faster
access time, higher storage capacity and low costs are the ones which are
considered to be of a superior nature.

Primary Storage
Primary storage is characterized by faster access time, less storage capacity and higher
costs as compared to secondary storage units. Primary storage or main memory is that
part of the computer system which stores the programs, data and intermediate results
during the program execution.

A primary storage comes as an integral part of all computer systems. It comprises of a

number of small locations. Each location has a unique number assigned to it. This is
called as the address of the location and it is used to identify the location. Each location
has a capacity to store a fixed number of bits. The number of bits that a location can store
is called as word length. Each location contains the same number of bits.
Normally, primary memory size ranges from a few kilobytes on small computers to several
thousand kilo bytes and megabytes on larger machines.

The primary storage is volatile. Whenever the power is turned off the data is lost. Primary
storage is also called Random Access Memory (RAM). RAM means it is possible to
randomly select and use any storage location for storage and retrieval of data. RAM is
also called a read/write memory because data can both be read from and written onto
these units. When the power is switched off the data stored in the RAM is lost.

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 Read-Only Memory (ROM)

In this type of memory, the data is permanently stored. The information can only
be read and new data cannot be written onto this memory. However, the contents
of the ROM are not lost even when
the power is turned off i.e. this
memory is non-volatile. Such
memories are also called as field
stores, or permanent stores.

There are a number of high-level

functions which are required to be performed by the computer system. Such
functions are performed by writing special programs called micro programs. Micro
programs generally execute the low-level machine functions. These programs are
mainly used as a substitute for hardware. Such programs can be stored on ROMs
and be used again and again. This results in reducing the hardware of the system.
ROM helps to increase the efficiency of the CPU as it can perform specialized
tasks. ROM comes in the form of a chip. Once information is stored on a ROM chip
it cannot be changed or altered.

 Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)

These are ROMs which can be programmed. A special PROM programmer is used
to enter the program on the PROM. Once the chip has been programmed,
information on the PROM cannot be altered. PROM is non-volatile ie. data is not
lost when power is switched off.

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 Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)

Another type of memory is the EPROM. It is possible to erase the data which has
been previously stored on an EPROM and write new data onto the chip.

 Cache Memory
This is a very special type of high-speed memory. This memory cannot be
accessed by the user. The main function of this cache memory is to make the
programs and data available to the CPU very fast.

Access time of memory is generally very high as

compared to the execution time of the GPU.
Therefore, a cache, which is a very small but fast
memory, is used between the CPU and the main
memory. This memory also called a high-speed
buffer. A cache stores those segments of
programs and data which are frequently needed.
It makes available this data to the CPU at a very
fast rate thus increasing the efficiency.

 Registers
Registers are used to retain information temporarily. These are special memory
units which are not actual parts of the main memory, but allow efficient movement
of information between the various units of the computer system. The registers
receive information, hold it temporarily and make it available as and when required.
A computer uses a number of registers, where each register performs a specific
function. Some of the common registers are:

o Memory Address Register (MAR): The function of this register is to hold

the address of the current or active memory location.

o Memory Buffer Register (MBR): This register holds the contents of the
address from which data is read or to which data has been written.

o Program Control Register: It holds the address of the next instruction to

be executed. Accumulator Register: It holds the initial data, the intermediate
results and the final data of the program under execution.

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o Instruction Register: This register holds the current instruction being

executed.

o Input/output Register: The function of this register is to communicate with

the Input/output devices.

The storage capacity of primary storage is limited. It is normally not sufficient to

accommodate all the data. Therefore, secondary storage medium is used to store
large volumes of data. The cost of secondary memory is much less as compared
to primary memory; however, access time of primary memory is very fast. The data
stored on secondary storage is transferred to the primary storage as and when
required. Secondary storage is also called auxiliary memory. Secondary storage
is used for storing copies of data and programs. This is a non-volatile memory and
is stored external to the computer.

Secondary Storage
Information stored on secondary storage devices can be accessed in two ways:

 Sequential Access Devices

In sequential access data can be accessed only in the sequence in which it has
been stored. Typical sequential access storage device is the magnetic tape. These
types of devices are useful in applications like pay slip printing where the data is
to be accessed one after the other.

Types of Access Devices:

o Punch Paper Tape: Punched paper tapes were the early devices of data
storage. Data is coded onto a
paper tape as a combination of
punched holes across the width of
the tape. Each row on the tape
represents one character. The data
has to be coded on the tapes using
special coding systems. The
punched paper tapes are a low-
cost storage medium and their
storage capacity is unlimited.
However, the paper is susceptible to wear and tear and mishandling.
Nowadays, punched paper tapes are rarely being used wear and tear and
mishandling. Nowadays, punched paper tapes are rarely being used.

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o Magnetic Tape: A magnetic tape is a ribbon of Mylar which is coated with

a thin layer of iron oxide material on one side. This tape is stored on a
cassette or cartridge, or reel.
The iron oxide material can be
magnetized and the data is
recorded on the tape in the
form of magnetized and non-
magnetized spots. A magnetic
tape drive is used to read data
from the tape or write
information to the tape. The
tape drive has a read/write
head to access or store
information respectively.

Magnetic tape is a read write device where the data can be written as well
as erased and new data recorded on the same area. The tape is divided
into vertical columns and horizontal rows. The columns are called frames
and the rows are called tracks. Special computer codes are used for
recording data on the tape. One character is recorded on each frame. Most
modern tapes have 9 tracks, and use the EBCDIC code for data
representation. The actual number of characters that can be stored on an
inch of a tape is known as the density of the tape.

The storage capacity of magnetic tapes is very large. This capacity is

measured in terms of bytes per inch. Most common tape densities are 800
bpi, 1600 bpi. Nowadays tapes with much higher densities of the order of
6000 bpi are also available.

The records in a tape can be of any size. Also, all the records in a given file
need not be same in length. Thus, the tapes can store fixed length and v
variable length records. In between two consecutive records the computer
automatically keeps a fraction of the tape blank. This blank space is called
the Interlock gap, while reading from the tape, the drive takes a finite
amount of time to physically stop when the end of the record is reached.
Therefore, this interlock gap is created to avoid loss of any data of the
subsequent record that may have been stored while the drive mechanism
comes to a halt.

Advantages of Magnetic Tapes:

 High data density and virtually unlimited storage
 Low in cost
 Easy to handle and portable from one computer to another.

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Limitations are:
 Support only sequential access
 Tapes are sensitive to dust, humidity and temperature, hence require
proper storage facilities.

 Direct Access Devices

In random access the data at any location on the storage unit can be accessed
directly without having to follow the sequence in which it has been stored. Typical
devices that support direct access are the magnetic disk and magnetic drum.

o Magnetic Disk: A magnetic disk is a thin metallic/Mylar platter circular in

shape. It is coated on both sides with magnetic material. A number of these
disks are mounted on a disk pack, on a central shaft. Thus, all the disks in
the disk pack move at the same speed, simultaneously in the same
direction. These disks are also called as hard disks or fixed disks. Hard
disk can be permanently installed in the drive or can also be in the form of
a removable cartridge. The data are recorded as magnetic spots on the
coating of the disk. The presence of a magnetic spot represents 1 and the
absence represents a 0. The standard binary code, 8 -bit EBCDIC is used
for recording data on the disk. Information is stored on both the surfaces of
the disk. Each disk is divided into a number of concentric circles called
tracks. All the corresponding tracks in all the surfaces are together called
a cylinder. Information is not stored on the outer surface of the upper plate
and the lower surface of the bottom plate.

In some of the disks the outer tracks contain more data bits since the outer
circumference is greater. However, in most of the disks each track stores
the same number of characters. This means that the inner tracks, with a
smaller circumference are more densely packed than the outer tracks.

Magnetic disk is a random or direct access storage device. The data is read
from or written onto the disk surface with the use of read/write heads. These
heads are of flying type. They do not come in actual contact with the surface
of the disk.

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There are two types of disk systems:

 Moving head System: This consists of one read/write head for each
disk surface. This head is mounted on an access arm which moves
in and out. Thus, each head moves horizontally across the surface
of the disk and can access each track individually.

 Fixed head System: In this system the access arm does not move.
A large number of read/write heads one for each track are distributed
over the surface of the disk. In this system the data access becomes
very fast. However, extra space is needed to accommodate all the
heads. The time required to access the data stored on the disk
depends upon the following factors:

 The seek time - the time required for positioning the read/write
head over the appropriate track.

 The latency time - the time required to spin the required data
under the head. This time is also called the search time.

o Solid State Drive: A data storage device that uses flash memory to store
data.

o Floppy Disks: Floppy disks are made up of flexible Mylar coated with iron
oxide. This disk is enclosed in a square plastic jacket to protect the surface
of the disk from dust. A floppy disk is to be inserted in the floppy disk drive
of the computer system to read or write information. The read/write head of
the drive makes a direct contact with the floppy disk.

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While accessing or storing data, Floppy disks come in various sizes:

 8 inch floppy disks
 5 1/4 inch floppy disks
 3 1/2 inch floppy disks

A floppy disk can be single sided or double sided i.e data can be written on
a single side or on both the sides. A double-sided disk drive is required to
read data from a double-sided disk. This disk drive has two heads, one for
each side. A single sided drive has only one head. Floppy disks can also be
single side double density and double side double density depending upon
their storage capacity.

Floppy disks are a very popular storage medium since they are small in
size, relatively cheap and can store data on line. Floppy disks are also very
portable. They can be carried form one place to another very easily.

o Winchester Disk: In a Winchester, the disks are permanently enclosed in

a sealed container. The disks are coated
with a special lubricant to reduce friction
with the read/write head. This
technology allows for an increase in the
number of tracks on the disk, and higher
storage density. Winchester disks are
fast and highly reliable. They are used
extensively in microcomputers.

o Magnetic Drum: This is a cylinder

whose outer surface is coated with a
thin layer of magnetic material. A
motor rotates on the cylinder at a
constant speed. Data is recorded on
the tracks of the drum as magnetized
spots. A set of stationary read/write
heads are positioned slightly away
from the surface of the drum. Data is
read from and written onto this drum
with the help of these heads. The drum
rotates are relatively fast speeds of the order of a several thousand rotations
per minute. Magnetic drums have faster data transfer rates as compared to
disks. However, their storage capacity is limited. Magnetic drums are rarely
used today.

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o Optical Devices
 Optical Disk: An optical disk is made up of a rotating disk which is
coated with a thin reflective metal. To record data on the optical disk,
a laser beam is focused on the surface of the spinning disk. The laser
beam is turned on and off at varying rates! Due to this, tiny holes
(pits) are burnt into the metal coating along the tracks. When data
stored on the optical disk is to be read, a less powerful laser beam is
focused on the disk surface. The
storage capacity of these devices is
tremendous; the Fig. 3.5 Optical disk
access time is relatively fast. The
biggest drawback of the optical disk
is that it is a permanent storage
device. data once written cannot be
erased. Therefore, it is a read only
storage medium. Atypical example
of the optical disk is the CD-ROM.

 Optical Card: The optical card has an optical laser encoded strip
which can store approximately 2 megabytes of data. These cards are
the size of a credit card. Optical cards find use only in specific areas
like storing credit records or medical histories of people.

 Optical Tape: Optical tapes are similar to magnetic tapes in

appearance. However optical laser techniques are used to write data
on the tapes. Like optical disks optical tapes too are read only
storage devices.

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Units of Memory

The computer stores a character in the storage cells with binary (0,1) mechanism. Thus,
the basic unit of memory is a bit (binary digit – 0,1). To store a character, a computer
requires 8 bits or 1 byte. This is called the ― word length‖ of the storage unit. Hence the
storage capacity of the computer is measured in the number of words it can store and is
expressed in terms of bytes. The different units of measurement are:

8 Bits = 1 Byte
210 (or) 1024 Bytes = 1 Kilo Byte (KB)
210 (or)1024 KB = 1 Mega Byte (MB)
210 (or)1024 MB = 1 Gega Byte (GB)

◦◦◦ OTHER INTERNAL/ EXTERNAL PARTS OF A PC ◦◦◦

 Computer Case or Chassis – a plastic or metal frame that holds and protects
your computer parts.

o Tower Case sits upright and can be as high as two feet and has room for
several drives. Often used for servers, this type of case is also good for PC
users who anticipate upgrading because tower cases provide maximum space
for working inside a computer and moving components around. It comes in
three basic sizes:
 Full Tower
 Mid-Tower
 Mini Tower

o Desktop Case lies flat and sometimes serves double-duty as a monitor stand.
It comes in two basic sizes:
 Standard
 Slimline

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 Ports – part of a connector into which a plug is inserted. Physical ports are also
referred to as jacks. These are found at the back of the computer which send and
receive data to and from the peripherals. Ports can be found directly on the
motherboard but most are added with the use of separate expansion cards.
USB 2.0 port:
Serial port:
for many
VGA port: for for many NIC/ Ethernet Port:
input and input and
output to for network
output output
monitor connection
PS/2 port: for devices devices
mouse

Audio Jacks:
for output to
sound devices

PS/2 port: for HDMI port: USB 3.0 port: for

keyboard for output to many input and
DVI port: for
monitor output devices
output to
monitor

 Power Supply Unit – provides the electrical power for a PC. Converts standard
AC power into various voltages of DC electricity in a PC.

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 Motherboard – a flat piece of circuit board that resides inside your computer case
and has a number of connectors on it. Every device in a PC connects directly or
indirectly to the motherboard, including CPU, RAM, hard drives, optical drives,
keyboard, mouse, and video cards.

 Heatsink - a specially designed hunk of metal such as aluminum or copper that

conducts heat away from a CPU or other heat-producing component and out into
fins that transfer the heat to circulating air. When used to cool a CPU, a heat sink
is typically paired with a fan assembly to improve its performance.

 Video Graphics Card – an expansion card that works with the CPU to produce
the images displayed on your computer’s display. The graphics card plays an
essential role in the PC. It takes the digital information that the computer produces
and turns it into something human beings can see. On most computers, the
graphics card converts digital information to analog information for display on the
monitor; on laptops, the data remains digital because laptop displays are digital.

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 Sound Card – an expansion card that can produce audible tones when connected
to a set of speakers.

 LAN Card/ Ethernet Card/ Network Interface Card (NIC) – an expansion card or
motherboard interface that enables a PC to connect to a network via a network
cable. A wireless NIC enables connection via radio waves rather than a physical
cable.

 Bus – a series of wires connecting two or more separate electronic devices,

enabling those devices to communicate. A bus is the data path on the computer's
motherboard that interconnects the microprocessor with attachments to the
motherboard in expansion slots (such as hard disk drives, CD-ROM drives, Floppy
disk drives).

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 Connector – a small receptacle used to attach a cable to a device or system.

Common types of connector include USB, PS/2, RJ-45, VGA, HDMI, DVI,
HD15, DisplayPort, and Thunderbolt.

 Power Cord – it is also known as a power cable, mains cable or flex. A power
cord is the primary cable that provides power to the computer, printer, monitor,
and components within a computer.

 AVR – is a device or equipment which generates, monitors, and analyses

power for a more suitable and reliable power for computer/ equipment.

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 UPS – a device that supplies continuous clean power to a computer system the
whole time the computer is on. Protects against power outages and sags (and
corresponding data loss).

 Hub/ Switch – an electronic device that sits at the center of a star bus topology
network, providing a common point for the connection of network devices. Hubs
repeat all information out to all ports and have been replaced by switches,
although the term “hub” is still commonly used.

 Router – a device connecting separate networks; forwards a packet from one

network to another based on the network address for the protocol being used.

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 Modems (modulator/demodulator) – a device that converts a digital bit

stream into an analog signal (modulation) and converts incoming analog
signals back into digital signals (demodulation). An analog communications
channel is typically a telephone line, and analog signals are typically sounds.

 Network Media – refers to the communication channels used to interconnect

nodes on a computer network.

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◦◦◦ COMPUTER SOFTWARE ◦◦◦

Software is a program or set of instructions that causes the Hardware to function in a

desired way. The basic difference between the Hardware and Software is just the same
as that exists between TV and TV studio. Without TV studio (software) from where the
programs are telecast, the TV (Hardware) is a dead machine.

There are five categories of software. They are:

 Operating System (OS): The software that manages the resources of a computer
system and schedules its operation is called Operating system. The operating
system acts as interface between the hardware and the user programs and
facilitates the execution of programs. Generally, the OS acts as an interface
between the user and the Hardware of the computer. It is a bridge between the
user and the Hardware.

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Three basic categories of Operating Systems:

o Stand-alone OS – a complete operating system that works on a desktop
computer, notebook computer, or mobile computing device.
Ex. DOS, Windows XP, Mac OS X, UNIX and Linux

o Network OS – an operating system that is designed specifically to

support a network and typically resides in a server.
Ex. Netware, Windows Server 2003, UNIX, Linux and Solaris.

o Embedded OS – an operating system found on most PDAs and small

devices.
Ex. Windows CE, Windows Mobile, Palm OS, Embedded Linux and
Symbian OS.

The User interface provided by the OS can be character based or graphical:

o Character User Interface (CUI) – It is operated with keyboard only.
o Graphical User Interface (GUI) – The system can be operated with mouse
and keyboard.

Today most operating systems perform the following important functions:

o Processor management: It manages the assignment of processor to
different tasks being performed by the computer system.
o Memory management: It manages the allocation of main memory and
other storage areas to the system program as well as user program and
data.
o Input/Output management: It manages the co-ordination and assignment
of different Input and Output devices while one or more program are
executed.
o File management: It allows all files to be easily changed and modified
through the use of text editors or some other file manipulation routines.

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o Establishment and enforcement of a priority system: It determines and

maintains the order in which jobs are to be executed in the computer
system.
o Interpretation of commands and instructions.
o Facilitates easy communication between the computer system and the
computer operator.

 Translators: Computers can understand instructions only when they are written in
their own language – the machine language. Therefore, a program written in any
other language should be translated into machine language. The software that
―translates the instructions of different languages is known as translators.

There are two types of translators:

o A compiler checks the entire user – written program (known as the source
program) and if it is error free, produces a complete program in machine
language (known as object program). The source program is retained for
possible modifications and corrections and the object program is loaded into
the computer for execution. If the source program contains errors, the
compilers produce a list of errors at the end of the execution of the program.
i.e a compiler translates the whole program before execution.

o An interpreter does a similar job but in a different style. The interpreter

translates one statement at a time and if it is error – free, executes. This
continues till the last statement. Thus, an interpreter translates or executes
the first instruction before it goes to the second, while a compiler translates
the whole program before execution.

The major difference between compiler and interpreter is

o Error correction is very much simpler in the case of interpreter as it
translates the statements in stages. The compiler produces an error list of
the entire program at the end.
o Interpreter takes more time for the execution of the program compared to
compilers as it translates one statement at a time

Programming Languages

There are three types of programming languages:

o Machine Languages: Computers respond only to machine language. This
language is in terms of binary codes (0,1). i.e. all programs should be written
with these codes, which is difficult, time consuming and leading to errors
while writing the programs. There is no unique standard machine language.
Rather there are many machine languages. These are machine dependent.
These are referred as the first-generation languages.

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o Assembly Languages: It uses mnemonic codes rather than numeric codes

(as in machine languages). Ex. Add or A is used as a symbol for addition.
It requires translators to convert into machine language. Like machine
language, writing program in assembly language is also time consuming.
These are also machine dependent.

o High Level Languages (HLL): These are referred as problem oriented

languages (POL). These are referred as third generation languages. The
advantages of these languages are
 The high-level languages are convenient for writing programs as
they can be written without any codes. These languages follow rules
like ―English‖ language.
 Because of their English like nature, less time is required to write a
program.
 They are machine independent. A program written in any HLL can
be run on computers of different types without any modifications.

Several High-Level Languages which are in common use:

FORTRAN : FORmula TRANslation
COBOL : Common Business Oriented Language
BASIC : Beginner‘s All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
PROLOG : PROgramming in LOGic
ALGOL : ALGOrithmic Language

 Utility Programs: These are pre-written programs supplied by the manufacturer

for maintaining day to day activities of computer system.

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Categories:

o Built-in Utilities – File manager, Image Viewer, Personal Firewall,

Uninstaller, Disk Scanner, Disk Defragmenter, Diagnostic Utility, Backup
Utility, and Screensaver.

o Stand-alone Utilities – Antivirus Programs, Spyware Removers, Internet

Filters (Anti-Spam programs, Web Filters, Pop-up Blockers) File
Compression, File Conversion, CD/DVD Burning, and PC Maintenance.

 Application Software: consists of programs designed to make users more

productive and/or assist them with personal tasks.

Categories:
o Business software
o Graphics and multimedia
o Home/Personal/Educational
o Communication

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Available in a variety of forms:

o Packaged software – a mass-produced, copyrighted retail software that
meets the needs of a variety of users

o Custom software – performs functions specific to a business or industry.

o Open source software – provided for use, modification, and redistribution.

o Shareware – copyrighted software that is distributed free for a trial period.

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o Freeware – copyrighted software provided at no cost by an individual or a

company that retains all rights to the software.

o Public-domain software – free software donated for public use and has no
copyright restrictions.

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WORKING WITH
PERSONAL
COMPUTERS

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◦◦◦ SETTING-UP A COMPUTER ◦◦◦

Setting-up a Desktop PC

So you have a new computer and you're ready to set it up. This may seem like an
overwhelming and complicated task, but it's actually a lot easier than you might think!
Most computers are set up in a similar way, so it doesn't matter what brand of computer
you have.

If you're setting up a new computer that's still in the box, you'll probably find a how-to
guide that includes step-by-step details. Even if it didn't include instructions, you can still
set up the computer in a few easy steps. We'll take you through the different steps needed
to set up a typical computer.

Step 1:
Unpack the monitor and computer case from the box. Remove any plastic covering or
protective tape. Place the monitor and computer case on a desk or work area.

Be sure to place your computer case in an area that is well ventilated and has good air
flow. This will help to prevent the computer from overheating.

Step 2:
Locate the monitor cable. There are several types of monitor cables that looks like the
image below.

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If you're having trouble finding your monitor cable, refer to the instruction manual for your
computer. (If you have an all-in-one computer that's built into the monitor, you can skip to
Step 4).

Step 3:
Connect one end of the cable to the monitor port on the back of the computer case and
the other end to the monitor. If you're using a VGA cable like the one in the picture below,
you'll want to tighten the screws on the monitor cable to secure it.

NOTE: Many computer cables will only fit a specific way. If the cable doesn't fit, don't
force it or you might damage the connectors. Make sure the plug aligns with the port, then
connect it.

Step 4:
Unpack the keyboard and determine whether it uses a USB (rectangular) connector or a
PS/2 (round) connector. If it uses a USB connector, plug it into any of the USB ports on
the back of the computer. If it uses a PS/2 connector, plug it into the purple keyboard port
on the back of the computer.

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Step 5:
Unpack the mouse and determine whether it uses a USB or PS/2 connector. If it uses a
USB connector, plug it into any of the USB ports on the back of the computer. If it uses a
PS/2 connector, plug it into the green mouse port on the back of the computer.

NOTE: If your keyboard has a USB port, you can connect your mouse to the keyboard
instead of connecting it directly to your computer. If you have a wireless mouse or
keyboard, you may need to connect a Bluetooth dongle (USB adapter) to your computer.
However, many computers have built-in Bluetooth, so an adapter may not be necessary.

Step 6:
If you have external speakers or headphones, you can connect them to your computer's
audio port (either on the front or back of the computer case). Many computers have color-
coded ports. Speakers or headphones connect to the green port, and microphones
connect to the pink port. The blue port is the line in, which can be used with other types
of devices.

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Some speakers, headphones, and microphones have USB connectors instead of the
usual audio plug. These can be connected to any USB port. In addition, many computers
have speakers or microphones built into the monitor.

Step 7:
Locate the two power supply cables that came with your computer. Plug the first power
supply cable into the back of the computer case and then into a surge protector. Then,
using the other cable, connect the monitor to the surge protector.

NOTE: You can also use an uninterruptable power supply (UPS), which acts as a surge
protector and provides temporary power if there is a power outage.

Step 8:
Finally, plug the surge protector into a wall outlet. You may also need to turn on the surge
protector if it has a power switch.

NOTE: If you don't have a surge protector, you can plug the computer directly into the
wall. However, this is not recommended because electrical surges can damage your
computer.

Step 9:
If you have a printer, scanner, webcam, or other peripherals, you can connect them at
this point. Many peripherals are plug and play, which means they will be recognized by
your computer as soon as they are plugged in.

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Other peripherals may include software that needs to be installed before you can begin
using them. Use the instructions included with the device to install it if necessary.

NOTE: Generally, peripherals are optional, and you can add new ones at any time; you
don't have to add all peripherals during the initial setup of your computer.

Setup complete!
That's it—you've finished setting up your computer, so it's time to start using it!

◦◦◦ TURNING ON A COMPUTER ◦◦◦

The very first step is to turn on the computer. To do this, locate and press the power
button. It's in a different place on every computer, but it will have the universal power
button symbol.

Once turned on, your computer takes time before it's ready to use. You may see a few
different displays flash on the screen. This process is called booting up, and it can take
anywhere from 15 seconds to several minutes.

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Once the computer has booted up, it may be ready to use, or it may require you to log in.
This means identifying yourself by typing your user name or selecting your profile, then
typing your password. If you've never logged in to your computer before, you may need
to create an account.

◦◦◦ THE KEYBOARD AND MOUSE ◦◦◦

You interact with a computer mainly by using the keyboard and mouse, or a trackpad on
laptops. Learning to use these devices is essential to learning to use a computer. Most
people find it comfortable to place the keyboard on the desk directly in front of them and
the mouse to one side of the keyboard.

The mouse controls the pointer on the screen. Whenever you move the mouse across
the desk, the pointer will move in a similar manner. A mouse usually has two buttons,
which are referred to as the left button and the right button. You will often interact with the
computer by moving the mouse pointer over something on the computer screen, then
clicking one of the buttons.

On laptops, you can use the trackpad, located below the keyboard, instead of a mouse.
Simply drag your finger across the trackpad to move the pointer on the screen. Some
trackpads do not have buttons, so you'll either press or tap the trackpad to click.

The keyboard allows you to type letters, numbers, and words into the computer.
Whenever you see a flashing vertical line—called the cursor—you can start typing.

NOTE: Note that the mouse pointer is also called a cursor, but it is shaped differently.
The keyboard cursor is also called the insertion point.

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◦◦◦ THE IINTERFACE ◦◦◦

PCs use a graphical user interface (GUI), and they each have their own look and feel.
The main screen you'll start from is the desktop. This is sort of like a main menu or a table
of contents. From here, you can access the programs and features you need to use your
computer.

Frequent Apps Desktop

Start Menu
Live Tiles

Tiles

User
Account

System
Icons

Start Button Tasked View Notification Area

Search Box Pinned Apps Taskbar

The Windows 10 screen offers the following main features:

 Start button – It appears in the lower-left corner of the screen, and you click it to
display the Start menu.

 Start menu – The Start menu is divided into two sections. On the left is a
navigation section that gives you access to your user account; your most frequently
used apps; system features such as File Explorer, Settings, and Power; and the
rest of your apps (via the All Apps command). On the right is a scaled-down version
of the Windows 8/8.1 Start screen that offers quick viewing and access to the tiles
(see the next item) of a few apps.

 Tiles – The rectangles you see on the right side of the Start menu each represent
an item on your PC—most tiles represent apps, but you can also add tiles for
folders and websites—and you click a tile to launch that item. Tiles can appear in
one of four sizes.

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 Live tiles – Many of the Start menu tiles are “live” in the sense that they display
often-updated information instead of the app icon. For example, the Weather tile
shows the current weather for your default location; the Mail tile displays recent
email messages; and the Calendar tile shows your upcoming events. Note that
these tiles don’t display any live content until you have used them at least once.

 All Apps – Clicking this icon displays a complete list of the apps and desktop
programs installed on your PC. Click Back to return to the main Start menu.

 User account – Clicking this icon gives you access to several account-related
tasks: accessing the Accounts section of the Settings app, locking your PC, and
signing out of your account.

 Desktop – Relegated to a mere “app” in Windows 8/8.1, the desktop is back in

Windows 10 and resumes its (rightful, in our opinion) place in the main interface
as the default location for programs and documents.

 Taskbar – This strip along the bottom of the screen displays icons for each running
app. You can also pin an app’s icon so that a shortcut to it remains in the taskbar
even when the app isn’t running.

 Search box – You use this box to search your PC. We’ve found that this feature
is the easiest way to launch apps, settings, and documents in Windows 10.

 Task View – Click this taskbar icon to display thumbnails of your running apps and
to create virtual desktops.

 Pinned apps – The Windows 10 taskbar comes with several pinned apps, which
means those icons remain on the taskbar even when the apps are closed.

 Notification area – This part of the taskbar displays various system icons for
features such as networking, sound, and power, as well as the notification issued
by Windows.

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◦◦◦ COMPUTER’S FILE SYSTEM ◦◦◦

No matter which operating system you use, your computer uses folders to organize all
of the different files and applications it contains. Folder icons on your computer are
designed to look like file folders full of documents or pictures.

Each operating system has its own file system, which helps you find your folders and files.
If you have a Windows PC, you'll use the File Explorer (also known as Windows
Explorer).

Opening Computer's File System

The file system icon will be in the bottom-left part of the screen. On a PC, the File Explorer
icon looks like a folder, as in the image below.

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You can also open the file system by clicking a folder from your desktop.

Basic Navigation
If you see the file you want, you can double-click it with your mouse. Otherwise, you can
use the Navigation pane on the left side of the window to select a different location.

Deleting Files
Windows use a Recycle Bin—to prevent you from accidentally deleting files. When you
delete a file, it is moved to the Trash can. If you change your mind, you can move the file
back to its original location.

If you want to permanently delete the file, you will need to empty the Recycle Bin. To do
this, right-click the icon and select Empty.

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Opening Files and Applications

Each application on your computer has a group of file types—or formats—it is able to
open. When you double-click a file, your computer will automatically use the correct
application to open it.

However, there may be times you may want to open an application directly, instead of
just opening a file. To open an application in Windows, click the Start button, then select
the desired application. If you don't see the one you want, you can click All Programs/All
Apps to see a full list, or simply type the name of the application on your keyboard to
search for it.

◦◦◦ ADJUSTING YOUR COMPUTER'S SETTINGS ◦◦◦

When you start using a new computer, you may want to begin by adjusting the computer's
settings. Adjusting your settings can range from simple tasks such as changing your
desktop background to more advanced tasks like adjusting your security or keyboard
settings.
 In Windows 10, click the Start button, then select Settings.

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 In Windows 8.1 and earlier, click the Start button, then locate and select the
Control Panel.

 On a Mac, click the Apple icon, then select System Preferences.

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◦◦◦ SHUTTING DOWN YOUR COMPUTER ◦◦◦

When you're done using your computer, it's important to shut it down properly. To shut
down Windows, click the Start button, then select Shut down (in some versions, this may
say Turn Off Computer or look like the power symbol).

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INTRODUCTION
TO
MS WORD 2016

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◦◦◦ INTRODUCTION TO MICROSOFT WORD 2016 ◦◦◦

Word processing software is used to create, edit, format, and print documents. A key
advantage of word processing software is that users easily can make changes in
documents, such as correcting spelling; changing margins; and adding, deleting, or
relocating words, sentences, or entire paragraphs.

Quick Access Toolbar Title Bar

Tell Me

Ribbon

File Menu

Tabs
Dialog Box Launcher
Group

Status Bar Zoom

View Toolbar

Screen Elements

 File Menu: The File tab will bring you into the Backstage View. The Backstage
View is where you manage your files and the data about them – creating, opening,
printing, saving, inspecting for hidden metadata or personal information, and
setting options.

 Ribbon: An area across the top of the screen that makes almost all the capabilities
of Word available in a single area.

 Tabs: An area on the Ribbon that contains buttons that are organized in groups.
The default tabs are Home, Insert, Design, Layout, References, Mailings, Review,
View and EndNote X5.

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 Title Bar: A horizontal bar at the top of an active document. This bar displays the
name of the document and application. At the right end of the Title Bar is the
Minimize, Maximize and Close buttons.

 Groups: A group of buttons on a tab that are exposed and easily accessible.

 Dialog Box Launcher: A button in the corner of a group that launches a dialog
box containing all the options within that group.

 Status Bar: A horizontal bar at the bottom of an active window that gives details
about the document.

 View Toolbar: A toolbar that enables, adjusts, and displays different views of a
document.

 Zoom: Magnifies or reduces the contents in the document window.

 Quick Access Toolbar: A customizable toolbar at the top of an active document.

By default, the Quick Access Toolbar displays the Save, Undo, and Repeat buttons
and is used for easy access to frequently used commands. To customize this
toolbar, click on the dropdown arrow and select the commands you want to add.

 Tell Me: This is a text field where you can enter words and phrases about what
you want to do next and quickly get to features you want to use or actions you want
to perform. You can also use Tell Me to find help about what you're looking for, or
to use Smart Lookup to research or define the term you entered.

Contextual Tabs are designed to appear on the Ribbon when certain objects or
commands are selected. These tabs provide easy access to options specific to the
selected object or command. For example, the commands for editing a picture will not be
available until the picture is selected, at which time the Picture Tools tab will appear.

To Create a New Word Document

1. Click the File tab.
2. Click New.
3. Click Blank Document.

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◦◦◦ NAVIGATING IN A DOCUMENT ◦◦◦

The following table lists ways to navigate in a document using your keyboard to move the
insertion point in an active document:

To move the insertion point Press…

Left one character Left arrow
Right one character Right arrow
Down one line Down arrow
Up one line Up arrow
Left one word CTRL + Left arrow
Right one word CTRL + Right arrow
To the beginning of the current line Home
To the end of the current line End
To the beginning of the document CTRL + Home
To the end of the document CTRL + End
To the beginning of the previous page CTRL + Page Up
To the beginning of the next page CTRL + Page Down
Up one screen Page Up
Down one screen Page Down

To Display Different Views

1. Click the View tab.
2. Click on the desired view.
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View Options:
 Read Mode: Displays as much of the content of the document as will fit in the
screen.
 Print Layout View: Shows a document as it appears on a printed page.
 Web Layout View: Shows a document as it appears in a web browser.
 Outline View: Shows the structure of a document, which consist of heading
and body text.
 Draft View: Displays the content of a document with a basic layout.

~OR~
3. Click a View button on the View Toolbar in the lower right corner of the Status Bar.

◦◦◦ EDITING AND PROOFING DOCUMENTS ◦◦◦

Selecting Text
 Select a word: Click and drag or double-click on the word
 Select a sentence: Click and drag or click in the sentence while holding down the
CTRL key
 Select a paragraph: Click and drag or triple-click in the paragraph or double-click
in the selection area to the left of the paragraph
 Select a block of text: Click and drag or click to the left of the first word, hold down
the SHIFT key, and then immediately click to the right of the last word
 Select a line: Click and drag or click in the selection to the left of the line
 Select an entire document: Triple-click in the selection area or hit the CTRL + A
keys
 Undo an action: On the Quick Access Toolbar click the Undo key

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Deleting Text
When deleting text in your document you can either use the Delete key or the Backspace
key. The Delete key deletes text to the right of your cursor while the Backspace key
deletes text to the left of your cursor.

◦◦◦ CUT, COPY AND PASTE ◦◦◦

Often times you will need to move text from one location in a document to another, or to
a different application. In this case you will perform a Cut and Paste. To reproduce a
specific part of a document and place it elsewhere, you will perform a Copy and Paste.

To Cut Text
1. Select the text you want to move.
2. Click on the Cut icon located on the Home tab in the Clipboard group.

To Copy Text
1. Select the text you want to copy.
2. Click on the Copy icon located on the Home tab in the Clipboard group.

To Paste Text
1. Click in the area of the document where you want to paste your text.
2. Click on the Paste icon located on the Home tab in the Clipboard group.

◦◦◦ FORMATTING A DOCUMENT ◦◦◦

To Make Font Changes
1. Select the desired text that you want to format.
2. Choose commands from the Font group on the Home tab.
3. For additional formatting options, click on the Dialog Box Launcher in the lower-
right corner of the group to launch the Font dialog box.

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You can also use the MiniToolbar. The Mini Toolbar is activated when you select
text to be formatted. This toolbar is miniature and semi-transparent to help you
work with fonts, font styles, font sizing, alignment, text color, indent levels, and
bullet features.

Live Preview
Using Live Preview temporarily applies formatting on selected text or objects whenever
a formatting command is hovered. This allows you to quickly preview how the formatting
options will look before they are made.

1. Select the desired text that you want to format.

2. On the Home tab, in the Font group, do any of the following:
 Click the arrow next to the Font box and move the pointer over the fonts that
you want to preview.
 Click the arrow next to the Font Size box and move the pointer over the font
sizes that you want to preview.
 Click the arrow next to the Text Highlight Color button and move the pointer
over the highlight or fill colors that you want to preview.
 Click the arrow next to the Font Color button and move the pointer over the
font colors that you want to preview.

When you finish previewing the formatting choices, do one of the following:
1. To apply the previewed formatting, click the selected font name, size, or color in
the list.
2. To cancel live previewing without applying any changes, press ESC.

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Formatting a Paragraph
A paragraph is a select group of text that can have its own formatting characteristics, such
as alignment, spacing and styles.

1. Select the desired paragraph(s) that you want to format.

2. Choose commands from the Paragraph group on the Home tab.
3. For additional formatting options, click on the Dialog Box Launcher in the lower-
right corner of the group to launch the Paragraph dialog box.

You can also use the MiniToolbar.

◦◦◦ PREVIEWING AND PRINTING A DOCUMENT ◦◦◦

To Print a Document
1. Click the File tab.
2. Click Print.

This view includes print preview, print commands, as well as the print settings:

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◦◦◦ SAVING AND CLOSING A NEW DOCUMENT ◦◦◦

To Save a New Document

1. On the Quick Access Toolbar, click the Save button.

~OR~
2. Click the File tab.
3. Click Save As.
4. Select the location, the Save As dialog box will appear.

5. In the File Name field, type the name of the document.

6. Click Save.

To Close a Document
1. Click the File tab, and then click Close.
2. A Microsoft Office Word dialog box appears displaying a “Save your changes to
this file?” message:

3. Click Save to save, Don’t Save to discard changes, or Cancel to close the dialog
box.

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INTRODUCTION
TO
MS EXCEL 2016

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◦◦◦ INTRODUCTION TO MICROSOFT EXCEL 2016 ◦◦◦

Spreadsheet software allows users to organize data in rows and columns and perform
calculations on the data. These rows and columns collectively are called a worksheet.
Most spreadsheet software has basic features to help users create, edit, and format
worksheets.
Quick Access Toolbar
Tell Me

Ribbon
File Menu

Expand Formula Bar

Formula Bar Button

Vertical
Scroll

Horizontal Page Break

Insert Worksheet Button Scroll View

Worksheet Navigation Tab Zoom

Normal Page
View Layout
Screen Elements View

 The Ribbon
The Ribbon is designed to help you quickly find the commands that you need to
complete a task. Commands are organized in logical groups, which are collected
together under Tabs. Each Tab relates to a type of activity, such as formatting or
laying out a page. To reduce clutter, some Tabs are shown only when needed. For
example, the Picture Tools tab is shown only when a picture is selected.

 File Menu
Here you will find the basic commands such as open, save, print, etc.

 Quick Access Toolbar

The place to keep the items that you not only need to access quickly, but want to
be immediately available regardless of which of the Ribbon's tabs you're working
on. If you put so many items on the Quick Access Toolbar that it becomes too big
to fit on the title bar, you can move it onto its own line.

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 Tell Me
This is a text field where you can enter words and phrases about what you want to
do next and quickly get to features you want to use or actions you want to perform.
You can also use Tell Me to find help about what you're looking for, or to use Smart
Lookup to research or define the term you entered.

 Formula Bar
A place where you can enter or view formulas or text.

 Expand Formula Bar Button

This button allows you to expand the formula bar. This is helpful when you have
either a long formula or large piece of text in a cell.

 Worksheet Navigation Tabs

By default, every workbook starts with 1 sheet.

 Insert Worksheet Button

Click the Insert New Worksheet button to insert a new worksheet in your
workbook.

 Horizontal/Vertical Scroll
Allows you to scroll vertically/horizontally in the worksheet.

 Normal View
This is the “normal view” for working on a spreadsheet in Excel.

 Page Layout View

View the document as it will appear on the printed page.

 Page Break Preview

View a preview of where pages will break when the document is printed.

 Zoom Level
Allows you to quickly zoom in or zoom out of the worksheet.

There are also contextual tabs that appear, depending on what you are working on. For
example, if you have inserted pictures, the Picture Tools tab appears whenever a picture
is selected.

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◦◦◦ NAVIGATING IN THE EXCEL ENVIRONMENT ◦◦◦

Below is a table that will assist you with navigating/moving around in the Excel
environment.

Key Description
ARROW KEYS Move one cell up, down, left, or right in a worksheet.
SHIFT+ARROW KEY extends the selection of cells by one cell.
BACKSPACE Deletes one character to the left in the Formula Bar.
Also clears the content of the active cell.
In cell editing mode, it deletes the character to the left of the insertion
point.
DELETE Removes the cell contents (data and formulas) from selected cells
without affecting cell formats or comments.
In cell editing mode, it deletes the character to the right of the
insertion point.
END Moves to the cell in the lower-right corner of the window when
SCROLL LOCK is turned on.
Also selects the last command on the menu when a menu or
submenu is visible.
CTRL+END moves to the last cell on a worksheet, in the lowest used
row of the rightmost used column. If the cursor is in the formula bar,
CTRL+END moves the cursor to the end of the text.
CTRL+SHIFT+END extends the selection of cells to the last used
cell on the worksheet (lower-right corner). If the cursor is in the
formula bar, CTRL+SHIFT+END selects all text in the formula bar
from the cursor position to the end—this does not affect the height
of the formula bar.
ENTER Completes a cell entry from the cell or the Formula Bar, and selects
the cell below (by default).
ESC Cancels an entry in the cell or Formula Bar. Closes an open menu
or submenu, dialog box, or message window.
HOME Moves to the beginning of a row in a worksheet.
CTRL+HOME moves to the beginning of a worksheet.
PAGE DOWN Moves one screen down in a worksheet.
PAGE UP Moves one screen up in a worksheet.
SPACEBAR In a dialog box, performs the action for the selected button, or selects
or clears a check box.
CTRL+SPACEBAR selects an entire column in a worksheet.
SHIFT+SPACEBAR selects an entire row in a worksheet.
CTRL+SHIFT+SPACEBAR selects the entire worksheet.
TAB Moves one cell to the right in a worksheet.

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◦◦◦ HIGHLIGHTING/SELECTING AREAS USING THE MOUSE ◦◦◦

Select cells:

Moves a cell’s contents:

Activate the Autofill feature:

To Select a Column/s:
Click on the column letter/s.

To Select a Row/s:
Click on the row number/s.

To Select the Entire Worksheet:

Click above row 1 and to the left of column A or hit CTRL A on the keyboard.

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◦◦◦ ENTERING TEXT ◦◦◦

Any items that are not to be used in calculations are considered, in Excel’s terminology,
labels. This includes numerical information, such as phone numbers and zip codes.
Labels usually include the title, column and row headings.

To Enter Text/Labels:
1. Click in a cell.
2. Type text.
3. Press Enter.

NOTE: By default, pressing the Enter key will move you to the cell below the active
cell.

The label actually “lives” in the cell you typed it into. If you type long text it might appear
to be in multiple columns. It is important to understand this concept when trying to apply
formatting to a cell. Using the formula bar will confirm where the label actually “lives.”

Autofill
Frequently, it is necessary to enter lists of information. For example, column headings are
often the months of the year or the days of the week. To simplify entering repetitive or
sequential lists of information, Excel has a tool called Autofill. This tool allows pre-
programmed lists, as well as custom lists, to be easily added to a spreadsheet.

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◦◦◦ ENTERING VALUES ◦◦◦

Numerical pieces of information that will be used for calculations are called values. They
are entered the same way as labels. It is important NOT to type values with characters
such as “,” or “$”.

To Enter Values:
1. Navigate to a cell.
2. Type a value.
3. Press Enter.

◦◦◦ CREATING FORMULAS ◦◦◦

Formulas perform calculations or other actions on the data in your worksheet. A formula
starts with an equal sign (=). It is possible to create formulas in Excel using the actual
values, such as “4000*.4” but it is more beneficial to refer to the cell address in the
formula, for example “D1*.4”. One of the benefits of using a spreadsheet program is the
ability to create a formula in one cell and copy it to other cells. Most spreadsheet formulas
use a concept called relative referencing.

This is the explanation of relative referencing from Excel’s help file:

“A relative cell reference in a formula, such as A1, is based on the relative position of the
cell that contains the formula and the cell the reference refers to. If the position of the cell
that contains the formula changes, the reference is changed. If you copy the formula
across rows or down columns, the reference automatically adjusts. By default, new
formulas use relative references. For example, if you copy a relative reference in cell B2
to cell B3, it automatically adjusts.”

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It is also important to know the operators Excel uses for formulas:

Operator (Key) Function

= Begins all Excel functions and formulas
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division

To Create a Formula:
1. Click in a cell.
2. Press the = key.
3. Type the formula.
4. Press Enter.

◦◦◦ COPYING FORMULAS ◦◦◦

Like many things in Excel, there is more than one way to copy formulas. Feel free to
choose what works best for you.

To Copy Formulas Using Autofill:

1. Click in the cell that contains the formula.
2. Position the mouse on the Autofill handle (a thin black cross will appear).
3. Click and drag to copy the formula.

To Copy Formulas Using Copy and Paste:

1. Click in the cell that contains a formula.
2. Select Copy on the Home Ribbon in the Editing group.
3. Highlight the cell where you would like to paste the formula.
4. Select Paste on the Home Ribbon in the Editing group.

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ALTERNATE METHOD
Keyboard: Ribbon: Mouse:
Press CTRL + C Right-click and
choose Copy

◦◦◦ AUTOSUM FUNCTION ◦◦◦

The most common formula in Excel is SUM, or the addition of multiple values. In this
example, we could create a formula that reads =C6+D6+E6+F6+G6+H6. That’s a lot of
typing! Instead, we can use the SUM function and specify a range of cells.

Functions are more complex formulas that are invoked by typing their name. In this
example, we will use the SUM function. Excel has over 200 functions that can be used.
Because SUM is the most common function, it is the only one with its own toolbar button.
When working with functions, the cells used in the formula are referred to as the range.
A range is a group of cells that are specified by naming the first cell in the group and the
last cell. For example, A1:D1 is a range that includes cells A1, B1, C1 and D1.

To Create the Total Column’s Values Using Autosum:

1. Click in the cell where you would like the Total to be located.
2. Press the Autosum button on the Home Ribbon.

The Autosum function automatically looks for cells that have values in them. It will
read values until it finds the first blank cell. Autosum will always look for values in
the cells above it first, then to the left. This means that you need to be aware of
what cells will be in the formula. Autosum will select the range of cells to use in the
formula by highlighting the range.

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3. Press Enter.

◦◦◦ SAVING A WORKSHEET ◦◦◦

When working in Excel it is necessary to save your files. It is also very important that while
working, your file is saved frequently. When naming a file, you are restricted to 255
characters. Avoid most punctuation; spaces are acceptable.

To Save the File:

1. Click on the File tab.
2. Click Save/ Save As.

3. Choose the destination.

4. Type a file name.
5. Click Save.

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◦◦◦ EDITING CELLS ◦◦◦

Excel provides a major enhancement over earlier spreadsheet products in its ability to
edit cells easily. There are various methods for cell editing, including double-clicking in
the cell, using the F2 key, and typing in the formula bar.

To Edit a Cell in the Worksheet:

1. Position yourself in the cell you would like to edit.
2. Press the F2 key on the keyboard or double-click in the cell.
3. Use the backspace or delete keys to edit the cell.
4. Press Enter when you have finished editing the cell.

~OR~
5. Click in the cell you would like to edit.
6. Click in the formula bar and make any necessary changes.
7. Press Enter when you have finished editing the cell.

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◦◦◦ UNDO ◦◦◦

Excel and other Windows applications have a convenient method of correcting mistakes
known as Undo. In many applications, including Excel, you can undo an almost limitless
number of commands. The Undo button has a small down-pointing arrow next to it. When
pressed, it will display a list of actions that can be undone. Redo works in the same way,
allowing you to repeat actions.

Excel will undo actions in reverse chronological order, meaning that the most recent
command is reversed first, then the one prior to that, and so on. You cannot reverse an
earlier action using Undo without first undoing the actions that were performed after it.

NOTE: The list of commands to undo is reset after the file is saved. You cannot use Undo
to fix an error after the file is saved.

To Undo a Command:
Click Undo.

◦◦◦ CLEARING CELLS ◦◦◦

As we begin to look at formatting, it is important to understand what makes up the

contents of a cell. There are three distinct items that can be in a cell:
 Contents
 Formats
 Comments

These allow items to be formatted properly, even if the values change. However, when
trying to delete or clear a cell, it can be a bit tricky. Excel stores formats and contents
separately, simply deleting the contents does not delete the format.

To Clear a Cell Format:

1. Click in the cell that contains formatting.
2. Click the drop-down arrow next to the Clear button on the Home tab in the Editing
group.
3. Click Clear Formats.

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◦◦◦ FORMATTING VALUES ◦◦◦

Applying formats to any cell(s) can be done either using the Font, Alignment and
Number groups or using the dialog box which will include all the formatting options.

To Apply the Currency Format:

1. Highlight the cell/s.
2. Click on the Currency Style button on the Home tab in the Number group.
3. If necessary, click on the Increase or Decrease Decimal button on the Number
group.

To Apply the Comma Format:

1. Highlight cells.
2. Click on the Comma Style button on the Number group.
3. If necessary, click on the Increase or Decrease Decimal button on the Number
group.

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◦◦◦ FORMATTING LABELS ◦◦◦

A Label, or text formatting is applied virtually the same way it is done in word processing
programs.

To Format the Title Labels:

1. Highlight the cell/s.
2. Select a font from the Font group.
3. Select a point size from the Font group.

the Dialog Box:

1. Highlight the cells
2. Click on the arrow in the corner of one of the formatting groups (Font, Alignment,
Number) to open the Format Cells dialog box and click on one of the tabs.

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◦◦◦ FORMAT PAINTER ◦◦◦

Frequently, you will need to take a format that is applied to one cell and apply it to other
cells. A quick way to do this is by using the Format Painter.

To Apply a Format to Cells:

1. Highlight cell/s.
2. Format the cell/s to the desired format.
3. Select the formatted cell/s.
4. Click the Format Painter from the Clipboard group of the Home tab.
5. Highlight the cells you wish to format.

Tips and Tricks: If you would like the Format Painter to remain active, double-click the
Format Painter. It will remain active until you press the Esc key.

◦◦◦ CENTERING TEXT ACROSS COLUMNS ◦◦◦

When it comes to titles, it may be preferable to have the information centered across the
document, rather than in only one cell. Excel uses the feature Merge Cells to accomplish
this.

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To Center the Title Across Columns:

1. Highlight cell/s.
2. Click the Merge and Center button on the Alignment group.

NOTE: Each cell must be done individually. Excel will delete the contents of all but the
top most cell if multiple cells are selected.

This option basically takes all the cells in the highlighted range and merges them into one
large cell. For example, the range A1:F1 became cell A1 after the Merge Cells button
was selected. There is no cell B1, C1, etc. any longer.

◦◦◦ CREATING A BASIC CHART ◦◦◦

To Create a Chart:
1. Highlight the data to be charted.
2. Click on the Insert tab.
3. Click on a Chart Type in the Charts group.
4. Click on a Chart Style.

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To Move your Chart:

Click and drag the chart to a new location on the worksheet.
When the chart is selected you will notice a new tab “Chart Tools” on the Ribbon. If you
do not see the Chart Tools, click on the chart to select it. Under Chart Tools you will find
2 tabs:
 Design
 Format

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◦◦◦ EXCEL FUNCTIONS ◦◦◦

As we have previously seen, the power of Excel lies in its ability to perform calculations.
The real strength of this is shown in Functions. Functions are more complex formulas
that are executed by using the name of a function and stating whatever parameters the
function requires.

Function Defines
=SUM(range of cells) returns the sum of the selected cells
=AVERAGE(range of cells) returns the average of the selected cells
=MAX(range of cells) returns the highest value of the selected cells
=MIN(range of cells) returns the lowest value of the selected cells
=COUNT(range of cells) returns the number of values of the selected
cells

To Enter the SUM Function:

1. Click in a cell.
2. Click on the AutoSum button in the Editing group.
3. Highlight the range of cells that are to be added (The colon means “through”).
4. Press ENTER.

To Insert the Average Function into the Worksheet:

1. Click in a cell.
2. Click on the drop-down arrow next to the AutoSum button.
3. Click on Average.
4. Highlight the range of cells be calculated.
5. Press ENTER.

To Insert the MAX Function into the Worksheet:

1. Click in a cell.
2. Click on the drop-down arrow next to the AutoSum button.
3. Click on Max.
4. Highlight the range of cells be calculated.
5. Press ENTER.

To Insert the MIN Function into the Worksheet:

1. Click in a cell.
2. Click on the drop-down arrow next to the AutoSum button.
3. Click on Min.
4. Highlight the range of cells be calculated.
5. Press ENTER.

To Insert the COUNT NUMBERS Function into the Worksheet:

1. Click in a cell.
2. Click on the drop-down arrow next to the AutoSum button.
3. Click on Count Numbers.

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4. Highlight the range of cells be calculated.

5. Press ENTER.

◦◦◦ PRINTING A WORKSHEET ◦◦◦

To Print, Preview and Modify Page Setup

1. Click on the File tab.
2. Click on Print.

The spreadsheet shows as it will be printed. You can proceed to print the document from
here, or you can change things to make the printed output look different.

Page Setup
You can change options under Settings or you can click on Page Setup.

Clicking on Page Setup will open a dialog box with four tabs:
 Page
 Margins
 Header/Footer
 Sheet

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Page:
1. Change the Orientation.
2. Adjust the Scaling.
3. Change the Paper Size.

Margins:
1. Change the margins.
2. Center on the page either horizontally, vertically or select both.

Header/Footer:
1. To select from one of the already created headers/footers, click on the drop-down
arrow for Header and also for Footer and choose from the list.
2. To create a custom header and/or footer, click on Custom Header and Custom
Footer.

This area is made of three sections – left, center and right. Any information added
in these sections will appear in that area (left, center or right) in the header or
footer. You will also see a row of buttons in this dialog box. Following are their
functions:

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3. Click in a section to position your cursor.

4. Enter text/fields.
5. Click OK when finished.

Sheet Tab:
1. Repeat Rows and Columns under Print Titles.
2. Check off what to print under Print.
3. Change the Page Order.

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INTRODUCTION
TO
MS POWERPOINT
2016

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◦◦◦ INTRODUCTION TO MICROSOFT POWERPOINT 2016 ◦◦◦

Presentation software is application software that allows users to create visual aids for
presentations to communicate ideas, messages, and other information to a group. The
presentations can be viewed as slides, sometimes called a slide show, that are displayed
on a large monitor or on a projection screen.

Viewing a Presentation

When you create a Blank Presentation in PowerPoint, the workspace opens in Normal
view. Normal view is divided into three areas:
1. Slide Pane - shows the full layout of a slide
2. Thumbnails – shows slide thumbnails
3. Notes Pane – used to input text relevant to a specific slide

Other views include Slide Sorter view which shows thumbnails of the entire presentation
and Slide Show view where you preview your presentation as your audience will see it.

Slide Pane

Thumbnails

Slide Show
View

Normal Slide Sorter

View View

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◦◦◦ CREATING A NEW PRESENTATION ◦◦◦

To Create a New Presentation:

1. Click on the File tab.
2. Click on New.
3. Select either a Blank Presentation, a featured theme or search for online templates
and themes.
4. Double-click Blank Presentation to create a new presentation.

◦◦◦ ENTERING TEXT ON A SLIDE ◦◦◦

When you create a new presentation, the first slide to appear is a Title slide. It contains
two placeholders: a title placeholder and a subtitle placeholder. To add text, click
within the placeholder and type.

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◦◦◦ FORMATTING ◦◦◦

PowerPoint provides a wide variety of themes that apply a distinctive look to the text,
bullets, background colors, and graphics in a presentation. Using a theme is a big time-
saver and immediately adds a professional touch to your presentation. You can apply a
theme when you create a new presentation and you can change the theme as many times
as you want.

To Apply a Theme:
1. Click on the Design tab.
2. Select one of the themes in the Themes group.

To see more themes, click on the dialog box launcher.

To Format Text:
1. Click within the placeholder.
2. Select the text to format.

3. Click on the Home tab.

4. Click on the formatting buttons in either the Font or Paragraph groups.
5. You can also use the Mini Tool Bar that appears when the text is selected.

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◦◦◦ ADDING NEW SLIDES ◦◦◦

Each slide in PowerPoint has a slide layout. Slide layouts contain formatting, positioning,
and placeholders for all of the content that appears on a slide.

PowerPoint includes nine built-in slide layouts:

To Add New Slides:

1. Click on the Home tab
2. Click on New Slide in the Slides group
3. Choose a slide layout

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Content Slides:
If you choose a slide with content, you will have six types of content to choose from.

Click on the type of content you want to create and PowerPoint will provide the tools
needed to create it.

◦◦◦ APPLYING SLIDE TRANSITIONS ◦◦◦

A transition is a special effect that determines how a slide appears as it enters or leaves
the screen.

To Apply Transitions:
1. Click on the Transitions tab.
2. Click on the drop down arrow in the Transition to This Slide group to see a listing
of all available transitions.
3. Click on the transition you want to apply.
4. Click on Apply to All to apply the transition effect to the entire presentation.

◦◦◦ PRINTING ◦◦◦

To Print:
1. Click on the File tab.
2. Click on Print.

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Under Settings click on Print All Slides and select one of the options to print:
 Print All Slides – print entire presentation
 Print Selection – only print the selected slides
 Print Current Slide – only print the current slide
 Custom Range – enter specific slides to print

Printing Handouts, Notes and Outline

Click on Full Page Slides and choose from the following:
 Print Layout
o Full Page Slides
o Notes Pages
o Outline
 Handouts
o Choose between 1 – 9 slides per page (horizontal or vertical)

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◦◦◦ SAVING AND CLOSING A NEW DOCUMENT ◦◦◦

To Save a New Document

1. Click the File tab.
2. Click Save/ Save As.
3. Select the location, the Save As dialog box will appear.
4. In the File Name field, type the name of the document.
5. Click Save.

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NETWORKING
AND
INTERNET

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◦◦◦ CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET ◦◦◦

Once you've set up your computer, you may want to purchase home Internet access so
you can send and receive email, browse the Web, stream videos, and more. You may
even want to set up a home wireless network, commonly known as Wireless-Fidelity
(Wi-Fi), so you can connect multiple devices to the Internet at the same time.

Types of Internet Service

The type of Internet service you choose will largely depend on which Internet service
providers (ISPs) serve your area, along with the types of service they offer. Here are
some common types of Internet service:

 Dial-up: This is generally the slowest type of Internet connection, and you should
probably avoid it unless it is the only service available in your area. Dial-up Internet
uses your phone line, so unless you have multiple phone lines you will not be able
to use your landline and the Internet at the same time.

 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL): DSL service uses a broadband connection, which
makes it much faster than dial-up. DSL connects to the Internet via a phone line
but does not require you to have a landline at home. And unlike dial-up, you'll be
able to use the Internet and your phone line at the same time.

 Cable: Cable service connects to the Internet via cable TV, although you do not
necessarily need to have cable TV in order to get it. It uses a broadband connection
and can be faster than both dial-up and DSL service; however, it is only available
where cable TV is available.

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 Satellite: A satellite connection uses broadband but does not require cable or
phone lines; it connects to the Internet through satellites orbiting the Earth. As a
result, it can be used almost anywhere in the world, but the connection may be
affected by weather patterns. Satellite connections are also usually slower than
DSL or cable.

 3G and 4G: 3G and 4G service is most commonly used with mobile phones, and
it connects wirelessly through your ISP's network. However, these types of
connections aren't always as fast as DSL or cable. They will also limit the amount
of data you can use each month, which isn't the case with most broadband plans.

Choosing an Internet Service Provider

Now that you know about the different types of Internet service, you can do some research
to find out what ISPs are available in your area. If you're having trouble getting started,
we recommend talking to friends, family members, and neighbors about the ISPs they
use. This will usually give you a good idea of the types of Internet service available in
your area.

Most ISPs offer several tiers of service with different Internet speeds, usually measured
in Mbps (short for megabits per second). If you mainly want to use the Internet for email
and social networking, a slower connection (around 2 to 5 Mbps) might be all you need.
However, if you want to download music or stream videos, you'll want a faster connection
(at least 5 Mbps or higher).

You'll also want to consider the cost of the service, including installation charges and
monthly fees. Generally speaking, the faster the connection, the more expensive it will be
per month.

Although dial-up has traditionally been the least expensive option, many ISPs have raised
dial-up prices to be the same as broadband. This is intended to encourage people to
switch to broadband. We do not recommend dial-up Internet unless it's your only option.

Hardware Needed

 Modem: Once you have your computer, you really don't need much additional
hardware to connect to the Internet. The primary piece of hardware you need is a
modem.

The type of Internet access you choose will determine the type of modem you
need. Dial-up access uses a telephone modem, DSL service uses a DSL modem,
cable access uses a cable modem, and satellite service uses a satellite adapter.
Your ISP may give you a modem—often for a fee—when you sign a contract, which
helps ensure that you have the right type of modem. However, if you would prefer

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to shop for a better or less expensive modem, you can choose to buy one
separately.

 Router: A router is a hardware device that allows you to connect several

computers and other devices to a single Internet connection, which is known as a
home network. Many routers are wireless, which allows you to create a home
wireless network, commonly known as a Wi-Fi network.

You don't necessarily need to buy a router to connect to the Internet. It's possible
to connect your computer directly to your modem using an Ethernet cable. Also,
many modems include a built-in router, so you have the option of creating a Wi-Fi
network without buying extra hardware.

Setting up Your Internet Connection

Once you've chosen an ISP, most providers will send a technician to your house to turn
on the connection. If not, you should be able to use the instructions provided by your
ISP—or included with the modem—to setup your Internet connection.

After you have everything setup, you can open your web browser and begin using the
Internet. If you have any problems with your Internet connection, you can call your ISP's
technical support number.

Home Networking

If you have multiple computers at home and want to use all of them to access the Internet,
you may want to create a home network, also known as a Wi-Fi network. In a home

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network, all of your devices connect to your router, which is connected to the modem.
This means everyone in your family can use the Internet at the same time.

Your ISP technician may be able to set up a home Wi-Fi network when installing your
Internet service.

NOTE: If you want to connect a computer that does not have built-in Wi-Fi connectivity,
you can purchase a Wi-Fi adapter that plugs into your computer's USB port.

◦◦◦ GETTING STARTED WITH THE INTERNET ◦◦◦

The Internet is a global network of billions of computers and other electronic devices. With
the Internet, it's possible to access almost any information, communicate with anyone
else in the world, and much more. You can do all of this on your computer.

Connecting to the Internet

A device has to be connected to the Internet before you can access it. If you plan to use
the Internet at home, you'll usually need to purchase an Internet connection from an

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Internet Service Provider, which will likely be a phone company, cable company, or the
government. Other devices usually connect through Wi-Fi or cellular Internet connections.
Sometimes libraries, cafes, and schools offer free Wi-Fi for their patrons, customers, and
students.

Browsing the Web

Most information on the Internet is on websites. Once you are connected to the Internet,
you can access websites using a kind of application called a web browser.

A website is a collection of related text, images, and other resources. Websites can
resemble other forms of media—like newspaper articles or television programs—or they
can be interactive in a way that's unique to computers. The purpose of a website can be
almost anything: a news platform, an advertisement, an online library, a forum for sharing
images, or an educational site.

A web browser allows you to connect to and view websites. The web browser itself is not
the Internet, but it displays pages on the Internet. Each website has a unique address. By
typing this address into your web browser, you can connect to that website and your web
browser will display it.

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Navigating Websites

Websites often have links to other sites, also called hyperlinks. These are often parts of
the text on the website. They are usually colored blue, and sometimes they are underlined
or bold. If you click the text, your browser will load a different page. Web authors use
hyperlinks to connect relevant pages. This web of links is one of the most unique features
of the Internet, lending to the old name World Wide Web.

Each website has a unique address, called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). You'll
notice that when you click a link, the URL changes as your browser loads a new page. If
you type a URL in the address bar in your browser, your browser will load the page
associated with that URL. It's like a street address, telling your browser where to go on
the Internet.

When you're looking for specific information on the Internet, a search engine can help. A
search engine is a specialized website that's designed to help you find other websites.
If you type keywords or a phrase into a search engine, it will display a list of websites
relevant to your search terms.

Other things you can do on the Internet

One of the best features of the Internet is the ability to communicate almost instantly with
anyone in the world. Email is one of the oldest and most universal ways to communicate
and share information on the Internet, and billions of people use it. Social media allows
people to connect in a variety of ways and build communities online.

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There are many other things you can do on the Internet too. There are thousands of ways
to keep up with news or shop for anything online. You can pay your bills, manage your
bank accounts, meet new people, watch TV, or learn new skills. You can learn or do
almost anything online.

◦◦◦ CLOUD COMPUTING ◦◦◦

You may have heard people using terms like the cloud, cloud computing, or cloud storage.
But what exactly is the cloud?

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Simply put, the cloud is the Internet—more specifically, it's all of the things you can access
remotely over the Internet. When something is in the cloud, it means it's stored on Internet
servers instead of your computer's hard drive.

Uses of the Cloud

Some of the main reasons to use the cloud are convenience and reliability. For example,
if you've ever used a web-based email service, such as Gmail or Yahoo! Mail, you've
already used the cloud. All of the emails in a web-based service are stored on servers
rather than on your computer's hard drive. This means you can access your email from
any computer with an Internet connection. It also means you'll be able to recover your
emails if something happens to your computer.

Let's look at some of the most common reasons to use the cloud:
 File storage: You can store all types of information in the cloud, including files and
email. This means you can access these things from any computer or mobile
device with an Internet connection, not just your home computer. Dropbox and
Google Drive are some of the most popular cloud-based storage services.

 File sharing: The cloud makes it easy to share files with several people at the
same time. For example, you could upload several photos to a cloud-based photo
service like Flickr or iCloud Photos, then quickly share them with friends and family.

 Backing up data: You can also use the cloud to protect your files. Apps like Mozy
and Carbonite automatically back up your data to the cloud. This way, if your
computer ever is lost, stolen, or damaged, you'll still be able to recover these files
from the cloud.

Web Applications

Previously, we talked about how desktop applications allow you to perform tasks on your
computer. But there are also web applications—or web apps—that run in the cloud and
do not need to be installed on your computer. Many of the most popular sites on the
Internet are actually web apps. You may have even used a web app without realizing it!
Let's take a look at some popular web apps:

 Facebook: Facebook lets you create an online profile and interact with your
friends. Profiles and conversations can be updated at any time, so Facebook uses
web app technologies to keep the information up to date.

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 Pixlr: Pixlr is an image editing application that runs in your web browser. Much like
Adobe Photoshop, it includes many advanced features, like color correction and
sharpening tools.

 Google Docs: Google Docs is an office suite that runs in your browser. Much like
Microsoft Office, you can use it to create documents, spreadsheets, presentations,
and more. And because the files are stored in the cloud, it's easy to share them
with others.

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SAFETY
AND
MAINTENANCE

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◦◦◦ KEEPING YOUR COMPUTER PHYSICALLY CLEAN ◦◦◦

Dust isn't just unattractive—it can potentially damage or even destroy parts of your
computer. Cleaning your computer regularly will help you keep it working properly and
avoid expensive repairs.

Cleaning the Keyboard

Dust, food, liquid, and other particles can get stuck underneath the keys on your
keyboard, which can prevent it from working properly. The basic cleaning tips below can
help keep your keyboard clean:

1. Unplug the keyboard from the USB or PS/2 port. If the keyboard is plugged into
the PS/2 port, you will need to shut down the computer before unplugging it.
2. Turn the keyboard upside down and gently shake it to remove dirt and dust.
3. Use a can of compressed air to clean between the keys.

4. Moisten a cotton cloth or paper towel with rubbing alcohol and use it to clean the
tops of the keys. Do not pour alcohol or any other liquid directly onto the keys.
5. Reconnect the keyboard to the computer once it is dry. If you are connecting it to
a PS/2 port, you will need to connect it before turning on the computer.

Dealing with Liquids

If you spill liquid on the keyboard, quickly shut down the computer and disconnect the
keyboard. Then turn the keyboard upside down and allow the liquid to drain.

If the liquid is sticky, you will need to hold the keyboard on its side under running water to
rinse away the sticky liquid. Then turn the keyboard upside down to drain for two days
before reconnecting it. Please note that keyboard may not be fixable at this point, but the
method above is probably the best option.

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NOTE: To prevent this situation altogether, we recommend keeping drinks away from the
computer area.

Cleaning the Mouse

There are two main mouse types: optical and mechanical. Each is cleaned in basically
the same way, although the mechanical mouse requires a bit more work:

 Optical mice require no internal cleaning because they do not contain any rotating
parts; however, they can get sticky over time as dust collects near the light emitter.
This can cause erratic cursor movement or prevent the mouse from working
properly.

 Mechanical mice are especially susceptible to dust and particles that can
accumulate inside the mouse, which can make it difficult to track—or move—
properly. If the mouse pointer does not move smoothly, the mouse may need to
be cleaned.

The basic cleaning tips below will help keep your mouse clean:
1. Unplug the mouse from the USB or PS/2 port. If the mouse is plugged into the
PS/2 port, you will need to shut down the computer before unplugging it.
2. Moisten a cotton cloth with rubbing alcohol, and use it to clean the top and bottom
of the mouse.
3. If you have a mechanical mouse, remove the tracking ball by turning the ball-cover
ring counter-clockwise. Then clean the tracking ball and the inside of the mouse
with a cotton cloth moistened with rubbing alcohol.

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4. Allow all of the parts to dry before reassembling and reconnecting the mouse. If
you are connecting it to a PS/2 port, you will need to connect it before turning on
the computer.

TIP: If you just want to give the mouse a quick cleaning, place it on a clean sheet of paper
and move the mouse back and forth. Some of the dust and particles should rub off onto
the paper.

Cleaning the Monitor

Dirt, fingerprints, and dust can make your computer screen difficult to read; however, it's
easy to clean your screen when needed. There are monitor-cleaning kits you can buy,
but they may damage your monitor if they're designed for a different type of monitor. For
example, a monitor cleaner that is designed for glass screens may not work with some
non-glass LCD screens. The safest method is simply to use a soft clean cloth moistened
with water.

NOTE: Do not use glass cleaner to clean a monitor. Many screens have anti-glare
coatings that can be damaged by glass cleaner.

1. Turn off the computer.

2. Unplug the monitor from the power. If you are using a laptop, unplug the laptop.
3. Use a soft clean cloth moistened with water to wipe the screen clean.

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NOTE: Do not spray any liquids directly onto the screen. The liquid could leak into the
monitor and damage the internal components.

Tips for Cleaning Other Computer Surfaces

From time to time, you should clean your computer case and the sides and back of the
monitor to avoid a buildup of dust and dirt. Here are a few tips you can use when cleaning
these surfaces:

 Dust is your computer's main enemy. Use an anti-static cloth to lightly dust your
computer casing. Do not use furniture cleaners or strong solvents.


 Use a can of compressed air to blow out debris from the air intake slots.
 Ammonia diluted with water—or glass cleaner comprised mostly of ammonia and
water—is a safe cleaning solution for computer surfaces. The milder the solution,
the better.
 Clean the monitor housing and case (but not the monitor screen) by spraying a
safe cleaning solution onto a paper towel or anti-static cloth and wiping in a
downward motion.

Keep It Cool
Don't restrict airflow around your computer. A computer can generate a lot of heat, so the
casing has fans that keep it from overheating. Avoid stacking papers, books, and other
items around your computer.

Many computer desks have an enclosed compartment for the computer case. If you have
this type of desk, you may want to position the case so it is not against the back side of
the desk. If the compartment has a door, you may want to leave it open to improve airflow.

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◦◦◦ PROTECTING YOUR COMPUTER ◦◦◦

Your computer faces many potential threats, including viruses, malware, and hard drive
failure. This is why it's important to do everything you can to protect your computer and
your files.

Safeguarding Against Malware

Malware is any type of software that is designed to damage your computer or gain
unauthorized access to your personal information. It includes viruses, worms, Trojan
horses, and spyware. Most malware is distributed over the Internet and is often bundled
with other software.

The best way to guard against malware is to install antivirus software, such as
Bitdefender, Norton, or Kaspersky. Antivirus software helps to prevent malware from
being installed, and it can also remove malware from your computer.

It's also important to stay smart when you're browsing the Web or using email. If a website
or email attachment looks suspicious, trust your instincts. Keep in mind that your antivirus
program may not catch everything, so it's best to avoid downloading anything that might
contain malware.

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Backing Up Your Computer

Imagine what would happen if your computer suddenly stopped working. Would you lose
any important documents, photos, or other files? It may be possible to repair your
computer, but your files may be lost forever. Luckily, you can prevent this by creating
backup copies of all of your files (or just the important ones) on an external hard drive or
an online backup service.

 External Hard Drives

You can purchase an external hard drive and copy the contents of your computer
to it. The initial backup could take several hours, so you will need to select a period
of time when you do not need access to your computer. Running the backup
overnight usually works best. Follow-up backups should be conducted on a regular
basis, but they should not take as long.

One drawback is that an external hard drive can be lost, damaged, or stolen—just
as your computer might be. This is why it's important to keep your drive in a secure
location when not in use.

 Online Backup Services

You can also back up your files to an online backup service like Mozy, Carbonite,
or Box. These services will back up your files in the cloud, which means you'll be
able to recover them from any computer with an Internet connection. The amount
of storage provided by these sites varies, and you will probably need to pay a fee
for adequate storage space.

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One drawback to online backup services is that the initial backup can be slow and
may even take days to upload if you have a lot of files. However, subsequent
backups should not take as long.

Other Maintenance Techniques

To keep your computer running smoothly, it's important to keep files and folders
uncluttered. Cluttered or unorganized folders make it more difficult to find the files you
need. Additionally, unwanted files can eventually fill up your hard drive, which will make
your computer slower and more difficult to use. Here are a few things you can do to delete
unwanted files and improve your computer's performance:

 Delete files: If you have any unwanted files, you can delete them manually. To do
this, drag them to the Recycle Bin or Trash, then empty it to permanently delete
the files.

 Run the Disk Defragmenter: Windows includes a Disk Defragmenter program in

the Control Panel. If your computer is running slowly, running Disk Defragmenter
can help to speed it up.

 Run a Disk Cleanup: Windows also includes a Disk Cleanup program in the
Control Panel. It scans your computer for temporary files and other files that can
be deleted. You can then delete the files to free up space on your hard drive.

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◦◦◦ CREATING A SAFE WORKSPACE ◦◦◦

In addition to keeping your computer healthy, it's important to think about your own health.
Using a computer involves a lot of repetitive motions such as typing and using the mouse.
Over time, these motions can begin to negatively impact your body, especially your wrists,
neck, and back. Staring at a monitor for long periods of time can also cause eye strain.
To minimize these risks, you should take a few moments to make sure your workspace
is arranged in a comfortable and healthy way.

Avoiding Strain and Injury

Computer ergonomics is the science of equipment design and how specific equipment
usage and placement can reduce a user's discomfort and increase productivity. Some
equipment is designed with special attention to ergonomics, like ergonomic keyboards
and ergonomic chairs.

Here are a few tips to help you avoid injury in your workspace:

 Adjust your chair: Make sure your chair is adjusted to allow you to sit in a natural,
comfortable position. Many office chairs are specially designed to support the
lower back and promote good posture.

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 Keep the keyboard at a comfortable height: Try to place the keyboard in a

position that allows you to keep your wrists straight and relaxed to avoid wrist
strain. Many desks have a keyboard tray that can keep the keyboard at a better
height. You can also buy an ergonomic keyboard that is designed to minimize wrist
strain.

 Keep the mouse close to the keyboard: If possible, place the mouse right next
to the keyboard. If the mouse is too far away, it may be uncomfortable or awkward
to reach for it.

 Place the monitor at a comfortable distance: The ideal position for a monitor is
20 to 40 inches away from your eyes. It should also be at eye level or slightly lower.

 Avoid clutter: The computer area can quickly become cluttered with paper,
computer accessories, and other items. By keeping this area as uncluttered as
possible, you can improve your productivity and prevent strain and injury.

 Take frequent breaks: It's important to take breaks while you're working at your
computer. To avoid eye strain, you should look away from the monitor every once
in a while. You can also stand up and walk around to avoid sitting in the same
position for long periods of time. Programs such as Workrave can automatically
remind you to take breaks.

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◦◦◦ TROUBLESHOOTING ◦◦◦

Do you know what to do if your screen goes blank? What if you can't seem to close an
application, or can't hear any sound from your speakers? Whenever you have a problem
with your computer, don't panic! There are many basic troubleshooting techniques you
can use to fix issues like this. Here are some simple things to try when troubleshooting,
as well as how to solve common problems you may encounter.

General Tips to Keep in Mind

There are many different things that could cause a problem with your computer. No matter
what's causing the issue, troubleshooting will always be a process of trial and error—in
some cases, you may need to use several different approaches before you can find a
solution; other problems may be easy to fix. We recommend starting by using the
following tips:

 Write down your steps: Once you start troubleshooting, you may want to write
down each step you take. This way, you'll be able to remember exactly what you've
done and can avoid repeating the same mistakes. If you end up asking other
people for help, it will be much easier if they know exactly what you've tried already.

 Take notes about error messages: If your computer gives you an error message,
be sure to write down as much information as possible. You may be able to use
this information later to find out if other people are having the same error.

 Always check the cables: If you're having trouble with a specific piece of
computer hardware, such as your monitor or keyboard, an easy first step is to
check all related cables to make sure they're properly connected.

 Restart the computer: When all else fails, restarting the computer is a good thing
to try. This can solve a lot of basic issues you may experience with your computer.

Using the Process of Elimination

If you're having an issue with your computer, you may be able to find out what's wrong
using the process of elimination. This means you'll make a list of things that could be
causing the problem and then test them out one by one to eliminate them. Once you've
identified the source of your computer issue, it will be easier to find a solution.

Scenario:
Let's say you're trying to print out invitations for a birthday party, but the printer won't print.
You have some ideas about what could be causing this, so you go through them one by
one to see if you can eliminate any possible causes.

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First, you check the printer to see that it's turned on and plugged in to the surge protector.
It is, so that's not the issue. Next, you check to make sure the printer's ink cartridge still
has ink and that there is paper loaded in the paper tray. Things look good in both cases,
so you know the issue has nothing to do with ink or paper.

Now you want to make sure the printer and computer are communicating correctly. If you
recently downloaded an update to your operating system, it might interfere with the printer.
But you know there haven't been any recent updates and the printer was working
yesterday, so you'll have to look elsewhere.

You check the printer's USB cord and find that it's not plugged in. You must have
unplugged it accidentally when you plugged something else into the computer earlier.
Once you plug in the USB cord, the printer starts working again. It looks like this printer
issue is solved!

This is just one example of an issue you might encounter while using a computer. Here
are other common computer problems and some ways to solve them.

Simple Solutions to Common Problems

Most of the time, problems can be fixed using simple troubleshooting techniques, like
closing and reopening the program. It's important to try these simple solutions before
resorting to more extreme measures. If the problem still isn't fixed, you can try other
troubleshooting techniques.

Problem: Power button will not start computer

 Solution 1: If your computer does not start, begin by checking the power cord to
confirm that it is plugged securely into the back of the computer case and the power
outlet.
 Solution 2: If it is plugged into an outlet, make sure it is a working outlet. To check
your outlet, you can plug in another electrical device, such as a lamp.
 Solution 3: If the computer is plugged in to a surge protector, verify that it is turned
on. You may have to reset the surge protector by turning it off and then back on.
You can also plug a lamp or other device into the surge protector to verify that it's
working correctly.
 Solution 4: If you are using a laptop, the battery may not be charged. Plug the AC
adapter into the wall, then try to turn on the laptop. If it still doesn't start up, you
may need to wait a few minutes and try again.

Problem: An application is running slowly

 Solution 1: Close and reopen the application.
 Solution 2: Update the application. To do this, click the Help menu and look for an
option to check for Updates. If you don't find this option, another idea is to run an
online search for application updates.

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Problem: An application is frozen

Sometimes an application may become stuck, or frozen. When this happens, you won't
be able to close the window or click any buttons within the application.
 Solution 1: Force quit the application. On a PC, you can press (and hold) Ctrl + Alt
+ Delete (the Control, Alt, and Delete keys) on your keyboard to open the Task
Manager. On a Mac, press and hold Command + Option + Esc. You can then
select the unresponsive application and click End task (or Force Quit on a Mac) to
close it.
 Solution 2: Restart the computer. If you are unable to force quit an application,
restarting your computer will close all open apps.

Problem: All programs on the computer run slowly

 Solution 1: Run a virus scanner. You may have malware running in the background
that is slowing things down.
 Solution 2: Your computer may be running out of hard drive space. Try deleting
any files or programs you don't need.
 Solution 3: If you're using a PC, you can run Disk Defragmenter.

Problem: The computer is frozen

Sometimes your computer may become completely unresponsive, or frozen. When this
happens, you won't be able to click anywhere on the screen, open or close applications,
or access shut-down options.
 Solution 1 (Windows only): Restart Windows Explorer. To do this, press and hold
Ctrl + Alt + Delete on your keyboard to open the Task Manager. Next, locate and
select Windows Explorer from the Processes tab and click Restart. You may need
to click More Details at the bottom of the window to see the Processes tab.
 Solution 2 (Mac only): Restart Finder. To do this, press and hold Command +
Option + Esc on your keyboard to open the Force Quit Applications dialog box.
Next, locate and select Finder, then click Relaunch.
 Solution 3: Press and hold the Power button. The Power button is usually located
on the front or side of the computer, typically indicated by the power symbol. Press
and hold the Power button for 5 to 10 seconds to force the computer to shut down.
 Solution 4: If the computer still won't shut down, you can unplug the power cable
from the electrical outlet. If you're using a laptop, you may be able to remove the
battery to force the computer to turn off.
Note: This solution should be your last resort after trying the other suggestions
above.

Problem: The mouse or keyboard has stopped working

 Solution 1: If you're using a wired mouse or keyboard, make sure it's correctly
plugged into the computer.
 Solution 2: If you're using a wireless mouse or keyboard, make sure it's turned on
and that its batteries are charged.

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Problem: The sound isn't working

 Solution 1: Check the volume level. Click the audio button in the top-right or
bottom-right corner of the screen to make sure the sound is turned on and that the
volume is up.
 Solution 2: Check the audio player controls. Many audio and video players will
have their own separate audio controls. Make sure the sound is turned on and that
the volume is turned up in the player.
 Solution 3: Check the cables. Make sure external speakers are plugged in, turned
on, and connected to the correct audio port or a USB port. If your computer has
color-coded ports, the audio output port will usually be green.
 Solution 4: Connect headphones to the computer to find out if you can hear sound
through the headphones.

Problem: The screen is blank

 Solution 1: The computer may be in Sleep mode. Click the mouse or press any
key on the keyboard to wake it.
 Solution 2: Make sure the monitor is plugged in and turned on.
 Solution 3: Make sure the computer is plugged in and turned on.
 Solution 4: If you're using a desktop, make sure the monitor cable is properly
connected to the computer tower and the monitor.

Solving more difficult problems

If you still haven't found a solution to your problem, you may need to ask someone else
for help. As an easy starting point, we'd recommend searching the Web. It's possible that
other users have had similar problems, and solutions to these problems are often posted
online. Also, if you have a friend or family member who knows a lot about computers, they
may be able to help you.

Keep in mind that most computer problems have simple solutions, although it may take
some time to find them. For difficult problems, a more drastic solution may be required,
like reformatting your hard drive or reinstalling your operating system. If you think you
might need a solution like this, we recommend consulting a professional first. If you're not
a computer expert, it's possible that attempting these solutions could make the situation
worse.

◦◦◦ USE COMPUTER'S BUILT-IN HELP ◦◦◦

Everyone needs to look for help sometimes. Luckily, when you want help with a computer
program, it’s usually easy to find. Most programs have a help feature somewhere, and
learning how to use it can make a big difference. You may not find everything you need,
but your computer’s built-in help is a great place to start.

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Different programs integrate help features in different ways. Some are like interactive
manuals included with the program that you can open with a menu, while others are just
links to the developer’s support website. But they’re always designed with the same thing
in mind: to help you learn the features of the program and to solve problems yourself.

How to access built-in help

Most programs have one of two ways to access built-in help. For example, Adobe
Photoshop Elements has a Help menu with a variety of options. Many of these options
open Adobe’s support page in your web browser, while others access features within the
program itself.

Other programs have a help button, usually near the top-right corner of the window. For
example, Microsoft Office 2016 has a small question mark icon that opens the help file.

Features of a Help File

Help files can be organized in a variety of ways, including as a table of contents, FAQ, or
searchable database.

A search box is all you’ll see when you open the help screen in Office 2013. Much like a
search engine, you type keywords in the search bar, and it will display topics relevant to
the keywords you entered.

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The table of contents for Mozilla’s support page is a broad list of categories. Clicking any
of these hyperlinks will lead to a list of narrower topics and specific help articles. There’s
also a search bar at the top-right.

Although built-in help can be useful, it may not always have the information you want. If
you can’t find what you’re looking for or don’t understand what you've found, you can
usually ask someone you know, do a Google search, or contact support staff. It can take
a little extra time and effort, but learning how to find solutions on your own is a valuable
skill—and you’ll get better at it with practice.

◦◦◦ LEARNING A NEW PROGRAM ◦◦◦

You ask a friend who is good with computers to help you do something in a new program.
The friend says she hasn't used the program before but will give it a try. Two minutes
later, she's figured out what to do.

How did she do that? If you've experienced a situation like the one just described, it might
seem like magic. But your friend probably just applied what she knew about computers
and computer programs to the program you were trying to use. In this lesson, we'll show
you how you can do the same thing.

 You know more than you think you do!

Starting to use a new computer program can seem overwhelming, but keep in mind
that you already know more than you think you know. Even if the screen in front of
you looks totally unfamiliar, everything you've learned so far about your computer
and other programs will help you figure out what to do next. As you spend more
time using the new program, it will start to feel more familiar.

 Look for similarities with programs you've used

The first thing you'll want to do when opening a new program is look for familiar
features. You may not realize it, but most computer programs have certain basic

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features in common—so once you've learned to use one program, you'll already
know something about any other ones you try to use. For example, many keyboard
shortcuts remain the same from program to program.

Most programs also have File and Edit menus, and they'll usually be in the same
place: at the top of your screen, either as a drop-down menu or in a ribbon. The
File and Edit menus tend to contain similar functions in any program. So if you
know the Print function appears in the File menu in Microsoft Word, you'll have a
good idea of where to look for it in Google Drive, as in the image below.

NOTE: Even if you're switching from a PC to a Mac or vice versa, keyboard

shortcuts will remain mostly the same. Just substitute the Command key on a Mac
for the Ctrl key on a PC. For example, the shortcut for the Cut function is Ctrl + X
on a PC; on a Mac, it's Command + X.

 Check for hidden toolbars or panels

Let's say you've checked your new program for familiar functions, but there are a
few you just can't find. Don't give up! If you believe a particular function should be
there, you're probably right—you may just need to open it. Many programs have
toolbars, sidebars, or panels you can hide or make visible, and they are often
hidden by default when you start the program. If you can't find a function you need,
try clicking the View or Window menu to check for hidden toolbars, as shown in
the image of the Firefox web browser below.

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If you're having trouble

If the program you're trying to use has a lot of unfamiliar elements—or if there's a feature
you simply don't know how to use—don't despair. There are still some simple things you
can do to find your way around a program.

 Use the help feature

Software companies know that most users will have questions about how to use
their programs, which is why they include built-in help features. You can usually
access a program's help feature by clicking a Help menu (sometimes represented
by a question mark icon) at the top of your screen. There, you'll find instructions
on how to do things, troubleshooting tips, and answers to frequently asked
questions. Some help features will even include links to online help forums, where
users can post answers to each other's questions. Remember, if something isn't
obvious to you, it probably isn't obvious to other users either, so the help section
should have some information on it.

 Google it!
If you haven't found the answer in the program's help feature, try searching for a
solution on Google. You will probably find tutorials or posts from other users
explaining how to use the program. You may also want to search YouTube for
video tutorials on the program you're using.

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◦◦◦ BRINGING YOUR FILES WITH YOU ◦◦◦

When you're working on a document or other computer file, you can always save it to
your computer's hard drive. But sometimes you may want to bring your file with you and
open it on a different computer. There are two ways to save your files so you can access
them from almost anywhere:

 Flash drive: Flash drives are small removable hard drives that plug into the USB
ports on your computer. They are relatively inexpensive and can be purchased at
any store with an electronics section.

 Cloud storage: Cloud storage means you save your files on servers on the
Internet using an account with a cloud service. With cloud storage, you can access
your files from any computer with Internet access without having to keep track of
a physical device.

Flash drives and the cloud can also be used to back up your files.

Using a Flash Drive

Flash drives make it easy to carry your important files and documents with you in a
portable form. You should always back up the files on your flash drive elsewhere,
however, just in case it gets lost or breaks.

To connect a flash drive:

1. Insert the flash drive into a USB port on your computer. You should find a USB
port on the front, back, or side of your computer (the location may vary depending
on whether you have a desktop or laptop).
2. If you're using Windows, a dialog box may appear. If it does, select Open folder to
view files. On a Mac, a flash drive icon will usually appear on the desktop.
3. If a dialog box does not appear, open Windows Explorer—or Finder if you're using
a Mac—and select the flash drive on the left side of the window. Note that the
name of the flash drive may vary.

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To work with a flash drive:

1. Once you've connected a flash drive, you can work with it just like any other folder
on your computer, including moving and deleting files.
2. If you want to copy a file from your computer to the flash drive, click and drag the
file from your computer to this window.
3. The file will be duplicated, and this new version will be saved to the flash drive.
The original version of the file will still be saved to your computer.
4. If you want to copy a file from your flash drive to your computer, click and drag the
file from this window to your computer.
5. If you want to remove a file from your flash drive, click and drag the file to the
Recycle Bin on a PC or the Trash can on a Mac. A dialog box may appear appear.
If it does, click Yes to confirm that you want to permanently delete the file.

NOTE: If a dialog box does not appear, you may need to empty the Trash/ Recycle
Bin to permanently delete the file.

To safely remove a flash drive:

When you're done using a flash drive, don't remove it from the USB port just yet. You'll
need to make sure to disconnect it properly to avoid damaging files on the drive.
1. Right-click the flash drive and select Disconnect or Eject.
2. You can now safely remove the flash drive from the USB port.

NOTE: If you're using a Mac, you can also click the Eject button next to the flash
drive in Finder to eject it.

Saving Files to the Cloud

There are many services that allow you to create a free account and save documents,
images, and other files to the cloud. Some of the most popular are Google Drive,
OneDrive, and Dropbox. The free storage space that comes with these accounts
(usually around 15GB) should be plenty if you're using your account for regular personal,
work, or school purposes. If you own a business and want to keep all of your documents
in the cloud, you may want to pay your cloud service for more storage.

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Unlike physical media, the cloud can't break or get lost, so you don't necessarily need to
back up the files you keep on it. Files in the cloud are also easier to share so you can
collaborate with friends and coworkers. However, when you save something online,
there's always a risk that unauthorized users will try to gain access to your personal
information. To protect your files, create a strong password and pay attention to the
privacy settings and policies of the cloud service you're using.

◦◦◦ ACCESSIBILITY FEATURES ◦◦◦

Accessibility features are designed to help people with disabilities use technology more
easily. For example, a text-to-speech feature may read text out loud for people with limited
vision, while a speech-recognition feature allows users with limited mobility to control the
computer with their voice.

Common Accessibility Features

Although some accessibility features require special software downloads, many are built
into the operating system of your computer or mobile device. Here are just a few types of
accessibility features you may already have on your device:

 Features for blind or low-vision computer users: Features such as text-to-

speech allow users to hear what's on the screen instead of reading it. Other
features, like high-contrast themes and enlarged cursors, make it easier for users
with limited vision to see the screen.

 Features for deaf or low-hearing computer users: Closed-captioning helps to

convey audio information to deaf users in visual form. Mono audio systems
transmit right and left audio signals through both ear buds and headphones so
users with limited hearing in one ear will not miss part of what they are listening to.

 Features for limited-mobility computer users: Keyboard shortcuts are

convenient for many people, but they are especially helpful to those with difficulty
physically manipulating a mouse. For users who have difficulty pressing several
keys at once, sticky keys allows them to press keys one at a time to activate a
shortcut.

Using Accessibility Features

Most computers and mobile devices come with built-in accessibility features, although
they'll usually need to be turned on before you can use them. Let's take a look at how to
locate these features for your device:

 In Windows, open the Settings app (or Control Panel in Windows 8 and earlier),
then click Ease of Access.

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 In macOS, open System Preferences, then click Accessibility (or Universal Access
in older versions).

 On mobile devices that use Android or iOS, open the Settings app, then locate the
Accessibility section. On iOS devices, you'll find it within the General settings
category.

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Web Accessibility

Most web browsers also offer their own built-in accessibility features. You'll usually find
these options in your browser's settings.

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Before you adjust these settings, you may want to try zooming instead. Zooming is an
easy way to make webpages easier to read, and it works the same way in most browsers.
If you're using a browser in Windows, you can zoom in or out by pressing Ctrl + or Ctrl -
(hold down the Ctrl key and press the + or - key). If you're using a Mac, you'll press
Command+ or Command-.

To return to the default zoom level, press Ctrl + 0 (hold down the Ctrl key and press the
zero key). If you're using a Mac, press Command+0.

Accessibility Features in Specific Software

There are many more accessibility features you can use, depending on the type of
computer you have and the software you use. The resources below will direct you to
accessibility features for some of the most commonly used applications:

 Microsoft Accessibility: Here, you'll find news on Microsoft's accessibility

projects, as well as help pages on accessibility features in the Windows operating
system and in the Microsoft Office suite.

 Apple Accessibility: This is Apple's overview site for accessibility features on

Macs, iPods, iPhones, and iPads. From here, you can navigate to help documents
for specific features.

 Google Accessibility: This is Google's help site for accessibility features on

Android phones and tablets and in Chrome.

 Accessibility Features in Firefox: This is Mozilla's official help site for Firefox's
accessibility features.

 AppleVis: This community-based website offers tips, tutorials, and product

reviews for blind and low-vision users of Apple products.

Assistive Technology Devices

As you've already seen, software can do a lot to make computers more accessible for
disabled users. However, some accessibility features require extra hardware, or assistive
technology. Most assistive-technology devices are similar to keyboards and speakers—
they are peripherals that can be plugged into the main computer. Here are some common
types of assistive technology you may encounter:

 Screen magnifiers: Screen magnifiers can be placed over your computer's

monitor to ensure the content on the screen always appears magnified. Today,
most people use the magnifier or zoom features on their operating systems to view
content, but external magnifiers are still available as well.

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 Alternative keyboards: For people who have difficulty using standard keyboards,
there are a range of alternative options. For example, users can purchase
keyboards with larger keys that are easier to see or press. They can also buy
keyboards with alternative key arrangements, including arrangements for people
who can only type with one hand or with a limited number of fingers.

 Switch-adapted peripherals: Switch devices allow people with limited mobility to

control technology with very small motions, such as a puff of breath or a head
movement. Switch-adapted mice and keyboards make it possible for disabled
users to interact with computers even if they are unable to operate peripherals with
their hands.

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