Module 1:

Introduction to waves
Lecture Hours 7

Waves on a string - Wave equation on a string (derivation) -

Harmonic waves- reflection and transmission of waves at a
boundary - Standing waves and their eigen frequencies -
waves with dispersion - Superposition of waves and Fourier
method (qualitative) - Wave packet - phase velocity and
group velocity.

Book to be followed:
H. J. Pain, The Physics of vibrations and waves, 2013, 6th Edition, Wiley
Publications, India.
Wave motion

When a stone is thrown on a pond of water, ripples

spread out in all directions on the surface of water. The
stone disturbs the water medium at one place but the
disturbance is transferred in all directions continuously.
This continuous movement of the disturbance is called
a wave.
Types of Waves
There are many types of waves in this world. Water waves and
sound waves are well known to the average person. The waves
that are better known to scientists include seismic waves,
structural waves, light and other forms of electromagnetic
radiation, quantum mechanic pilot waves, magnetic spin waves,
and waves in plasmas. In this posting we hope to give an
overview of some of the ways waves are classified. We start with
classifying by the number of dimensions, i.e. 1D, 2D, or 3D
waves.
Waves in one dimension
A wave on a string is an example of a one dimensional wave. These
waves travel along a line, i.e. along a one dimensional space. These
waves are only a function of one space variable, such as x, in
addition to time, t. They satisfy the one dimensional wave equation:

where c is the speed of the wave propagation. These have solutions

of the form y(x, t) = f(x ±ct), i.e. d’Ambert’s solutions. These solutions
include pulses, gaussians, and any shape function that travels to the
left or right at the speed c. We are often more interested in
sinusoidal and complex exponential solutions, i.e. the sine, cosine or
exp forms given by y(x, t) = Asin(κx − ωt) , y(x, t) = Acos(κx −
ωt), or y(x, t) = Aei(κx − ωt) .
Waves in two dimension
Waves can also travel on a surface that is a two dimensional space,
such as the surface of water or in a layer of clouds as shown below.
These are examples of two dimensional (2D) waves. While one
dimensional waves are easiest to understand and analyze, two
dimensional waves are probably the most interesting to see and to
animate.
In these cases, the wave variable is the height, z, of the wave surface
above its equilibrium height. The surface is described by the
coordinates x and y.

The above waves obey the two dimensional wave equation.

Waves in three dimension

Many very important waves propagate in a three dimensional space.
These include sound waves, radio waves, light and other
electromagnetic waves. It is rather hard to draw three dimensional
waves, other than in cartoonish ways. Three dimensional waves
obey a 3D wave equation,
 Where p is the wave variable
similar to z in the 2D case. Since
the waves propagate in all three
coordinates, x, y, and z, we need
to use an additional variable.

Radio waves generated by Marconi and

other with their spark gap transmitters in
the late 1800's led to modern radio. These
old transmitters launched waves into three
dimensional space.
Velocities in Wave Motion
At the outset we must be very clear about one point. The individual
oscillators which make up the medium do not progress through the
medium with the waves. Their motion is simple harmonic, limited to
oscillations, transverse or longitudinal, about their equilibrium
positions. It is their phase relationships we observe as waves, not their
progressive motion through the medium.
There are three velocities in wave motion which are quite distinct
although they are connected mathematically. They are
(1) The particle velocity, which is the simple harmonic velocity of the
oscillator about its equilibrium position.
(2) The wave or phase velocity, the velocity with which planes of equal
phase, crests or troughs, progress through the medium.
(3) The group velocity. A number of waves of different frequencies,
wavelengths and velocities may be superposed to form a group.
Waves rarely occur as single monochromatic components; a white
light pulse consists of an infinitely fine spectrum of frequencies and
the motion of such a pulse would be described by its group velocity.
If a wave passes in a medium, the particles of the medium
vibrate about their mean position. The particles do not
move along with the wave, only the vibrations are
transferred from one particle to adjacent particle of the
medium in the form of energy.

There are two types of wave motion. They are

1) Longitudinal wave motion

2) Transverse wave motion

Longitudinal wave motion:
If the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the
direction of propagation of the wave, the wave is known as
longitudinal wave.
Examples:
1. The propagation of sound in air
2. The propagation of sound in gas
3. The propagation of sound inside the liquid
Transverse wave motion:
If the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave, the wave is known as
transverse wave.
Examples : 1. Ripples travelling on the water surfaces. 2.
Waves travelling along a rope. 3. Other waves like light
waves, heat radiations, radio waves etc.
Waves on a string

String waves are an example of transverse

waves because the string moves up and down at right
angles to the horizontal motion of the wave.

There also longitudinal waves, e.g. sound, where the

medium and the wave move along the same direction
but we will focus on the transverse case.
ONE DIMENSIONAL WAVE EQUATION

Waves on a Stretched String

Consider a uniform stretched string, having mass per unit length m.

Under equilibrium conditions, it can be considered to be straight. The
x-axis is chosen along the length of the stretched string in its
equilibrium state.

Let the string be displaced

perpendicular to its length by a
small amount so that a small
section of length Δx is displaced
through a distance y from its mean
position, as shown in Figure.
Forces acting on a small element of a
string displaced perpendicular to its
length.

When the string is released, it results in wave motion. Let’s see

how.
We have studied that the wave disturbance travels from one particle
to another due to their masses (or inertia) and the factor responsible
for the periodic motion of the particle is the elasticity of the medium.

For a stretched string, the elasticity is measured by the tension

F in it and the inertia is measured by mass per unit length or
linear mass density, m.
Suppose that the tangential force
on each end of a small element
AB, as shown in Figure, is F; the
force on the end B is produced by
the pull of the string to the right
and the one at A is due to the pull
of the string to the left.
Due to the curvature of the element AB, the forces are not directly
opposite to each other. Instead, they make angles θ1 and θ2 with the
x-axis. This means that the forces pulling the element AB at opposite
ends, though of equal magnitude, do not exactly cancel each other.
In order to calculate the net
force along the x- and y-axes,
the forces are resolved into
rectangular components. The
net force in the x and the y
directions are respectively
given by

For small angle approximation, cosθ≈1 and sinθ≈θ≈tanθ. This

implies that if the displacement of the string perpendicular to its
length is relatively small, the angles θ1 and θ2 will be small and there
is no net force in the x-direction, and the element AB is only
subjected to a net upward force Fy. Under the action of this force,
the string element will move up and down. Therefore, the y-
component of the force on element AB can be written as
Therefore, the y-component of
the force on element AB can be
written as

We know that the tangent of an angle actually defines the slope at

that point. In other words, the tangent define the derivative dy/dx.
Using this result, the y-component of force on the element can be
approximated as

Note that the perpendicular displacement y(x, t) of the string is both

a function of the position x and time t. However, equation (1) is valid
at a particular instant of time. Therefore, the derivative in this
expression should be taken by keeping the time fixed. Therefore,
equation (1) can be rewritten as
For the sake of convenience, let us put

in equation (2). Thus, equation (2) becomes

Inserting the above result in equation (3), we get
Note that even though equation (4) has been obtained for a small
element AB, it can be applied to the entire string, since there is
nothing special about this particular element of the string. In other
words, equation (4) can be applied to all the elements of the string.
Now, let us go back to the sinusoidal wave propagating on the string
described by the equation

If this mathematical form is consistent with equation (4), then we can

be sure that such a wave can indeed move on the string. To check
this, we calculate the spatial and the temporal partial derivatives of
particle displacement y(x, t):
Substituting these partial derivatives in equation (4), we get

But, we know that ω/k is the wave speed v, therefore, from the
above relation, we get

The above relation tells us that velocity of a transverse wave on a

stretched string depends on tension and mass per unit length of the
string. Using equation (6), we can write equation (4) as

This result expresses one-dimensional wave equation. It holds as

long as we deal with small amplitude waves. Elasticity provides the
restoring force and the inertia determines the response of the
medium.
THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
According to the superposition principle, the net response at a given
place and time caused by two or more stimuli is the sum of the
responses which would have been caused by each stimulus
individually. In other words, if input A produces response X and input
B produces response Y then input (A + B) produces response (X +
Y).
For waves, the above general statement of the superposition
principle can be stated as follows: When two or more waves of the
same type cross at some point, the resultant displacement at that
point is equal to the sum of the displacements due to each individual
wave
Then, according to the principle of superposition, the resultant
displacement de to superposition of these two waves is given as

where, we have used the trigonometric identity

These features of the superposition of waves are shown in Fig.
below.

The phenomena of superposition of waves travelling in

opposite directions gives rise to what is called stationary or
standing waves. You will study about it now.
STATIONARY OR STANDING WAVE
Properties of Stationary Waves
The following are the characteristic properties of stationary waves:
1. In stationary waves, there are certain points called nodes where the
particles are permanently at rest and certain other points called
antinodes where the particles vibrate with maximum amplitude. The
nodes and antinodes are formed alternately.
2. All the particles of the medium, except those at the nodes, vibrate
simple harmonically with a time period equal to that of the component
waves.
3. The amplitude of vibration increases gradually from zero to maximum
from a node to an antinode.

4. The medium is split up into segments. The particles in a segment

vibrate in phase. The particles in one segment are out of phase with the
particles in the neighbouring segment by 180o.

5. In a given segment, the particles attain their maximum or minimum

velocity and acceleration at the same instant.

6. There is no net transport of energy in the medium.

Fourier method (qualitative)
Waves with dispersion
A medium in which the phase velocity is frequency dependent (ω/k not
constant) is known as a dispersive medium and a dispersion relation
expresses the variation of ω as a function of k.
Curves illustrating dispersion
relations: (a) a straight line
representing a non-dispersive
medium, v = vg; (b) a normal
dispersion relation where the
gradient v = ω/k > vg = dω/dk; (c)
an anomalous dispersion
relation where v < vg.

The three curves of represent

Normal dispersion:
Normal dispersion is dispersion where the group velocity declines
with increasing optical frequency, occurs for many transparent media
in the visible spectral region.

Anomalous dispersion:
Anomalous dispersion is a dispersion in which the normal order of
the separation of components is reversed in the vicinity of particular
wavelengths.
A uniform rope of length 12 m and mass 6 kg hangs vertically from a
rigid support. A block of mass 2 kg is attached to the free end of the
rope. A transverse pulse of wavelength 0.06 m is produced at the
lower end of the rope. What is the wavelength of the pulse when it
reaches the top of the rope? [g=9.8 ms-2]
V=fλ
Solution of the Wave Equation
The solution of the wave equation
If y is the simple harmonic displacement of an oscillator at position x
and time t we would expect express it in the form y = asin(t - Φ).

The bracket (ct – x) in the expression y = f (ct–x) has the dimensions of

a length and, for the function to be a sine or cosine, its argument must
have the dimensions of radians so that (ct – x) must be multiplied by a
factor 2p/λ., where λ is a length to be defined.
Reflection and Transmission of Waves on a String at a Boundary