Structural Restoration and Basin Modelling of The Central Apennine Orogen

Marine and Petroleum Geology 127 (2021) 104948
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo
Structural restoration and basin modelling of the central apennine orogen/

foredeep/foreland system: New insights on the regional petroleum system
Andrea D’Ambrosio a, *, Lorenzo Lipparini a, Sabina Bigi a, Teodoro Cassola b,
Victoire Roblet Bambridge b, Jan Federik Derks b, Fabio Trippetta a
a
Earth Science Department, “Sapienza” University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Roma, Italy
b
Schlumberger, Aachen, Germany
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Basin modelling represents an important approach for the prediction of hydrocarbon generation/migration,
Thick vs thin-skin tectonic identifying possible prospects and reducing the risk in exploration areas. This modelling can be also used to study
Basin modelling the structural evolution of an area. Main input are the thermal/burial history of the sedimentary basin (key
Structural restoration
parameters for source rock maturity) and the adopted crustal model.
Thermal modelling
We applied a basin modelling approach to the study of a portion of the Central Apennine orogen (Central
Italy Petroleum system
Central Italy Italy), where both thick-vs thin-skin interpretation models were historically proposed, and to the adjoining
Central apennine Central Adriatic foredeep/foreland system, to contribute reducing the tectonic and petroleum system un
Oil migration certainties of this structurally complex area.
We started from the available dataset obtained from the past hydrocarbon exploration activities, that resulted
in several small/medium oil discoveries (evidence of an active petroleum system), making a structural review of
the different crustal models proposed by the literature.
We built two balanced 2D regional sections using MOVE software: one across the off-shore Central Adriatic
foreland; and one from the front of the Central Apennine through the Central Adriatic foredeep/foreland system.
This last section was modelled testing both a thick and a thin-skin structural scenario, implementing a structural
restoration step using Dynel2D software. Using PetroMod2D we then compared the obtained petroleum system
results to verify which structural scenario better fit with the present-day known distribution of hydrocarbon
occurrences, both on-shore/off-shore. A 3D model was then implemented over key sectors to better understand
the main hydrocarbon generation trends.
Results suggest the thick-skin model as most suitable to justify the known hydrocarbon occurrences in the
area. In addition, modelling indicates a lateral hydrocarbon migration as a key process for known hydrocarbon
accumulation, active from the Upper Miocene (in the Central Apennine foredeep) and Upper Pliocene (in the
Central Adriatic foreland) to present-day.
1. Introduction evidences of the deep structural deformation on the surface (rarely the
main thrust outcrops, as well as the basement), the lack of adequate
Basin modelling is a powerful tool used to test the petroleum system coverage of deep-penetration geophysical data (mainly reflection
evolution of an area and to understand the key processes responsible for seismic), and limited information from past exploration wells (Coward,
the hydrocarbon generation and migration. This kind of studies are the 1983; Calabrò et al., 2003; Scrocca, 2010; Pfiffner, 2017).
base of prospect inventory and exploration activities; in this work The Central Apennine (Fig. 1) is a good example of how complex it is
instead, this analysis has been used to identify the most likely style of the to address these uncertainties (Masini et al., 2011 and reference
structural evolution of an area. therein). Different structural crustal models have been historically pro
A correct interpretation of the geological structural setting of the root posed for the Central Apennine NW-SE orogen (Bally et al., 1986; Butler
of an orogen can be indeed very challenging, due to the limited et al., 2004; Masini et al., 2011 and reference therein; Pace et al., 2015),
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. D’Ambrosio).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2021.104948
Received 29 June 2020; Received in revised form 17 January 2021; Accepted 26 January 2021
Available online 6 February 2021
0264-8172/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. D’Ambrosio et al. Marine and Petroleum Geology 127 (2021) 104948
Fig. 1. Summary map of the 2D regional models built in the study area over a thickness map of the Plio-Quaternary foredeep (modified form Cazzini et al., 2015).
The Apulia carbonate platform paleo-environment in light green, in green the main oil fields. The regional geological sections along which we built our 2D modelling
exercises are shown as bold dark lines (section 1 and 2).
where a major point of discussion has been the possible involvement of results to verify which structural model can better explain the present-
the basement in the thrusting mechanism (thin-versus thick-skinned day known distribution of hydrocarbons in the area.
models) and the subsurface definition of the regional detachment
layer/s. The thick-skin tectonic crustal model (or autochthonous model) 2. Structural and geological setting
considers mostly vertical movements and the involvement of the base
ment in the orogen deformation, while the thin-skin tectonic (or The study is located in Central Italy and is geologically characterized
allochthonous tectonic model) considers the deformation of the orogen by the present-day NW-SE Apennines fold-and-thrust belt front with its
as occurring mainly through lateral displacements (Coward, 1983). on-shore/off-shore foredeep system and by the presence of a preserved
Considering the direct relationship between the structural style of an Mesozoic carbonate platform/margin/basin system that has been iden
area, its thermal history and the development of a petroleum system, tified both in the subsurface and in outcrop (Santantonio et al., 2013;
choosing the correct structural model is crucial for the hydrocarbon Nicolai and Gambini, 2007; Zappaterra, 1994, Fig. 1).
exploration activities. This is true also for a mature area such as the The Mesozoic Apulia Carbonate Platform (ACP), which encompasses
Central Italy, where a wide occurrence of oil discoveries represents the Triassic to Miocene rocks (Fig. 1), was initially dominated by
clear evidence of the occurrence of an active petroleum system (Mat aggradation (Santantonio et al., 2013).
tavelli and Novelli, 1990; Zappaterra, 1994; Katz, 2000; Cazzini et al., In the surrounding area, the Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic rifting
2015; Lipparini et al., 2018). phase led to the development of a horst and graben configuration and
To better define the evolution of the Apennine fold and thrust belt the deposition of the Umbria-Marche basinal succession. In the on-shore
and make a structural review of the proposed crustal models (Bally et al., sector, the ACP platform-to-basin transition is well exposed in the
1986; Mostardini and Merlini, 1986; Ghisetti et al., 1993; Tozer et al., Maiella outcrops (Fig. 1) and in the Gargano area (Fig. 2) to the South of
2002; Patacca et al., 2004; Calamita et al., 2007; Patacca et al., 2008; the study area. Off-shore, this transition, and the overall structural
Masini et al., 2011 and reference therein; Porreca et al., 2018), we setting, are well preserved and documented by the publicly available
started from the well-known oil and gas occurrence their distributions, exploration wells and seismic sections in the Central Adriatic foreland
characteristics and the lithological/thermal data obtained from explo (Vecsei et al., 1998; Morsilli et al., 2002; Rusciadelli, 2005; Scrocca
ration wells. et al., 2007; Rusciadelli e Ricci, 2008; Santantonio et al., 2013; Morsilli
We built and balanced two 2D regional sections across the different et al., 2017; Eberli, 2019).
tectonic settings (orogen/foredeep/foreland), both on-shore and off- Starting from the late Oligocene, the geodynamic evolution of the
shore (Fig. 1). The first 2D section was built over the off-shore Central area has been driven by the NE-ward rollback of a W-directed subduc
Adriatic foreland, across the Apulia Mesozoic Carbonate Platform (ACP) tion. The related eastward migration of the Apennine compressive front
and its transition to adjacent basins (in which except for some exten was progressively accompanied by crustal thinning, connected to the
sional tectonic effects, the lateral continuity of the stratigraphic units is Plio-Quaternary normal faulting up to the current configuration
preserved; section 1 in Fig. 1). The second 2D section was built from the (Doglioni, 1991; Carminati and Doglioni, 2012).
front of the Central Apennine orogen through the Central Adriatic As a result of the eastward propagation of the Apennine thrust front,
foredeep/foreland system (section 2, Fig. 1). For this section, the two the foredeep depocenter migrated gradually to the east reaching
different structural scenarios (thin and thick-skin) were implemented. present-day configuration, in which a thickness of 6 km of deposits is
Then, using the 2D and 3D basin modelling approach, we compared the reached in the on-shore/off-shore domain (Scisciani and Montefalcone,
2
2006; Crescenti et al., 2004; Artoni, 2007; Cazzini et al., 2015). Table 1
The Central Apennine orogenesis was accompanied by syntectonic Summary table of the wells and regional geological maps used for the strati
sedimentation into the foredeep basins and by the subsequent Plio- graphic column construction for each geological domain. *Wells used for the
Quaternary extension (Doglioni et al., 1997). thermal calibration (temperatures from the ViDEPI and GeoThopica catalogues).
The structural setting of the study area is dominated by the presence **Key wells for the source rocks calibration. Wells position in Fig. 2.
of the Central Apennine frontal structures, characterized by a dominant Exploration Wells
E/NE tectonic vergence. In particular, the Gran Sasso range (Fig. 1) is Apulia Carbonate Platform Basin Geological
maps
made of a Meso-Cenozoic carbonate succession moved over the basinal
On-shore Off-shore On-shore Off-shore Scale 1:50.000
domain during the Messinian (Patacca and Scandone, 2007). The Cen Casalbordino Ombrina Caramanico 1 Elsa 1* L’Aquila
tral Apennine compressional deformation continued eastwards through 1 Mare 1 "foglio 359′′
geological time, involving the Meso-Cenozoic platform to basin transi Foresta Katia 1* Burano 1** Camilla 1* Torre
Umbra 1 dé Passeri
tion (Fig. 1) with the youngest Morrone Mt. thrusting in the Late
"foglio 360′′
Messinian-Early Pliocene (Cavinato and Celles, 1999) and, in Late Gargano 1 Monica 1* Musellaro 1 Eleonora Chieti "foglio
Pliocene times, with the structuring of the Maiella Mt. (Patacca and 11X* 361′′
Scandone, 2007; Masini et al., 2011). In this sector, the Central Apen Lanciano 1,2* Rombo Poggiofiorito EmmaW Avezzano
nine structural trends can be reconstructed using seismic lines and deep Mare 1 1,2,3,4,5,6* 11X* "foglio 368′′
Maiella 1 Sabrina 1* Vallecupa 45 Enigma 1* Sulmona
exploration wells, such as Villadegna1 (Fig. 1), in which the Maiella
"foglio 369′′
anticline is buried 2 km blow the Apennine on-shore foredeep (Bigi Maiella 2 Sonia 1* Vicoli 1 Esmeralda
et al., 2013). 1*
Marcone 1* Vasto Villa Degna 1 Eterno 1*
Mare 1*
3. Regional petroleum system
Orsogna 1 Vasto Villafonsina Fratello 1*
Mare 2* 1,2,3*
Since the past century, the study area has been of great interest for oil Puglia 1* Grifone 1**
and gas exploration (Mattavelli and Novelli, 1990; Mattavelli et al., S.Maria 1,2* Patrizia 1*
1991; Zappaterra, 1994; Bertello et al., 2010; Brandano et al., 2013; Silvana 1*
Sparviero 1
Casero and Bigi, 2013; Santantonio et al., 2013; Cazzini et al., 2015;
Bis**
Lipparini et al., 2018, 2018a, Fig. 1). In particular, important oil dis Spinello
coveries have been identified within the Lower Cretaceous karstified Mare 1*
platform carbonates (such as the Rospo and Katia oil fields; Fig. 1) and in Vanessa 1*
Viviana
the turbiditic deposits of the Upper Cretaceous Scaglia formation in the
1Dir*
basinal environment (e.g. Emilio oil field, Fig. 1; Mattavelli et al., 1991;
André and Doulcet, 1991; Cazzini et al., 2015). Hydrocarbon accumu
lations are also documented in the Maiolica fm., in the Elsa and
Miglianico oil fields (Fig. 1; Santantonio et al., 2013).
On the base of geochemical analysis and oil-to-oil correlations, two
Afterwards, we defined the Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous stratigraphy
source rocks have been recognized in the area: the Rhaetian-lower
of the ACP by referring to the public exploration wells data from the
Jurassic limestone drilled by the Emma1, Sparviero 1Bis and Grifone 1
ViDEPI (2012) and GeoThopica project catalogues (Table 1, Fig. 2).
wells (Fig. 2; Cazzini et al., 2015) and the upper Triassic Burano bitu
Additional information has also been collected for the Rospo area, in
minous dolomite (Mattavelli and Novelli, 1990; Zappaterra, 1994;
which the widespread karst of the Lower Cretaceous Cupello limestone
Cazzini et al., 2015) drilled by the Burano1 well (Fig. 2). The Burano
represents one of the most important carbonate reservoirs (Andrè and
source rock has been also proved in several outcrops in Central Italy
Doulcet, 1991) of the area. The analogue reservoir exhumed in the
(such as Gran Sasso area; Cazzini et al., 2015).
Maiella mountain has also been considered for the stratigraphic and
Considering the geochemical characteristic of the oils and the
lithological calibration (Crescenti et al., 1969; Vecsei et al., 1998; Mutti
present-day geographical positions of the fields, an important lateral
and Bernoulli, 2003; Rusciadelli, 2005).
migration has been recently proposed to explain the on-shore/off-shore
The Jurassic/Upper Triassic stratigraphic interval of the platform has
hydrocarbon occurrences (e.g. the Maiella area, Rospo, Elsa/Miglianico
been completed using very deep wells, which drilled the whole ACP
and Emilio oil fields; Fig. 1, Brandano et al., 2013; Scrocca et al., 2013;
down to the Permian basement (Puglia 1, Gargano 1 and Foresta Umbra
Lipparini et al., 2018; D’Ambrosio et al., 2019; Trippetta et al., 2020;
1 wells, located south of the study area, Fig. 2). We used these deep wells
Trippetta and Geremia, 2019).
also to locate the most likely position of the Permian basement, which
was extended to the base of the models using a “mixed continental crust
4. Input data & method
lithology” from the PetroMod lithology catalog.
The ACP platform-basin transition has been characterized by
2D structural restoration and thermal modelling in order to prepare
analyzing both public seismic data (Scrocca et al., 2007; Casero and Bigi,
the input for the final 2D/3D regional basin modelling analysis has been
2013) and depth converted models from literature (Santantonio et al.,
completed. Data collection was carried out to cover several geological
2013) as well as off-shore well data (Table 1), from the ViDEPI and
aspects at a regional scale, such as the definition of the present-day
GeoThopica catalogues.
thermal regime, stratigraphic architecture, the structural and thermal
In its central portion, the ACP platform-to-basin transition is char
evolution of the chain in the foredeep/foreland sectors and the
acterized by the presence of several Jurassic horsts and graben, as
geochemical characteristic of oil founds and produced in the region.
testified by thicknesses variation in the stratigraphic units recorded by
Present-day thermal data (Table 1) have been collected from the
boreholes (Fig. 3).
public ViDEPI well catalogue, analysing the composite logs of about 30
For the sector, the stratigraphic characterization of the basinal
on-shore and off-shore exploration wells, using the public temperatures
domain has been carried out by using the geological regional maps from
from the GeoThopica database (GeoThopica Project, in progress; E.
the “Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale”
Trumpy et al., 2017). Additional thermal data were extracted from
(ISPRA) website and the “CARtografia Geologica project” (CARG). We
surface heat flow regional maps form literature (Della Vedova et al.,
used geological maps (at the scale 1:50.000) to create the surface
2001).
3
Fig. 2. Basemap of the main Mesozoic geological domains of the area (modified after Cazzini et al., 2015), in which the exploration wells used for lithostratigraphic
(red dots) and source rocks (black dots) calibration are visible. The ACP is shown in light green, while in blue are visible the most likely Emma basin domains. The
regional geological sections are shown as bold dark lines (section 1 and 2).
interpretation of the regional geology (Table 1). 4.1. 2D geological modelling and structural restoration
For the Central Apennine subsurface geological characterization, we
extracted information from the key deep well Caramanico 1 (Fig. 2), 4.1.1. The Central Adriatic 2D model
which drilled the Maiella anticline for about 5 km without reaching the We started the modelling from the almost undeformed Central
basal thrust. We used this well in order to complete two different 1D Adriatic foredeep/foreland sector (section 1, Fig. 2). To build section 1,
structural interpretations for the Maiella anticline (thick and thin-skin we used the collected geophysical and lithological information, merging
pseudowells, Fig. 3). data from several wells drilled in the area (e.g. Spinello Mare 1 and
The 1D pseudowell has been then constructed down to 5 km depth Esmeralda 1 in the Central Adriatic depocenter, Silvana 1 and Elsa 1 for
assuming for the thin case, the doubling of the entire stratigraphic the structural highs of the basin, and Ombrina Mare 1 and Katia 1 for the
sequence (Fig. 3). For the thick case, the involvement of the basement in off-shore ACP, Fig. 4).
structuring the Maiella anticline has been assumed. In addition, we Seismic and depth converted models from literature have been used
considered also several public deep wells located within and to the (Andrè&Doulcet, 1991; Santantonio et al., 2013; Cazzini et al., 2015)
North of the study area (Vallecupa 45, Vicoli 1 and Villa Degna 1) to together with additional key deep wells (Gargano 1, Puglia 1 and Foresta
extend the collected information to a regional scale. Umbra 1, Fig. 3) to complete the NNW-SSE part of the section, down to
2D geological sections were then built using the Petrel software the hypothetical basement (Fig. 4). The structural setting of this section
(mark of Schlumberger) and MOVE (mark of Midland Valley/Petroleum is characterized by the ACP/pelagic basin and structural highs differ
Experts). Once we defined the present-day 2D structural setting for the entiation from the northern platform margin, due to the Early Jurassic
main geological and sedimentological intervals, we carried out the 2D rift phase, in which the listric faults geometries detaching within the
structural restoration work. For the Central Adriatic model (Fig. 4), the Upper Triassic evaporites, have been associated with a thin-skin tectonic
restoration was carried out using exclusively PetroMod2D (mark of (Cosentino and Parotto, 1991; Santantonio et al., 2013).
Schlumberger). A different workflow was adopted for the restoration of For the geometries of normal faults of the ACP domain and the
the Central Apennine models (Fig. 5), in which we used Dynel2D and neighbouring basin (from the platform to the Spinello Mare 1 well,
PetroMod2D (both mark of Schlumberger) to solve the structural Fig. 4), we used the structural and stratigraphic interpretation carried
complexity of the crustal model. out by Santantonio et al. (2013). The remaining northern part of the
We concluded the 2D basin modelling workflow by performing the model (the N–S oriented transect of section 1, Fig. 4) has been completed
thermal and source rocks maturity/hydrocarbon generation models, by using well correlations, assuming a horst and graben structural
using the software PetroMod 2D, following the methodological configuration.
approach reported by Hantschel and Kauerauf (2009), and Allen and The structural restoration was used to investigate: i) the Late
Allen (2013). Finally, the hydrocarbon generation results obtained from Triassic-Early Jurassic rifting phase (Zappaterra, 1994), which led to the
the 2D basin modelling work were used as an input for the construction platform to basin differentiation, ii) the ACP evolution, as well as its
of dedicated 3D models, in order to better understand and describe the vertical movements and tilting, iii) the structuring of the Plio-Quaternay
maturity and generation of hydrocarbons in key sectors of the study foredeep/foreland depocenter, associated to the Central Apennine
area. orogeny.
For the restoration work, we used paleo-bathymetric indicators such
as the paleo-water depth of the ACP from the Upper Triassic to the
Lower-Upper Cretaceous, including the platform emersion event and
4
Fig. 3. Stratigraphic characterization of the regional geological domains of the study area (Basemap in Fig. 2). A pseudo-stratigraphic column is shows for main
representative geological sectors. The 1D Caramanico thick and thin-skin models are also presented. The red arrow represents the modelled Maiella basal
thrust position.
karsts formation (Andrè and Doulcet, 1991; Santantonio et al., 2013). Following data sources of Table 1, for the restoration of both Central
The compaction/decompaction rate for each geological interval was Apennine models, we considered the overlap of different tectonic phases
calculated by the PetroMod software, using lithology as defined based that occurred in the area through geological time: i) the Upper Triassic-
on composite logs analysis and data from literature (Andrè and Doulcet, Lower Jurassic crustal thinning (that lead to the platform to basin paleo-
1991; Santantonio et al., 2013; Cazzini et al., 2015). We assumed an environment differentiation), ii) the crustal shortening due to the Cen
Early Jurassic activation of normal faults both in the basin and the tral Apennine fold and thrust belt building, iii) and the Plio-Quaternary
platform domain, and a second extensional phase in the Lower-Upper extensional tectonics of the Apennine intramontane basins such as the
Cretaceous stage that led to the additional normal faulting of the ACP Sulmona and Caramanico basins (Fig. 1).
(Fig. 4). The present-day 2D geometry of the models has been discretized
within Dynel2D using a triangular mesh, which is used to calculate the
4.1.2. The Central Apennine 2D models rock deformation through geomechanic equations based on linear
Section 2 was chosen normal across the external portion of the elasticity on the base of the elastic properties of the modelled rock, such
Apennine chain (Fig. 2). We started the construction of the models using as Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio. In addition, the lithostatic load
the same interpretation of the surface geology for both the thick and is also applied to calculate the compaction rate through time for each
thin-skin cases (Bally et al., 1986; Mostardini and Merlini, 1986; Ghisetti layer. In particular, compaction is calculated by the software by
et al., 1993; Tozer et al., 2002; Patacca and Scandone, 2004; Calamita assuming hydrostatic pressure, based on the model of Sclater and
et al., 2007; Patacca et al., 2008; Masini et al., 2011 Porreca et al., Christie (1980). Therefore, potential overpressure has been not consid
2018). Then, we built and balanced the 2D West to East regional section ered during the compaction modelling carried out in Dynel2D. All the
across the front of the Central Apennine and the Central Adriatic fore rock properties (referred to the time of deposition) have been extracted
deep/foreland system (Fig. 2, section 2), considering both the hypoth from Dynel2D rock catalogue following the stratigraphy of the wells
esis of a thick-skin (Fig. 5A), versus a thin-skin (Fig. 5B) crustal model. (Table 2).
5
A. D’Ambrosio et al.
6
Fig. 4. Present-day structural and geological model of the Central Adriatic system (trace section 1, basemap in Fig. 1), in which the Mesozoic ACP to basin evolution is represented. Part of the used exploration wells
are shown.

In particular, we assigned a limestone lithology to the whole Upper (back-stripping) within PetroMod2D (as done for the Central Adriatic
Triassic – Lower Cretaceous platform domain (Table 2). For the basinal model).
succession we used a limestone lithology for the Corniola fm., for
Lower/Middel Jurassic basinal deposits and for the Maiolica fm., while a 4.1.2.2. Thin-skin crustal model (2 TN). For the section 2 TN (Fig. 5B)
shale lithology has been assigned to the Lower Cretaceous Marne a we assumed the presence of a regional detachment level represented by
Fucoidi formation. The Scaglia Detritica fm. and the Plio-Quaternay the anhydrite-rich interval of the Upper Triassic Burano formation.
deposits were modelled using a sandstone lithology (Table 2). From a structural point of view, we introduced the doubling of the
For the basement, whose composition is still under-constrained, we entire stratigraphic sequence, assuming the hanging-wall sliding along
assumed a granite lithology during the restoration workflow. Whereas the thick Burano anhydrites drilled by several wells (e.g. Foresta Umbra
for the basin modelling phase where thermal proprieties are considered, 1, Gargano 1, Puglia 1) as proposed for the Maiella mountain (Mos
we used the composition of the upper part of the basement using the tardini and Merlini, 1986; Patacca et al., 2008). For the model building,
Puglia 1 Well that drilled about 1 km of Permian sandstones, and we adopted the methodological approach used for the thick-skin case,
completed the remaining part by assigning a “mixed continental crust considering the coherence of stratigraphy and geometry constrained by
lithology” from the PetroMod lithology catalogue. wells and seismic data in particular for the first 2–3 km depth.
For the restoration of both crustal scenarios (Fig. 5), for each paleo- As a result of the structural complexity of the section, as well as the
sections restored, we reconstructed the corresponding paleo-topography high displacement amount of this regional thrust, a more intense
as well as the eroded geological beds, assuming an erosion rate of 0.2 restoration work was needed in order to remove both the Maiella and
mm/yr (Carminati and Doglioni, 2012) for both sections. Gran Sasso/Morrone thrusting from each paleo-section. As an additional
constraint of the model, we guided the restoration applying a westward
4.1.2.1. Thick-skin crustal model (2 TK). On section 2 TK (Fig. 5A) fold- movement to the entire hanging-wall blocks, proportional to the amount
related faulting was reconstructed on the base of geological surface data of displacement reached by the thrusts.
and dip direction data from well logs (Caramanico 1, Musellaro 1,
Maiella 1 and 2, Vallecupa 45, Vicoli 1 and Villa Degna 1 wells),
respecting the thickness of the geological formation, and their lateral 4.2. Basin modelling
variation.
The NW part of the section is characterized by the presence of NW-SE The Petroleum system modelling was defined at basinal scale,
oriented normal faults (Fig. 5A), linked to a Plio-Quaternary extensional adopting the geochemical characteristics of source rocks. After that, the
tectonic, which resulted in several half-graben intramontane basins such evolution of the sedimentary basin was carried out through geological
as the Sulmona and Caramanico valley (Miccadei et al., 2002; Gori et al., time, in terms of present-day and paleo-thermal conditions (boundary
2014). These basins limit respectively the western part of the Morrone conditions), following the workflow described in Hantschel and Kauer
and Maiella mountains (Fig. 1). The relationship between the develop auf (2009) and Allen and Allen (2013).
ment of these normal faults and the Central Apennine uplift is discussed
in literature (Ghisetti and Vezzani, 2002; Scisciani et al., 2001; Masini 4.2.1. Source rock modelling
et al., 2011 and reference therein). In particular, several authors suggest Source rocks geochemical characteristics have been based on liter
a pre-thrusting activation of the Caramanico fault (from the Late ature (Mattavelli and Novelli, 1990; Zappaterra, 1994; Katz, 2000;
Miocene), and consider the Maiella anticline as a result of an inherited Cazzini et al., 2015). For the geochemical calibration of the Upper
horst structure involved and tilted by a Late Pliocene (Piacenzian stage) Triassic Burano source rock, we assumed the following values: Total
– Early Pleistocene (Gelasian stage) thrusting phase (Scisciani et al., organic carbon (TOC = 4%), hydrogen index (HI = 500 mg HC/g TOC),
2002; Masini et al., 2011). In our reconstruction we assumed a type of kerogen (type II) and the sulfur content (S = 4–9%). For the
pre-thrusting extensional phase for this normal fault system, followed by Lower Jurassic Emma source rock, we assumed a TOC of 5%, HI of about
the deformation of a Permian basement drilled by the Puglia 1 and 700 mg HC/g TOC, a kerogen (type II) and the Sulfur content up to 17%.
Gargano 1 wells (location in Fig. 2). We modelled the Burano source assuming a layer of 100m located 1
For the thick-skin scenario, we considered the presence of several km below the top of the formation, as seen in the Burano 1 well. We
morphologic obstacles (represented by the ACP body in the foredeep/ assumed for both the Burano and Emma source rocks a kinetic model
foreland domain and the Maiella structural high) being responsible for from the PetroMod software catalog (Pepper and Corvi 1995 T-II S(A)),
the involvement of the basement during the Central Apennine orogeny. based on source rocks paleo-environment and organic matter/oil
Retro-deformation of the section was performed restoring several characteristics.
deformation episodes through geological time; i) Plio-Quaternary
normal faults; ii) contractional fault related folds; iii) Mesozoic exten 4.2.2. Boundary conditions and thermal modelling
sional normal faults (responsible for platform to basin paleo- The definition of the boundary conditions represents an important
environments differentiation). step in the modelling of the thermal evolution of the basin, as well as the
We proceeded by first removing the youngest Quaternary deposits, source rocks maturity and hydrocarbon generation through geological
allowing the decompaction of the underlying rocks as well as their time. The conditions can be summarized as per the following:
isostatic uplift. Then, we moved the extensional Quaternary faults in
order to remove the present-day displacement and restore the past ho • Paleo Water Depths (PWD) – bathymetric data
rizon continuity. Afterwards, following the same approach, we focused • Surface Water-Interface Temperature (SWIT) – thermal data
on the restoration of the Maiella anticline (paleo-section of the Upper • Basal Heat Flow (BHF) – thermal data
Pliocene). The compressional deformation has been removed applying a
free sliding movement along the Maiella thrust and the un-faulted PWD and SWIT define the upper thermal boundary and BHF the
parameter to the horizons, in order to reconstruct their lateral conti bottom thermal boundary of the model.
nuity. Then, using the same methodology, we completed the restoration For the 2D Paleo-Water-Depths of the Central Apennine area, infor
of the paleo-section by removing the Morrone/Gran Sasso deformation mation is based on the several studies published over the Maiella
(Upper Miocene). analogue, where the ACP and its margin are well exposed and studied (e.
Once all elements affected by compressional tectonics had been g. Crescenti et al., 1969; Mutti and Bernoulli, 2003; Vecsei et al., 1998;
removed, we completed the remaining part of the restoration work Rusciadelli, 2005). We also considered several paleo-bathymetric indi
cator provided by the platform stratigraphy: first, a constant
7
A. D’Ambrosio et al.
8

Fig. 5. Present-day structural and geological models displayed through the software MOVE for both the thick-skin case (A) and the thin-skin case (B). The legend for each geological formation is reported in Fig. 4.
Table 2 GeoThopica public dataset). The present-day heat flow map by Della
Rock properties of the main lithotype used for the restoration (values extracted Vedova (2001) was also considered. As a result, different heat flow
from the Dynel catalog). trends were constructed for each 2D model through geological time: for
Material Rock properties the Central Adriatic model, two different BHF trends have been obtained
Young’s Poisson’s Density Porosity Compaction
in order to calibrate the present-day well temperatures along the entire
modulus ratio (Kg/m^3) (0–1) constant (1/ section (present-day BHF value of 45 mW/m2 for the platform envi
(Pa) m) ronment, and 35 mW/m2 for the basinal area), whereas for the whole
limestone 4.8 e10 0.25 2500 0.3 0.116419 Central Apennine model we adopted the present-day BHF value of 45
Shale 2.8 e10 0.14 2530 0.63 0.517390 mW/m2 (Fig. 6).
Sandstone 2.2 e10 0.24 2480 0.49 0.274787
Granite 4.5 e10 0.23 2650 0.02 0.032838
4.3. 3D models construction

paoleo-bathimetry of about 50 m of water depth due to the depositional
environment from the Triassic up to the Lower/Upper Cretaceous; sec Starting from the 2D modelling phase, following the most probable
ond, the emersion event and the subaerial exposure (with subsequent structural solution indicated by the 2D basin modelling, a 3D work has
diffused paleo-karsts) at top Lower Cretaceous as evidenced in the Upper been carried out to better characterize the hydrocarbon generation
Cretaceous Cupello limestone (André and Doulcet, 1991). For the basin trends for the key source intervals (the Upper Triassic Burano source
area, the paleo-bathymetric profiles from Carminati et al. (2013) have rock), supporting the regional hydrocarbon migration model.
been used. For this modelling step, two key areas have been chosen for the oil
The Surface-Water-Interface-Temperature (SWIT) is an information generation/migration potential (hypothetical kitchen areas) and then
that is strongly linked both to the PWD (which defines the horizon on modelled using Petrel 3D software. The first 3D model was built over the
which this thermal information is distributed) and to the paleo climatic foreland sector, including the buried locked basin (Santantonio et al.,
conditions of the environment. We define this value starting from 2013), geologically delimited by the ACP margin (Ombrina and Rombo
defined PWDs, using the semiautomatic tool in PetroMod. Mare area, Fig. 1) and the Elsa/Miglianico structural high in the basinal
The Basal Heat Flow (BHF, paleo and present-day basal thermal domain. For the geometry of this model, we laterally extended the
input of the model) has been calibrated by matching the paleo-thermal geological horizons of section 1 using the public wells of the area (e.g.
reconstruction proposed by Ronchi et al. (2010) for the study area, with Ombrina Mare 1, Rombo Mare 1, Elsa 1, Silvana 1), time/depth struc
the present-day thermal borehole data (using the ViDEPI and tural map form the ViDEPI catalogue and geological models from liter
ature (Andrè and Doucet, 1991; Nicolai and Gambini, 2007; Santantonio
Fig. 6. BHF trend reconstructed for the platform and the basinal domains, starting from the HF trend of Ronchi et al. (2010).
9
Fig. 7. Restoration of the Central Adriatic 2D model (section 1) and lateral Paleo-Water-Depths definition using the PetroMod2D software. In the figure the main
paleo-bathymetric indicators for the platform paleo-environment are shown. Legend of geological formation in Fig. 9.
et al., 2013; Cazzini et al., 2015). A second 3D model was built over the both the 3D models we applied the hydrocarbon generation trends
Maiella area (Fig. 1), in which the hypothetical occurrence of the Burano extracted from the 2D basin modelling analysis to the modelled Burano
source rock has been suggested due to the widespread hydrocarbon source rock, taking into account the possible variation of the source rock
occurrences of this sector (e.g. the Maiella bitumen field and the Bomba maturity with increasing/decreasing burial depth.
thermogenic gas field, Fig. 1). This 3D reconstruction was carried out This 3D modelling exercise allow to better understand and visualize
based on the 2 TK section, combining information form exploration the petroleum system evolution over the area, including 3D hydrocar
wells (e.g. Caramanico 1, Musellaro 1, Maiella 2), seismic sections/maps bon generation and likely oil migration model for key sector of the area.
from ViDEPI catalogue and digitalized geological maps (Table 1). For
10
Fig. 8. Central Apennine thin-skin restoration model extracted by the PetroMod2D software. The structural evolution has been presented from the Messinian age to
the present-day, including the crustal shortening and extensional parameters. On the left the basemap with the Central Apennine sections trace (section 2). The
legend for each geological formation is reported in Fig. 9.
5. Results Andrè and Doucet, 1991; Cazzini et al., 2015; Lipparini et al., 2018a).
The paleo-section modelled at the end of the Messinian age (about 5
5.1. 2D structural restoration Ma, Fig. 7) shows the drowning of the ACP as well as the platform
margin sealing by the basin deposits and in particular by the Gessoso
5.1.1. The Central Adriatic foreland case Solfifera formation.
The restoration of section 1 (Fig. 7) describes the structural and The present-day configuration (Fig. 7) shows the accumulation of the
geological evolution of the Central Adriatic foreland area, and highlights entire Adriatic domain, in which the Plio-Quaternary sedimentation
the key geological steps across time (respecting the present-day cali filled the basinal area reaching a thickness of about 3 km (foredeep/
bration from wells) preparing the ground for the subsequent basin foreland depocenter).
modelling phase. In addition, the tilting of the ACP, partially due to the structuring of
Starting from the Lower Jurassic paleo-section (from 190 to 182 Ma, the Plio-Quaternary depocenter and to the hypothetical effect of the
Fig. 7), the effect of the Upper Triassic- Lower Jurassic crustal rifting is Central Apennine compressional setting, can be observed. The tilted
shown. In terms of paleo-environment differentiation, the first paleo area in this model represents an important geometrical element for
geographic configuration of the ACP becomes evident on the SE sector of hydrocarbon trap configuration of the platform domain (e.g. for the
the paleo-section (182 Ma). At this time interval, the model shows the Rospo oil field, Fig. 1), as well as a key factor for the hydrocarbon
rapid and tectonically controlled evolution of a basin environment (on exploration of the area.
the NW sector of the section), which is characterized by the occurrence
of intra basinal horsts (e.g. the Elsa structural high) and grabens (e.g. the 5.1.2. The Central Apennine thin-skin case
Spinello Mare depocenter, Fig. 7). During the Jurassic time, as shown in The 2 TN structural model (Fig. 8), shows an estimated shortening of
the paleo-section at 145 Ma, an increasing differentiation between the 62 km, calculated from the original length of the section of about 166 km
more tectonically stable ACP and the neighbouring basin can be (37% shortening), and a shortening rate of about 12 mm/yr, represen
observed. The carbonate platform sediments have been deposited and tative for the interval time of the Apennine orogeny in this area.
partially accumulated in “locked basins”, due to the occurrence of paleo- These values are coherent with the work of Ghisetti et al., 1993, in
geographic obstacles close the platform margin (such as the Elsa- which a crustal shortening of about 50% and a shortening rate of 24
Miglianico trend, Santantonio et al., 2013). mm/yr has been proposed.
During Lower Cretaceous time (100 Ma, Fig. 7), the model shows the The calculated amount of displacement for the Maiella frontal thrust
completedrowning of the structural highs in the basinal domain and the was estimated at around 30 km as a result of the thin-skin tectonic. Most
onset of a wide carbonate platform domain/deposition (Cupello fm.). of the displacement is accommodated horizontally, sliding on the
The carbonate platform sedimentation will be interrupted as a result of evaporitic detachment layer of the Triassic Burano formation (Fig. 8).
an emersion event, witnessed by the known intense karst features of the
Lower Cretaceous limestone of the Cupello fm., representing one of the 5.1.3. The Central Apennine thick-skin case
important reservoirs for hydrocarbons in the area (Zappaterra, 1994; The 2 TK structural model (Fig. 9), shows a shortening of 5.5% and a
11
Fig. 9. Central Apennine thick-skin restoration model extracted by the PetroMod2D software. The structural evolution has been presented from the Messinian age to
the present-day, including the crustal shortening and extensional parameters. The legend for each geological formation is reported on the left. The location of the
section is reported in Fig. 8.
corresponding shortening rate of 1.2 mm/yr, for the last 5 Ma. For the area, we decided to perform 2D thermal models for the most accredited
Maiella mountain, we calculated an amount of displacement of the end-member geological models proposed in literature (Masini et al.,
frontal thrust around 3–4 km, as a response of its deep geometry as well 2011 and reference therein), represented here by the 2 TN and 2 TK
as of the petrophysical property of the rocks affected by the deformation. models. We then used the basin modelling approach to complete two 2D
Regarding the post-thrusting extensional phase, a value of about 2 hydrocarbon generation models in order to verify the most realistic
km of extension has been quantified for the Plio-Quaternary crustal structural case.
thinning for both the section 2 TN and section 2 TK (Figs. 8 and 9). From We started composing a pseudo-sedimentary succession based on
a paleogeographic point of view, the 2 TK model shows a section length exploration wells, geological maps and literature (Andrè and Dolcet,
generally shorter than the section 2 TN. 1991; Zappaterra, 1994; Scrocca et al., 2007; Santantonio et al., 2013;
This difference reflects the hypothesis of a restricted lateral extension Cazzini et al., 2015; Eberli et al., 2019). We thermally calibrated the
of the paleo-depositional basin environment, laterally confined by the present-day model using a basal thermal input of 45 mW/m2 , matching
occurrence of the ACP to the east, where both seismic and many the present-day well temperatures. For the paleo heat flow history
exploration wells provide structural and lithological control (5.3 Ma, reconstruction, we used the work Ronchi et al. (2010).
Fig. 9). Indeed, in the 2 TK model the lateral size of the basin is of about The petroleum system modelling results allowed us to link the
60 km at the Messinian stage and corresponds to the still unfolded area, different tectonic evolution of the area to the relative hydrocarbon
whereas in the 2 TN model the same basin has a greater paleo- generation model. Finally, we compared the accumulation distribution
depocenter of approximately 117 km, resulting from the structural derived from the simulation results of the petroleum system model with
restoration of the sections (thin-skin section at 5.3 Ma, Fig. 9). In the present-day on-shore/off-shore hydrocarbon occurrences to verify
addition, according to the low erosion rate proposed for the study area the most likely structural scenario.
(0.2 mm/yr, Carminati e Doglioni, 2012), we reconstructed a 2D
paleo-topography for each model across geological time, defining the 5.2.1. 2D thermal models
paleo-altitude trend for the Gran Sasso, Morrone and Maiella mountains. In the thermal modelling work we were able to reach a coherent
distribution of present-day temperatures for the entire set of 2D
5.2. Basin modelling geological sections (section 1, sections 2 TN and 2 TK, Fig. 10), partic
ularly over the ACP foreland domain where the calibration has been
To test the petroleum system activation at a regional scale and matched using the same basal thermal input (45 mW/m2 ) for all the
reduce the uncertainties related to the structural model of the study wells with the single exception of Rospo Mare 2 well, where a punctual
12
Fig. 10. Present-day 2D thermal models in which the well temperatures (◦ C) calibration and the required basal heat flow (mW/m2 ) are shown.
hotter geothermal gradient is recorded. state thermal model.

For section 1 in Fig. 10, from the Platform to the Plio-Quaternary As a second observation, the thermal disequilibrium analysis of
depocenter of the Central Adriatic Sea, a quite homogeneous present- section 2 TK shows values of disequilibrium temperature close to zero
day geothermal gradient (22–25 ◦ C/km) can be observed. This value (Fig. 11B), suggesting a not perturbated present-day thermal configu
is significantly lower than the one observed for the neighbouring ACP ration. The heat flow distribution of both section 2 TK and section 2 TN
environment (29–31 ◦ C/km); and can be explained by a lower basal heat confirms the trends observed for the ACP and basin sectors where, in the
flow (35 mW/m2 ) required for a correct calibration of present-day well foredeep domain, lower values of the heat flow are associated with
temperatures. greater thicknesses of Plio-Quaternay deposits (Fig. 11E and F).
The thermal disequilibrium represents the difference between the For section 2 TK, a higher and well distributed heat transfer is
steady-state thermal condition (in which the system is not perturbated, observed for the chain environment, resulting in a range of values of
temperatures are in equilibrium) and the present-day calibrated thermal about (60–65 mW/m2 ) in the Maiella area (Fig. 11E).
scenario. Therefore, the red/blue areas in Fig. 11 represent zones in The present-day thermal distribution of the section 2 TN shows lower
which the temperatures are warmer/cooler, as expected for a thermally values than section 2 TK, with a calculated geothermal gradient of about
equilibrated scenario. 23 ◦ C/km (Fig. 10). Significant thermal differences associated to the
Observing the thermal disequilibrium of section 1 (Fig. 11A), the red structural model have been observed for the thermal disequilibrium of
area below the Plio-Quaternary depocenter (indicating a discrepancy of section 2 TN, that appear more thermally perturbated (value of about
about approximately 60 ◦ C) represents the direct effect of the sedi +40 ◦ C, Fig. 11 C).
mentation rate affected the Plio-Quaternary sedimentary basin Finally, as visible in Fig. 11F, the heat flow values of this model
(approximately 3 km in the last 5 Ma), where cold/shallow rocks were (section 2 TN) seem not to be able to exceed a heat flow value of 45–50
rapidly buried into a deeper hotter sector. Therefore, temperatures need mW/m2 .
a longer time to reach equilibrium.
Observing the heat flow distribution in Fig. 11D, in section 1 there is 5.2.2. Petroleum system modelling
a higher capacity of heat transfer by the ACP domain (hotter area), with We will discuss the results of the source rocks maturity model, in
respect to the neighbouring basin, due to the BHF adopted for the terms of vitrinite reflectance (Ro%), which indicates the degree of
temperature calibration of the Platform area (45 mW/m2 ) and the small thermal alteration of the organic matter. To describe the hydrocarbon
amount of (cold) Plio-Quaternay deposits. The Central Adriatic basin generation potential of this petroleum system across geological time, we
shows a lower heat flow distribution because of the combination of the performed several 1D extractions of transformation ratio (TR) vs time,
used BHF (35 mW/m2 ) with the lower thermal conductivity of the li along all the 2D models (Fig. 12D, E, and F). The transformation ratio
thologies of the basin (Fig. 11D). parameter (TR%) represents the percentage of organic matter trans
The comparison between the section 2 TK and section 2 TN shows a formed during the naphthogenesis process. The source rock gets at its
coherent red area below the basin depocenter and the ACP margin critical moment at the value of 50% TR, which describes the moment
(Fig. 11B and C) indicating, as observed in the Adriatic model (Fig. 11A), when all key mechanisms of a petroleum system are working (Hantschel
that model temperatures are lower than about 60 ◦ C respect the steady- and Kauerauf, 2009). Finally, two dedicated 3D models of the Upper
13
Fig. 11. Present-day thermal models of the Central Adriatic and Central Apennine sections. The sections ABC show the distribution temperatures disequilibrium,
while heat flow values are visible in the sections DEF.
Triassic Burano source rock have been completed for the most likely sedimentary basin (Fig. 12B). The maturity of the hypothetical source
generative source rocks (kitchens) areas of the analyzed sectors of the rocks in the hanging-wall of the Maiella thrust (in accordance also with
Central Adriatic (Fig. 15A) and Central Apennine (Fig. 15B). the section 2 TN, Fig. 12C) appears immature (Burano about 0.60% Ro,
Emma lower than 0.55% Ro), verified also by the very low TR trend
5.2.3. Thermal maturity & hydrocarbon generation values (Burano up to 35% TR, while the Emma close to the zero,
For section 1 (Fig. 12A), the thermal maturity results show a low Fig. 12F). The basin domain, located below the foredeep depocenter
maturity of source rocks (less than 0.70% Ro), whereas higher values (Fig. 12B), shows a higher maturity in both the source rocks (Burano up
(Burano up to 0.80% Ro, Emma close 0.70% Ro) are observed in the to 0.85–0.90% of Ro and Emma 0.60% Ro) and a TR range for the
deeper buried portion of the basin, below the Plio-Quaternay depocenter Burano source rock up to 80 %TR and 35% TR for the Jurassic source
(up to 3 km of thickness). We observe a decrease of maturity for the ACP rock (Fig. 12E).
domain. Maturity results show values mainly close to 0.60–0.70% Ro, in Section 2 TN (Fig. 12C) shows a higher maturity degree, as well as a
which a widespread low maturity of the Burano source rock is indicated much higher hydrocarbon potential compared to 2 TK because of the
by the regional foreland model (Fig. 12A). From the hydrocarbon gen increase of the burial due to the structural model and the greater
eration point of view, we observe a low potential for the Central Adriatic quantity of source rocks due to the thin-skin paleogeographic assump
basin area, in which values close to the 50% TR (the critical moment) tion (larger basin).
have been reached only at recent time (Fig. 12D). In this scenario, thermal maturity distribution of the Central Apen
On the other hand, two peaks were highlighted related to the deep nine is more perturbated by the structural crustal model in contrast to
troughs of the basin for the Burano source (65–75% TR, Fig. 12D), the section 2 TK (Fig. 12C).
whereas the Early Jurassic Emma source seem not to exceed the 30% TR. For the hangingwall block of the Maiella thrust, both the maturity
The whole ACP shows a range of present-day TR values around 40–55%, and hydrocarbon generation models seem to confirm the results of
indicating also in this case a low maturity of the source rocks of this section 2 TK. On the other hand, the Maiella footwall block shows a peak
paleogeographic domain (Fig. 12D). in both maturity parameters (up to 1.50% Ro and close to 100% TR,
Analyzing the same petroleum system from sections 2, we observe a Fig. 12C, F) highlighting a more prone hydrocarbon generation area
higher maturity trend of the Burano source rock up to 0.85% Ro (potential kitchen area) as a result of the increased burial and the over
(Fig. 12B and C) and 70% TR (Fig. 12E and F) in the on-shore platform maturation of the source rocks located below the Central Apennine
environment, in correspondence to the buried ACP margin of the fore compressive structures.
deep domain. For the chain domain, section 2 TK shows a quite equili
brated vertical distribution of the maturity degree in relation with the 5.2.4. Hydrocarbon migration
regional maturity trend of the Adriatic model as well as the whole In terms of timing, the Central Adriatic foreland shows a low
14
Fig. 12. Present-day maturity trend of the Central Adriatic and Central Apennine 2D models on the left (section 1 and 2, basemap in Fig. 1), in which the modelled
vitrinite maturity distribution is presented. On the right side, 1D TR-Time extraction of the source rocks of the Central Adriatic model (upper graph), and the Central
Apennine thick and thin-skin models (lower graph). The geographical position of the 1D extraction are displayed on the maturity sections.
Fig. 13. Hydrocarbon generation of the Central Adriatic petroleum system (section 1, basemap Fig. 14). In the Adriatic foreland the oil generation starts at present
day, as a response of the Plio-Quaternary deposition. The legend for each geological formation is reported in Fig. 14.
15
Fig. 14. Hydrocarbon generation model of the Central Apennine petroleum system investigated through a 2D basin modelling exercise (section 2, thick Vs thin
models). For the Central Apennine case, the oil production and migration followed the orogeny structuring, where considering the thin-skinned tectonic seems to be
possible to justify (also in 2D) the hydrocarbon occurrence of the area.
16
Fig. 15. 3D Hydrocarbon generation model (%TR) of the Burano source rock carried out for the most probable keachen areas presented with the proposed 2D
structual models (Fig. 15C). The public on-shore/off-shore exploration wells are visible in white color. The 3D source rock model of the keachen area of the Central
Adriatic Sea in visible in Fig. 15A, while the 3D source rock model of the Central Apennine domain is shows in Fig. 15B. The legend for each geological formation is
reported in Fig. 14.
productivity of the petroleum system in the ACP domain (Fig. 13). temperatures.
Started at 3Ma, a hydrocarbon generation is observed in the buried For the Central Adriatic and Central Apennine foredeep/foreland
portion of the basin (enough to trigger the hydrocarbon migration), as a domains, the models show temperatures about 60 ◦ C lower respect the
result of the formation of the Plio-Quaternary depocenter (Fig. 13). For steady-state thermal model below the Plio-Quaternary depocenter
the on-shore sector (Fig. 14), the modelling suggests a first important (Fig. 11A–C), indicating a rapid burial due to the tectonic evolution of
hydrocarbon generation and migration at the end of the Messinian these geological domains.
Stage, located in the Gran Sasso footwall, as a result of the Central Thick and thin-skin thermal models show comparable temperature
Apennine structuring (Fig. 14). distributions in the foredeep/foreland domain (Fig. 10). On the other
Looking at both sections 2 TK and 2 TN in Fig. 14, it is possible to hand, thermal modelling of the chain shows a higher degree of variation
note the effect of the Central Apennine orogeny on the petroleum system in terms of the geothermal gradient, especially in the Maiella area
activation, characterized by a west to east hydrocarbon generation trend (29 ◦ C/km for the thick-skin versus 23 ◦ C/km for the thin-skin case,
In particular, we observe an increase of oil generation for each geolog Fig. 10).
ical key interval related to the evolution of this sedimentary basin: i) This thermal variation can be associated to the large displacement of
from 5.3 to 2.58 Ma (Gran Sasso structuring), ii) from 2.58 to 1.80 Ma the Maiella thin-skin thrust case, as well as to the high rate in which the
(Maiella structuring), iii) from 1.80 to present-day (Plio-Quaternary crustal shortening has been achieved through geological time (about 30
foredeep definition). The section 2 TK shows a good hydrocarbon gen km of displacement in 2 Ma). The thermal disequilibrium analysis shows
eration potential extended practically to the on-shore sector, where the a more thermally perturbated situation for section 2 TN respect to 2 TK,
more active kitchen area is represented by the deeper buried Burano and in which temperatures are colder than 40 ◦ C respect to the steady-state
Emma source rocks of the foredeep basin (Fig. 14). thermal model (Fig. 11B and C).
On the other hand, the ACP related to Central Adriatic domain can be The comparison between the section 2 TK and TN seems to indicate a
described as a low/medium oil generation area, not able to justify the different heat flow distribution in which section 2 TK reaches values up
important oil fields known at present (e.g. Rospo, Katia and Ombrina to 60–65 mW⁄m^2, while section 2 TN does not exceed values of 45–50
Mare fields) considering only the vertical migration of hydrocarbons. mW⁄m^2 (Fig. 11E and F). This difference in the heat flow distribution
According to the maturity model, as visible in Fig. 14, the high hy can be explained considering the important amount of displacement
drocarbon generation potential of the section 2 TN is confirmed by the achieved by the section 2 TN, in which the hot rocks of the hanging wall
hydrocarbon overproduction along the entire section (hydrocarbon overlapped the cold rocks of the footwall block, causing a “thermal
liquid phases accumulated in the model show up in light green, Fig. 14). shock” (low temperature zone in the footwall, Fig. 11F) and perturbing
In particular, we observe the occurrence of two accumulation areas the geothermal gradient of the chain.
located: i) below the Central Apennine (Gran Sasso-Morrone area,
assuming the presence of a source rock/rocks and a fluid barrier 6.2. Petroleum system evolution
behavior for the main modelled master thrust), ii) at the top of the ACP,
where important oil fields are known in the lower Cretaceous karst of the The basin modelling work allowed us to describe the thermal
platform (André and Doulcet, 1991; Cazzini et al., 2015). maturity evolution of the hypothetical source rocks.
For the Central Adriatic foreland, we generally observed a low
6. Discussion maturity and low generation potential for both source rock layers, where
one exception is represented by the Central Adriatic Plio-Quaternary
6.1. Thermal evolution depocenter area in which the thickness of the foredeep deposits rea
ches 3 km (Burano up to 0.80% Ro and 65–75 %TR, Emma close 0.70%
The obtained balanced and restored structural models show signifi Ro, and up to 30% TR; Fig. 12). Therefore, assuming this hypothetical
cant differences in terms of tectonic evolution and past/present-day kitchen area we can suggest a possible contribution to the Central
17
Adriatic oils (such as Piropo, Emilio and Emma oil fields, in the north (up to 80–85% TR in the footwall of the Maiella thrust, Fig. 15B), where
sector, Fig. 1), especially considering the increase in the foredeep the observed variation of the TR trend distribution is aligned with the
thickness towards the chain (up to 6–8 km, Cazzini et al., 2015, Fig. 1). geological host and graben configuration, the thickness variation of
In addition, the model seems to identify the narrow and buried basin foredeep deposits as well as the timing of structuration of the Central
bounded between the ACP margin and the Elsa structural high (locked Apennine front.
basin, Santantonio et al., 2013) as a possible kitchen for the Elsa/Mi Therefore, the 3D models allowed us to confirm and better visualize
glianico and Ombrina Mare oil fields (Fig. 13). at regional scale the main hydrocarbon generation areas, supporting the
On the other hand, the whole ACP shows a range of present-day TR idea that an important contribution of lateral migration of hydrocarbons
values around 40–55% and about 0.70% Ro, indicating low source rock must be considered to explain many of the known hydrocarbon accu
maturity in this paleogeographic domain (Fig. 12A, D). The Burano mulations, both on-shore/off-shore.
source seems not to be able to produce large quantities of oils, and
therefore is unable to explain the significant quantities of hydrocarbon 7. Conclusions
found in those geological sectors via a simple vertical migration (e.g.
Rospo Mare, Ombrina Mare, Katia fields, Fig. 1). We studied the evolution of the area through 2D structural restora
In the Central Apennine domain, an increasing maturity from the off- tion and thermal modelling work over the Central Adriatic and Central
shore platform area to the buried carbonate platform margin in the on- Apennine orogen/foredeep/foreland system, by testing two possible
shore area (0.85% Ro and 70% TR) can be observed. Section 2 TK shows geological structural models of the Apennine orogen: thick-skin versus
a peak of maturity and generation rate in the neighbouring foredeep thin-skin tectonic. We then carried out a 2D and 3D regional petroleum
basin, representing the most productive kitchen area for this model. system analysis, to investigate which of the two structural models could
Assuming this kitchen and the contribution of a lateral migration of oils better explain the current known distribution of hydrocarbons in the
(Fig. 14), we can better explain the hydrocarbon occurrences present in subsurface.
the foredeep/foreland domain (such as Lanciano, Santa Maria, Ombrina The Central Adriatic thermal modelling suggests a low maturity and
Mare, Katia and Rospo Mare fields, Fig. 1). low generation capacity for the hypothetical source rocks at present day
For the Maiella mountain, both the section 2 TK and 2 TN highlight in the Apulian Carbonate Platform (ACP) setting (Burano 40–55 %TR
the low maturity of the Burano (Burano about 0.60% Ro, 35% TR) and and about 0.70% Ro), while source rock intervals appear possibly
Emma (lower than 0.55% Ro and TR close to zero) hypothetical source mature in the more buried basinal setting close to the margin platform
rocks (Burano source rock not found by the deep Caramanico 1 well, (e.g. locked basin area) and to the North (Burano up to 0.80% Ro and
Fig. 12B, C, E, F). Consequently, we suggest an allochthonous origin of 65–75 %TR, Emma close 0.70% Ro, and up to 30% TR), where a thicker
the oils generating the present-day Maiella bitumen fields, as proposed Plio-Quaternay foredeep succession is deposited and preserved. Hy
in literature (Scrocca et al., 2013; Lipparini et al., 2018; Trippetta and drocarbon migration in these geological settings is modelled to have
Geremia, 2019; Trippetta et al., 2020). started in the Late Pliocene, around 3 Ma ago, and is still active at
Section 2 TN shows a higher maturity and generation rate compared present. These possible basinal kitchen areas seem to correctly explain
to section 2 TK, as a result of the deeper burial achieved by the hypo the known distribution of hydrocarbons in the basinal setting, while
thetical source rocks, due to structural style. they could not explain the several proven hydrocarbon occurrences over
In addition, this important generation rate can be also due to the the Apulia platform setting. Consequently, an important contribution of
larger quantity of source rock available for the thin-skin case, as a result a lateral hydrocarbon migration is required from other possible kitchen
of the larger extension of the basin and stratigraphic repetitions areas in the region.
modelled (paleogeographic assumption). In this scenario, the vertical The Central Apennine orogen/foredeep/foreland system modelling
distribution of the thermal maturity seems strongly controlled by the indicate higher maturity of both source rock intervals modelled respect
structural crustal model (Fig. 12C). The Maiella Thrust footwall block, in the foreland domain (Burano up to 0.85–0.90% Ro and 80 %TR, Emma
the thin-skin case, shows a peak in both the parameters (up to 1.50% Ro 0.60% Ro and 35% TR).
and close to 100% TR, Fig. 12C, F) resulting in a very prone hydrocarbon The source rocks, possibly present within the Maiella footwall both
generation area (potential kitchen area). in the thick and thin-skin models, result to have reached a high matu
In this case we observe an excessive hydrocarbon production, that rity/hydrocarbon generation potential (up to 1.50% Ro and close to
seems to suggest this as a less likely solution (Fig. 14). In terms of timing 100% TR), in which the hydrocarbon migration results to have started
we observe for both sections 2 TK and TN an increase of hydrocarbon by the Late Miocene and is still active, following the fold and thrust belt
generation, strongly related to the Central Apennine growth (on-shore) structuring.
and its foredeep/foreland basin formation (on-shore/off-shore), high In the hanging-wall of the Maiella anticline instead, a very low
lighting a west to east hydrocarbon generation trend, starting from 5.3 source rock maturity is obtained from modelling, implying an important
Ma to present-day (Fig. 14). The main results related to the generation of lateral migration of hydrocarbons for those occurrences known in this
hydrocarbons in the study area are summarized in Fig. 15, where a 3D sector, likely from the North (Pescara Basin).
modelling of the Burano source rock is shown for the most likely Overall, the thick-skin hydrocarbon generation model is able to
structural case. explain the oil occurrences known in the foredeep/foreland domain,
The hydrocarbon generation potential (%TR) is shown for the main without introduce a shortening value of about 37% (estimated for the
identified kitchen areas of the region: the locked basin area (a buried thin-skin case). On the other hand, thin-skin model lead to hydrocarbon
narrow basin confined between the ACP margin and the Elsa-Miglianico overproduction with respect to the known evidences of hydrocarbons in
structural high - Fig. 15A) and the Maiella footwall area, at the front of the area, representing the less probable structural solution.
the Apennine orogen (Fig. 15B). The 3D source rock models allows to We show, moreover, how 2D/3D models may be directly used as a
confirm the hydrocarbon generation potential of these two key sectors, high-value de-risking tools for petroleum exploration activities We wish
suggested by the 2D analysis, making also possible to extend our inter that the results of this study will represent a basis for future exploration
pretation to buried portions of the studied petroleum system not efforts in the study area and more generally can serve as analogue for
included in the 2D models but of relevant interest for the understanding similar geological setting especially but not limited to the Adriatic
of the migration model at regional scale. region.
Indeed, we observed an increase of the Burano source rock hydro
carbon generation potential from the foreland domain (about 60–70%
TR in the buried portions of the locked basin, Fig. 15A) to the foredeep
18
Credit statement Crescenti, U., Crostella, A., Donzelli, G., Raffi, G., 1969. Stratigrafia Della Serie Calcarea
Dal Lias Al Miocene Nella Regione Marchigiano Abruzzese: Parte II. Litostratigrafia,
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Visualization, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. pp. 65–76.
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Declaration of competing interest Eberli, G.P., Bernoulli, D., Vecsei, A., Sekti, R., Grasmueck, M., Lüdmann, T., Porta, G.D.,
2019. A Cretaceous carbonate delta drift in the Montagna della Maiella, Italy.
Sedimentology 66 (4), 1266–1301.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Ghisetti, F., Vezzani, L., 2002. Normal faulting, extension and uplift in the outer thrust
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence belt of the central Apennines (Italy): role of the Caramanico fault. Basin Res. 14 (2),
the work reported in this paper. 225–236.
Ghisetti, F., Barchi, M., Bally, A.W., Moretti, I., Vezzani, L., 1993. Conflicting balanced
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We thank the exploration team of Schlumberger of Aachen for
Deep-seated gravitational slope deformation, large-scale rock failure, and active
technical support and suggestions. Special thanks to Miquel A. Marin normal faulting along Mt. Morrone (Sulmona basin, Central Italy): geomorphological
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Marine and Petroleum Geology

Structural restoration and basin modelling of the central apennine orogen/

Marine and Petroleum Geology 127 (2021) 104948

Marine and Petroleum Geology 127 (2021) 104948

4.3. 3D models construction

hotter geothermal gradient is recorded. state thermal model.

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