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Geometrical optics
Page # 2 GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

OPTICS

Optics is a branch of Physics in which we study the nature and propagation of light.

Newton suggested that light consists of particles whereas Hugen forwarded his theory on wave nature of light. Even

now it is not known whether light is a wave or a particle. Infect, light behaves like a particle in certain experiments

and like a wave for a number of other experiments. Depending upon the behaviour of light, we divide the science of

light (optics) into two following parts :

(i) Ray optics (Geometrical optics) ; and

(ii) Wave optics (Physical optics).

In section I, we will discuss Ray optics in detail

In section II, and elaborative discussion on the wave theory of light and interference.

Geomatrical Optics : This consists the study of light in which light is considered as moving along the stright line

as a ray. It deal with the rectilinear propagation of light. A ray has a direction of its propagation. When light meets

a surface, which separates the two media, Reflection & Refraction take place. An image or an array of images may

be formed due to this.

IIT-JEE Syllabus : Rectilinear propagation of light; Reflection and refraction at plane and spherical surfaces;
Total internal reflection; Deviation and dispersion of light by a prism; Thin lenses; Combinations of mirrors and
thin lenses; Magnification.

Wave nature of light : Huygen's principle, Interference, Young's double slit experiment.

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1. PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
(i) Speed of light in vaccum, denoted by c, is equal to 3 × 108 m/s approximately
(ii) Light is electromagnetic wave (proposed by Maxwell). It consists of varying electric field and
magnetic field.
(iii) Light carries energy and momentum.
(iv) The forcula v = f λ is applicable to light.

1m 10–3m 7800Å 3600Å 10–9m 10–11m

propagation Radio Micro Infra Visible U.V. x-ray γ − ray

of light Wave Wave red light
B
Electromagnetic spectrum

2. RAY OPTICS
Ray optics treats propagation of light in terms of rays and is valid only if the size of the obstacle is
much greater than the wavelength of light. It concern with the image formation and deals with the
study of the simply facts such as rectilinear propagation, laws of reflection and refraction by
geometrical methods.
2.1 Ray :
A ray can be defined as an imaginary line drawn in the direction in which light is travelling. Light
behaves as a stream of energy propagated along the direction of rays. The rays are directed
outward from the source of light in straight lines.
2.2 Beam of Light :
A beam of light is a collection of these rays. There are mainly three types of beams.
(i) Parallel beam of light :
A search light and the headlight of a vehicle emit a
parallel beam of light. The source of light at a very
large distance like sun
effectively gives a parallel beam.
(ii) Divergent beam of light :
The rays going out from a point source generally O
form a divergent beam.
(iii) Convergent beam of light :
A beam of light that is going to meet (or converge) at a point
is known as a convergent beam. A parallel beam of light after
passing through a convex lens becomes a convergent beam.

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Page # 4 GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

3. REFLECTION
When a ray of light is incident at a point on the surface, the surface throws partly or wholly the
incident energy back into the medium of incidence. This phenomenon is called reflection.
Surfaces that cause reflection are known as mirrors or reflectors. Mirrors can be plane or curved.

A N B A A

i O i
r O
i r N N r
g

O B B
Plane mirror Concave mirror Convex mirror
In the above figures,
O is the point of incidence, AO is the incident ray,
OB is the reflected ray, ON is the normal at the incidence.
Angle of incidence : The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal at the point of
incidence is called the angle of incidence. It is generally denoted by 'i'.
Angle of reflection : The angle which the reflected ray makes with the normal at the point of
incidence is called the angle of reflection. It is generally denoted by 'r'.
Glancing angle : The angle which the incident ray makes with the plane reflecting surface is called
glancing angle. It is generally denoted by 'g'.
g = 90° – i ...(1)
3.1 Law of reflection
(i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface at the point of
incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, i.e., ∠ i = ∠ r
These laws hold good for all reflecting surfaces either plane or curved.
Some important points
(i) If ∠ i = 0, ∠ r = 0, i.e., if a ray is incident normally on a boundary, after reflection it retraces its
path.

C C

Plane mirror Concave mirror

Convex mirror
(ii) None of the frequency, wavelength and speed changes due to reflection. However, intensity
and hence amplitude (I ∝ A2) usually decreases.

(iii) If the surface is irregular, the reflected rays on an incident beam of parallel light rays will be in
random direction. Such an irregular reflection is called diffused reflection.

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4. PLANE MIRROR
Plane mirror is formed by polishing one surface of a plane thin glass plate. It is also said to be
silvered on one side.

it is symbolically Reflecting side

thin transparent plate
represented as Polished side
polished surface

PLANE MIRROR
A beam of parallel rays of light, incident on a plane mirror will get reflected as a beam of parallel
reflected rays.
Formation of image by a plane mirror.
from the argument of similar triangles θ1
OM = IM θ1
i.e., perpendicular distance of the object from the mirror O M θ1 I
d θ
= perpendicular distance of the image from the mirror d 2

Steps to draw the image : θ2

(1) Drop a perpendicular on the mirror and extend it on the back θ2
side of the mirror.
(2) Image always lie on this extended line
(3) To exactly locate the image, use the concept :
Perpendicular distance of the object from the mirror is equals to the perpendicular distance from
the mirror of the image.

O d d I

Ex.1 A mirror is inclined at an angle of 45° with the horizontal and mirror starts from the origin,
an object is kept at x = – 2 cm. Locat its image
Sol.

45°
O 2cm

2 2cm
image
2 I

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4.1 Image of an extended linear object :

Draw the images of the extreme points and joined them with a straight line

a a
O I

A d d B

Properties of image of an extended object, formed by a plane mirror :

(1) Size of extended object = size of extended image.
(2) The image is erect, if the extended object is placed parallel to the mirror.
B B'

A A'
(3) The image is inverted if the extended object lies perpendicular to the plane mirror.

B B'
C C'

B A A' B'

Object Image
A' A
(4) If an extended horizontal object is placed infront of a mirror inclined 45º with the horizontal, the
image formed will be vertical. See figure.
Horizontal incident rays on the
mirror get reflected in vertical
direction. So the image of
extended object will be vertical
common direction of incident
lights from points A and B
A B

45°
BE = EB' E
AF = FA '
F
B'

A'

B' B
image A' A
45°
(i) (ii) B' A' 45°
A B (image)

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Ex.2 An unnumbered wall clock show time 8 : 12 where 1st term represent hours, 2nd represent
minutes. What time will its image in plane mirror show.

Sol.

Image shows 3 : 48
Short trick
Draw watch on paper and then see it from reverse side.

4.2 Field of view :

Area in which reflected rays exists is called field of view. It is the area from which an observer can
see the image of an object. If the observer is outside this area he will not be able to see the image
although the image will be there.

field of
Field of view
view
I
O

i
O

A
Ex.3 A man is travelling on the rod along AB.
Find out the length of the road for which D

the image will be visible to him.

O
Q d d

(A)
(B) 3

path
(C) 1.5
(D) 2

E

Sol. In the ray diagram shown A B

∆ AQC ~ ∆ DMC
D
x
x 3d 3

= ⇒x=

/2 d 2 O
Q d C
d I
3
3

∴ Total length = + = 3
(option = B) path

2 2 E

B
Most of the problems in optics involving geometry can be solved by using similar triangles.

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4.3 Field of view of extended linear object

D
Common field of view of extreme points of the object
B B'
common field
will be the field of view of extended linear object of view
A O A'

4.4 Relation between velocity of object and image : E

From mirror property :

xim = – xom, yim = yom and zim = zom
y
Here xim means 'x' coordinate of image with respect to mirror.
Similarly others have meaning.
object image
Differentiating w.r.t time, we get
v(im)x = – v(om)x ; v(im)y = v(om)y ; v(im)z = v(om)z
x
⇒ for x axis viG – vmG = – (voG – vmG)
v iG + v oG
⇒ vmG =
2
here : viG = velocity of image with respect to ground
vOG = velocity of object with respect to ground.
vmg = velocity of mirror with respect to ground.

Valid only for perpendicular component of velocity to the mirror.

Ex.4 An object moves with 5 m/s towards right while the mirror moves with 1 m/s towards the
left as shown. Find the velocity of image.
Sol. Take → as + direction. vi – vm = vm – v0
object
⇒ vi – (–1) = (–1) – 5
5m/s 1m/s
∴ vi = – 7m/s
⇒ 7 m/s and direction towards left. mirror

Ex.5 In the situation shown in figure, find the velocity of image.

5m/s

30° y
10m/s
x
60°

Sol. Along x direction, applying vi – vm = – (v0 – vm)

vi – (– 5 cos 30°) = – (10 cos 60° – (–5 cos 30°)) ∴ v1 = – 5 (1 + 3 ) m/s
Along y direction v0 = vi ∴ vi = 10 sin 60° = 5 3 m/s

∴ Velocity of the image = – 5 (1+ 

3 ) i + 5 3 j m/s

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4.5 Deviation produced by a Plane mirror N

Deviation is defined as the angle between directions of
A B
the incident ray d the reflected ray (or, the emergent
ray). It is generally denoted by δ. i i
g
Here, ∠ A′ OB = δ = ∠ AOA′ – ∠ AOB = 180° – 2 i
or, δ = 180° – 2 i O δ
A'

Ex.6 Two plane mirrors are inclined at an angle θ with each-other. A ray of light strikes one of
them. Find its deviation after it has been reflected twice-one from each mirror.
Sol. Case I :
δ1 = clockwise deviation at A = 180° – 2 i1
δ2 = anticlockwise deviation at B = 180° – 2i2 B
Now, from ∆ OAB, we have
i2 i2 i1 i1
∠ BOA + ∠ OAB + ∠ ABO = 180°
θ
θ + (90° – i1) + (90° + i2 ) = 180° O
A
⇒ i1 – i2 = θ
As i1 > i2, δ1 < δ2
Hence, the net angle anticlockwise deviation = δ2 – δ1 = (180° – 2i2) – (180° – 2i1)
= 2(i1 – i2 ) = 2θ
Case : II
δ1 = clockwise deviation at A = 180° – 2 i1
δ2 = clockwise deviation at B = 180° – 2 i2 B

Now, from ∆ OAB, we have i2 i1

or, θ + (90° – i1 ) + (90° – i2) = 180° θ
⇒ i1 + i2 = θ O
A
Hence, net clockwise deviation = δ2 + δ1
= (180° – 2i2) + (180° – 2i1)
= 360° – 2(i1 + i2)
= 360° – 2θ
⇒ Net anticlockwise deviation = 360° – (360° – 2θ) = 2θ

Ex.7 Find out the angle of deviation 45°

Sol. Angle of deviation = 90°

Ex.8 Find out the angle of deviation

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Sol. δ1 = For Ist reflection

= π – 2i (clockwise)
δ2 = For 2nd reflection π / 2–i
π / 2–i
π 
= π – 2 – i (clockwise) = 2i
2 i
δnet = δ1 + δ2
= π – 2i + 2i =π

4.6 Real or virtual image/Object

Object and Image
Object is defined as point of intersection of incident rays. Image is defined as point of intersection
of reflected rays (in case of reflection) or refracted rays (in case of refraction).
incident side
1

incident side
2 virtual point
object

real point object

Rays 1 and 2 have originated
from a point source
reflected side
reflected side

real
image real
object virtual point
Image

5. ROTATION OF MIRROR

For a fixed incident light ray, if the mirror be rotated through

an angle θ (about an axis which lies in the plane of mirror N1 N2
A R1 D
and perpendicular to the plane of incidence), the reflected fixed
ray turns through an angle incident C
θ φ+θ
ray
2θ in same sense. φ δ R2
See figure M1, N1 and R1 indicate the initial position of mirror,
initial normal and initial direction of reflected light ray M1
θ
respectively. M2, N2 and R2 indicate the final position of B
mirror, final normal and final direction of reflected light ray M2
respectively. From figure it is clear that ∠ ABC = 2φ + δ = 2(φ
+ θ) or δ = 2θ.

Ex.9 By what angle the mirror must be rotated such

30°
that the reflected ray becomes vertical.
Sol. The diagram below shows the four ways in which the
reflected ray can become vertical.

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For case 1 :
Angle by which the Reflected ray rotates = 30°
30°
Angle by which the mirror rotates = = 15°
2 (1)
(Anticlokwise)
For case 2 : 30° 30°
(4)
Angle by which the Reflected ray rotates = 150°
Angle by which the mirror rotates = 75° (2)
(clockwise) (3)
For case 3 :
Angle by which the Reflected ray rotates = 300°
Angle by which the mirror rotates = 150°
(clockwise)
For case 4 :
Angle by which the Reflected ray rotates = 210°
Angle by which the mirror rotates = 105°
(Anticlokwise)
But case (2) & case (3) are not possible as the I.R. falls on the polished part of mirror. after rotation
of mirror.
∴ Answer is 15° (Anticlockwise) and 105° (Anticlockwise)

Ex.10 A mirror is placed at the centre of a sphere and it is

rotating with an angular speed ω. Incident light falls R
on the mirror at the centre of the sphere. Find out
the linear speed of the light spot on the sphere?
Sol. Angular speed of mirror = ω ω v=?
Angular speed of Reflected Ray = 2ω
Speed of light spot on the mirror : 2ω(R)

Ex.11 In the previous question instead of spherical wall there is a vertical wall at a perpendicular
distance d from the point & where the light is incident.
x
Sol. tanθ = ⇒ x = d tan θ
d x
dx dθ θ
= d sec 2 θ
dt dt
ω
 dθ  d
= 2 ω d sec2θ ∵ = 2ω 
 dt 
OR
Considering an instantaneous circle of radius dsecθ. θ
ec θ
vt = 2ωdsecθ (2ωdcosθ is a component of v.) ds v cos θ
θ v
v cos θ = 2ωdsecθ
2ωdsec θ ω
⇒ v= = 2ωd sec2θ
cos θ d

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6. IMAGES FORMED BY TWO PLANE MIRRORS

If rays after getting reflected from one mirror strike second mirror, the image formed by first mirror
will function as an object for second mirror, and this process will continue for every successive
reflection.

6.1 Images due to parallel plane mirrors :

M1 M2

Ex.12 Figure shows a point object placed between two

2cm
parallel mirrors. Its distance from M1 is 2 cm and
that from M2 is 8 cm. Find the distance of images
from the two mirrors considering reflection 8cm
on mirror M1 first.
Sol. To understand how images are formed see the following figure and table.
You will require to know what symbols like I121 stands for. See the following diagram.

M1 6 M2
5
4
3
I12 1 A
2
O B
This last number '1' indicates I1 2 I12 I1212
I121
that light rays are reflected
from mirror '1' i.e. M1 3
4
I12 is object in this case.
5
6

Incident Object Im age

Ref.by Ref. rays Object Im age
rays distance distance
R ays 1 M1 Rays 2 O I1 AO=2cm AI1=2cm
R ays 2 M2 Rays 3 I1 I12 BI1=12cm BI12=12cm
R ays 3 M1 Rays 4 I12 I121 AI12=22cm AI121=22cm
R ays 4 M2 Rays 5 I121 I1212 BI121=32cm BI1212=32cm

Similarly images will be formed by the rays striking mirror M2 first. Total number of images = ∞.

Ex.13 Two plane mirrors are kept parallel to each other

at a distance of 2 cm. An object is kept at the
midpoint of the line joining them. Locate the images
by drawing appropriate Ray diagram. O

1cm 1cm

Sol.
3cm 1cm 1cm 3cm
1cm 1cm
Thus, it forms an A.P.

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Ex.14 Consider two perpendicular mirrors. M1 and M2 and a object O. Taking origin at the point of
intersection of the mirrors and the coordinate of object as (x, y), find the position and number
of images. y d
Sol. Rays 'a' and 'b' strike mirror M1 only and these rays will M2
e
form image I1 at (x, –y), such that O and I1 are
equidistant from mirror M1. These rays do not form
further image because they do not strike any mirror I2 O(x,y)
(–x,y) a b
again. Similarly rays 'd' and 'e' strike mirror M2 only and
these rays will form image I2 at (–x, y), such that O
M1
and I2 are equidistant from mirror M2.
Now consider those rays which strike mirror M2 first and I1
then the mirror M1. (x,–y)
M2

For incident ray 1,2 object is O, and reflected rays 3, 4 from image I2. I 5
2
1 O
Now rays 3, 4 incident on M1 (object is I2) which reflect 2
as rays 5, 6 and form image I21. Rays 5, 6 do not strike 3 6
4
any mirror, so image formation stops. Extension of mirror M1 M1

I2 and I21, are equidistant from M1. To summarize see

the following figure Now rays 3,4 incident on M1 (object
I21
is I2) which reflect as rays 5, 6 and form image I21. Rays
s
5, 6 do not strike any mirror, so image formation stops. first tep (M2 forms image I2,
M2 of object O)
(M1 forms image
For rays reflecting first from M1 and from M2, first image I2, of object I2) I2
I1 at (x, –y)) will be formed and this will function as ep O
object for mirror M2 and then its image I12 (at (–x, –y)) second st (–x,y) (x,y)
will be formed. I12 and I21 coincide.
M1
∴ Three images are formed Extension
of mirror M1
(–x,–y)
I21
6.2 Locating all the Images formed by two Plane Mirrors :
M1
Consider two plane mirrors M1 and M2 inclined at an angle θ = α
I21(α + 2β)
+ β as shown in figure. Point P is an object kept such that it I1( α )
makes angle α with mirror M1 and angle β with mirror M2. Image
on

of object P formed by M1, denoted by I1, will be inclined by α P(object)

so

angle α on the other side of mirror M1. This angle is written in β

d

M2
an

bracket in the figure besides I1. Similarly image of object P

formed by M2., denoted by I2, will be inclined by angle β on the I2 (β)
other side of mirror M2. This angle is written in bracket in the I12 (2α + β)
figure besides I2. and so on

Now I2 will act as an object for M1 which is at an angle (α + 2β ) on the opposite site of M1. This
image will be denoted I21, and so on. Think when this will process stop [Hint : The virtual image
formed by a plane mirror must note be in front of the mirror of its extension.]

1(R)

6.3 Circle concept 4(2R) O

All the images formed will lie on a circle whose centre is 60°
the intersection point of the mirror and radius equal to
distance of 2(1R)
5(3R)

object from the intersection point 3(2R)

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7. NUMBER OF IMAGES FORMED BY TWO INCLINED MIRRORS.

360° 360°
(i) if = even number.; number of image = –1
θ θ
360° 360°
(ii) If = odd number ; number of image = – 1,
θ θ
If the object is placed on the angle bisector.
360° 360°
(iii) If = odd number ; number of image = ,
θ θ
If the object is not placed on the angle bisector.
360°
(iv) If ≠ int eger , then the number of images = nearest even integer..
θ

Ex.15 Two mirrors are inclined by an angle 30°. An object is placed making 10° with the mirror M1.
Find the positions of first two images formed by each mirror. Find the total number of images
using (i) direct formula and (ii) counting the images.
Sol. Figure is self explanatory.
50°
10°
Number of images M1
object
10°
360° 20°
(i) Using direct formula : = 12( even number ) M2
30°
20°
∴ number of images = 12 – 1 = 11
40°
(ii) By counting. see the following table
To check whether the final images made by the two mirrors coincide or not : add the last angles
and the angle between the mirrors. If it comes out to be exactly 360°, it implies that the final
images formed by the two mirrors coincide. Here last angles made by the mirrors + the angle
between the mirrors = 160° + 170° + 30° = 360°. Therefore in this case the last imagescoincide.
Therefore the number of images = number of images formed by mirror M1 + number of images formed
by mirror M2 – 1 (as the last images coincide) = 6 + 6 – 1 = 11.

Image formed by Mirror M1 Image formed by Mirror M2

(angles are measured from (angles are measured from
the mirror M1) the mirror M2)
10° 20°
+30°

50° 40°
+30°

70° 80°
+30°
110° 100°
+30°

130° 140°
+30°

170° 160°
+30°

Stop because next angle Stop because next angle

will be more than 180° will be more than 180°

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GEOMETRICAL OPTICS Page # 15

8. MINIMUM LENGTH OF THE MIRROR TO SEE FULL IMAGE.

Ex.16 Show that the minimum size of a plane mirror, required to see the full image of an observer
is half the size of the observer.
Sol. See the following figure. It is self explanatory if you consider lengths 'x' and 'y' as shown in figure.
H
H'
x M1

x H : head
(Eye) E F : feet
x+y
y

M2 Image of
observer
y

F F'

z z
Aliter :
∆E M1, M2 and ∆E H' F' are similar

M1M2 z
∴ =
H' F ' 2z
or M1 M2 = H′ F′ / 2 = HF / 2

Ex.17 Show the Part of the image which man can see in the mirror as shown in the figure.

b
a

}
Sol.
This part man
a can see

n
VECTOR - FORM
b
a = Unit vector along the incident ray a
n = Unit normal vector
b = Unit vector along the reflected Ray
bˆ = aˆ – 2(aˆ .nˆ )nˆ

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9. SPHERICAL MIRROR

9.1 Some Important Definitions.

(i) Spherical Mirrors :

P P C
C

Concave mirror Convex mirror

(ii) Paraxial Rays : The ray which have very small angle of incidence are known as paraxial rays.
(iii) Pole or Vertex : It is a point on the mirror from where
it is easy to measure object and image distance.
In the above figure, the point P is the pole. PP

(iv) Centre of curvature : The centre C of the sphere of

which the sperical mirror is a part, is the centre of
curvature of the mirror.
(v) Radius of curvature (R) : Radius of curvature is the
R P
P R C
radius R of the sphere of which the mirror forms a part. C

(vi) Principal axis :

P C
P
C Principal Principal
axis axis

Line joining pole and centre of curvature of the mirror is known as principle axis or optical axis.

R/2 θ
P2 R/2 θ
θ
C P1
b P1 R R
sec θ R− sec θ
2 2

R R
If θ is very small : R – sec θ ~–
2 2
(vii) Focus (F) : If the rays are parallel to principla axis and paraxial then the point of which they appear
to converge is known as focus. Distance of focus from pole then be R/2

F P F
P

Convex mirror
concave mirror

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(viii) Focal Length (f) : Focal length is the distance PF between the pole P and focus F along the
principal axis.
(ix) Aperture : The line joining the end points of a spherical mirror is called the aperture or linear
aperture.

M M

Aperture
P Aperture P
Aperture P

M' M'
(x) Focal plane : - Plane passing through focus and perpendicular to the optical axis called focal
plane.

Ex.18 Find distance on focal plane where parallel and

paraxial rays which are not parallel to optic axis,
meet after reflection. F θ
θ
P
h h
Sol. In ∆FF′P tan θ =
f
F'
h=fθ (θ is small) f

If the rays are parallel and paraxial but not parallel to optic axis then they will meet at focal
plane.

I
Ex.19 Find the angle of incidence of ray for which it passes M θ
through the pole, given that MI || CP. θ
Sol. ∠ MIC = ∠ CIP = θ C P
MI || CP ∠ MIC = ∠ ICP = θ
CI = CP = R
∠ CIP = ∠CPI = θ
∴ In ∆CIP all angle are equal
3θ = 180° ⇒ θ = 60°

Ex.20 Find the distance CQ if incident light ray parallel to principal axis is incident at an angle i.
Also find the distance CQ if i → 0.
i
Lθ
/2
R
i

C Q P

R R
Sol. cos i = ⇒ CQ = i<5°
2CQ 2cos i C
As i increases cos i decreases. P C P
F(
foc
us

Hence CQ increases
)

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So, paraxial rays meet at a distance equal to R/2 from centre of curvature, which is called focus,
Principal focus (F) is the point of intersection all the reflected rays for which the incident rays
strike the mirror (with small aperture) parallel to the principal axis. In concave mirror it is real and in
the convex mirror it is virtual. The distance from pole to focus is called focal length. Aperture
(related to the size of mirror) is the diameter of the mirror.

C F P C F P F F
C P C P

Concave mirror Convex mirror

9.2 RULES FOR IMAGE FORMATION

The reflection of light rays and formation of images are shown with the help of ray diagrams. Some
typical incident rays and the corresponding reflected rays are shown below.
(i) A ray passing parallel to the principal axis, after reflection from the spherical mirror passes or
appears to pass through its focus (by the definition of focus)

C F P
P F C

(ii) A ray passing through or directed towards focus, after reflection from the sperical mirror becomes
parallel to the principal axis (by the principal of reversiblity of light).

C F P
P F C

(iii) A ray passing through or directed towards the centre of curvature, after reflection from the
spherical mirror, retraces its path (as for it ∠ i = 0 and so ∠ r = 0)

P
P F C C F

(iv) It is easy to make the ray tracing of a ray incident at the pole as shown in below.

θ
C F P θ

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9.3 RELATION BETWEEN u, v AND R FOR SPHERICAL MIRRORS

Consider the situations shown in figure. A point object is
θ A
placed at the point O of the principal axis of a concave mirror.
A ray OA is incident on the mirror at A. It is reflected in the
direction AI. Another ray OP travels along the principal axis. As α β γ
PO is normal to the mirror at P, the ray is reflected back along O C I P
PO. The reflected rays PO and AI interesect at I
where the image is formed.
Let C be the centre of curvature. The line CA is the normal at A. Thus, by the laws of reflection,
∠OAC = ∠CAI. Let α, β , γ and θ denote the angles AOP, ACP, AIP and OAC respectively. As the
exterior angle in a triangle equals the sum of the two opposite interior angles, we have,
from triangle OAC β=α+θ ....(i)
and from triangle OAI γ = α + 2θ. ...(ii)
Eliminating θ from (i) and (ii),
2β = α + γ. ...(iii)
If the point A is close to P, the angles α, β and γ are small and we can write
AP AP AP 1 1 2
α= , β= and γ ≈ . or, + = ...(iv)
PO PC PI PO PI PC
The pole P is taken as the origin and the principal axis as the X-axis. The rays are incident from left
to right. We take the direction from left to right as the positive X-direction. The points O, I and C
are situated to the left of the origin P in the figure. The quantities u, v and R are, therefore,
negative. As the distances PO, PI and PC are positives, PO = – u, PI = – v and PC = – R. Putting in
(iv),
1 1 2 1 1 2
+ = or, + = ...(vii)
−u − v −R u v R
Although equation (vii) is derived for a special situation shown in figure, it is also valid in all other
situations with a spherical mirror. This is because we have taken proper care of the signs of u, v
and R appearing in figure shown.

C = Centre of curvature
R = Radius of curvature Concave

C R

Reflecting Surfaces Reflecting surface

9.4 SIGN CONVENTION

(i) All distances are measured from the pole of the spherical mirror along the principal axis. (Pole is
considered as origin)
(ii) Distances measured along the principal axis in the direction of the incident ray are taken to be
positive while the distance measured along the principal axis against the direction of the incident
ray are taken to be negative.
(iii) Distances measured above the principal axis are taken to be positive while distances measured
below the principal axis are taken to be negative.

C
C F P F P P F C
Ex.21

(a) (b) (c)

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Figure u v R f
(a) –Ve –Ve –Ve –Ve
(b) –Ve +Ve –Ve –Ve
(c) –Ve +Ve +Ve +Ve
Important Points Regarding Sign Convention :
(i) If the point (i) is valid, or convention concides with right hand co-ordinate (or new Cartesian co-
ordinate system). If the point (i) is not
(ii) In this sign convention, focal length of a concave mirror is always negative while the focal length of
a convex mirror is always positive.
Assume the pole to be (0, 0).

R=20cm
Ex.22 Find out the position and type of image formed.
O
1 1 1 −1 −1 1 1 1 −1 1 − 3 −2 −1 (0,0)
Sol. = + ⇒ = + ⇒ = + = = = cm 30cm
f u v 10 30 v v 30 10 30 30 15
V = – 15cm (Real image)

R=20cm
Ex.23 Find out the position and type of image formed.

−1 −1 1 1 1 1 2 −1 1 O
1 1 1
Sol. = + ⇒ = + ⇒ = − = = (0,0)
f u v 10 5 v v 5 10 10 10 5cm
∴ V = + 10 (Virtual image)

9.5 MAGNIFICATION : B
9.5.1 Transverse Magnification
h0
∆ ABO ~ ∆ A’B’O A' θ
A C f θ O
hi h0 hi v
x= = ⇒ m = h =–u hi
v u 0
u
* The above formula is valid for both concave and convex mirror.
B'
* Above the optical axis is considered positive and below to be negative v
* hi, h0, v and u should be put with sign.

9.5.2 In case of successive reflection from mirrors, the overall lateral magnification is given by m1 × m2
× m3 .........., where m1, m2 etc. are lateral magnication produced by individual mirrors.
Note
• Using above relation, following conclusion can be made (check yourself).

Na ture of Na ture of Inve rte d or

Obje ct Im a ge e re ct
Real Real Inverted
Real V irtual Erect
Virtual Real Erect
Virtual V irtual Inverted

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f f–v
9.5.3 From previous; we get m = = ...........
f –u f
(just a time saving formula)

Ex.24 Findout the position, height and type of image.

f=10cm

4cm

10cm F

+ ve f=10cm

1 1 1
Sol. = +
f v u 4cm
+1 1 1 1 +1 1 F
⇒ = − ⇒ = + ⇒ V = + 5cm 10cm
10 v 10 v 10 10
hi −5
= ⇒ h = +2cm
4 − 10

9.6 Cases for image formation by concave mirror.

(i) When the object is at infinity
The image is formed at F. It is real, inverted and highly diminished.
C P
F
(ii) When the object lies beyond C (i.e., between infinity and C)

C F P
I

The image is formed between F and C. It is real, inverted and diminished.

(iii) When the object lies at C
O

C F P

I
The image is formed at C it is real inverted and of same size.
(iv) When the object lies between F and C

O a

C F P

I
The image is formed beyond C (i.e., between C and infinity). It is real, inverted and enlarged.

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(v) When the object is at F.

The image of formed at infinity.
C F P
It is real, inverted and highly enlarged.

(vi) When the object lies between P and F

The image is formed behind the concave mirror.
It is virtual, erect and enlarged.
C F P

9.7 Longitudinal Magnification

1 1 1
+ =
v u f
By differentiating
dv v2
⇒ − dv − du = 0 ⇒ =− 2
v 2 u2 du u
Longitudinal magnification when the size of object is quite less with respect to its distance from the
pole.
Above formula is valid only when the length of object is very small as compared to the distance of
object from the pole.
dv → length of image
du → length of object
u → object distance from the pole.
v → Image distance from the pole.

Ex.25 Show the approximate image of AB in following cases.

A B B' A'
(i) ⇒
C F C F

A B

C
(ii) ⇒
C F F
A’
B’

9.8 Cases for image formation by convex mirror.

(i) When the object is at infinity
The image is formed at F. It is virtual,
P F C
erect and highly diminished.

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(ii) When the object lies in between infinity and P

P F C

The image is formed between P and F. It is virtual, erect and diminished.

In case of image formation unless states otherwise, object is taken to be real and we consider only
rays that are close to the principal axis and that make small angles with it. Such rays are called
paraxial rays. In practice this condition may be achieved by using a mirror whose size is much
smaller than the radius of curvature of the surface. Otherwise the image will be distorted.

v v
Object real Object is virtual
Object real, image is virtual
image virtual image virtual

–C f
u
–f
Object is virtual
Object is virtual
Image is real
Object is real Image is real
image is real
–C

FOR CONCAVE MIRROR FOR CONVEX MIRROR

9.9 Velocity in Spherical Mirror :

Velocity of image
(a) Object moving along principal axis :

dv v 2 du dv
On differentiating the mirror formula with respect to time we get =− 2 where is the
dt u dt dt
du
velcoity of image along Principal axis and is the velocity of the object along Principal axis.
dt
Negative sign implies that the image, in case of mirror, always moves in the direction opposite to
that of object. This discussion is for velocity with respect to mirror and along the x axis.
Hence above equation can be written as
v2
VIM = − ( VO M )
u2

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Ex.26 Find velocity of image in the given figure. 1 cm/sec

Sol. Here u = – 30 cm f=10cm
f = – 10 cm
2 cm/sec
1 1 1
From using mirror formula + =
v u f P
v = – 15 cm
30cm
v2
VIM = − ( VO M )
u2
2
 15  7
VI – (– 1) = −   ( 2 − ( −1)) ⇒ VI = – cm/sec.
 30  4
(b) Object moving perpendicular to principal axis :
From the magnification formula
we have,
hi v v
=– or hi = − h o
ho u u
If a point object moves perpendicular to the principal axis, x coordinate of both the object & the
image become constant. On differentiating the above relation w.r.t time, we get,
dhi v dho
=−
dt u dt
dho dh i
Here, = v0 denotes velocity of object perpendicular to the principal axis and = vy denotes
dt dt
velocity of image perpendicular to the principal axis.

(c) Object moving parallel to Principal axis :

dv – v 2 du
vx = = 2 I
dt u dt P
O C F
v
On differentiating equation hi = − h 0
u
dhi  dv 1 v du  v
vy = = −h0  . − 2 
dt  dt u u dt  u

Ex.27 A gun of mass m1 fires a bullet of mass m2 with a horizontal speed v0. The gun is fitted
with a concave mirror of focal length f facing towards a receding bullet. Find the speed of
separations of the bullet and the image just after the gun was fired.
m1
Sol. Let v1 be the speed of gun (or mirror) just after the firing of bullet.
From conservation of linear momentum. v0 v1
m2v0 = m1v1
m2
m2 v 0
or v1 = m ...(i)
1

du
Now, = rate at which distance between mirror and bullet is increasing
dt
= v1 + v0 ...(ii)
2
dv  v du v2
∴ =  = m2 = 1
dt  u 2  dt Here
u2
(as at the time of firing bullet is at pole)
dv du
∵ = = v1 + v 0 ...(iii)
dt dt

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dv
Here is the rate at which distance between image (of bullet) and mirror is increasing. So if v2 is
dt
the absolute velocity of image (towards right) then,
dv
v 2 – v1 =
= v1 + v 0 or v2 = 2v1 + v0 ...(iv)
dt
Therefore, speed of separation of bullet and image will be,
vr = v2 + v0 = 2v1 + v0 + v0 or vr = 2 (v1 + v0)
Substituting value of v1 from equation (i) we have,
 m2 
vr = 2 1 + m  v 0 Ans.
 1

10. CUTTING OF MIRRORS

\\
\\

\\
\\\
No. of

\
images=1
C C

\\\\
C C

\\
No. of Image =1

\
\\
\\

No. of image = 1 No. of image =1

Both the part of mirror have same hollow sphere so its Image-1
radius of curvature is same therefore no of images found
is 1. C1
1mm
If we cut the mirror and shift it the centre of curvature
changes for example in the figure shown below. A C
concave mirror is cut and each part is shifted by 1mm. 1mm
Then centre of curvature of each part shift by 1mm
and each part behaves as 2 independent concave mirror
with its centre of curvature at the new position.
Therefore two images are found. Image-2

10.1 Field of View :

object
field of view
of the image

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Ex.28 Figure shows a spherical concave mirror with its pole (–40,1)
at (0, 0) and principal axis along x axis. There is a Object
point object at (–40 cm, 1 cm), find the position of
x axis
image. (0,0)
Sol. According to sing convention,
R.O.C=10 cm
u = – 40 cm, h1 = + 1 cm, f = – 5 cm

1 1 1 1 1 1 –40 h2 – v
+ = ⇒ + = ; v= cm ; =
v u f v –40 –5 7 h1 u

 40 
–v – –  × 1 1
⇒ h2 = – × h1 =  7  =– cm.
u 7
–40
 –40 1 
∴ The position of image is  cm, – cm
7 7 

11. COMBINATION OF MIRRORS.

Ex.29 Find the position of final image after three successive ROC=20cm

reflections taking first reflection on m1.

O
Sol. I reflection: 15cm
m1
Focus of mirror = – 10 cm ⇒ u = – 15 cm
40cm
Applying mirror formula :
1 1 1
+ = ⇒ v = – 30 cm
v u f
For II reflection on plane mirror :
u = – 10 cm ∴ v = 10 cm
For III reflection on curved mirror again :
u = – 50 cm, f = – 10 cm
Applying mirror formula :
1 1 1
+ = ⇒ v = – 12.5 cm
v u f f=20cm
f=10 cm
Ex.30 Find out the position of the final image formed by
O
two reflections. Take the first reflection from M1.
45cm 10cm

Sol. For M1 M2 M1

1 1 1
= + f=20cm
f v u f=10 cm
1 1 1 1 2
⇒ = – ⇒ = ⇒ v = + 5 cm I2
10 v 10 v 10 O
45cm 10cm 5cm I1
For M2 : u = –60, f = – 20
1 1 1 M1
= + M2
f v u
1 1 1 1  1 1
⇒ – = – ⇒ = – –  ⇒ v = – 30 cm
20 v 60 v  20 60 

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Ex.31 Find out the position of the final image formed by two reflections. Take the first reflection
from M1.

f=20cm
f=10cm
O

15cm 30cm

M2 M1

Sol. For M1 : f=20cm

u = – 30, f = – 20
O
1 1 1
= + I1 15cm
f u v 15cm 30cm
⇒ v = – 60 cm
For M2 :
M2 M1
u = + 15, f = + 10, v = + 30
f = 10m
Reversibility of Rays.
M1
Ex.32 Find out the number and positions of all the M2
20cm 10cm
images formed in the figure shown below.

f = 10m
+ve
I1 M1
M2 I2
20cm 10cm
Sol.

For M2 :
u = – 10 cm, f = + 10 cm, v = + 5 cm
Note : In the above case only one ray will go on the optic axis and the one ray is not responsible
for image formation.
f =10m
screen
12. INTENSITY OF LIGHT
Ex.33 intensity at A due to source is I. Without concave source

mirror, then find out the intensity of A after placing O A

10cm 10cm
concave mirror.
P
Sol. I= f =10m
4π(10 ) 2
screen
1 1 1
= +
f v u source
–1 1 1 O A
⇒ = – 10cm 10cm
10 v 10
⇒ v = ∞.
Intensity at A due to reflection = I.
Total = I + I = 2I

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Ex.34 Intensity at A due to source is I. Without concave mirror, then find out the intensity of A after
placing concave mirror.

f = 10 cm

30cm 60cm
P
(I) A
Source

Sol. P = I × P = I × 4π(60)2 B
D
2 P R I R/2
P 4 π(60) I
Intensity at P = = = 4I O C
Area 4 π( 30) 2 A
Now ∆ PAB ~ ∆ACD source
AP AC
⇒ = 60 cm
PB CD
30 R
⇒ CD = ×R =
60 2
Energy at Area of R radius = 4 I × πR2
R
Now energy will fall on the screen but at an Area of radius
2
4 I × πR2
So intensity from mirror = = 16 I
π(R / 2) 2
Total Intesity = 16 I + I = 17 I

f=20cm

P Source
(ii)
30cm 10cm

Sol. P = I × 4 π(10 ) 2

P P I
Intensity at P = = = R x
Area 4 π( 30) 2 9 P
30cm
10cm
R x
Now =
60 20
R
x=
3
Power incident on mirror
I
PP = × πR 2
9
this power will be incident on πx2 area
I × πR 2
So Intensity from mirror = =I
9π(R / 3)2
So total I = I + I = 2I

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13. REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Deviation or bending of light rays from their original path while passing from one medium to another
is called refraction. It is due to change in speed of light as light passes from one medium to another
medium. If the light is incident normally then it goes to the second medium without bending, but
still it is called refraction.
Refractive index of a medium is defined as the factor by which speed of light reduces as compared
to the speed of light in vacuum.

c speed of light in vacuum

µ= =
v speed of light in medium
More (less) refractive index implies less (more) speed of light in that medium, which therefore is
called denser(rarer) medium.

• Higher the value of Refractive index denser (optically) is the medium.

• Frequency of light does not change during refraction
• Refractive index of the medium relative to vacuum
= µ r ∈r
nvacuum = 1 ; nair ≥ 1 ;
nwater (average value) = 4/3 ;
ngiass (average value) = 3/2

13.1 Laws of Refraction :

(a) The incident ray, the normal to any refracting surface at the point of incidence and the refracted
ray all lie in the same plane called the plane of incidence or plane of refraction.

sini
(b) = Constant for any pair of media and for light of a given wavelength.
sinr
N
This is known as Snell's Law. Incident ray i
sin i n2 v1 λ 1 Medium 1 (n1)
Also, = = =
sin r n1 v 2 λ 2 Medium 2 (n2) r
For applying in problems remember
n1 sin i = n2 sin r N' refracted ray
n2
= 1 n 2 = Refractive Index of the second medium with respect to the first medium.
n1
C = speed of light in air (or vacuum) = 3 × 108 m/s.
i & r should be taken from normal.

Special cases :
• Normal incidence : i = 0
from snell's law : r = 0

N
Incident ray
Medium 1
Medium 2 refracted ray
N'

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• When light moves from denser to rarer medium it bends away from normal.

N
A
i
B DENSER
I RARER I'

r
δ =r –i N
N' C
A
r>i i
RARER
B
• When light moves from rarer to denser medium it I I'
bends towards the normal. r DENSER
N'
C
Ex.35 A light ray is incident on a glass sphere at an angle
of incidence 60° as shown. Find the angles r, r′, e e
and the total deviation after two refractions.
r r'
Sol. Applying Snell's law 1 sin 60° = 3 sinr ⇒ r = 30°
60° n= 3
From symmetry r' = r = 30°
Again applying snell's law at second surface n=1
1 sin e = 3 sinr ⇒ e = 60°
Deviation at first surface = i – r = 60° – 30° = 30°
Deviation at second surface
= e – r′ = 60° – 30° = 30°
Therefore total deviation = 60° Air
µ =1
Ex.36 Find the angle θa made by the light ray when it gets θa
refracted from water to air, as shown in figure.
µ=4/3
Sol. Snell's Law
Water
4 3
µw sin θw = µa sin θa ⇒ × = 1sin θ a sin –1 3 / 5
3 5
4 –1 4
sin θa = ⇒ θa = sin
5 5
c
where c =speed of
Ex.37 Find the speed of light in medium 'a' if speed of light in medium 'b' is
3
light in vacuum and light refracts from medium 'a' to medium 'b' making 45° and 60°
respectively with the normal.
Sol. Snell's Law
c c
µa sin θa = µb sin θb ⇒ sin θ a = sin θ b
va vb

c c 2c
sin 45° = sin 60° ⇒ va =
va c/3 3 3

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13.2 Plane Refraction : i1

n1

n2 i2
i2

n3 i3
i3

i4
n4 i4

n5
i5

Prove that n1 sin i1 = n2 sin i2 = n3 sin i3 = n4 sin i 4

= (Remember this). Also Prove that if n1 = n4 then light rays in medium n1 and in medium n4 are
parallel.
14. APPARENT DEPTH AND NORMAL SHIFT

Case I : When the object is in denser medium and the observer is in rarer medium (near
normal incidence)
When an object O is in denser medium of depth 'd' and
absolute refractive index n1 and is viewed almost
normally to the surface from the outside rarer medium n2 r
(r.i = n2 ), its image is seen at I. which is at a distance A
B
d′ from surface AO is the real depth of the object. AI is r
d' i
t h e a p p a r e n t l is called apparent
d e p t h o f t h e o b j e c t . O
n1 d I
shift. i
n2 sin i
According to Snell's law, n = sin r O
1

n2 tan i
or, =
n1 tan r (∵ i and r are small angles)

n2 AB AI
×
n1 = AO AB

n2 d' apparent depth

= =
n1 d Real depth

: 1. The above formula is value only for paraxial rays.

2. distances should be taken from surface
3. n2 is the reflective index of the medium, where ray is going and n1 from where ray is coming

Ex.38 Find out the following in the figure shown below :

(a) The apparent distance of the fish from the surface B
as observed by the bird 36cm
(b) The apparent distance of the bird from the surface
as observed by the fish
µ =4/3 36cm
F

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apparent depth n 2 d' n2 = 1 B

Sol. (a) = =
Re al depth n1 d

1 d'
= ⇒ d′ = 27 cm
4 / 3 36 d'
n1 = 4/3 d=36cm
F
B'

B
n1=1
d=36cm

d'

4/3 d'
(b) = ⇒ d′ = 48 cm
1 36
36cm
n2=4/3
F
Air
Water
Ex.39 A concave mirror is placed inside water with its
4/3
shining surface upwards and principal axis vertical 30cm
as shown. Rays are incident parallel to the principal
axis of concave mirror. Find the position
of final image. R=40cm

Sol. The incident rays will pass undeviated through the water
surface and strike the mirror parallel to its principal axis.
Therefore for the mirror, object is at ∞. Its image A (in Air
figure) will be formed at focus which is 20 cm from the B d'
10cm

mirror. Now for the interface Water A

4/3 30cm
between water and air, d = 10 cm

d 10
d' = = = 7.5 cm
 nw   4 / 3  R=40cm
∴    
 na   1 
n1
14.1 Velocity of the image in case of plane refraction : r
i
n2 y n2
=
n1 x ⇒ y = n .x O
1
n2 y
dy n 2 dx n2 x
=
dt n 2 dt ⇒ VIS = n VO S
1

24 cm/s
B
Ex.40 Find out the following in the figure shown below :
(a) The apparent speed of the fish as observed by the bird
(b) The apparent speed of the bird as observed by the fish 1 cm/s

4/3
F 12 cm/s

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n2 3
Sol. (a) VIS = n VO S ⇒ VI − 1 = (12 – 1)
1 4
33 37
VI = + 1=
4 4
37 133
VIB = VI – VB = + 24 = cm / sec
4 4
(b) n2 = 4/3, n1 = 1
n2
VIS = VO S
n1
v0 = – 24, vs = + 1
4
⇒ vI – 1 = [– 24 – 1]
3
97 97 133
vI = – ⇒ vI f = + 12 = cm/sec.
3 3 3

15. REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS SLAB

When a light ray passes through a glass slab having parallel faces, it gets refracted twice before
finally emerging out of it.
First refraction takes place from air to glass.
sin i
So, µ= ...(i)
sin r
The second refraction takes place from glass to air. i
AIR
1 sin r GLASS
So, = ...(ii)
µ sin e µ
r
From equations (i) and (ii), we get
r
sin i sin e
= ⇒ i=e
sin r sin r AIR
Thus, the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray. e
15.1 Apparent shift due to slab when object is seen normally through the slab
µ

I1
O s I2
t
x

d''
d'

Ist Refraction
Because of the refraction at the first surface, the image of O is formed at I1. For this refraction, the
real depth is x and the apparent depth is d′. Also, the first medium is air and the second is the slab.
Thus,
µ d'
= ⇒ µx
1 x

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IInd Refraction
The point I1 acts as the object for the refraction at the second surface. Due to this refraction, the
image of I1 is formed at I2. Thus.
1 d' ' t
= ⇒ d' = x +
µ µx + t µ

t
Shift S=x+t–x–
µ

 1
S = t 1 – 
 µ 
If medium is not air outside the slab

 µ surrounding 
S = t 1 – 
 µ slab 
Important points
1. Rays should be paraxial
2. Medium on both side of the slab should be same.
3. Shift comes out from the object
4. Shift is independent of the distance of the object from the slab.
5. If shift comes out +ve then shift is towards the direction of incident rays and vice versa.

Ex.41 Calculate the shift produced by the slab having thickness 15cm and refractive index 1.5 which is
kept in air.

 1  2
shift S = t 1 –  = 15 1 –
3 
Sol. = 5 cm
 µ  

R=20cm
Ex.42 See the figure. Find the distance of final image formed by mirror
3/2
 1   1  air
Sol. Shift = 3 1 –  = 3 1 – 3 / 2 
 3/2  O
For mirror object is at a distance

 1  3cm
= 21 – 3 1 –  = 20 cm
 3 / 2 21cm
∴ Object is at the centre of curvature of mirror. Hence the light ray will retrace and image will formed
on the object itself.

Ex.43 Findout the distance between image and the mirror as observed by observer in the figure
shown below
n=1.5 f = 40 cm

20cm

15cm 10cm

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n=1.5

O I
O' I'
Sol. 20cm 20cm
5cm

15cm 10cm

 1  2
shift = t1 −  = 15 1 –  = 5cm
 µ  3
u = – 40, f = + 40
v = + 20 cm
the distance between mirror and the image as observed by observer = 20 – shift = 15 cm

15.2 Apparent distance between object and observer when both are in different medium.

A C
n1 n2 n3

I1
O I2
t2
t1
t3
d''
d'

B D

d'''
n 2 apparent distance of object from interface AB d'
Ist Refraction : n = Real distance of object from interface AB = t
1 1

n 2 t1
d' =
n1

n3 apparent distance of I1 from interface CD d' '

IInd Refraction : = =
n2 Real distance of I1 from interface CD n2 t1
+ t2
n1
n n  t t 
d' ' = 3  2 t 1 + t 2  = n3  1 + 2 
n 2  n1   n1 n 2 

Final distance of image from observer = d' '+ t 3

t t t 
d' ' ' = n3  1 + 2 + 3 
 n1 n2 n3 
If object and observer are in same medium then shift formula should be used and if both are in
different medium then the above formula of apparent distance should be used.

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15.3 LATERAL SHIFT

The perpendicular distance between the incident ray and the emergent ray, when the light is
incident obliquely on a parallel sided refracting glass slab is called 'lateral shift'.
In right - angled triangle OBK, we have
N
∠ BOK = i – r
A i
d AIR
∴ sin (i – r) = O GLASS
OB
r i–r
or, d = OB sin (i – r) ...(i) t
r 90° K
In right angled triangle ON′ B, we have
d
ON' t N' B AIR
cos r = or, OB =
OB cos r C
Substituting the above value of OB in equation (i), we get

t
d= sin(i – r ) ...(13)
cos r

Ex.44 Find the lateral shift of light ray while is passes

i=60°
through a parallel glass slab of thickness 10 cm
placed in air. The angle of incidence in air is 60° and
the angle of refraction in glass is 45°.
r=45° 10 cm
t sin(i − r ) 10 sin(60°−45° )
Sol. d= =
cos r cos 45°
Lateral shift
10 sin 15°
= = 10 5 sin 15°
cos 45°

16. CRITICAL ANGLE AND TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (T.I.R.)

Critical angle is the angle made in denser medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium
is 90°. When angle in denser medium is more then critical angle the light ray reflects back in denser
medium following the laws of reflection and the interface behaves like a perfectly reflecting mirror.
In the figure.
O = object
N N N
NN′ = Normal to the interface
II′ = Interface r
r 90° rarer
C = Critical angle : A
I I'
AB = reflected ray due to T.I.R.
C
When i = C then r = 90° i i>C r=i B
denser
–1 nr O N' N' N'
∴ C = sin
nd

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16.1 Conditions of T.I.R. :

(a) light is incident on the interface from denser medium.
Circle of
(b) Angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle illuminance
1
(i > c). Figure shows a luminous object placed in denser medium µr 90°
at a distance h from an interface separating two media of
refractive indices µr and µd.Subscript r & d stand for rarer and
c 3
denser medium respectively. µd 2
In the figure ray 1 strikes the surface at an angle less than h
critical angle C and gets refracted in rarer medium. Ray 2
strikes the surface at critical angle and grazes the interface.
Ray 3 strikes the surface making an angle more than critical
angle and gets internally reflected. The locus of points where
ray strikes at critical angle is a circle, called circle of
illuminance. All light rays striking inside the circle of illuminance
get refracted in rarer medium. If an observer is in rarer medium,
he/she will see light coming out only from within the circle of
illuminance. If a circular opaque plate covers the circle of
illuminance, no light will get refracted in rarer medium and then
the object can not be seen from the rarer medium. Radius of
C.O.I can be easily found.

Ex.45 Find the max. angle that can be made in glass medium (µ = 1.5) if a light ray is refracted
from glass to vacuum.
Sol. 1.5 sin C = 1 sin 90°, where C = critical angle.
sin C = 2/3 ⇒ C = sin–1 2/3

Ex.46 Find the angle of refraction in a medium (n = 2) if light is incident in vacuum, making angle
equal to twice the critical angle.
Sol. Since the incident light is in rarer medium. Total Internal Reflection can not take place.
–1 1
C = sin = 30° ⇒ ∴ i = 2C = 60°
µ
Applying Snell's Law. 1 sin 60° = 2 sin r
 3
3 –1
sinr = ⇒ r = sin  4  A
4  

Ex.47 What should be the value of angle θ so that light

entering normally through the surface AC of a prism
(n = 3/2) does not cross the second refracting
surface AB. θ
C B
Sol. Light ray will pass the surface AC without bending since it is incident normally. Suppose it strikes
the surface AB at an angle of incidence i.
A
i = 90° – θ
For the required condition :
90° – θ > C
or sin (90° – θ) > sin C i
1 2 n=3/2
or cos θ > sin C = = θ
3/2 3
2 C B
or θ < cos–1
3

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Ex.48 A ray of light from a denser medium strikes a rarer Rarer

medium at an angle of incidence i. if the reflected r (µ R )
and the refracted rays are mutually perpendicular
to each other, what is the
i 90° Denser
value of the critical angle?
i ( µD)
Sol. From Snell's law, we have
sini µ R µ D sinr
= or, µ = µ = sini ...(i)
sinr µ D R
According to the given problem,
i + r + 90° = 180° or, r = 90° – i
Substituting the above value of 'r' in equation (i), we get
sin( 90°– i )
µ= or, µ = cot i ...(ii)
sin i

 1
By definition C = sin –1 
 µ

–1  1 
or, C = sin   (using equation(ii) or, C = sin –1(tan i )
 cot i 

16.2 Optical fibre cable :

Cylindrical
n

90–r
r
i

Find out the range of n for which ray will show T.I.R through curved surface.
Sol. It is required that all possible r′ should be more than critical angle. This will be automatically fulfilled
if minimum r′ is more than critical angle
Angle r′ is minimum when r is maximum i.e. C (Why ?). Therefore the minimum value of r' is 90° – C.
For T.I.R.
( 9 0 –
min
>Cr )

90 – rmax > C
for rmax ⇒ imax = 90°
when i = 90°, r = C
90° – C > C ⇒ C < 45°
⇒ sin C < sin 45°
1 1
⇒ n< ⇒ n> 2
2

Graph between δ and i : rarer (n2)

r –i
when i ≤ C δ1 =
δ=r–i
and n1 sin i = n2 sin r
n 
r = sin –1 1 sin i i
 n2  i>C
denser n1
i>C
n 
so δ = sin –1 1 sin i – i ...(1)
 n2 

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when i > C :
then δ = π – 2 i ...(2)

δ
π – 2C

π
–C
2

i=C π i
i=
2

π
Note : If the angle δ is between ( 0, – C) , then there are 2 possible values of i.
2
VARIABLE REFRACTIVE INDEX :
If R.I. is a function of y :
taking an small element of y of width dy

µ( y)
dy r r
here θ dy

dx dx
y
Now 1 sin i = µ (y). sin r
dy
tanθ = = tan (90° – r)
dx
dy i
or cot r =
dx
sin i
so sin r =
µ( y )

dy µ 2 ( y ) – sin2 i
⇒ =
dx sini

y x
dy dx
∫
0
2
µ ( y ) – sin i2
= ∫ sin i
0

17. PRISM
A homogeneous solid transparent and refracting medium bounded by two plane surfaces
inclined at an angle is called a prism :
3-D View

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Refraction through a prism :

P

N A
NN' & N'N" are normals
δ N"
i
ray r1 r2 e
ent em
incid erg
en
t ra
N' y
Q R
Base
(a) PQ and PR are refracting surfaces.
(b) ∠QPR = A is called refracting angle or the angle of prism (also called Apex angle.)
(c) δ = angle of deviation
(d) For refraction of a monochromatic (single wave length) ray of light through a prism;
δ = (i + e) – (r1 + r2) and r1 + r2 = A
∴ δ = i + e – A.
Note I. If ray crosses two surface which are inclined to each other then we use the concept of prism
II. If ray crosses two plain parallel surfaces then we use concept of slab.

Ex.49 A ray of light is incident on one face of a prism (µ = 1.5) at an angle of 60°. The refracting
angle of the prism is also 60°. Find the angle of emergence and the angle of deviation. Is
there any other angle of incidence, which will produce the same deviation?
Sol. Angle of incidence = i = 60°
A
sin 60° 15. 1
At point P, = ⇒ sin r1 =
sin r1 1 3 60°
P Q
or, r1 ≈ 35°6′ 60° e
r1 r2
Using r1 + r2 = A, we get
r2 = A – r1 = 60° – 35°6′ = 24°44′
B C
sin r2 1
At point Q, =
sin e 15 .
⇒ sin e = 1.5 sin 24° 44′ ⇒ sin e = 0.63
⇒ e = 39°
∴ deviation = δ = (i + e) – A = 60° + 39° – 60° = 39°
If i and e are interchanged, deviation remains the same. Hence same deviation is obtained for
angles of incidence 60° and 39°.

Ex.50 A ray of light makes an angle of 60° on one of the faces of a prism and suffers a total
deviation of 30° on emergence from the other face. If the anlge of the prism is 30°, show
that the emergent ray is perpendicular to the other face. Also calculate the refractive index
of the material of the prism.
Sol. The angle of deviation δ = (i1 + i2) – A
Here, δ = 30°, i1 = 60°; A = 30°
Hence 30° = 60° + i2 – 30° = 30° + i2
⇒ i2 = 0
The angle of emergence is zero. This means that the emergent ray is perpendicular to the second
face.

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Since i2 = 0, the anlge of incidence at the second face is zero.

∴ r2 = 0
Now, r1 + r2 = A
or, r1 = A = 30°

sin i1 sin 60° 3 /2

We know, µ = sin r = =
1 sin 30° 1/ 2

3 = 1.732
17.1 Graph between ∠δ and ∠ i
δ
δmax
δ
δmin

imin i
i=e i=90°
(e=90°) e=imin
i=x i=y
e=y e=x
(1) Variation of δ versus i (shown in diagram).
For one δ (except δ min) there are two values of angle of incidence. If i and e are interchanged then
we get the same value of δ because of reversibility principle of light
(2) There is one and only one angle of incidence for which the angle of deviation is minimum.
(3) Right hand side part of the graph is more tilted then the left hand side.
17.2 Minimum Deviation and Condition for Minimum Deviation :
The angle of deviation depends on the anlge of incidence in a particular way. When the angle of
incidence is small, the deviation is large. As i increase, δ decreases rapidly and attains a minimum
value and then increases slowly with increase of i. The minimum value of δ so attained is called the
minimum deviation (δ m ) .
δ A

δm
i e
δm r1 r2

i B C
Condition
Theory and experiment shows that δ will be minimum when the path of the light ray through the
prism is symmetrical.
i.e., angle of incidence = angle of emergence
or, ∠i = ∠ e
For the refraction at the face AB, we have
sin i
= µ(Snell' s law ) or, sin i = µ sin r1,
sin r1
sin e
and, =µ or,, sin e = µ sin r2
sin r2
∴ µ sin r1 = µ sin r2
or, r1 = r2
Hence, the condition for minimum deviation is
i = e and r1 = r2 ....(19)

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17.3 Relation Between Refractive index and the angle of Minimum Deviation
When δ = δm, we have
e = i and r1 = r2 = r (say)
We know
A
A = r1 + r2 = r + r = 2r or, r=
2
Also, A+δ=i+e
or, A + δm = i + i
A + δm
or, i=
2
The refractive index of the material of the prism is given by

 A + δm 
sin 
sin i  2 
µ= ( Snell' s law ) or, µ= A ...(20)
sin r sin
2
If surrounding medium has refractive index = ns
 A + δm 
sin 
np  2 
then = A
ns sin
2
Ex.51 A ray of light incident at 49° on the face of an equilateral prism passes symmetrically Calculate
the refractive index of the material of the prism.
Sol. As the prism is an equilateral one, A = 60°. As the ray of light passes symmetrically, the prism is in
the position of minimum deviation.
A 60°
So, r = = = 30°
2 2
also, i = 49°
sin i sin 49° 0.7547
∴ µ= = = = 1.5
sin r sin 30° 0.5

Ex.52 The refracting angle of the prism is 60° and the refractive index of the material of the prism
is 1.632. Calculate the angle of minimum deviation.
Sol. Here, A = 60° ; µ = 1.632
 A + δm 
sin 
 2 
Now, µ=
 A
sin 
 2
 60°+ δ m   60°+ δ m 
sin  sin 
 2   2 
or, 1632
. = =
60° sin 30°
sin
2
 60°+δ m 
or, sin  = 1.632 × sin 30° = 1.632 × 0.5
 2 
 60°+δ m  60°+δ m
or, sin  = 0.816 or, = 54°42'
 2  2
δm = 49° 27′

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17.4 CONDITION FOR PRISM :

(a) Relation between prism angle A & critical angle C Bsuch
that ray will always show T I R at BC :
For this (r2)min > C ...(i) A
For (r2)min, r1 should be maximum and
for (r1)max ⇒ imax = 90° i
r1 r2
(r1 )max = C
(r2 )max = A – C
Now from eq. (i) A – C > C C
A
A > 2C
B
i.e. A > 2C, all rays are reflected back from the second surface.
(b) The relation between A & C such that ray will always A
cross surface BC.
For this (r2)max < C i
(A – r1)max < C r1 r2
A – (r1)min < C ..(2)
(r1)min = 0 when imin = 0
from eq. (2) A–0<C
A<C A C
i.e. If A ≤ C, no rays are reflected back from the second surface i.e. all rays are refracted from
second surface.

(c) If 2C ≥ A > C, some rays are reflected back from the second surface and some rays are refracted
from second surface, depending on the angle of incidence.
δ is maximum for two values of i
⇒ imin (corresponding to e = 90º) and i = 90º imin A– C
(corresponding to emin). C

For imin : ns sin imin = np sin (A – C)

If i < imin then T.I.R. takes place at second refracting surface PR.
Condition for δmax :
i = 90° or e = 90°

i
Grazing Grazing
incidence emergence

n sin (A – C) = sin e
A
e = sin −1[n sin( A – C)] e
C
Grazing
δ max = i + e − A incidence
A–C
–1
δmax = 90 + sin [n sin( A − C)] – A

Ex.53 Find the minimum and maximum angle of deviation for a prism with angle A = 60° and µ = 1.5
Sol. Minimum deviation
The angle of minimum deviation occurs when i = e and r1 = r2 and is given by
 A + δm 
sin 
 2  –1  A
µ= ⇒ δm = 2 sin  µ sin  – A
A 2
sin
2
Substituting µ = 1.5 and A = 60°, we get
δm = 2 sin–1 (0.75) – 60° = 37°

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Maximum deviation (Grazing incidence or Grazing emergence) :

The deviation is maximum when i = 90° or e = 90° that is at grazing incidence or grazing emergence.
Let i = 90°

–1  1  –1  2 
⇒ r1 = C = sin   ⇒ r1 = sin   = 42°
 µ 3
⇒ r2 = A – r1 = 60° – 42° = 18°
i=90° e=90°
sin r2 1 r1r2
Using = , we have
sin e µ
sin e = µ sin r2 = 1.5 × sin 18°
⇒ sin e = 0.463 ⇒ e = 28°
∴ Deviation = δmax = (i + e) – A
= 90° + 28° – 60° = 58°
17.5 Deviation Through a Prism of Small Angle
If the angle of the prism A is small, r1 and r2
(as r1 + r2 = A) and i and e will be small. A
sin i
For the refraction at the face AB, we have µ = sin r i e
1
i
or, µ = r (since i and r1 are small angles, sin i1 ≈ i1 and sin r1 ≈ r1 ) r1 r
1
2

⇒ For refraction at the face AC, we have B C

sin e
µ = sin r
2
e
or, µ = r ( ∵ e and r2 are small angles, so sin e ~– e and sin r2 ~– r2)
2
⇒ e = µr2
Now, deviation produced by a prism
δ = (i + e) – A
or, δ = (µr1 + µr2) – A or, δ = µ(r1 + r2) – A
or, δ = µA – A [∵ r1 + r2 = A]
or, δ = (µ – 1) A ...(20)
The above formula is valid for all positions of the prism provided the angle of the prism A is small
(say ≤ 10°).

Ex.54 A prism having a refracting angle 4° and refractive index 1.5 is located in front of a vertical
plane mirror as shown. A horizontal ray of light is incident on the prism. What is the angle of
incidence at the mirror?
A

4°

B C
A

Sol. The deviation suffered by refraction through

4°
the small angled prism is given by

δ = (µ – 1) A = (1.5 – 1) × 4° = 2° δ
δ
This gives the angle of incidence 2° at the mirror. B C

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Ex.55 Refracting angle of a prism A = 60º and its refractive index is, n = 3/2, what is the angle of
incidence i to get minimum deviation. Also find the minimum deviation. Assume the
surrounding medium to be air (n = 1).
Sol. For minimum deviation,
A
r1 = r2 = = 30º
2
Applying snell’s law at I surface
3 -1 3  –1 3  π
1 × sin i = sin 30º ⇒ i = sin  4  ⇒ δ min = 2 sin   –
2   4 3

7
Ex.56 For a prism, A = 60º, n = . Find the minimum possible angle of incidence, so that the light
3
ray is refracted from the second surface. Also find δmax.
Sol. In minimum incidence case the angles will be as shown in figure
Applying snell’s law :
A
7 imin A-C
1 × sin imin = sin (A – C) C
3
7
= (sin A cos C – cos A sin C)
3
7 3 3 1
=  sin60 1 − − cos60 =
3 7 7  2
∴ imin = 30º
∴ δmax = imin + 90º – A = 30º + 90º – 60º = 60º.

18. DISPERSION OF LIGHT

The angular splitting of a ray of white light into a number of components and spreading in different
directions is called Dispersion of Light. [It is for whole Electro Magnetic Wave in totality]. This
phenomenon takes place because waves of different wavelength move with same speed in vacuum
but with different speeds in a medium.
Therefore, the refractive index of a medium depends slightly on wavelength also. This variation of
refractive index with wavelength is given by Cauchy's formula.
b
Cauchy's formula n(λ λ) = a + 2
λ
where a and b are positive constants of a medium.
VIB GYOR
  →
λ ↑ freq. ↓

Note :
• Such phenomenon is not exhibited by sound waves.
Angle between the rays of the extreme colour in the refracted (dispersed) light is called angle of
dispersion
θ = δv – δr (Fig. (a))
Fig (a) and (c) represents dispersion, whereas in fig. (b) there is no dispersion.

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white light

air
medium
δr
δv
θ δ y = mean deviation or
red deviation in the
violet beam
(a)
yellow

red all parallel to

air one another
yellow
∴θ = 0
violet δr δ y δ v

Red
white ray
Yellow
medium
Violet
(b)

For prism of small 'A' and with small 'i'.

θ = δv – δr = (nv – nr )A

Ex.57 The refractive indices of flint glass for red and violet light are 1.613 and 1.632 respectively.
Find the angular dispersion produced by a thin prism of flint glass having refracting angle 5°.
Sol. Deviation of the red light is δr = (µr – 1)A and deviation of the violet light is δv = (µv – 1) A.
The dispersion = δv – δr = (µv – µr)A
= (1.632 – 1.613) × 5° = 0.095°
Note : Deviation of beam (also called mean deviation)
δ = δy = (ny – 1) A
nv, nr and ny are R.I. of material for violet, red and yellow colours respectively.
Numerical data reveals that if the average value of µ is small µv – µr is also small and if the average
value of µ is large µv – µr is also large. Thus, larger the mean deviation, larger will be the angular
dispersion.
18.1 ω ) of the medium of the material of prism is given by :
Dispersive power (ω
n v – nr
ω=
ny – 1
• ω is the property of a medium.
For small angled prism (A ≤ 10°) with light incident at small angle i :
n v – nr δ v – δr θ angular dispersion
ny – 1 = δy = δy =
deviation of mean ray (yellow)
n v + nr
[ny = if ny is not given in the problem]
2
• n – 1 = refractivity of the medium for the corresponding colour.

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Ex.58 Refractive index of glass for red and violet colours are 1.50 and 1.60 respectively. Find
(a) the refractive index for yellow colour, approximately
(b) Dispersive power of the medium.

µ v + µR 150
. + 160
. µ v – µR 160
. – 150
.
Sol. (a) µ r ~
– = = 1.55 (b) ω = µ – 1 = = 0.18.
2 2 r 155
. –1

Ex.59 Calculate the dispersive power of crown and flint glass-prism from the following data. For
crown glass
µv = 1.522 ; µR = 1.514
For flint glass
µv = 1.662 ; µR = 1.644
Sol. For crown glass
µv = 1.522 ; µR : 1.514
µ V + µR 1.522 + 1.514
∴ µY = = = 1.518
2 2
Hence, the dispersive power of crown glass
µ v – µR 1.522 – 1.514
ω= = = 0.01544
µY – 1 (1.518 – 1)
∴ ω = 0.01544
For flint glass : µ′v = 1.662 ; µ′R = 1.644

µ 'v + µR' 1.662 + 1.644

∴ µ' = = = 1.653
2 2
µ 'v – µ R' 1.662 – 1.644
∴ ω' = = = 0.0276
µ'–1 (1.653 – 1)

18.2 Dispersion without average deviation and average deviation without dispersion

A
δ1 ω'

δ2
ω A'

Figure shows two thin prisms placed in contact in such a way that the two refracting angles are
reversed with respect to each other. Suppose, the refracting angles of the two prisms are A and A′
and their dispersive power and ω and ω′ respectively.
Consider a ray of light for which the refractive indices of the materials of the two prisms are µ and
µ′. Assuming that the ray passes through the prisms in symmetrical situation, the deviations
produceed by the two prisms are
δ1 = (µ – 1) A

and δ 2 = (µ'–1) A '

As the two deviations are opposite to each other, the net deviation is
δ = δ1 – δ 2

= (µ – 1)A – (µ'–1) A ' ...(1)

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If white light passes through the combination, the net deviation of the violet ray is

δ v = (µ v – 1)A − (µ v' − 1) A '

and that of the red ray is

δ r = (µ r – 1)A − (µ v' − 1) A '

The angular dispersion produced by the combination is
δ v – δ r = ( µ v – µ r ) A − ( µ' v − µ' r ) A ' ...(2)
The dispersive power are given by

µv – µr µ' v – µ' r
ω= ω' =
µ y − 1 and µ' y −1
Thus, by (2), the net angular dispersion is
δ v − δr = (µ y – 1) ωA − (µ' y –1) ω' A' ...(3)
The net deviation of the yellow ray i.e., the average deviation, is, by (1)
δ y = (µ y – 1)A − (µ' y –1) A ' ...(4)
Dispersion without Average Deviation
If the combination is not to produce a net average deviation in the beam, δy should by 0. By (4), the
required condition is
(µ y – 1)A = (µ' y –1) A ' ...(5)
Using this in (3), the net angular dispersion produced is
δ v − δ r = (µ y – 1)A(ω – ω' ) ...(6)
By choosing ω and ω′ different and the refracting angles to satisfy (5), one can get dispersion
without average deviation.
Average Deviation without Dispersion.
If the combination is not to produe a net dispersion, δ v − δ r = 0 , By (iii)
(µ y – 1) ωA = (µ' y –1) ω' A ' ....(7)
By (2), this condition may also be written as
( µ v – µ r ) A = ( µ' v – µ' r ) A ' ....(8)
The net average deviation produced is, by (1),
δ = (µ y – 1) A − (µ' y –1) A'

 µ' y – 1 A ' 
= (µ y – 1) A 1 – 
 µ y – 1 A 
By (7)
(µ' y –1) A' ω
=
(µ y – 1) A ω'
so that the net average deviation produced by the combination is
 ω
δ = (µ y – 1)A 1 –  ...(9)
 ω'

Ex.60 Find the angle of the flint glass prism which should be combined with a crown glass prism of
5° so as to give dispersion but no deviation.
For crown glass : µv = 1.523; µR = 1.515
For flint glass : µv′ = 1.688 ; µR′ = 1.650

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Sol. For no deviation

A'  µ – 1   µ – 1
=  A ' =   A
A  µ'–1 
or,
 µ'–1 

µ v + µR 1.523 + 1.515
Now, µ= = = 1.519
2 2

µ 'v + µ R' 1.668 + 1.650  1.519 – 1 

µ' = = = 1.659 ∴ A' =   5° = 3.94°
2 2  1.659 − 1 

Ex.61 Find the angle of a prims of dispersive power 0.021 and refractive index 1.53 to form an
achromatic combination with the prism of angle 4.2° and dispersive power 0.045 having
refractive index 1.65. Also calculate the resultant deviation.
Sol. ω = 0.021 ; µ = 1.53 ; ω′ = 0.045; µ′ = 1.65
A′ = 4.2°
For no dispersion
ωδ + ω' δ' = 0
or, ω(µ – 1)A + ω' (µ'–1)A ' = 0

ω' A ' (µ'–1) 0.045 × 4.2° × (1.65 – 1)

or, A= =
ω(µ – 1) 0.021× (1.53 – 1)
Net deviation δ + δ′ = (µ – 1) A + (µ′ – 1) A′
= – 11.04° (1.53 – 1) + 4.2° (1.65 – 1) = – 3.12°

19. REFRACTION FROM A SPHERICAL SURFACE

Consider two transparent media having indices of refraction µ1 and µ2, where the boundary between
the two media is a spherical surface of radius R. We assume that µ1 < µ2. Let us consider a single
ray leaving point O and focussing at point I. Snell’s law applied to this refracted ray gives,
µ1 sin θ1 = µ2 sin θ2
Because θ1 and θ2 are assumed to be small,
+ve
P
we can use the small angle approximation θ1
d θ2
sin θ ≈ θ α β γ
(angles in radians) and say that O M C I
µ1 µ2
µ1 θ1 = µ2 θ2 ...(1)
u R
From the geometry shown in the figure.
v
θ1 = α + β ...(2)
and β = θ2 + γ ...(3)
Eqs. (1) and (3) can be combined to express θ2 in terms of α and β. Substituting the resulting
expression into Eq. (2) then yields.
µ1
β = µ ( α + β) + γ
2

So µ 1α + µ 2 γ = (µ 2 – µ1 )β ...(4)
Since, the arc PM (of length S) subtends an angle β at the centre of curvature
S
β=
R

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Also in the paraxial approxiamation

S S
α= and γ =
u v
Using these expressions in Eq. (4) with proper signs, we are left with,
µ1 µ 2 µ 2 – µ1
+ =
–u v R
µ 2 µ1 µ 2 – µ1
or – = ...(5)
v u R
Although the formula (5) is derived for a particular situation, it is valid for all other situations of
refraction at a single spherical surface.
Important point for above formula
• Above formula is valid only for paraxial ray.
• u,v,R should be put along with sign
• µ2 is r.i. of medium in which rays is going and µ1 is the r.i. of medium from which rays are coming.

R=10cm
Ex.62 Findout the position of the image formed and
draw the appropriate ray diagram n=1.5
O
u = – 30 cm
R = + 10 cm 30cm

n2 n1 n2 – n1
Sol. ⇒ – = R=10cm
v u R
1.5 1 0.5 air
⇒ + = n=1.5
v 30 10 O
90 I
1.5 0.5 1
⇒ = – 30cm
v 10 30

1 .5 0 .5 30 × 1.5
= ⇒ v= = 90 cm (Real)
v 30 0.5

Ex.63 Findout the position of the image formed and draw the appropriate ray diagram

R=10cm

n=1 n=1.5

O
5cm

Sol. n2 = 1.5, n1 = 1
u = – 5cm R = – 10 cm R=10cm

n2 n1 n2 – n1 n=1
– = n=1.5
v u R
1.5 1 0.5 1.5 –0.5 1 I O
+ =– = – 5cm
⇒ ⇒
v 5 10 v 10 5
1 .5 – 2 .5
⇒ = ⇒ v = – 6 cm
v 10

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Ex.64 Findout the position where parallel rays will meet n=1 n=1.5
after coming out of the sphere and draw the
appropriate ray diagram
R=10cm

n2 n1 n2 – n1
Sol. – =
v u R
1.5 1 0.5 1 .5 0 .5 n=1.5
⇒ – = ⇒ =
v ∞ 10 v 10
15
⇒ v= = 30 R=10cm 5cm I2
I1
0.5
For IInd
10cm
1 1 .5 1 – 1.5
– = ⇒ v=+5
v 10 – 10

19.1 Velocity of spherical refrection

n 2 n1 n 2 − n1
− =
v u R n1 n2
differentiate with respect to time
n 2 dv n1 du
– + =0
v 2 dt u 2 dt

dv  n  v 2  du
= + 1  2 
 dt
dt  n 2  u 

n1 v 2
VIS = VOS
n2 u2

n1 v 2
VI − Vs = . (v O − v s )
n2 u2

Ex.65 Find the velocity of image in the shown below n=air

30
n2 n1 n2 – n1 n2=1.5
– =
v u R O
n 2 n 2 – n1 n1 n 2 (n 2 – n1 )u + n1R 2m/s
⇒ = + ⇒ =
v R u v Ru
n 2Ru R=10cm
⇒ v = (n – n )u + n R = 90 cm
2 1 1

n2 n1 n2 – n1
– =
v u R
By differentiating :
n dv µ1 du
– 22 . + . =0
v dt u 2 dt
dv µ1 v 2 du
⇒ = . .
dt µ 2 u 2 dt

dv 1 v2
⇒ = × 2 = + 12 m/sec
dt 1.5 u 2

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19.2 Transverse Magnification

If i and r are very small n1
tan i ≈ sin i ≈ i n2
h0
tan r ≈ sin r ≈ r i
r
h h hi
⇒ tan r = i ⇒ r ≈ i ...(1)
v v u v
h0 h0
tan i = ⇒ i≈ ...(2)
u u
Again, by applying snells law :
n1 sin i = n2 sin r
⇒ n1 i ≈ n2 r ...(3)
⇒ From (1), (2), (3)
hi n v
m= = 1 
h0 n 2  u 

R=10cm

n1=1 n2=1.5
Ex.66 Findout the position of the image formed
and draw the appropriate ray diagram. O
u = –30 cm 30cm
R = + 10 cm 120cm

n2 n1 n2 – n1
Sol. – = R=10cm
v u R
n=1
1.5 1 0.5 n2=1.5
⇒ + =
v 30 10
1.5 0.5 1 O I3 I1 30cm
I2
= – 90cm
⇒ 30cm
v 10 30 30cm
1 .5 0 .5 120cm
⇒ =
v 30
⇒ v = + 90
Mirror will form the image of I1 30 cm behind it as shown in the figure.
For the second refraction :
u = – 150 cm, R = – 10 cm, n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1
1 1.5 –0.5 1 0.5 1
+ = ⇒ = –
v 150 – 10 v 10 100

1 4
⇒ = ⇒ v = 25 cm (Real)
v 100

Ex.67 Find out the value of x for which the image is formed on the object itself.
R=10cm
n=1.5
O
x

90cm

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Sol. Case I : for first Refraction

R=10cm
n 2 n1 n – n1
– = 2 n=1.5
v u R
1.5 1 0.5 1 . 5 0. 5 1
⇒ + = ⇒ = –
v x 10 v 10 x x

1.5 0.5x – 10 15 x
⇒ = ⇒ v= 90cm
v 10 x 0.5x – 10
v = ∞ ⇒ x = 20 cm
case II :
n2 = 1.5, n1 = 1
O
R = + 10, u = – x
v = 90 cm, x = 30 cm

20. REFRACTION THROUGH THIN LENSES

Lens : A lens is a transparent medium bounded by two refracting surfaces such that at least one of
the refracting surfaces is curved. (or spherical)
Types of lenses. : Broadly, lenses are of the following types :

∞ R1 R2
R R R
R1 R2

Convexo-convex Equiconvex Plano convex Concavo-

lens or Biconvex lens lens convex lens

R1 R2 ∞ R R1 R2
R R

Biconcave Equiconcave Plano-concave Convexo-concave

lens lens lens lens
(ii) Principal axis : The line joining the centres of curvature of the two bounding surfaces is called the
principal axis.

C2 C1 C1 C2

20.1 Lens Maker formula

For first refraction :

µs µl
O
t
u v1
v

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µ
µs (µ
– µ s )
– = ...(1) thickness of lens t is negligible
v1 u R1
For second refraction :
µs µ
µs – µ

– = ...(2)
v v1 R2
Adding (1) and (2) equation we get

1 1  µ
 1 1 
− = − 1  − 
v u  µs  1R R 2 

Impoartnt points for the above formula :

(1) Rays should be paraxial
(2) v, u, R1 and R2 should be put with the sign.
(3) R1 is the radius of curvature of that surface on which the ray strikes first.
(4) Lens should be thin.
(5) Medium on both sides of the lens should be same.

20.2 Sign Convention (consider pole as origin)

(i) Whenever and wherever possible, rays of light are taken to travel from left to right.
(ii) Distances are measured along the principal axis from the optical centre of the lens.
(iii) Distances measured along the principal axis in the direction of the incident rays are taken as
positive while those measured against the direction of the incident rays are taken negative.
(iv) Distances measured above the principal axis are taken as positive and those measured below the
principal axis are taken as negative.

O I O I I O

Figure I Figure II Figure III

Figure u v f R1 R2

(I) – ve + ve + ve + ve – ve
(II) – ve – ve – ve – ve + ve

(III) + ve + ve + ve + ve – ve
20.3 Focus :
If the rays are parallel to optical axis and paraxial then the point where they meet or appears to
meet is known as focus of the system.
I n t h e l e n s m→ ∞, v = f.
a k e r f o r m u l a i f u

1  µ
 1 1 
= – 1 – 
f  µ s  1R R 
2  focus
Substituting in the lens maker formula :
1 1 1
– = (lens formula)
v u f

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Lenses have two focii called first and second focus

Ist
focus
Ist focus

nd
2 focus nd
2 focus.

Ex.68 Calculate the focal length of a biconvex lens in air if the radii of its surfaces are 60 cm and
15 cm. Refractive index of glass = 1.5
Sol. Consider a light ray going through the lens as shown. it strikes the convex side of 60 cm radius and
concave side of 15 cm radius while coming out.
R1 = + 60 cm, R2 = – 15 cm R1 R2
1  µ
 1 1  µ = 1 µ =1
∴ =  – 1  – 
f  µs   R1 R 2  1.5
1  1.5   1 1
= – 1  + 
f  1
or,
 60 15 
⇒ f = + 24 cm

Since for converging and diverging lenses

Focal length of lens depends on surrounding medium.
If f = + ve implies converging and if f = – ve implies diverging lens.
converging Diverging
lens lens.
Ex.69 Calculate the focal length of the lens shown in the figure.
30cm
60cm
1.5
µ=

1  µ
 1 1  30cm
Sol. =  – 1 – 

f  µs  R1 R 2  60cm

1  1  1 
⇒ = (1.5 – 1) + – +  
f  30  60  
⇒ f = 120 cm

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If in the above case direction of rays is reversed.

1  µ
 1 1  1  1  1 
=  – 1 –  ⇒ = (1.5 – 1) – – –  
f  µs  R1 R 2  f  60  30  
f = + 120 cm
This Illustration shows that focal length does not depend on the incident ray direction.

20.4 RULES FOR IMAGE FORMATION

(i) A ray passing through the optical centre of the lens proceeds undeviated through the lens. (By
definition of optical centre)

P P

Pole is the intersection of the ray which goes undeviated through the lens and the optical axis.
(ii) A ray passing parallel to the principal axis after refraction through the lens passes or appear to
pass through the focus. (By the definition of the focus)

F
P F P

(iii) A ray through the focus or directed towards the focus, after refraction from the lens, becomes
parallel to the principal axis. (Principle of reversibility of light)

F F F

Only two rays from the same point of an object are needed for image formation and the point where
the rays after refraction through the lens intersect or appear to intersect, is the image of the
object. If they actually intersect each other, the image is real and if they appear to intersect the
image is said to be virtual.

Ex.70 Findout the position of the image formed.

u = + 30 cm, f = + 10 cm
1 1 1
Sol. = – f=10cm
f v u
1 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ = – ⇒ = +
10 v 30 v 10 30
30cm
300
⇒ v= = 7.5 cm
40

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20.5 Transverse Magnification

Converging lens.

h0
θ
θ f 2f
2f f
u hi

v
h0 hi
tan θ = ...(1), tan θ = ...(2)
u v
from eq. (2) / (1)
hi v
m= =
h0 u

Ex.71 Findout the position, height and nature of the image formed.
f=10cm

2cm

30cm

Sol. u = – 30 cm, f = + 10 cm, h0 = + 2 cm

1 1 1
= – f=10cm
f v u
1 1 1 1 1 2cm 15cm
⇒ = + ⇒ = ⇒ v = + 15
10 v 30 v 15
hi v 30cm 1cm
=
h0 u
hi 15
⇒ = ⇒ hi = – 1 cm
2 – 30
∴ Real, inverted, diminished

21. IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONVEX LENS OF THE LINEAR OBJECT

(i) When the object is at infinity :

The image is formed at F. It is real, inverted and highly diminished.

(ii) When the object is beyond 2F :

F 2F
2F F

The image is formed between F and 2F. It is real, inverted and diminished

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(iii) When the object is at 2F :

F 2F
2F F

The image is formed at 2F. It is real, inverted and the same size as the object.

(iv) When the object is between F and 2F :

F 2F
2F F

The image is formed beyond 2F (i.e., between 2F and ∞). It is real, inverted and enlarged.
(v) When the object is at F :

F 2F
2F F

The image is formed at infinity. It is real, inverted and highly magnified.

(vi) When the object is between F and O :

2F F F 2F

The image is on the same side as the object is. It is virtual, erect and magnified.

(vii) Virtual object case for converging lens :

u=+x
f=+f
1 1 1
from lens formula – =
v x f
2f f O
1 1 1
= +
v f x
if x = 0, v → ∞
x
if x = ∞, v → f

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Graphs for converging lens

v
O-Real O-Virtual
I-Real I-Real
2f

–2f –f u
O-Real
I-virtual

21.1 IMAGE FORMATION BY A CONCAVE LENS OF A LINEAR OBJECT

(a) Real object case

u=–x, f=–f
1 1 1
from lens formula + =–
v x f
1 1 1
=– − x
v f x
If x →∞ v→–f
If x→0 v → 0'

(b) Virtual object case :

u = +x, f = – f
1 1 1
from lens formula = −
v x f
If x = 0 → v = 0
If x < f ; v= +u
If x is just smallesr than f
v → +∞ x
If x is just greater than f v → – ∞
If x → ∞ , v→–f
Graphs for diverging lenses.

v
O-Virtual
I-Real

f
u

–f
O-Real O-Virtual
I-virtual I-virtual

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Ex.72 An object is placed in front of a converging lens of focal length 10 cm and image formed is
double the size of object. Then find out the position of object.
Case I : If the image formed is real
h
– i =2
h0
v
⇒ = –2 ⇒ v = – 2u
u
1 1 1
= –
f v u
1 1 1 1 3
⇒ =– – ⇒ =– ⇒ u = – 15 cm
10 2v u 10 2u
Case II : If the image formed is virtual
hi
=2 ⇒ v = 2u
h0
1 1 1
= –
f v u
1 1 1 1 1
⇒ = – ⇒ =– ⇒ u=–5 cm
10 2u u 10 2u

Ex.73 Findout the linear length of the image of the object AB shown in figure.

f = 20 cm

A 5cm
2F B F

Sol. For B :
1 1 1
= –
f v u f = 20 cm
1 1 1
⇒ = + A 5cm A'
20 v 35 B'
1 1 1 2F B F F 2F
⇒ = –
v 20 35
140/3 cm
140
⇒ v=
3
140 20
A′ B′ = (vB – vA) = – 40 = cm
3 3

Ex.74 Findout the linear length of the image of the object shown in figure.

f = 20 cm

1mm

60cm
Sol. Here the length of the object is very small then

1 1 1
– = ⇒ By differentiating
v u f

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dv v 2
=
du u 2
u = –60, f = + 20

1 1 1
= + ⇒ v = 30
f v 60

dv v 2 dv (30 )2
= ⇒ =
du u 2 1 ( 60 )2
1
⇒ dv = mm = length of the image
4
Note : Differentiating in solving 73 & 74 (Trick)

21.2 Velocity of the image formed by a lens

1 1 1
from − =
v u f
differentiate the above eq.
1 dv 1 du dv v 2 du
– + =0 ⇒ =
v 2 dt u 2 dt dt u 2 dt

v2
v IL = VOL
u2
Ex.75 Findout the velocity of the image of the object shown in the figure.
f=10cm/s
1cm/sec

O
15cm

2cm/s
1 1 1
Sol. = –
f v u
1 1 1 1 1 1 150
⇒ = + ⇒ = – ⇒ v= = 30
10 v 15 v 10 15 5
1 1 1
= –
f v u
By differentating :
dv du dv du du dv
0= 2 – 2 ⇒
0=– 2 + 2 ⇒ =
2
v dt dt u v u u v2
dv v 2 (30)2
⇒ = 2 ⇒ dv = × (1 – 2) = – 4 (1)
du u (15)2
v2
⇒ (vI – vL ) = (vo – vL)
u2
⇒ (vI – 2) = 4 × – 1 ⇒ vI = – 2

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Ex.76 Findout the velocity of the image of the f=10cm/s

2cm/s
object shown in the figure.
hi v
Sol. =
h0 u
15cm
hi v dhi v dh0
⇒ = ⇒ =
h0 u dt u dt
30
⇒ × 2 = – 4 cm/sec (downwards)
– 15

21.3 COMBINATION OF LENS.

f1
f2
Peq = P1 + P2

≡
P2
P1
Peq = P1 + P2
1 1 1
= +
feq f1 f2
Important points :
(1) Rays should be paraxial
(2) Lens should be thin
(3) Lenses should be kept in contact
(4) f1, f2, f3, ....... should be put with sign.
(5) f1, f2, f3 ........... are the focal length of lenses in the surrounding medium.
(6) If feq = + ve then system will behave as converging system.
If feq = – ve then system will behave as diverging system.

4
Ex.77 Findout the equivalent focal length of the µ=
combenation of 3
lenses shown in the figure. Surrounding medium is air.
1  µ
 1 1 
Sol. =  – 1 –  1.5
f1  µ s  R1 R 2  µ=

 1 1  –2 R=10 cm R=10 cm
= (1.5 – 1) – –  = 0 .5 ×
R=10 cm
 10 10  10
10
⇒ f1 = = –10cm
0.5 × –2
1  µ
 1 1  4 1 1
= – 1 –  =  – 1 + 
f2  µ s  1R R 2

  3  10 10 
1 1 2   30 
⇒ =   ⇒ f2 =   = 15cm
f2 3  10   2 
f3 = – 10 cm
1 1 1 1 1 2 150
= + + – ⇒ feq =
feq f1 f2 f3 = 15 10 – 20
= – 7.5 cm

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22. CUTTING OF LENS.

22.1 Parallel Cutting

O I O I O I

No. of images in all the cases = 1

∵ Principle axis does not shift

I1
2cm
1cm
1cm
(ii) f = 10 cm
15cm 2cm
I2

hi v
=
h0 u
hi 30
⇒ = ⇒ h = + 2 (upwards)
– 1 – 15
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= – ⇒ = + ⇒ = –
f v u 10 v 15 v 10 15
150
⇒ v= = 30 cm
5
Total distance = 2 + 2 + 2 = 6 cm

f=10
1 1 1
(iii) = – (1)
f v u I2
1cm 1cm
1 1 1 1 1 1 1cm u 1cm
⇒ = + ⇒ = –
10 v 5 v 10 5 I1 5cm (2)
50
⇒ v=– = –10 cm
5
hi v hi −10
= ⇒ = ⇒ hi = –2 cm
h0 u –1 − 5

Distance = 1 + 1 = 2 cm

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22.2 POWER OF A LENS.

1
Power = (diopter)
f
where f → meter
and f should be put with sign
power of converging lens. = + ve
Power of diverging lens. = – ve

22.3 POWER OF MIRROR.

1
Power = – (diopter)
f
where f → meter
and f should be put with sign.
Power of converging mirror = + ve
Power of diverging mirror = – ve

22.4 PERPENDICULAR CUTTING

R
R
P

(1)

1  1  1  1 2
= (µ – 1) –  –   ⇒ = (µ – 1)
f  R  R  f R
P/2
P/2

1 1 
= (µ – 1) – 0  = (µ – 1)
f1 R  R
f ′ = 2f

Ex.78 Find out the value of x so that the image is formed on the object itself.

x
30cm

f=10cm f=10cm

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Sol. Case I : When the lens forms the image on the pole of the mirror
1 1 1
= –
f v u

1 1 1 1 1 1
⇒ = – ⇒ = – ⇒ x = 15 cm
10 30 – x x 10 30
Case II : When the lens forms the image on the centre of curvature of the mirror
1 1 1
+ =
20 x 10

1 1 1
⇒ = – = ∴ x = 20 cm
x 10 20

23. SILVERGING OF LENS.

1 2 1 1 1 2
Peq = 2P
+ Pm ⇒ –f = f –f ⇒ f = f –f
eq
m eq m

1 1  1 1 
= – 2 + + .....
feq fm  f
1 f
2 

Important points :
(1) Rays should be paraxial
(2) Lenses should be thin
(3) All the lenses should be in contact.
(4) f
, fm should be put along with the sign.
(5) If feq = – ve ⇒ concave,
feq = + ve ⇒ convex,
If feq = ∞ ⇒ plane mirror
O
R=10cm
x
Ex.79 Find out the value of x so that the image will form µ = 1.5 R=10cm
on object itself.

1 1   1 1 
Sol. = – 2(0.5) + 
feq fm   10 10 
1 1 2
⇒ = – ⇒ feq = –5cm
f eq ∞ 10 x
The system is equivalent to a concave mirror of focal length 5 cm
Object must be at the centre of curvature
∴ x = 2 ( 5) = 10 cm

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24. DISPLACEMENT METHOD

For the formation of the real image by convex lens minimum distance between object and image is
4f, f being the focal length of the lens
If the distance between object and screen (D) is greater than 4f then there are two positions of
the lens for which the image of object on the screen is distinct and clear. In these two positions
the distance of object and image from lens are interchange.
For first refraction : x y
u=–x h0 = h0
v=+y hi = – hi d h2

–h1 – y D h1
= ...(1) y x
h0 x
For second refraction :
u = – y, v=+x
hi = – h2, h0 = h0
h2 – x
− = ...(2)
h0 y
(1) × (2)
h20 = h1h 2 ⇒ h0 = h1h2
Now D = x + y, ...(3)
d=y–x ...(4)
After solving eq. (3) & (4)
D+d D–d
y= x=
2 2
1 1 1
from y + x = f

2 2 1 D 2 – d2
+ = ⇒ f=
D+d D–d f 4D

25. CHROMATIC ABERRATION AND ACHROMATISM

The refractive index of the material of a lens varies slightly with the wavelength and hence, the
focal length is also different for different wavelengths. In the visible region, the focal length is
maximum for red and minimum for violet. Thus, if white light is used, each colour forms a separate
image of the object.

Violet
Red

Violet
Red

fR fR fV
Red
fv Violet
Red
(a) Violet
(b)

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The violet rays are deviated more and hence, they form an image closer to the lens as compared to
the image formed by the red rays. If light is incident on the lens from left to right, the violet image
is to the left of the red image for convex lens and it is to the right of the red image for the concave
lens. In the first case, the chromatic aberration is called positive and in the second case, it is
negative. Thus, a proper combination for a convex and a concave lens may result in no chromatic
aberration. Such a combination is called an achromatic combination for the pair of wavelenghts.

1  1 1 
= (µ v – 1)  −  ...(1)
fv  R1 R 2 

White light
1  1 1 
= (µR – 1)  − 
 ...(2) f
fR  R1 R 2 
eq. (1) – eq. (2)

1 1  1 1 
− = (µ v – µ R )  – 
f v fR R
 1 R 2 

fR – fv (µ v – µ R )  1 1 
= (µ y – 1) – 
fR .fv (µ y − 1)  R1 R 2 
2
fR .f v = f1 ⇒ and fR – fv = df

df ω
2
=
fy fy

1 1 1 dfeq df1 df2

= + ⇒ – =– – 2
feq f1 f2 f 2
f12 f2
for achromatism dfeq = 0

df1 df 2
⇒ + 2 =0
f12 f2

ω1 ω 2
+ =0
f1 f2

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