Signals and Systems (EPE 2040)

Part I
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Kamel
 Signals and Systems (EPE 2040)

References
1. “Fundamentals of Signals and Systems Using
MATLAB” by Edward W. Kamen and B. S. Heck

2. “Signals and Systems” by Alan V. Oppenheim

and others
 Signals and Systems (EPE 2040)
Marks
1. 50 marks for class work.
2. 100 marks for final exam.
Class Work Elements
1. Practical activities 18 marks.
2. Two quizzes 12 marks.
3. Mid term Exam 24 marks.
 Course Contents (Part I)
1. Introduction
 Definition of a Signal
 Types of signals
 Definition of a system
 Types of systems

2. Signal Operations
 Amplification and Attenuation
 Reflection
 Shifting (Delay and Advance)
 Linear Scale Change (Slow Down or Expansion and Speed Up or
Contraction)

3. Even and Odd Signals

 Course Contents (Part I)
4. Periodic Signals
5. Basic Signals
 Complex Exponential
 Unit Step
 Unit Impulse
6. System Properties
 Memory
 Causality
 Linearity
 Time Variance
7. LTI Systems
 Convolution
 Properties of Convolution
 Convolution and Laplace Transform
 Course Contents (Part I)
8. The Z-Transform
 Definition
 Properties
 Invers Z-Transform

9. Fourier Series and Fourier Transform

 Fourier Series of Periodic Signals
 Fourier Transform of Aperiodic Signals
 Properties of Fourier Transform
 1. INTRODUCTION
1. Definition of a Signal

 Generally, a signal is a function of one or more

independent variables and typically contains
information about the behavior or nature of some
phenomenon.
 We are interested in signals that have one
independent variable.
 The independent variable is usually the time.
 Examples are voice, voltage, current, heater
temperature, fluid level in a tank….. etc.
 1. INTRODUCTION
2. Types of Signals

 Signals can be classified as analog and discrete.

 Analog signals are continuous-time while discrete
signals are discrete-time.
 Practical continuous-time signals are finite, real-
valued functions of time 𝑥(𝑡).
 Practical discrete-time signals are bounded functions
of an integer that represents discrete instants 𝑥[𝑛].
 Discrete-time signals are frequently obtained by
taking snapshots of continuous-time signals.
 1. INTRODUCTION
2. Types of Signals (Examples)
 1. INTRODUCTION
2. Types of Signals (Examples)

𝒕𝒔 is the sampling period.

Usually denoted as T.

The continuous-time signal has many discrete-time corresponding signals

depending on the value of the sampling period T.
 1. INTRODUCTION
3. Definition of a System

 Generally, a system is a component or a group of

components that can process an input signal to
produce an output signal.

Input Signal Output Signal

SYSTEM

 Examples are diodes, rectifiers, electrical circuits,

motors, generators, industrial processes … etc.
 1. INTRODUCTION
4. Types of Systems

 Systems can be classified as continuous, discrete and

sampled-data systems.
 Continuous systems process continuous input signals
and produce continuous output signals.
 Discrete systems process discrete input signals and
produce discrete output signals.

𝑥(𝑡) Continuous 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑥[𝑛] Discrete System 𝑦[𝑛]

System
ℎ(𝑡) ℎ[𝑛]
 1. INTRODUCTION
4. Types of Systems

 ℎ 𝑡 and ℎ[𝑛] are called the impulse response of the

system.

 Sampled-data systems are hybrid.

 This means that:-

1. Some of their components are continuous and others are
discrete
2. They contain conversion elements to convert continuous
signals to discrete and vice versa
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
1. Amplification and Attenuation

 Assume that 𝑥 𝑡 is a continuous signal.

 Then 𝑎 𝑥(𝑡) means that at every instant of time the

value of the signal 𝑥 𝑡 should be multiplied by the
constant 𝑎.

 Hence 𝑎 𝑥(𝑡) is the amplification of 𝑥 𝑡 if 𝑎 > 1.

 Also, 𝑎 𝑥(𝑡) is the attenuation of 𝑥 𝑡 if 0 < 𝑎 < 1.

 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
1. Amplification and Attenuation

 When 𝑎 < −1, 𝑎 𝑥(𝑡) is the amplification of −𝑥 𝑡

 When 0 > 𝑎 > −1 , 𝑎 𝑥(𝑡) is the attenuation of

−𝑥 𝑡

 The previous statements are also applied to the

discrete signal 𝑥[𝑛].
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
1. Amplification and Attenuation (Example 1)
𝑡+4 −4 ≤𝑡 ≤0
Given 𝑥 𝑡 = ,
4 0≤𝑡≤2
find y t = 2𝑥 𝑡 and z t = −0.5 𝑥 𝑡
Analytical Solution
2(𝑡 + 4) −4 ≤𝑡 ≤0
𝑦 𝑡 = 2𝑥(𝑡) =
2(4) 0≤𝑡≤2

−0.5(𝑡 + 4) −4 ≤𝑡 ≤0
𝑧 𝑡 = −0.5𝑥(𝑡) =
−0.5(4) 0≤𝑡≤2
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
1. Amplification and Attenuation (Example 1)
𝑡+4 −4 ≤𝑡 ≤0
Graphical Solution Given 𝑥 𝑡 =
4 0≤𝑡≤2
, y(t)

4 X(t)

t
-4 2
z(t)
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
1. Amplification and Attenuation (Example 2)
Given 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛 + 2 − 3 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 3, find 0.5𝑥[𝑛] and −1.5 𝑥[𝑛]

Graphical Solution
𝟎. 𝟓 𝒏 + 𝟏

−𝟏. 𝟓 𝒏 − 𝟑
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
2. Reflection
 Assume that 𝑥 𝑡 is a continuous signal.

 Then y t = 𝑥(−𝑡) is the reflection of 𝑥 𝑡 .

 Reflection means reversing the signal.

 The reflection of a signal is its mirror about the vertical axis.

 The previous statements are also applied to the discrete signal

𝑥[𝑛].
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
2. Reflection (Example 1)
𝑡+4 −4 ≤𝑡 ≤0
Given 𝑥 𝑡 = , find 𝑥(−𝑡).
4 0≤𝑡≤2
Analytical Solution

−𝑡 + 4 − 4 ≤ −𝑡 ≤ 0
𝑥 −𝑡 =
4 0 ≤ −𝑡 ≤ 2

−𝑡 + 4 4 ≥𝑡≥0
𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑦(𝑡) =
4 0 ≥ 𝑡 ≥ −2
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
2. Reflection (Example 1)
𝑡+4 −4 ≤𝑡 ≤0
Graphical Solution Given 𝑥 𝑡 =
4 0≤𝑡≤2
X(t) X(-t)
4 4

t t
-4 2
-2 4
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
2. Reflection (Example 2)
Given 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛 + 2 − 3 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 3, find 𝑥[−𝑛]

Graphical Solution

−𝒏+𝟐
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
3. Shifting
 Assume that 𝑥 𝑡 is a continuous signal.

 Then 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑎) is the shifted version of 𝑥 𝑡 .

 If 𝑎 > 0, then 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑎) is the advance of 𝑥 𝑡

 If 𝑎 < 0, then 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑎) is the delay of 𝑥 𝑡

 The previous statements are also applied to the discrete signal

𝑥[𝑛]. Notice that 𝑎 should be integer.
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
3. Shifting (Example 1)
𝑡+4 −4 ≤𝑡 ≤0
Given 𝑥 𝑡 = , find 𝑥(𝑡 + 1) and 𝑥(𝑡 − 2)
4 0≤𝑡≤2
.Analytical Solution

𝑡+1 +4 −4 ≤𝑡+1≤0
𝑥 𝑡+1 =
4 0≤𝑡+1≤2

𝑡+5 − 5 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ −1
𝑥(𝑡 + 1) =
4 −1≤𝑡 ≤1
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
3. Shifting (Example 1)
𝑡+4 −4 ≤𝑡 ≤0
Given 𝑥 𝑡 = , find 𝑥(𝑡 + 1) and 𝑥(𝑡 − 2)
4 0≤𝑡≤2
.Analytical Solution

𝑡−2 +4 −4 ≤𝑡−2≤0
𝑥 𝑡−2 =
4 0≤𝑡−2≤2

𝑡+2 −2 ≤𝑡 ≤2
𝑥(𝑡 − 2) =
4 2≤𝑡≤4
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
3. Shifting (Example 1)
𝑡+4 −4 ≤𝑡 ≤0
Graphical Solution Given 𝑥 𝑡 =
4 0≤𝑡≤2
X(t) X(t+1)
4 4

t t
-4 2
-5 -1 1
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
3. Shifting (Example 1)
𝑡+4 −4 ≤𝑡 ≤0
Graphical Solution Given 𝑥 𝑡 =
4 0≤𝑡≤2
X(t) X(t-2)
4 4

t t
-4 2
-2 2 4
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
3. Shifting (Example 2)
Given 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛 + 2 − 3 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 3, find 𝑥[𝑛 + 2] and 𝑥[𝑛 − 1]

Graphical Solution
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
3. Shifting (Example 2)
Given 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛 + 2 − 3 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 3, find 𝑥[𝑛 + 2] and 𝑥[𝑛 − 1]

Graphical Solution
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
3. Shifting (Important Remark)
Given 𝑥 𝑛 , how can we graphically find 𝑥 −𝑛 + 2 ?

Advancing the signal 𝒙[𝒏] we get 𝒙[𝒏 + 𝟐]. Then reversing the signal 𝒙[𝒏 + 𝟐]
we get 𝒙 −𝒏 + 𝟐 . This will be write.

Reversing the signal 𝒙[𝒏] we get 𝒙[−𝒏]. Then advancing the signal 𝒙[−𝒏] we
get 𝒙 − 𝒏 + 𝟐 = 𝒙[−𝒏 − 𝟐]. This will be wrong.

Reversing the signal 𝒙[𝒏] we get 𝒙[−𝒏]. Then delaying the signal 𝒙[−𝒏] we get
𝒙 − 𝒏 − 𝟐 = 𝒙[−𝒏 + 𝟐]. This will be write.

This remark is also applicable to 𝒙(𝒕).

 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
4. Linear Scale Change

 Assume that 𝑥 𝑡 is a continuous signal.

 Then 𝑥(𝑎 𝑡) is the contraction of 𝑥 𝑡 if 𝑎 > 1.

 Also, 𝑥(𝑎 𝑡) is the expansion of 𝑥 𝑡 if 0 < 𝑎 < 1.

 The previous statements are also applied to the

discrete signal 𝑥[𝑛].
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
4. Linear Scale Change (Example 1)
𝑡+4 −4 ≤𝑡 ≤0
Given 𝑥 𝑡 = , find 𝑥(2𝑡) and 𝑥(0.5 𝑡) .
4 0≤𝑡≤2
Analytical Solution
2𝑡 +4 −4 ≤2𝑡 ≤0 The time of 𝒙(𝒕) starts at -4
𝑥 2𝑡 = and ends at 2. It lasts for 6
4 0≤2𝑡 ≤2 units.

2𝑡+4 −2 ≤𝑡 ≤0 However, the time of 𝒙(𝟐 𝒕)

𝑥(2 𝑡) = starts at -2 and ends at 1. It
4 0≤𝑡≤1 lasts for 3 units.

Therefore, 𝒙(𝟐 𝒕) is the contraction or speed up version of

𝒙(𝒕) .
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
4. Linear Scale Change (Example 1)
𝑡+4 −4 ≤𝑡 ≤0
Given 𝑥 𝑡 = , find 𝑥(2𝑡) and 𝑥(0.5 𝑡) .
4 0≤𝑡≤2
Analytical Solution
0.5 𝑡 + 4 − 4 ≤ 0.5 𝑡 ≤ 0 The time of 𝒙(𝒕) starts at -4
𝑥 0.5 𝑡 = and ends at 2. It lasts for 6
4 0 ≤ 0.5 𝑡 ≤ 2 units.

0.5 𝑡 + 4 −8 ≤𝑡 ≤0 However, the time of 𝒙(𝟎. 𝟓 𝒕)

𝑥(0.5 𝑡) = starts at -8 and ends at 4. It
4 0≤𝑡≤4 lasts for 12 units.

Therefore, 𝒙(𝟎. 𝟓 𝒕) is the expansion or slow down version of

𝒙(𝒕) .
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
4. Linear Scale Change (Example 1)

Analytical Solution
4

3.5

2.5

2 𝒙(𝟎. 𝟓 𝒕)
1.5
𝒙(𝒕) 𝒙(𝟐 𝒕)
1

0.5

0
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
4. Linear Scale Change (Example 1)
𝑡+4 −4 ≤𝑡 ≤0
Graphical Solution Given 𝑥 𝑡 =
4 0≤𝑡≤2
X(t) X(2 t)
4 4

t t
-4 2
-2 1
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
4. Linear Scale Change (Example 1)
𝑡+4 −4 ≤𝑡 ≤0
Graphical Solution Given 𝑥 𝑡 =
4 0≤𝑡≤2
X(t) X(0.5 t)
4 4

t t
-4 2
-8 4
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
4. Linear Scale Change (Example 2)
𝜋
Given 𝑥 𝑡 = sin( 𝑡), find 𝑥(2𝑡) and 𝑥(0.5 𝑡) .
4
𝜋 𝜋 The period of 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝟖 𝒔.
𝑥 2 𝑡 = sin 2𝑡 = sin( 𝑡)
4 2
The period of 𝒙 𝟐 𝒕 = 𝟒 𝒔.
𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 0.5 𝑡 = sin 0.5𝑡 = sin( 𝑡) The period of 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟔 𝒔.
4 8
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
4. Linear Scale Change (Example 3)
Given 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛 + 2 − 3 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 3, find 𝑥[2𝑛] and 𝑥[0.5𝑛]

Analytical Solution

𝑥 2𝑛 =2𝑛+2 −3 ≤2𝑛 ≤3

𝑥 2𝑛 =2𝑛+2 − 𝟏 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝟏, n should be integer

𝑥 0.5 𝑛 = 0.5 𝑛 + 2 − 3 ≤ 0.5 𝑛 ≤ 3

𝑥 0.5 𝑛 = 0.5 𝑛 + 2 −𝟔 ≤ 𝑛 ≤𝟔
 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
4. Linear Scale Change (Example 3)
Given 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛 + 2 − 3 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 3, find 𝑥[2𝑛] and 𝑥[0.5𝑛]

Graphical Solution

X[2n] 4

n
-1 0 1

Some details are disappeared.

 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
4. Linear Scale Change (Example 3)
Given 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛 + 2 − 3 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 3, find 𝑥[2𝑛] and 𝑥[0.5𝑛]

Graphical Solution X[0.5n]

5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
n
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-0.5
-1

Some details should appear.

 2. SIGNAL OPERATIONS
4. Linear Scale Change (Important Remark)
Given 𝑥 𝑛 , how can we graphically 𝑥 2𝑛 + 4 ?
Advancing the signal 𝒙[𝒏] we get 𝒙[𝒏 + 𝟒]. Then contracting the signal 𝒙[𝒏
+ 𝟒] by a factor of 2, we get 𝒙 𝟐𝒏 + 𝟒 . This will be write.

Contracting the signal 𝒙[𝒏], by a factor of 2, we get 𝒙[𝟐𝒏]. Then advancing the
signal 𝒙[𝟐𝒏] by 4, we get 𝒙 𝟐 𝒏 + 𝟒 = 𝒙[𝟐𝒏 + 𝟖]. This will be wrong.

Contracting the signal 𝒙[𝒏], by a factor of 2, we get 𝒙[𝟐𝒏]. Then advancing the
signal 𝒙[𝟐𝒏] by (4/2), we get 𝒙 𝟐 𝒏 + 𝟐 = 𝒙[𝟐𝒏 + 𝟒]. This will be write.

This remark is also applicable to 𝒙(𝒕).

 3. EVEN AND ODD SIGNALs
 The signal 𝑥 𝑡 is said to be even if and only if 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒙(−𝒕).
 For example 𝑥 𝑡 = 0.1 𝑡 2 + 1 , 𝑦 𝑡 = 0.5 𝑡 and
𝜋
𝑧 𝑡 = cos( 𝑡) are even signals.
2

X(t)

An even signal is
y(t) symmetrical around the
vertical axis.
Z(t)
 3. EVEN AND ODD SIGNALs
 The signal 𝑥 𝑡 is said to be odd if and only if 𝒙 𝒕 = −𝒙(−𝒕).
 For example 𝑥 𝑡 = 0.25 𝑡 , 𝑦 𝑡 = −0.02 ∗ 𝑡 3 and
𝜋
𝑧 𝑡 = sin( 𝑡) are odd signals.
2

X(t)
X(t)

An odd signal is
symmetrical around the
y(t) origin.

Z(t)
Z(t)
 3. EVEN AND ODD SIGNALs
 Any signal 𝑥 𝑡 can be expressed as 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑜𝑑𝑑 (𝑡).

 The even and odd parts of 𝑥 𝑡 can be calculated as follows

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑜𝑑𝑑 (𝑡) equation (1)

𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 −𝑡 + 𝑥𝑜𝑑𝑑 (−𝑡)
𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡 − 𝑥𝑜𝑑𝑑 (𝑡) equation (2)

From equations (1) and (2) we can get

𝒙 𝒕 +𝒙(−𝒕) 𝒙 𝒕 − 𝒙(−𝒕)
𝒙𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒕 = and 𝒙𝒐𝒅𝒅 𝒕 =
𝟐 𝟐
 3. EVEN AND ODD SIGNALs
Example

𝑡+4 −4 ≤𝑡 ≤0
Given 𝑥 𝑡 = , find 𝑥𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 (𝑡) and 𝑥𝑜𝑑𝑑 (𝑡)
4 0≤𝑡≤2
.Analytical Solution
−𝑡 + 4 4 ≥𝑡≥0
𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑦(𝑡) =
4 0 ≥ 𝑡 ≥ −2
X(t) starts at t=-4 and ends at t = 2 while X(-t) starts at t=-2 and
ends at t=4.

How can we add or subtract them?

 3. EVEN AND ODD SIGNALs
Example Analytical Solution ctd

𝒕+𝟒 𝟒
X(t)
intervals
-4 0 2

𝟒 -𝒕 + 𝟒
X(-t)
intervals
-2 0 4

𝟎. 𝟓𝒕 + 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟓𝒕 + 𝟒 −𝟎. 𝟓𝒕 + 𝟒 −𝟎. 𝟓𝒕 + 𝟐
Xeven
intervals
-4 -2 0 2 4
 3. EVEN AND ODD SIGNALs
Example Analytical Solution ctd

𝒕+𝟒 𝟒
X(t)
intervals
-4 0 2

𝟒 -𝒕 + 𝟒
X(-t)
intervals
-2 0 4

𝟎. 𝟓𝒕 + 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟓𝒕 𝟎. 𝟓𝒕 𝟎. 𝟓𝒕 − 𝟐
Xodd
intervals
-4 -2 0 2 4
 3. EVEN AND ODD SIGNALs
Example Graphical Solution

X(t)
4

-4 2 t

xeven
X(-t)
4
t
-2 4
 3. EVEN AND ODD SIGNALs
Example Graphical Solution

X(t)
4
xodd
-4 2 t

X(-t)
4
t
-2 4
 4. PERIODIC SIGNALs
 A signal 𝑥 𝑡 is said to be periodic of period “T” if and only if
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇). “T” is a real number.

 A signal 𝑥[𝑛] is said to be periodic of period “N” if and only if

𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 + 𝑁]. “N” is an integer number.

 Examples of continuous periodic signals are sine, square,

triangular and saw tooth.

Given 𝑥 𝑡 = sin(𝜔 𝑡), then 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇 = sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜔𝑇).

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇) if 𝜔 𝑇 = 2 𝑛 𝜋, 𝑛 = 1,2 , … . .
𝟐𝝅
The minimum period is 𝑻 =
𝝎
 4. PERIODIC SIGNALs
Important notes
 If a continuous signal 𝑥 𝑡 is periodic, its corresponding
discrete signal 𝑥[𝑛] may not be periodic.

𝟐𝝅
If 𝑥 𝑡 = sin(𝜔 𝑡) , then its period is 𝑻 = for any value of 𝝎
𝝎
𝟐𝝅
If 𝑥 𝑛 = sin [ 𝜔 𝑛], then its period is N = for those values of
𝝎
𝝎 that make 𝑵 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒆𝒓.

 The continuous (discrete) constant signal is periodic with any

value of T (N).
If 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐 = 𝑐 𝑡 0 , then 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝑐 (𝑡 + 𝑇)0 .
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇) whatever the value of T.
 4. PERIODIC SIGNALs
Important notes
 If 𝑥1 𝑡 is periodic of period 𝑇1 and 𝑥2 𝑡 is periodic of period
𝑻𝟏 𝒂
𝑇2 , then y t = 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡 is periodic if and only if =
𝑻𝟐 𝒃
where 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔.
 The period of 𝑦(𝑡) is 𝑻 = 𝒂 𝑻𝟐 = 𝒃 𝑻𝟏 .

For example 𝑥1 𝑡 = sin(2𝜋𝑡) has a period of 𝑇1 = 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.

2
𝑥2 𝑡 = 0.5 sin(3𝜋𝑡) has a period of 𝑇2 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.
3
𝑻𝟏 𝟑
=
𝑻𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
The period of 𝑦(𝑡) is 𝑻 = 𝟑 = 𝟐 ∗ 𝟏.
𝟑
The time of 2 cycles of 𝒙𝟏 𝒕 = the time of 3 cycles of 𝒙𝟐 𝒕
 4. PERIODIC SIGNALs
Important notes
𝒙𝟏 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒕)

𝒙𝟐 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟑𝝅𝒕)

𝐲 𝒕 = 𝒙 𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒕
 4. PERIODIC SIGNALs
Important notes
Another example 𝑥1 𝑡 = sin(2𝜋𝑡) has a period of 𝑇1 = 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.
2
𝑥2 𝑡 = 0.5 sin( 3𝜋𝑡) has a period of 𝑇2 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.
3
𝑻𝟏 𝟑
=
𝑻𝟐 𝟐
𝑻𝟏
Therefore is not a rational number.
𝑻𝟐

The time of complete cycles of 𝒙𝟏 𝒕 will not equal to the time of

complete cycles of 𝒙𝟐 𝒕 .

This means that 𝐲 𝒕 = 𝒙𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒕 is not periodic.

 4. PERIODIC SIGNALs
Important notes
𝒙𝟏 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝝅𝒕)

𝒙𝟐 𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝟑𝝅𝒕)

𝐲 𝒕 = 𝒙𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒕
 5. BASIC SIGNALS
1. Complex Exponential

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎+𝑗𝑏 𝑡

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑒 𝑗𝑏𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 (cos 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑗 sin 𝑏𝑡 )

The magnitude of 𝑥(𝑡) is 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 . Its angle is 𝑏𝑡. 𝑥(𝑡) is a vector.

𝑥(𝑡) rotates clockwise or counter clock wise depending on the

non-zero value of “b”.

𝑥(𝑡) has either an increasing or a decreasing magnitude

depending on the non-zero value of “a”.

What is the case if either “a” or “b” equals zero?

 5. BASIC SIGNALS
2. Unit Step Signal

𝑢 𝑡
1 𝑡 ≥0
𝑢 𝑡 =
0 𝑡<0

𝑢 −𝑡
𝑢 𝑡+2
 5. BASIC SIGNALS
2. Unit Step Signal

1 𝑛 ≥0
𝑢[𝑛] = 𝑢[𝑛]
0 𝑛<0

𝑢[−𝑛 − 1]

𝑢[𝑛 − 2]
 5. BASIC SIGNALS
3. Unit Impulse Signal

1 𝑡=0 𝛿 𝑡
𝛿 𝑡 =
0 𝑡≠0
𝜹 −𝒕 = 𝜹(𝒕)

𝛿 −𝑡 + 1 𝛿 𝑡−2
 5. BASIC SIGNALS
3. Unit Impulse Signal
𝛿[𝑛]
1 𝑛=0
𝛿[𝑛] =
0 𝑛≠0
𝜹[−𝒏] = 𝜹[𝒏]

𝛿[𝑛 + 2]
𝛿[−𝑛 − 1]
 5. BASIC SIGNALS
4. Relation Between Unit Step and Unit Impulse Signal
𝑛

𝑢𝑛 = 𝛿[𝑘]
𝑘=−∞

𝛿[𝑛] 𝑢[𝑛]

𝑡
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
 5. BASIC SIGNALS
4. Relation Between Unit Step and Unit Impulse Signal
𝛿 𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 − 𝑢[𝑛 − 1]

𝑢[𝑛] 𝑢[𝑛 − 1]

𝑑
𝛿 𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
 5. BASIC SIGNALS
4. Relation Between Unit Step and Unit Impulse Signal
𝑑
𝛿 𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
1 1
∆

𝑡 𝑡
−∆ ∆ −∆ ∆
2 2 2 2
𝑑𝑓(𝑡)
As ∆ → 0, 𝑓 𝑡 → 𝑢 𝑡 and = 𝛿(𝑡).
𝑑𝑡
 5. BASIC SIGNALS
5. Important Notes 𝑥(𝑡)
a) 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 + 4 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 3)
1

𝑢[𝑛]
𝑡

-4 3

b) 𝑢 𝑛 = 𝛿 𝑛 + 𝛿 𝑛 − 1 + 𝛿 𝑛 − 2 + ⋯
∞

𝒖𝒏 = 𝜹[𝒏 − 𝒌]
𝒌=𝟎
 5. BASIC SIGNALS
5. Important Notes

We can generalize

𝑢 𝑛 =𝛿 𝑛 +𝛿 𝑛−1 + 𝛿 𝑛−2 +⋯

𝑥 𝑛 =𝑥 0 𝛿 𝑛−0 +𝑥 1 𝛿 𝑛−1 +𝑥 2 𝛿 𝑛−2

+𝑥 3 𝛿 𝑛 − 3 + ⋯
∞
∞
𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒌 𝜹[𝒏 − 𝒌] 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒙 𝝉 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝝉 𝒅𝝉
𝒌=−∞ −∞
 5. BASIC SIGNALS
5. Important Notes

c) What is the difference between 𝑥 𝑡 = sin(𝜔 𝑡), 𝑦 𝑡

= sin 𝜔 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡), and 𝑧 𝑡 = sin 𝜔 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 1 ?
The domain of 𝒙 𝒕 is −∞ < 𝒕 < ∞.

𝒙 𝒕 𝟎≤𝒕<∞
𝐲 𝒕 =
𝟎 −∞<𝒕<𝟎
𝒛 𝒕 has one value at t=1. This value is 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎).
∞
d) sin 𝜔 𝑡 𝑘=−∞ 𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑘] is the discrete version of
sin 𝜔 𝑡 .
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
1. Memory
If the output of a system at every value of the
independent variable is dependent only on the input at
the same time, the system is memory less.
𝑣(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡)
Resistance 𝑖 𝑡 =
𝑅

𝑣(𝑡) 𝑣0 (𝑡)
Amplifier 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑣(𝑡)

Rectifiers are also memory less systems.

 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
1. Memory

𝑣(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡) 1
Inductor 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿

The inductor is not memory less system. It has memory.

Its output depends on the previous values of input.

𝑣(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑡 + ℎ − 𝑣(𝑡)

capacitor 𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶 ≈𝐶
𝑑𝑡 ℎ

The capacitor is a memory system because its output at ‘t’ does

not depend only on its input at the same time instant
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
1. Memory

𝑥[𝑛] 𝑦[n]
Digital system

𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑥[𝑛] 2
memory less system.

𝑦 𝑛 + 𝑦[𝑛 − 1] = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑥[𝑛] 2
memory system.

𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑏 𝑥[𝑛 + 1] 2 memory system.

 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
2. Causality
A system is causal if the output at any time depends only
on values of input at present time and its past.
𝑣(𝑡)
Resistors are causal systems. 𝑖 𝑡 =
𝑅
Amplifiers are causal systems. 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑣(𝑡)

Rectifiers are causal systems.

1
Inductors are causal systems. 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
2. Causality

𝑣(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑡 + ℎ − 𝑣(𝑡)

capacitor 𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶 ≈𝐶
𝑑𝑡 ℎ
If we represent the derivative term as shown, the capacitor will
not be causal system because its output at ‘t’ depends on the
incoming instant ‘t+h’.

𝑣(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑣(𝑡 − ℎ)

capacitor
𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶 ≈𝐶
𝑑𝑡 ℎ
If we represent the derivative term as shown, the capacitor will be
causal system because its output at ‘t’ depends on the instant ‘t’
and the previous instant ‘t - h’.
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
2. Causality
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑎 𝑥(𝑡) Causal system.

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑎 𝑥(𝑡) Causal system.

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑎 𝑥 (𝑡) Non Causal system.

2
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑥[𝑛] Causal system.

𝑦 𝑛 + 𝑦[𝑛 − 1] = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑥[𝑛] 2
Causal system.

𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑏 𝑥[𝑛 + 1] 2 Non Causal system.

 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
3. Time Invariance
A system is Time-Invariant if a time shift in the input
causes a time shift in the output.

𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )

ℎ(𝑡) ℎ(𝑡)

This means that the performance of the Time-Invariant

system does not depend on the time at which the input
is applied to the system.
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
3. Time Invariance

Resistors are Time-Invariant (TI) systems.

Whenever the input is applied, the output exists.

How can we mathematically proof the TI property?

Assume an input 𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑣(𝑡), then the corresponding

𝑣1 (𝑡)
output 𝑖1 (𝑡) will be 𝑖1 𝑡 = .
𝑅

Assume an input 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑣(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) , then the

𝑣2 (𝑡)
corresponding output 𝑖2 (𝑡) will be 𝑖2 𝑡 = .
𝑅
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
3. Time Invariance
𝑣(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡−𝑡0 )
Now, we have 𝑖1 𝑡 = and 𝑖2 𝑡 = .
𝑅 𝑅

The system is TI if and only if 𝑖2 𝑡 = 𝑖1 (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ).

So we have to get 𝑖1 (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ).

𝑣(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
Obviously, 𝑖1 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = .
𝑅

Therefore, a resistor is a TI system.

 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
3. Time Invariance

Example 1 : Check the TI property for an inductor.

𝑣(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡) 1
Inductor 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿

Assume an input 𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑣(𝑡), then the corresponding

1
output 𝑖1 (𝑡) will be 𝑖1 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 .
𝐿

Assume an input 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑣(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) , then the

1
corresponding output 𝑖2 (𝑡) will be 𝑖2 𝑡 = 𝑣 (𝑡
𝐿
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
3. Time Invariance

The system is TI if and only if 𝑖2 𝑡 = 𝑖1 (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ).

So we have to get 𝑖1 (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ).
1
Since 𝑖1 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ,
𝐿
1
then 𝑖1 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡.
𝐿

1
But 𝑖2 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
Therefore, the inductor is TI system.
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
3. Time Invariance

Example 2 : Check the TI property for the system given

by 𝑦 𝑡 = sin(𝑥 𝑡 ).
Assume an input 𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡), then the corresponding
output 𝑦1 (𝑡) will be 𝑦1 𝑡 = sin 𝑥1 𝑡 = sin( 𝑥 𝑡 ) .

Assume an input 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) , then the

corresponding output 𝑦2 (𝑡) will be 𝑦2 𝑡 = sin 𝑥2 𝑡
= sin( 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) .
𝑦1 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = sin 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝒚𝟐 (𝒕) .
Therefore, the system is TI.
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
3. Time Invariance

Example 3 : Check the TI property for the system given

by 𝑦 𝑡 = t 𝑥 𝑡 .
Assume an input 𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡), then the corresponding
output 𝑦1 (𝑡) will be 𝑦1 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑥(𝑡) .

Assume an input 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) , then the

corresponding output 𝑦2 (𝑡) will be 𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑥2 𝑡
= 𝑡 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) .
𝑦1 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) ≠ 𝒚𝟐 (𝒕) .
Therefore, the system is Time Variant (TV).
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
4. Linearity
A Linear system possesses the property of superposition.

𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑦1 (𝑡) 𝑥2 (𝑡) 𝑦2 (𝑡)

ℎ(𝑡) ℎ(𝑡)

𝑥3 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑥2 (𝑡) 𝑦3 (𝑡)
ℎ(𝑡)

If 𝒚𝟑 𝒕 = 𝒂 𝒚𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒃 𝒚𝟐 𝒕 , then the system is Linear.

 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
4. Linearity
Example 1 : check the linearity of a resistor.
Assume an input 𝑣1 𝑡 , then the corresponding output
𝑣1 (𝑡)
𝑖1 (𝑡) will be 𝑖1 𝑡 = .
𝑅

Assume an input 𝑣2 𝑡 , then the corresponding output

𝑣2 (𝑡)
𝑖2 (𝑡) will be 𝑖2 𝑡 = .
𝑅

Assume an input 𝑣3 𝑡 , then the corresponding output

𝑣3 (𝑡)
𝑖3 (𝑡) will be 𝑖3 𝑡 = .
𝑅
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
4. Linearity
Example 1 : check the linearity of a resistor.
𝑣1 (𝑡) 𝑣2 (𝑡)
Now 𝑎 𝑖1 𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑖2 𝑡 = 𝑎 +𝑏 .
𝑅 𝑅

When 𝑣3 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑣1 𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑣2 (𝑡) , then the

𝑣3 (𝑡)
corresponding output 𝑖3 (𝑡) will be 𝑖3 𝑡 =
𝑅
𝑎 𝑣1 𝑡 +𝑏 𝑣2 (𝑡)
= .
𝑅

Since 𝒊𝟑 𝒕 = 𝒂 𝒊𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒃 𝒊𝟐 (𝒕) , then the system is

Linear.
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
4. Linearity
Example 2 : check the linearity of an inductor with and without zero
initial condition.
Assume an input 𝑣1 𝑡 , then the corresponding output
1
𝑖1 (𝑡) will be 𝑖1 𝑡 = 𝑣1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖(0)
𝐿

Assume an input 𝑣2 𝑡 , then the corresponding output

1
𝑖2 (𝑡) will be 𝑖2 𝑡 = 𝑣2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖(0)
𝐿

Assume an input 𝑣3 𝑡 , then the corresponding output

1
𝑖3 (𝑡) will be 𝑖3 𝑡 = 𝑣3 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖(0)
𝐿
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
4. Linearity
Example 2 : check the linearity of an inductor with and without zero
initial condition.
1
Now 𝑎 𝑖1 𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑖2 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑣1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑖 0
𝐿
1
+𝑏 𝑣2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑖(0).
𝐿

When 𝑣3 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑣1 𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑣2 (𝑡) , then the

1
corresponding output 𝑖3 (𝑡) will be 𝑖3 𝑡 = 𝑣3 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
1
+𝑖 0 = [𝑎 𝑣1 𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑣2 𝑡 ] dt + 𝑖(0) .
𝐿
Since 𝒊𝟑 𝒕 ≠ 𝒂 𝒊𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒃 𝒊𝟐 (𝒕), then the system is Non
Linear.
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
4. Linearity
Example 2 : check the linearity of an inductor with and without zero
initial condition.
1 1
𝑎 𝑖1 𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑖2 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑣1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑖 0 + 𝑏 𝑣2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 𝐿
+ 𝑏 𝑖(0).
1 1
𝑖3 𝑡 = 𝑣3 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 0 = [𝑎 𝑣1 𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑣2 𝑡 ] dt + 𝑖(0)
𝐿 𝐿
Notice that
 The system is linear if its initial condition is zero.

 Also, it is linear as far as the variations from its initial

conditions are considered (incrementally Linear)
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
4. Linearity
Example 3 : check the linearity of a half wave rectifier.

Assume an input 𝑥1 𝑡 = α 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 < 0, Output

then the corresponding output 𝑦1 (𝑡) will be
𝑦1 𝑡 = 0.

Assume an input 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝛽 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛽 > 0,

then the corresponding output 𝑦2 (𝑡) will be
𝑦2 𝑡 = 𝛽. Input

Assume an input 𝑥3 𝑡 = 𝑎 𝛼 + 𝑏 𝛽 , then the

corresponding output 𝑦3 (𝑡) will be 𝑦3 𝑡
0 𝑥3 < 0
= ≠ 𝒂 𝟎 + 𝒃 𝜷.
𝑎𝛼+𝑏𝛽 𝑥3 > 0
Therefore the system is Non Linear.
 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
4. Linearity
Example 4 : check the linearity of the shown system.

𝑽𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑬 − 𝑬 − 𝑽𝒄 𝒕𝟎 𝒆−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉

𝑽𝒄𝟏 𝒕 = 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑽𝒄 𝒕𝟎 𝒆−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉

𝑽𝒄𝟐 𝒕 = 𝑬𝟐 − 𝑬𝟐 − 𝑽𝒄 𝒕𝟎 𝒆−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉

𝑽𝒄𝟑 𝒕 = (𝑬𝟏 + 𝑬𝟐 ) − (𝑬𝟏 + 𝑬𝟐 ) − 𝑽𝒄 𝒕𝟎 𝒆−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉

𝑽𝒄𝟑 𝒕 ≠ 𝑽𝒄𝟏 𝒕 + 𝑽𝒄𝟐 𝒕 Non Linear

 6. SYSTEM PROPERTIES
4. Linearity
If we consider the change from the initial condition
𝑽𝒄 𝒕 − 𝑽𝒄 𝒕𝟎 = 𝑬 − 𝑽 𝒄 𝒕𝟎 − 𝑬 − 𝑽 𝒄 𝒕𝟎 𝒆−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉

𝑫𝑽𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑫𝑬 − 𝑫𝑬 𝒆−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉

𝑫𝑽𝒄𝟏 𝒕 = 𝑫𝑬𝟏 − 𝑫𝑬𝟏 𝒆−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉

𝑫𝑽𝒄𝟐 𝒕 = 𝑫𝑬𝟐 − 𝑫𝑬𝟐 𝒆−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉

𝑫𝑽𝒄𝟑 𝒕 = (𝑫𝑬𝟏 + 𝑫𝑬𝟐 ) − (𝑫𝑬𝟏 + 𝑫𝑬𝟐 ) 𝒆−(𝒕 − 𝒕𝟎 ) 𝝉

𝑽𝒄𝟑 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒄𝟏 𝒕 + 𝑽𝒄𝟐 𝒕 Linear

 7. LTI SYSTEMS
1. Convolution Sum
It is required to get a relation between the output and the input of
any LTI system.
𝑥[𝑛] Discrete System 𝑦[𝑛]
This will be as follows
ℎ[𝑛]

𝛿[𝑛] Discrete System ℎ[𝑛]

Definition of 𝒉[𝒏]
ℎ[𝑛]

𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑎] Discrete System ℎ[𝑛 − 𝑎]

ℎ[𝑛]
Time invariance property of 𝒉[𝒏]
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
1. Convolution Sum

𝑎 𝛿[𝑛] Discrete system 𝑎 ℎ[𝑛]

ℎ[𝑛]
Linearity property of 𝒉[𝒏]

𝒙 𝒏 =𝒙 𝟎 𝜹 𝒏−𝟎 𝒚 𝒏 =𝒙 𝟎 𝒉 𝒏−𝟎
+𝒙 𝟏 𝜹 𝒏−𝟏 +𝒙 𝟏 𝒉 𝒏−𝟏
+ 𝒙 𝟐 𝜹[𝒏 + 𝒙 𝟐 𝒉[𝒏
LTI
ℎ[𝑛]
𝒙𝒏 𝒚𝒏
∞ ∞

= 𝒙 𝒌 𝜹[𝒏 − 𝒌] = 𝒙 𝒌 𝒉[𝒏 − 𝒌]
𝒌=𝟎 𝒌=𝟎
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
1. Convolution Sum
∞

𝒚𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒌 𝒉[𝒏 − 𝒌] CONVOLUTION SUM LAW

𝒌=𝟎
∞

𝒚𝟎 = 𝒙 𝒌 𝒉[𝟎 − 𝒌]
𝒌=𝟎

To get 𝑦 0

1) Reflect ℎ[𝑘] (system impulse response)

2) Multiply the reflection by 𝑥[𝑘] (system input)
3) Sum the multiplication results.
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
1. Convolution Sum
∞

𝒚𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒌 𝒉[𝒏 − 𝒌] CONVOLUTION SUM LAW

𝒌=𝟎
∞

𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙 𝒌 𝒉[𝟏 − 𝒌]
𝒌=𝟎 Repeat these steps at every
instant of the output.
To get 𝑦 1

1) Reflect ℎ[𝑘] (system impulse response)

2) Shift the reflection by 1
3) Multiply the shifted reflection by 𝑥[𝑘] (system input)
4) Sum the multiplication results.
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
1. Convolution Sum (Example)
Find the output of the shown discrete system when its input is a
unit step.
ℎ[−𝑘]
1
ℎ[𝑛] 0.5
1 𝑘
−3 −2 −1
0.5 𝑥[𝑘]
𝑛 1
1 2 3
The output has no values when n < 0. 𝑘
𝒚 𝟎 =𝟏∗𝟏=𝟏 1 2 3 4
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
1. Convolution Sum (Example)
ℎ[1 − 𝑘]
1
𝒚 𝟏 =𝟏∗𝟏+𝟏∗𝟏=𝟐
0.5
𝑘
−2 −1 1
𝒚 𝟐 = 𝟏 ∗ 𝟏 + 𝟏 ∗ 𝟏 + 𝟏 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝑥[𝑘]
1
𝒚 𝟑 = 𝟏 ∗ 𝟏 + 𝟏 ∗ 𝟏 + 𝟏 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟓 + 𝟏 ∗ 𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟑
𝑘
𝒚𝒏 =𝟑 ∀𝒏>𝟑 1 2 3 4
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
2. Convolution Integral
∞

𝒚𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒌 𝒉[𝒏 − 𝒌] CONVOLUTION SUM LAW

𝒌=𝟎
∞
𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒙 𝝉 𝒉 𝒕 − 𝝉 𝒅𝝉 CONVOLUTION INTEGRAL LAW
𝟎

To get the output at any instant “t” (𝑦(𝑡))

1) Reflect ℎ(𝜏) (system impulse response)

2) Shift the reflection by “t”
3) Integrate the multiplication of the shifted reflection and 𝑥(𝜏)
(system input) over the period of its existence.
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
2. Convolution Integral (Example 1)
Find the output of the system ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) when its input is a
unit step.
ℎ(−𝜏)
1

ℎ(𝑡)
𝜏
1
ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏)
𝑡 1

𝜏
𝑡
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
2. Convolution Integral (Example 1)
Find the output of the system ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) when its input is a
unit step.
ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏)
The output has no values when t < 0. 1

𝜏
𝒕 −(𝒕−𝝉) 𝑡
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝟎
𝒆 ∗ 𝟏 𝒅𝝉 𝑥(𝜏)
1
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝒕 𝒖 𝒕 ∀𝒕 ≥𝟎
𝜏
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
2. Convolution Integral (Example 2)
Find the output of the system ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 4) when its
input is 𝑥 𝑡 = ℎ(𝑡).
ℎ(−𝜏)
1

ℎ(𝑡)
𝜏
1 -4
ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏)
𝑡 1
4
𝜏
-4 + t 𝑡
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
2. Convolution Integral (Example 2)
Find the output of the system ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 4) when its
input is 𝑥 𝑡 = ℎ(𝑡).
ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏)
The output has no 1
values when t < 0.
𝜏
-4 + t 𝑡
𝑥(𝜏)
During the period 0 < t < 4
𝒕
1
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝟎
𝟏 ∗ 𝟏 𝒅𝝉
𝜏
𝒚 𝒕 =𝒕
4
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
2. Convolution Integral (Example 2)
Find the output of the system ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 4) when its
input is 𝑥 𝑡 = ℎ(𝑡).
ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏)
1
During the period 4 < t < 8

𝟒 𝜏
𝒚 𝒕 = −𝟒+𝒕
𝟏 ∗ 𝟏 𝒅𝝉 -4 + t 𝑡
𝑥(𝜏)
𝒚 𝒕 =𝟖 −𝒕 1

𝒚 𝒕 =𝟎 ∀𝒕>𝟖 𝜏
4
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
3. Convolution Properties
∞

𝒚𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒌 𝒉 𝒏 − 𝒌 = 𝒙 𝒏 ⊗ 𝒉[𝒏]
𝒌=𝟎
∞
𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒙 𝝉 𝒉 𝒕 − 𝝉 𝒅𝝉 = 𝒙 𝒕 ⊗ 𝒉(𝒕)
𝟎

Property 1 : Commutative

𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒏 ⊗ 𝒉[𝒏] = 𝒉 𝒏 ⊗ 𝒙[𝒏]

∞ ∞

𝒚𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒌 𝒉 𝒏−𝒌 = 𝒉 𝒌 𝒙 𝒏−𝒌
𝒌=𝟎 𝒌=𝟎
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
3. Convolution Properties
Property 1 : Commutative

𝑥[𝑛] 𝑦[𝑛] ℎ[𝑛] 𝑦[𝑛]

ℎ[𝑛] ≡ 𝑥[𝑛]

Property 2 : Associative

𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒏 ⊗ 𝒉𝟏 𝒏 ⊗ 𝒉𝟐 𝒏

= 𝒙 𝒏 ⊗ (𝒉𝟏 𝒏 ⊗ 𝒉𝟐 𝒏 )

= (𝒙 𝒏 ⊗ 𝒉𝟏 𝒏 ) ⊗ 𝒉𝟐 𝒏
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
3. Convolution Properties

Property 2 : Associative

𝑥[𝑛] 𝑦[𝑛] 𝑥[𝑛] 𝑦[𝑛]

ℎ1 [𝑛] ℎ2 [𝑛] ≡ ℎ1 [𝑛] ⊗ ℎ2 [𝑛]

𝑥[𝑛] 𝑦[𝑛] 𝑥 𝑛 ⊗ ℎ1 [𝑛] 𝑦[𝑛]

ℎ1 [𝑛] ℎ2 [𝑛] ≡ ℎ2 [𝑛]
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
3. Convolution Properties

Property 3 : Distributive

𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒏 ⊗ (𝒉𝟏 𝒏 + 𝒉𝟐 𝒏 )

= (𝒙 𝒏 ⊗ 𝒉𝟏 𝒏 ) + (𝒙[𝒏] ⊗ 𝒉𝟐 𝒏 )

𝑥[𝑛]
ℎ1 [𝑛]
𝑦[𝑛] 𝑥[𝑛] 𝑦[𝑛]
𝑥[𝑛]
Σ ≡ ℎ1 𝑛 + ℎ2 [𝑛]
ℎ2 [𝑛]
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
4. Convolution and Laplace Transform
∞
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦(𝑡)
𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒙 𝝉 𝒉 𝒕 − 𝝉 𝒅𝝉 ℎ(𝑡)
𝟎
∞
𝒀(𝑺) = 𝒚 𝒕 𝒆−𝑺𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝟎
∞

𝒀 𝑺 = 𝒙 𝝉 𝒉 𝒕 − 𝝉 𝒆−𝑺𝒕 𝒅𝝉 𝒅𝒕
𝟎
Let 𝒕𝟏 = 𝒕 − 𝝉 , We will integrate with respect to 𝒕𝟏 instead of t.
∞ ∞
𝒀 𝑺 = 𝒙 𝝉 𝒉(𝒕𝟏 ) 𝒆−𝒔(𝒕𝟏 +𝝉) 𝒅𝒕𝟏 𝒅𝝉
𝟎 −𝝉
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
4. Convolution and Laplace Transform
∞ ∞
𝒀 𝑺 = 𝒙 𝝉 𝒉(𝒕𝟏 ) 𝒆−𝒔(𝒕𝟏 +𝝉) 𝒅𝒕𝟏 𝒅𝝉
𝟎 −𝝉
∞ ∞
𝒀 𝑺 = 𝒙 𝝉 𝒆−𝒔𝝉 𝒉(𝒕𝟏 ) 𝒆−𝒔𝒕𝟏 𝒅𝒕𝟏 𝒅𝝉
𝟎 𝟎
∞ ∞
𝒀 𝑺 = 𝒙 𝝉 𝒆−𝒔𝝉 𝑯 𝑺 𝒅𝝉 = 𝑯(𝑺) 𝒙 𝝉 𝒆−𝒔𝝉 𝒅𝝉
𝟎 𝟎
𝒀 𝑺 = 𝑯 𝑺 𝑿(𝑺)

𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑋(𝑆) 𝑌(𝑆)

ℎ(𝑡) ≡ 𝐻(𝑆)
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
4. Convolution and Laplace Transform (Step Response)

𝛿(𝑡) ℎ(𝑡) 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑦(𝑡)

ℎ(𝑡) ℎ(𝑡)

∞
𝒚(𝒕) = 𝒖 𝒕 − 𝝉 𝒉 𝝉 𝒅𝝉 1 𝜏<𝑡
𝑢 𝑡 − 𝜏 =
𝟎 0 𝜏>𝑡
𝒕
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝟏 ∗ 𝒉 𝝉 𝒅𝝉
𝟎

The step response of any LTI system is the integration of its

impulse response
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
4. Convolution and Laplace Transform (Step Response)

Also, it can be proved that

𝑡 𝑡
𝑥1 (𝑡) ℎ(𝑡) 𝑦1 (𝑡)
0 0

𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑦1 (𝑡)
ℎ(𝑡)
𝑑𝑥1 𝑑𝑦1
𝑑𝑡 ℎ(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
4. Convolution and Laplace Transform (Frequency Response)

For any LTI we can prove that

𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝐵 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
ℎ(𝑡)

Where

𝑩
= 𝑯(𝑺) 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒋𝝎
𝑨

𝝋 = ∠𝑯 𝑺 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒋𝝎
 7. LTI SYSTEMS
4. Convolution and Laplace Transform (Frequency Response)

For example

Vc is the output and V is the input

𝟏
𝑽𝑪 (𝑺) 𝑺𝑪 𝟏
= 𝟏 = 𝑉𝑅
𝑽(𝑺) 𝑹+ 𝟏+𝑺𝑪𝑹
𝑺𝑪
𝑉C φ
Replace S by jω we get 𝑉

𝑽𝑪 𝟏
=
𝑽 𝟏 + 𝝎𝑪𝑹 𝟐 The same results are achieved using
the laws of electrical circuits as you
𝝋 = − tan−𝟏 𝝎𝑪𝑹 have leant in the previous year.
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
1. Definition
Given a discrete signal y[n] in the discrete-time domain, its Z-
transform to the Z-domain is given by
∞

𝒀(𝒁) = 𝒚 𝒌 𝒁−𝒌
𝒌=𝟎

Given a sampled-data signal y*(t) in the discrete-time domain, its

Z-transform to the Z-domain is given by
∞

𝒀(𝒁) = 𝒚(𝒌 𝑻) 𝒁−𝒌

𝒌=𝟎
Where T is the sampling period.
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
1. Definition
Y(t)

𝑦 𝑡 =2𝑡+1

𝒚∗ 𝒕
1

t
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Sampling y(t) with sampling period T = 0.1 second, we get y*(t) as
shown.
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
1. Definition
Y(t)

𝑦 𝑡 =2𝑡+1

𝒚∗ 𝒕
1

t
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
𝒚∗ 𝒕
= 𝒚 𝟎 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝟎 + 𝒚 𝟎. 𝟏 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟏 + 𝒚 𝟎. 𝟐 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟐
+ 𝒚 𝟎. 𝟑 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟑 + ⋯
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
1. Definition

𝒚∗ 𝒕
= 𝒚 𝟎 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝟎 + 𝒚 𝟎. 𝟏 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟏 + 𝒚 𝟎. 𝟐 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟐
+ 𝒚 𝟎. 𝟑 𝜹 𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟑 + ⋯
Since T= 0.1 seconds, we can write

𝒚∗ 𝒕
=𝒚 𝟎𝑻 𝜹 𝒕−𝟎𝑻 +𝒚 𝟏𝑻 𝜹 𝒕−𝟏𝑻 +𝒚 𝟐𝑻 𝜹 𝒕−𝟐𝑻
+𝒚 𝟑𝑻 𝜹 𝒕−𝟑𝑻 + …
∞ ∞
𝒚∗ 𝒕 = 𝒚 𝒌𝑻 𝜹(𝒕 − 𝒌𝑻) 𝒀∗ 𝑺 = 𝒚 𝒌𝑻 𝒆−𝒌𝑻𝑺
𝒌=𝟎 𝒌=𝟎

𝑳𝒆𝒕 𝒁 = 𝒆𝑻𝑺 𝒀 𝒁 = 𝒚 𝒌𝑻 𝒁−𝒌

𝒌=𝟎
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
2. Simple Examples

Example 1 : Find the Z-transform of 𝜹[𝒏]

𝜹(𝒁) = 𝜹 𝒌 𝒁−𝒌
𝒌=𝟎

𝜹 𝒌 = 𝟏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒌 = 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆

𝜹(𝒁) = 𝟏
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
2. Simple Examples
Example 2 : Find the Z-transform of 𝒖(𝒕)

First we have to sample 𝒖(𝒕) to get 𝒖∗ 𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝒖(𝒌𝑻)

𝒖 𝒌𝑻 = 𝟏 ∀ 𝒌 𝒂𝒏𝒅∀ 𝑻
∞ ∞

𝑼(𝒁) = 𝒖(𝒌𝑻) 𝒁−𝒌 𝑼(𝒁) = 𝒁−𝒌

𝒌=𝟎 𝒌=𝟎

𝑼 𝒁 = 𝟏 + 𝒁−𝟏 + 𝒁−𝟐 + …
𝟏 𝒁
𝑼 𝒁 = −𝟏
=
𝟏−𝒁 𝒁−𝟏
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
2. Simple Examples
𝑡 0 ≤𝑡 ≤1
Example 3 : Find the Z-transform of 𝒚 𝒕 =
1 𝑡≥𝟏
when T = 0.5 seconds

First we have to sample 𝒚(𝒕) to get 𝒚∗ 𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝒚(𝒌𝑻)

∞
𝒌𝑻 0 ≤ 𝒌𝑻 ≤ 1 𝒀(𝒁) = 𝒚(𝒌𝑻) 𝒁−𝒌
𝒚 𝒌𝑻 =
1 𝒌𝑻 ≥ 𝟏 𝒌=𝟎

𝒀 𝒁 = 𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒁−𝟏 + 𝒁−𝟐 + 𝒁−𝟑 + 𝒁−𝟒 …

 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
2. Simple Examples
Example 3 :

𝒀 𝒁 = 𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒁−𝟏 + 𝒁−𝟐 + 𝒁−𝟑 + 𝒁−𝟒 …

Y(t)

t
0 T 2T 3T 4T
𝒁
𝒀 𝒁 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒁−𝟏 + 𝒁−𝟐
𝒁−𝟏
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
3. Z-Transform properties
Property 1 : Linearity

Ƶ 𝒂𝟏 𝒚𝟏 𝒌 𝑻 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒌 𝑻 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒀𝟏 (𝒁) + 𝒂𝟐 𝒀𝟐 (𝒁)

Property 2 : Delay with integer number of sampling periods

Ƶ 𝒚 𝒌𝑻−𝒎𝑻 = 𝒁−𝒎 𝒀(𝒁)

Property 3 : Advance with integer number of sampling periods

Ƶ 𝒚 𝒌𝑻+ 𝑻 = 𝒁 𝒀 𝒁 − 𝒁 𝒚(𝟎)

Ƶ 𝒚 𝒌𝑻+𝟐𝑻 = 𝒁𝟐 𝒀 𝒁 − 𝒁𝟐 𝒚 𝟎 − 𝒁 𝒚(𝑻)
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
3. Z-Transform properties

Ƶ 𝒚 𝒌𝑻+𝟑𝑻 = 𝒁𝟑 𝒀 𝒁 − 𝒁𝟑 𝒚 𝟎 − 𝒁𝟐 𝒚 𝑻 − 𝒁 𝒚(𝟐 𝑻)

In general

Ƶ 𝒚 𝒌𝑻+𝒎𝑻
= 𝒁𝒎 𝒀 𝒁 − 𝒁𝒎 𝒚 𝟎 − 𝒁𝒎−𝟏 𝒚 𝑻 − 𝒁𝒎−𝟐 𝒀 𝟐 𝑻
− ⋯ … … . . − 𝒁 𝒚((𝒎 − 𝟏) 𝑻)

𝒎−𝟏

Ƶ 𝒚 𝒌𝑻+𝒎𝑻 = 𝒁𝒎 𝒀 𝒁 − 𝒁𝒎−𝒊 𝒚(𝒊 𝑻)

𝒊=𝟎
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
3. Z-Transform properties
Property 4 : Frequency Shifting

This means multiplying the signal y(t) by 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 𝑡 and multiplying the

signal y[n] by 𝑎𝑛 .

Ƶ 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒌𝑻 𝒚 𝒌 𝑻 = 𝒀(𝒆−𝒋𝝎𝑻 𝒁)

𝒁
Ƶ 𝒂𝒏 𝒚[𝒏] = 𝒀
𝒂
We can use this property to get the Z-Transform of 𝑦 𝑡
= 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) as follows
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
3. Z-Transform properties

𝑍
The Z-Transform of 𝑢(𝑘𝑇) is 𝑈 𝑍 =
𝑍 −1

Now 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) and 𝑦 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑘𝑇 𝑢 𝑘𝑇

Recall Ƶ 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒌𝑻 𝒚 𝒌 𝑻 = 𝒀(𝒆−𝒋𝝎𝑻 𝒁)

Then Ƶ 𝒚 𝒌𝑻 = 𝒆−𝒂𝒌𝑻 𝒖 𝒌 𝑻 = 𝑼(𝒆𝒂𝑻 𝒁)

𝑒 𝑎𝑇 𝑍 𝑍
𝑌 𝑍 = 𝑎𝑇 =
𝑒 𝑍 −1 𝑍 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑇
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
3. Z-Transform properties
Property 5 : Multiplication by time

This means multiplying the signal y(t) by 𝑡 and multiplying the

signal y[n] by 𝑛.
𝒅 𝒀(𝒁)
Ƶ 𝒌𝑻𝒚 𝒌 𝑻 = −𝑻 𝒁
𝒅𝒁
𝒅 𝒀(𝒁)
Ƶ 𝒏 𝒚[𝒏] = −𝒁
𝒅𝒁
We can use this property to get the Z-Transform of 𝑦 𝑡
= 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) as follows
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
3. Z-Transform properties

𝑍
The Z-Transform of 𝑢(𝑘𝑇) is 𝑈 𝑍 =
𝑍 −1

Now 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) and 𝑦 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑢 𝑘𝑇

𝒅 𝒀(𝒁)
Recall Ƶ 𝒌𝑻𝒚 𝒌𝑻 = −𝑻 𝒁
𝒅𝒁

𝒅 𝑼(𝒁)
Then Ƶ 𝒚 𝒌𝑻 = 𝒌𝑻 𝒖 𝒌 𝑻 = −𝑻 𝒁
𝒅𝒁

𝑍−1 ∗1−𝑍 ∗1 𝑇𝑍
𝑌 𝑍 = −𝑇 𝑍 2
=
(𝑍 − 1) (𝑍 − 1)2
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
3. Z-Transform properties
Property 6 : Convolution

Ƶ 𝒚𝟏 𝒌 𝑻 ⊗ 𝒚𝟐 𝒌 𝑻 = 𝒀𝟏 𝒁 𝒀𝟐 (𝒁)

Property 7 : The initial value theorem

𝒚 𝟎 = lim 𝒀(𝒁)
𝒁→∞

Property 8 : The final value theorem

𝒚 ∞ = lim 𝒛 − 𝟏 𝒀(𝒁)
𝒁 →𝟏
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
4. Inverse Z-Transform
Z transform
Discrete time
Z domain
domain
Inverse Z transform

Method 1 : Long Division

𝑌 𝑍 = y 0 + y T 𝑍 −1 + 𝑦 2 𝑇 𝑍 −2 + 𝑦 3𝑇 𝑍 −3 + …

𝑁(𝑍)
So, given that 𝑌 𝑍 = , we can divide 𝑁(𝑍) by 𝐷(𝑍) to
𝐷(𝑍)
get 𝑦(0), 𝑦(𝑇), 𝑦(2𝑇) and so on
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
4. Inverse Z-Transform

Method 1 : Long Division (Example)

𝑍+1
Given that 𝑌 𝑍 = , find 𝑦 0 , 𝑦 𝑇 , 𝑦 2𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦(3𝑇)
𝑍2 + 1

Dividing 𝑍 + 1 by 𝑍2 + 1, we get

𝑍+1
𝑌 𝑍 = 2 = 𝑍 −1 + 𝑍 −2 − 𝑍 −3 − 𝑍 −4 + …
𝑍 + 1
Recall 𝑌 𝑍 = y 0 + y T 𝑍 −1 + 𝑦 2 𝑇 𝑍 −2 + 𝑦 3𝑇 𝑍 −3 + …

Therefore 𝑦 0 = 0 , 𝑦 𝑇 = 1, 𝑦 2𝑇 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 3𝑇 = −1
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
4. Inverse Z-Transform
Method 2 : Partial Fraction
Notice that using the properties of the Z transform, tables of the Z transform have been
prepared. These are similar to the Laplace transform tables.

So, we can use partial fraction and these tables to get the inverse Z transform of any
function. We, also, can solve the difference equations.
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
4. Inverse Z-Transform
Method 2 : Partial Fraction (Example 1)
𝑧 (𝑍+2)
Find 𝑦(𝑘𝑇) given that 𝑌 𝑍 = .
(𝑍−1)(𝑍−2)

𝑌(𝑍) (𝑍+2) 𝑌(𝑍) (𝑍+2) −3 4

= = = +
𝑍 (𝑍−1)(𝑍−2) 𝑍 (𝑍−1)(𝑍−2) 𝑍−1 𝑍−2

−3 𝑍 4𝑍
𝑌 𝑍 = +
𝑍−1 𝑍−2

𝑦 𝑘𝑇 = −3 𝑢 𝑘 + 4 2 𝑘
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
4. Inverse Z-Transform
Method 2 : Partial Fraction (Example 2)
(𝑍+1)
Find 𝑦(𝑘𝑇) given that 𝑌 𝑍 = .
(𝑍 −1)2 (𝑍+2)

𝑌(𝑍) (𝑍+1) 𝑌(𝑍) 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷

= = + + +
𝑍 𝑍 (𝑍 −1)2 (𝑍+2) 𝑍 𝑍 (𝑍 −1)2 𝑍−1 𝑍+2

𝐵𝑍 𝐶𝑍 𝐷𝑍
𝑌 𝑍 =𝐴+ + +
(𝑍 −1)2 𝑍−1 𝑍+2

𝐵 𝑘
𝑦 𝑘𝑇 = 𝐴 𝛿 𝑘 + 𝑘𝑇 + 𝐶 𝑢 𝑘 + 𝐷 −2
𝑇
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
4. Inverse Z-Transform
Method 2 : Partial Fraction (Example 3)
Given the difference equation of a second order discrete system as
follows
𝑦 𝑛 + 2 − 0.4 𝑦 𝑛 + 1 + 0.03 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 1 + 𝑥 𝑛
Find its discrete unit step response, given that 𝑦[0] = 0 and 𝑦[1]
= 1.
We can use the Z transform to get 𝒀(𝒛). Then we use the
inverse Z transform to get 𝒚[𝒌].

𝑍 2 𝑌 𝑍 − 𝑍 2 𝑦 0 − 𝑍 𝑦 1 − 0.4 𝑍 𝑌 𝑍 − 𝑍 𝑦 0
+ 0.03 𝑌 𝑍 = 𝑍 𝑈 𝑍 − 𝑍 𝑢 0 + 𝑈(𝑍)
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
4. Inverse Z-Transform
Method 2 : Partial Fraction (Example 3)
𝑍 2 𝑌 𝑍 − 𝑍 2 𝑦 0 − 𝑍 𝑦 1 − 0.4 𝑍 𝑌 𝑍 − 𝑍 𝑦 0
+ 0.03 𝑌 𝑍 = 𝑍 𝑈 𝑍 − 𝑍 𝑢 0 + 𝑈(𝑍)

𝑍 2 𝑌 𝑍 − 𝑍 − 0.4 𝑍 𝑌(𝑍) + 0.03 𝑌 𝑍 = 𝑍 𝑈 𝑍 − 𝑍 + 𝑈(𝑍)

(𝑍 2 −0.4 𝑍 + 0.03) 𝑌 𝑍 = (𝑍 + 1) 𝑈(𝑍)

𝑍
𝑍+1
𝑌 𝑍 = 2 𝑍−1
𝑍 − 0.4 𝑍 + 0.03
𝑌(𝑍) 𝑍+1
=
𝑍 𝑍 − 1 (𝑍 2 − 0.4 𝑍 + 0.03)
 8. THE Z-TRANSFORM
4. Inverse Z-Transform
Method 2 : Partial Fraction (Example 3)
𝑌(𝑍) 𝑍+1
=
𝑍 𝑍 − 1 (𝑍 2 − 0.4 𝑍 + 0.03)
𝑌(𝑍) 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑍 𝑍 − 1 𝑍 − 0.3 𝑍 − 0.1

𝐴𝑍 𝐵𝑍 𝐶𝑍
𝑌(𝑍) = + +
𝑍 − 1 𝑍 − 0.3 𝑍 − 0.1

𝒌 𝒌
𝒚 𝒌 = 𝑨 𝒖 𝒌 + 𝑩 𝟎. 𝟑 + 𝑪 𝟎. 𝟏
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