Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering

BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

LECTURE NOTES PART 2

FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE NEWTONIAN FLUIDS IN PIPES AND CHANNELS

A thorough understanding of the concepts and equations is necessary in order to solve problems
in the following chapters. When speaking of fluid flow, one often refers to the flow of an ideal
fluid. Such a fluid is presumed to have no viscosity. This is an idealised situation that does
not exist; however, there are instances in engineering problems where the assumption of an
ideal fluid is helpful. When referring to the flow of a real fluid, the effects of viscosity are
introduced into the problem. This results in the development of shear stresses between
neighbouring fluid particles when they are moving at different velocities. In the case of an ideal
fluid flowing in a straight conduit, all particles move in parallel lines with equal velocity. In the
flow of a real fluid the velocity adjacent to the wall will be zero; it will increase rapidly within
a short distance from the wall and produce a velocity profile. Flow may also be classified as
that of an incompressible or compressible fluid. Since liquids are relatively incompressible,
they are generally treated as wholly incompressible fluids.

In addition to the flow of different types of fluids, i.e., real, ideal, incompressible, and
compressible, there are various classifications of flow. Flow may be steady or unsteady with
respect to time. It may be laminar or turbulent, as discussed in the following section. Other
classifications of flow include rotational or irrotational, supercritical or subcritical, etc.

2.1.LAMINAR & TURBULENT FLOW

• Flow is laminar when adjacent fluid layers moving at approximately the same velocity
without the paths of individual fluid particles crossing or intersecting

• If adjacent layers move at different velocities, & paths of individual fluid particles do cross
and intersect each other then flow is turbulent.

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

It is important to know if flow laminar or turbulent in order to solve pipeline problems.

To find the Reynolds no:
ρDv
Re =
µ
Where:
Re = Reynolds Number [Dimensionless]
ρ = Density of the fluid [kg.m-3]
D = Pipe diameter [m]
v = Velocity of the fluid [m.s-2]
µ = Dynamic viscosity of fluid [kg.s-1.m-1] or [Ns.m-2]

But:
ν = µ/ρ
Where:
µ = Kinematic viscosity

then the Equation for the Reynolds Number becomes:

Dv
Re =
ν

For Re < 2000, The flow is laminar

for Re > 4000, the flow is turbulent
for 2000 < Re < 4000, flow is transitional (unpredictable)

STEADY FLOW AND UNIFORM FLOW

• Steady flow occurs if, at any point, the velocity of successive fluid particles is the same at
successive periods of time; but the conditions may vary from point to point.
• Uniform flow - velocity is constant in magnitude and direction at every point in the fluid
at a given time.
PATH LINES, STREAM LINES, STREAK LINES

• Path line: is the course or route traversed by a single particle over a period of time.
• Stream line: are imaginary curves drawn through a fluid to indicate the direct of motion in
various sections of the flow of the fluid system.

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

• Streak lines: dye or tracer injected into a flow shows the course or route taken by flowing
fluid.

VELOCITY AND FLOWRATE

• Two fundamental parameters used in dealing with fluids in motion.

• Regarding moving fluids, velocity not necessarily constant through out cross section.
• Velocity lesser near walls of conduit or channel bed because of resistance to flow by the
walls, and velocity greater away from them.
• Usually sufficient to use a mean velocity in fluid flow problems.
• Important to know ‘how much’ fluid is flowing = flowrate or discharge.
• Volume flowrate denoted by:
Q = vA
Where:
Q = volumetric flowrate.
A = cross-sectional area perpendicular to direction of flow.
v = velocity of flow.

2.2.EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
V2

A2
Vol

V1 A1

• Consider segment of conduit through which a fluid is flowing, if flow steady, mass within
segment will be constant at all times ⇒ net mass of fluid in = net mass fluid out: principle
of conservation of mass.
• Expressed in equation form:
◊ ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2
◊ This equation is applicable to all fluids (i.e. liquids & gases)
• If fluid incompressible, ρ = constant, ρ1 = ρ2 and ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2 reduces to:
◊ A1v1 = A2v2
This equation is very useful in solving liquid flow problems.

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

EXAMPLE 2.1.

When 1800  /min of fluid flow through a 0.3 m pipe which later reduces to a 0.15 m pipe,
calculate the average velocities in the 2 pipes?
Solution

[
Q [m 3 . s −1 ] = 1800 l min ×] [
1 min
60
]
s [ ]3
× 0.001 m l
-3 3
= 30×10 m /s
Q
V30 = A
30 × 10-3
=
πd 2
4
30 × 10-3
=
π(0.32 )
4
= 0.42 m/s

Q
V15 = A
30 × 10-3
=
πd 2
4
30 × 10-3
=
π(0.152 )
4
= 1.68 m/s

EXAMPLE 2.2

If the velocity in a 12 mm pipe is 0.5 m/s, what is the velocity in a 3 mm φ jet issuing from a
nozzle attached to the pipe?
1
2
Solution
A1v1 = A2v2
π( D12 ) v 1 π( D 221 ) v 2
= φ = 3mm
4 4
φ = 12mm
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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

(122)(0.5) = (32)v2
v2 = 8 m/s

EXAMPLE 2.3
a) What is meant by continuity, and under what conditions does it occur?
b) Oil flows through a pipe line as shown in the figure below which contracts from 450mm
diameter at A to 300mm diameter at B and then forks, one branch being 150mm diameter
discharging at C and the other branch 225mm diameter discharging at D. If the velocity at
A is 1.8 m/s and the velocity at D is 3.6 m/s, what will be the discharges at C and D and
the velocities at B and C?

C VC
DC
DAA
VA B

VB D
DB VD
Solution
DD
a) For continuity of flow in any system of fluid flow the total amount of fluid entering the
system must equal the amount leaving the system. This occurs in the case of uniform
flow and of steady flow.
b) In pipe AB if Q is the discharge at A then according to the law of continuity Q is the
discharge at B:
QA = QB
or
AAvA = ABvB

Where:
AA and AB = the cross-sectional areas at A and B.

Similarity, if QC and QD are the discharges at C and D then according to the law of
continuity:

QA = QC + QD
AAvA = ACvC + ADvD

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

If the continuity of flow relation did not apply fluid would have to be created or destroyed
within the system, otherwise the pipe-line would collapse or burst.

The continuity of flow relation is a version of a more general statement called mass
continuity with the density of the fluid held constant. This assumption is acceptable for most
liquid flows and for gas flows at low speeds, but compressible effects are important for high-
speed gases.
Discharge at A= QA
= 41 πDA2vA
= π × (0.450)2 × 1.8
1
4
= 0.287 m3/s
Discharge at C = QC
= 41 πDC2vC
= π(0.150)2 vC
1
4
= 0.0177 vC [m3/s]
Discharge at D = QD
= 41 πDD2vD
= 1
4 π (0.225)2 × 3.6
= 0.143 m3/s
But:
QA = QC + QD
∴ QC = QA - QD
= 0.287 - 0.143
= 0.144 m3/s

But we already stated that:

QA = QB
2
4 πDA vA =
1 1
4 πDB2vB
2
D 
vB = vA  A 
 DB 

( )
2
. 0.450 0.300
= 18
= 4.05 m/s
But:
QC = 0.144 m3 /s
Q
vC = 1 C 2
4
πDC

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

0144
.
=
π( 0150
. )
1 2
4
= 8.1 m/s

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

EXAMPLE 2.4
Establish whether fluid in the following systems will be in laminar or turbulent motion:
a) a liquid of viscosity = 6.30 × 10-3 kgm-1s-1, and density of 1170 kg m-3, flowing through a
pipe of 30.0 cm inside diameter at a rate of 150 000 barrels per day, and
b) oil of viscosity 5.29 × 103 kg m-1s-1, flowing through a pipeline of inside diameter 6.0 cm
at a rate of 0.32 kgs-1.
Data:
1 barrel = 0.142 m3
Solution
If Re < 2100, flow will be laminar. If Re > 4000, flow will be turbulent.

(a) 150000 × 0142

.
Volumetric flow rate = m3 s-1
24 × 3600

= 0.247 m3 s-1

The average velocity of fluid in the pipe:

QC
v= 2
πDC
1
4
0.247
v= 1 −2 2
4 π( 30 × 10 )

= 3.49 m s-1

Thus, Reynolds number:

ρDv
Re =
µ
1170 × 3.49 × (30.0 × 10-2 )
Re =
6.30 × 10-3
= 1.94 × 105
This is greater than 4000, thus flow is turbulent.

(b) Mass flow rate:

πD 2 vρ
G =
4

Rearrange:

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

4G
ρv =
πD 2

ρDv
But: Re =
µ
4G D
= 2 ⋅
πD µ
4G
=
πDµ

Substituting data:

4 × 0.32
Re =
π × (6 × 10-2 ) × 5.29 × 10-3
= 1280
This is less than 2100, so the flow is laminar.
Check the units for the Reynolds number for this equation that it is still dimensionless!

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

2.7. ENERGY EQUATION FOR STEADY FLOW OF INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

See page 9 - 17 of Holland and Bragg (2nd edition)
Total Energy
𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉 2
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑈𝑈 + 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 + 𝜌𝜌 + 2.7.1
2

For a fluid flowing from point 1 to point 2: q is the heat transferred to the fluid, Wi is the work
done on the fluid and Wo is the work done by the fluid on its surroundings then:
𝐸𝐸1 + 𝑊𝑊𝑖𝑖 + 𝑞𝑞 = 𝐸𝐸2 + 𝑊𝑊0 2.7.2.
Or rearranging

𝐸𝐸2 = 𝐸𝐸1 + 𝑊𝑊𝑖𝑖 + 𝑞𝑞 − 𝑊𝑊0 2.7.3.

If the fluid has constant density the U is constant if T is constant. If no heat transfer then q=0.

𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉22 𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉12

𝑧𝑧2 𝑔𝑔 + + = 𝑧𝑧1 𝑔𝑔 + + + 𝑊𝑊𝑖𝑖 − 𝑊𝑊0 2.7.4.
𝜌𝜌 2 𝜌𝜌 2
If flow is frictionless with no pump then:

𝑃𝑃2 𝑉𝑉22 𝑃𝑃1 𝑉𝑉12

𝑧𝑧2 𝑔𝑔 + + = 𝑧𝑧1 𝑔𝑔 + + 2.7.5.
𝜌𝜌 2 𝜌𝜌 2

and

𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉 2
𝑧𝑧 𝑔𝑔 + 𝜌𝜌
+ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2.7.6.
2

Equation 2.7.5. and 2.7.6. in either of these last two forms is known as Bernoulli’s theorem,
in honour of Daniel Bernoulli, who presented it in 1738. Note that Bernoulli’s theorem is for
a frictionless incompressible fluid. However, it can be applied to real incompressible fluids
with good results in situations where frictional effects area very small.

Divide eqn. 2.7.4. by g:

𝑷𝑷 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝑾𝑾𝒊𝒊 𝑾𝑾𝟎𝟎

𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 + 𝒈𝒈
− 𝒈𝒈
2.7.7.

In this form each has the dimension of length. The terms are z, P/ρg and v2/2g are potential,
pressure and velocity heads, respectively. Denoting the work as heads:

𝑷𝑷 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 + ∆𝒉𝒉 − 𝒉𝒉𝒇𝒇 2.7.8.

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

Where Δh is the head imparted to the fluid and hf is the head loss due to friction. The term Δh
is known as the total head of the pump. The term α is added to modify the Bernoulli equation
so that is can be applied across the full cross section of the pipe.α = ½ for laminar flow α = 1
for turbulent flow:

𝑷𝑷 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐∝
𝟐𝟐
= 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐∝
𝟏𝟏
+ ∆𝐡𝐡 − 𝐡𝐡𝒇𝒇 2.7.9

𝑷𝑷 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝑷 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
𝒛𝒛𝟐𝟐 + 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐∝
𝟐𝟐
= 𝒛𝒛𝟏𝟏 + 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐∝
𝟏𝟏
+ 𝐡𝐡𝒇𝒇 2.7.10.

EXAMPLE 2.5.
A fluid with density of 550 kg/m flow in a pipe at a rate of 2.0 m3/s. At point one where the
3

pipe diameter is 40 cm, the pressure is 305 kN/m2. Find the pressure at point 2 where the pipe
diameter is 60 cm. The second point is 0.5 m lower than the first point. Neglect head loss.

Solution

φ = 0,4m

0,5m φ = 0,6m
Q1 = V1A1
π
but A1= d12
4
π
= ( 0,4)2
4
= 0.12566m2
Q1
V1 =
A1
2.0m 3 / s
=
012566
. m2
= 15.92 m/s
But: A1V1 = A2V2

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

π
A2 = ( 0.6)2
4
= 0.2827m2
∴ (0.12566) (15.92) = (0.2827) V2
V2 = 7.076 m/s

P1 V2 P V3
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
ρg 2g ρg 2g

But z1 = 0 and z2 = -0,5

or:

z2 = 0 and z1 = + 0,5

305000 (15.92)2 P2 (7.076)2

+ + 0 = + - 0,5
(550)(9.81) 2(9.81) (550)(9.81) 2(9.81)
P2
56.5285 + 12.918 + 0.5 - 2.55 =
5395.5
67.3965
P2 =
5395.5
P2 = 0.01249 Pa

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

EXAMPLE 2.6.
A plastic tube of 50 mm diameter is used to siphon water from the large tank. If the pressure
on the outside of the tube is more than 30 kPa greater than the inside of the tube, the tube will
collapse and the siphon will stop. If viscous effects are negligible, determine the minimum
value of h allowed without the siphon stopping.

B
2m

4m
C

Solution h

Choose A as reference level.

ZA = 0 PA = 101 kPa vA = 0
ZB = 2 m PB = 101 kPa vB = vC
ZC = ? PC = 131 kPa
PB v B2 PC v 2C
ZB + + = ZC + +
ρg 2g ρg 2g
P P 
ZB +  B - C  = ZC
 ρg ρg 
30 × 103
2 - = ZC
1000 × 9.8
2 - 3.06 = ZC
ZC = - 1,0612 m
∴ h = 2,94 m

EXAMPLE 2.7.
Calculate the length of pipe L over which the pressure is reduced by half if the gravitational
acceleration g = 9.81 m/s2 The angle is 30° and the liquid density ρ = 1200 kg/m3 and the initial
pressure P1 = 200 000 N/m2
B

L
13

30°
C A
Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

Solution

Choose C as reference.
Bernoulli:
P v12 P v 22
Z1 + 1 + = Z2 + 2 + + hf
ρg 2gα ρg 2gα
Z1 = 0
Z2 = ?
P1 = 200 000 Pa
P2 = 100 000 Pa
v1 = v2
hf = 0
α=1
Substitute in Bernoulli’s equation and it then reduces to:
P - P2
Z2 = 1
ρg
100 000
=
1200 × 9.8
= 8,49 m

BC 8.49
Sin θ = =
L L
8.49
L = = 16.989 m ≈ 17 m
Sin 30°

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

EXAMPLE 2.8.
S

A reference level

125m

The pressure inside the pipe at S must not fall below 0.24 bar abs. Neglecting losses calculate
how high above water level A may point S be located?

Solution B

PA vA2 PS v S2 PB v B2
ZA + + = ZS + + = ZB + +
ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g

Use point A as reference point

vA = 0 (big tank) PA = 0 (open tank) ZA = 0 (reference level)
vS = vB PS = 0.24 bar× 105 Pa Z2 = ?
PB = 101 kPa ZB = - 1.25 m

PS P
∴ ZS + = ZB + B
ρg ρg

PB P
ZS = Z B + - S
ρg ρg

101 × 103 0.24 × 105

= - 1.25 + -
(1000)(9.8) (1000) 9.8
= -1.25 + 10.306 - 2.449
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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

= 6.6 m

EXAMPLE 2.9.
Water flows from A to B at a rate of 0.4 m3/s. The pressure head at A = 7 m. Consider no loss
of energy from A to B. Find the pressure head at B.

B
A
0,6m
0,3m

ZB = 15m
ZA = 10m

Solution

Bernoulli’s equation:

P1 v12 P v 22
Z1 + + = Z2 + 2 + + hf
ρg 2gα ρg 2gα

Assume turbulent flow α = 1

hf = 0
P1 P2
= 7m = unknown
ρg ρg
Q 0.4 0.4
v1 = = 1 2 = 1 = 5.66 m / s
AA ( 4 πd ) ( 4 π( 0.3) 2 )
Q 0.4
v2 = = 1 = 1.42 m / s
AB ( 4 π( 0.6)2 )

Z1 = 10 m Z2 = 15 m
Substitute all the values in the equation:

(5.66) 2 P (1.42) 2
10 + 7 + = 15 + 2 +
2(9.8) ρg 2(9.8)
P2
= 3.531 m
ρg

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

EXAMPLE 2.10
A horizontal air duct - reduces in cross sectional area from 0.75 m2 to 0.20 m2. Assuming no
losses, what pressure change will occur when 6 kg/s of air flows? Use ρ = 3.2 kg/m3 for pressure
and temperature conditions involved.

Solution

m 6 kg / s
Q = = = 1.88 m 3 / s
ρ 3.2 kg / m 3
Q 1.88 m 3 / s
v1 = = = 2.5 m / s
A1 0.75m 2
Q 1.88 m 3 / s
v2 = = = 9.40 m / s
A2 0.20m 2

hf = 0
Z1 = 0
Z2 = 0
α=1

Substitute all the values in the equation below:

P1 v12 P2 v 22
Z1 + + = Z2 + + + hf
ρg 2gα ρg 2gα
P1 (2.5) 2 P2 (9.4) 2
+ = +
ρg 2 (9.8) ρg 2(9.8)
P P
∴ 1 - 2 = 4.2 m air
ρg ρg
(P1 - P2) = (4.2)(3.2)(9.8)
∆P = 131.7 Pa

Check the units:

 kg m
m × × 2  = [ kg ⋅ m -1s -2 ] = [ Pa]
 m3 s 

The small pressure change justifies the assumption of constant density.

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2.8. ENERGY AND POWER CONSIDERATIONS IN FLUID FLOW

2.8.1. HEAD

P
= called pressure head - which represents the energy per unit weight stored
ρg
in the fluid by virtue of the rpessure under which the fluid exists.
Z = called elevation head - represents the potential energy per kg of fluid
V2
= called velocity head - represents the kinetic energy per kilogram of fluid
2g

If we add these together we get the total head which is denoted by H.

P V2
H = + Z + 2.8.1.1.
ρg 2g

Each term in this equation, although ordinarily expressed in meters, represents Newton meters
of energy per Newton of fluid flowing.

For a frictionless incompressible fluid with no machine between 1 and 2, H1 = H2, but for a real
fluid:

H1 = H2 + hL 2.8.1.2.

For a real fluid it is obvious that if there is no input of energy head hM by a machine between
sections 1 and 2, the total head must decrease in the direction of flow.
If there is a machine between sections 1 and 2, then

H1 + hM = H2 + hL 2.8.1.3.
If the machine is a pump, hM = hp, where hp is the energy head put into the flow by the pump.
If the machine is a turbine hM = - ht, where ht is the energy head extracted from the flow by the
turbine.
2.8.2. POWER

If the energy head is multiplied by the weight rate of flow, the resulting product represents
power, because:

energy energy
Power = = = H×G = HγQ 2.8.2.1
time weight
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BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

in metric units:

γQH
Kilowatts = 2.8.2.2.
1 000

Where:
γ = the unit weight of fluid, N/m3
Q = the rate of flow, m3/s
H = the energy head, m

In these equations H may be any head for which the corresponding power is desired. For
example, to find the power extracted from the flow by a turbine substitute h1 for H, to find the
V2
power of a jet substitute j 2g for H where Vj is the jet velocity, to find the power lost because
of fluid friction substitute hL for H.

With respect to power, it may be recalled from mechanics that the power developed when a
force F acts on a translating body, or when a torque T acts on a rotating body, is given by

Power = Fu = Tω 2.8.2.3.

Where:
u = linear velocity in meters per second
ω = angular velocity in radians per second
F = the force represents the component force in the direction of the velocity u.

2.9. CAVITATION
P V2
Bernoulli: + Z + = constant 2.9.1.
ρ 2g
If at a certain Pressure, the velocity head increases then there is a decrease in Pressure head.
For any liquid there is a minimum absolute Pressure possible namely the vapour Pressure.
Vapour Pressure depends on liquid and Temperature. If at conditions where absolute Pressure
< vapour Pressure then the assumptions on which the calculations are based are no longer valid.
The criteria for cavitation:
 Pcrit  P
  = v 2.9.2.
 γ  abs γ

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 Pcrit  Patm  Pcrit 

  = +  2.9.3.
 γ  abs γ  γ  gauge
Then it follows that:
 Pcrit  P p vap 
  = -  atm −  2.9.4.
 γ  gauge  γ γ 

Where:
Patm = Atmospheric pressure
pv = Vapour pressure
Pcrit = Critical or minimum possible pressure

⇒ Gauge Pressure head in a flowing liquid can be (-) but no more negative than
P p vap 
 atm −  2.9.5.
 γ γ 
If local velocity is so high that Pressure in liquid decrease to vapour Pressure then the liquid
will vaporise (boil) at that point and bubbles of vapour will form.

As fluid flows into region of higher Pressure - bubbles of vapour condense then collapse. This
action may produce very high dynamic Pressure upon adjacent solid walls. If this action is
continuous and has a high frequency then the material in that zone may be damaged (Pump
impellers, Turbine runners). The result is holes in the metal or sometimes called pitting.

Cavitation is destructive and produces a drop in efficiency of the pump or machine. To avoid
cavitation, ensure absolute Pressure at every point > vapour Pressure. To ensure this raise the
general Pressure head (General Pressure level) by:

• Placing device below intake level so that liquid flows to it by gravity (rather than
being drawn up by suction)
• Design machine so that local velocity not high enough to produce such low Pressure.

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 Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

EXAMPLE 2.11.
Pump BC must deliver 0.15 m3/s of oil, with relative density of 0.72 to reservoir D. Assuming
that the energy lost from A to B is 2.5 J/N and from C to D is 6.5 J/N., how much power must
the pump supply to the system?

57m

Elevation = 0

12m

15m B C

3m

Solution

Apply Bernoulli’s eqv. From A to D with datum BC:

 VA2 PA  VD2 P
 + + Z A  + H pump - H lost = + D +Z D
 2g ρg  2g ρg

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

Open reservoir A & D ∴ velocity of particles small ∴ assume VA = VD = negligible ∴ velocity

head terms ≅ 0
Use gauge po and because the reservoirs are open: PA = PD = 0
∴ (0+0+12) + Hpump -(2.5+6.5) = (0+0+57)
(12m) + Hpump = (2.5 + 6.5) = 57
Hpump = 54 J/N
Power supplied = ρgQHpump
= (1000)(0.762)(9.8)(0.16) (54)
= 54.6 kW

EXAMPLE 2.12.
Medium fuel oil at 10°C is pumped to tank C through 1829 m of new, riveted steel pipe; 406
mm inside diameter. The pressure at A = 13.79 kPa(g) when the flow is 0.198 m3/s. The
frictional losses between B and C are equal to 12.04 m.
a) What is the head the pump developed
b) What pressure must be maintained at B?
Data:
Kinematic viscosity = 5.16×10-6 m2/s
ρ = 861 kg/m3
C

24,38m

1829m

Solution

Q
(a) V =
A
V= 0.198
π( 0.406) 2
4

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

= 1.53 m/s
ρvd vd
Re = or
µ ν
1.53 × 0.406
=
5.16 × 10-6
= 120 383

∴ Turbulent flow ∴can take α as 1

Bernoulli between A and C:

 P v 22   P v 12 
 Z2 + 2 +  −  Z1 + 1 +  = h pump - h friction
 ρg 2gα   ρg 2gα 

hf was given as = 12.04 m

(1.53) 2 13.79 × 103 (1.53)

2

24.38 + 0 + - 0 - - = ∆h p - 12.04
2(9.81) 861 × 9.81 2(9.81)
∆hp = 34.79 m

(b) Take Bernoulli between A and B or B and C

I will show you the option of Bernoulli between A and B:

 PB v 2B   PA v 2A 
 ZB + +  − Z + +  = h pump - h friction
 ρg 2gα   A ρg 2gα 

hf =0 ∆hp = 34.79 m
vB = vA ZB = ZA
Substitute this information in the equation above:

PB 13.79 × 103
- = 34.79
ρg 861 × 9.81
PB = 307.640 kPa (g)

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

EXAMPLE 2.13.
For the venture metre shown, the deflection of the mercury in the differential gage is 0.36 m.
Determine the flowrate of oil (relative density = 0.92) through the metre. (Assume no losses).

HINT: Apply Bernoulli’s equation from A to B, and from there try to get unknown variable.

0,15m

0,75m
0,3m
oil

Z=0
A Z
oil

0,36m

flow
Hg

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

Solution

 P v 2A   P v 2B 
 ZA + A +  =  ZB + B + 
 ρg 2gα   ρg 2gα 

P1 = P2
P1 = PA + (ρgh)oil [1]
P2 = PB + (ρgh)Hg + (ρgh)oil [2]
PA + (ρgh)oil = PB + (ρgh)Hg + (ρgh)oil
PA + ρ oilg(0.36 + Z) = PB + ρHgg(0.36) + ρoilg(Z + 0.75)
PA - PB = - ρ oilg(0.36 + Z) - ρHgg(0.36) + ρoilg(Z + 0.75)
PA − PB . × 9.81 × 0.36 × 1000
1357
= −( 0.36 + Z) + ( Z + 0.75) +
ρ oil g 0.92 × 1000 × 9.81
PA − PB
= 0.39 + 5.31
ρoil g
= 5.7 m [3]
Because Q = constant:
VAAA = VBAB
V A
VA = B B
AA
π ( 0.15)2
= 4 V
π (0.30)2 B
4
= ( 12 )2 VB
VA2 = ( 12 ) 4 VB2 [4]
Substitute equations 3 and 4 into Bernoulli’s equation:
 PA PB  VB2 VA2
 −  - ZB = -
 ρ oil g ρ oil g  2g 2g
 PA − PB  VB2 − VA2
  - 0.75 =
 ρ oil g  2g
VB2 − VA2
( 5.7) - 0.75 =
19.62
97119
. = VB − ( 2 ) VB2
2 1 4

VB = 10.18 m/s

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Process Fluid Flow 2022 Chemical Engineering
BEngTech Lecturer: Dr M Chetty

Therefore the flowrate:

QB = VB AB
= (10.18) π 4 (0.152)
= 0.18 m3/s

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