Commission on Higher Education

in collaboration with the Philippine Normal University

f(x).
• in Example 4, x→4lim f(x) DNE because x→4 lim f(x) = x→4lim +
LOOKING AT THE GRAPH OF y = f(x)
If one knows the graph of f(x), it will be easier to determine its limits as x approaches given values of
c.
y
Consider again f(x) = 1+3x. Its
8

y =1+3x
graph is the straight line with slope 3 and intercepts (0,1) and ( 1/3,0). Look at the graph in the
vicinity of
7
(2,7)
x = 2. 6You can easily see the points (from 5the table of values in page 4) 4(1,4), (1.4,5.2), (1.7,6.1),
and so on, approaching the level where y = 7. 3The same can be seen from the right (from the table
of values in page 4). 2Hence, the graph clearly confirms that 1x→2lim (1 + 3x)=7.
-1 0 1 2 3 4
x
8
Let us look at the examples again, one by one.

Recall Example 1 where f(x) = x2 + 1. Its graph is given by

6543
( 1,2) 21-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
8
x

It can be seen from the graph that as values of x approach 1, the values of f(x) approach

2.Recall Example 2 where f(x) = |x|.

y
y = |x|
 x2
Recall Example 3 where f(x) = x 5x 1 + 4
x
.

It origin is clear (0,0) that as

x→0x lim approaches |x| = 0, that 9
0.
is, the two sides of the graph both move downward to the
y
x
y = 2 x 5x + 4
1
(1, 3)
x2
Take note that f(x) graph of f(x) is also = the graph x 5x + 1 of 4
= (x 4)(x
y =x 1, x excluding 1 0 1 2 3 4
x
-1-2-3 1)
-4

= x 4, provided x = 1. Hence, the

the point where x = 1.

Recall Example 4 where

8<f(x) =
2
:x + 1 if x < 4 (x 4) + 3 if x 4.
y
y = f(x) 7
6
(4,5) 543(4,3) 210 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
x
Again, we can see from the graph that f(x) has no limit as x approaches 4. The two separate parts of
the function move toward different y-levels (y = 5 from the left, y = 3 from the right) in the vicinity of c
= 4.
10
So, in general, if we have the graph of a function, such as below, determining limits can be done
much faster and easier by inspection.
y
6

543
(0,3)
(3,4)
2
(3,2)
( 2,1)
1(3,0) -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x
For instance, it can be seen from the graph of y = f(x) that:
a. x→-2lim f(x)=1.
b. x→0or lim x f(x)=3. = 0 is not Here, it does not matter that f(0) does not exist (that is, it in the
domain of f). Always remember that what matters is is undefined, the behavior of the function close
to c = 0 and not precisely at c = 0. In fact, even if f(0) were defined and equal to any other constant
(not equal to 3), like 100 or 5000, this would still the value have no of f(0), bearing if any.
on the limit. In cases like this, x→0lim f(x)=3 prevails regardless of
c. x→3not lim f(x) move DNE. As toward a can be seen in the common y-level as figure, the two x
approaches c parts = 3.
of the graph near c = 3 do
(D) EXERCISES (Students may use calculators when applicable.)
Exercises marked with a star (?) are challenging problems or may require a longer solution.
1. Complete the following tables of values to investigate x→1lim (x2 2x + 4).
11
x f(x) 0.5 0.7 0.95 0.995 0.9995 0.99995
x f(x) 1.6 1.35 1.05 1.005 1.0005 1.00005
2. Complete the following tables of values to investigate x→0
.
lim x x + 1 1 x f(x) 1 0.8 0.35 0.1 0.09 0.0003 0.000001

x f(x) 10.75 0.45 0.2 0.09 0.0003 0.000001

3. Construct a table of values to investigate the following limits:
a. x→3
lim x 10

2 8<:b. x→7 lim f. x→0lim f(x) if f(x) =

1/x x2 2 if x  1 10
if x > 1 x 2
c. x→2
lim 2x + 1
g. x→-1lim f(x) if f(x) =

8<1/x if x  1
x3
2
:x 2 if x > 1
d. x→0
lim h. x→1lim f(x) if f(x) =

8>>><x + 3 if x < 1 >>>:2x p5x 1 x2 + 6 x2 + 2

e. x→1
lim x + 1
1
if x = 1 if x > 1
12
4. Consider the function f(x) whose graph is shown below.
y
65432
1-5
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x

-1-2
Determine the following:
a. x→-3lim f(x)
b. x→-1lim f(x)
c. x→1lim f(x)
d. x→3lim f(x)
e. x→5lim f(x)
5. Consider the function f(x) whose graph is shown below.
What can be said about the limit of 5
y6 f(x)
4
a. at c = 1, 2, 3, and 4?
3
b. at integer values of c?
2
c. at c = 0.4, 2. 3,4.7, and 5.5? 10 1 2 3 4 5 6
x
d. at non-integer values of c?
13
6. Consider the function f(x) whose graph is shown below.
y654321-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x
-1-2-3-4-5
Determine the following:
a. x→-1.5lim f(x)
b. x→0lim f(x)
c. x→2lim f(x)
d. x→4lim f(x)
Teaching Tip
Test how well the students have understood limit evaluation. It is hoped that by now they have
observed that for polynomial and rational functions f, if c is in value the of domain c for every of f, x
then in f(x).
to evaluate x→clim f(x) they just need to substitute the
However, this is not true for general functions. Ask the students if they can give an example or point
out an earlier example of a case where c is in the domain of f, but x→clim f(x) = f(c).
7. Without a table of values and without graphing f(x), give the values of the following
limits and explain how you arrived at your evaluation.
a. x→-1lim (3x 5)
b. x→c
lim x2 x2 9
where c = 0,1,2
4x + 3
?c. x→3
lim x2 x2 4x 9
+3
14
1whose graph is shown below.
?8. Consider the function f(x) = x
y
5

432 1
f(x) = x 1-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

x
-1

-2-3-4
-5What
can be said about x→0lim f(x)? Does it exist or not? Why?
Answer: The limit does not exist. From the graph itself, as x-values approach 0, the arrows move in
opposite directions. If tables of values are constructed, one for x-values approaching 0 through
negative values and another through positive values, it is easy to observe that the closer the x-
values are to 0, the more negatively and positively large the corresponding f(x)-values become.
?9. Consider the function f(x) whose graph is
shown Does it below. exist or What not? can Why?
be said about x→0lim f(x)?
y
Answer: The limit does not exist. Although as x-values approach 0, the arrows seem to move in the
same direction, they will not “stop” at a limiting value. In the absence of such a definite limiting value,
we still say the limit does not exist. (We will revisit this function in the lesson
1
f(x) = x 2
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
about infinite limits where we will discuss more about its behavior near 0.)
15
8

765432
1x
?10. Sketch one possible graph of a function f(x) defined on R that satisfies all the listed
conditions.
b. d. a. c. x→0x→1x→2f(1) lim lim lim f(x)=1 f(x) f(x)=0
=2
DNE
e. f(2) = 0
f. f(4) = 5
g. x→clim f(x)=5 for all c > 4.
Possible answer (there are many other possibilities):
y6
54321
-2 -1 01 2 3 4 5 6 x
16
TOPIC 1.2: The Limit of a Function at c versus the Value of the
Function at c

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON

(A) INTRODUCTION

Critical to the study of limits is the understanding that the value of

x→clim
f(x) may be distinct from the value of the function at
x = c, that is, f(c). As seen in previous examples, the limit may be evaluated at values not
included in the domain of f. Thus, it must be clear to a student of calculus that the exclusion
of a value from the domain of a function does not prohibit the evaluation of the limit of that
function at that excluded value, provided of course that f is defined at the points near c. In
fact, these cases are actually the more interesting ones to investigate and evaluate.

Furthermore, the awareness of this distinction will help the student understand the concept
of continuity, which will be tackled in Lessons 3 and 4.

(B) LESSON PROPER

We will mostly recall our discussions and examples in Lesson 1.

Let us again consider

x→2lim (1 + 3x).
Recall that its tables of values are:

x f(x) 1 4 1.4 5.2 1.7 7.0015 2.0000001

6.1 1.9 6.7 1.95 6.85 7.0000003
1.997 6.991 1.9999
6.9997 1.9999999
6.9999997 and we had concluded that x→2lim (1 + 3x)=7.
x f(x) 3 10 2.5 8.5 2.2
7.6 2.1 7.3 2.03 7.09
2.009 7.027 2.0005 1
7
In same comparison, holds for the f(2) next = 7. examples So, in this discussed:
example, x→2lim f(x) and f(2) are equal. Notice that the
 x→clim f(x) f(c) x→-1lim (x2 +1)=2 f( 1) = 2
x→0lim |x| = 0 f(0) = 0
This, however, is not always the case. Let us consider the function
f(x) =

8<|x| if x = 0 :2 if x = 0.
In contrast to the second example above, the entries are now unequal:
x→clim f(x) f(c) x→0lim |x| = 0 f(0) = 2
Does this in any way affect the existence of the limit? Not at all. This example shows that x→clim f(x)
and f(c) may be distinct.
Furthermore, consider the third example in Lesson 1 where
f(x) =
8<:x + 1 if x < 4 (x 4)2 + 3 if x 4.
We have:
x→clim f(x) f(c) x→4lim f(x) DNE f(4) = 2
Once again we see that x→clim f(x) and f(c) are not the same.
18
A review of the graph given in Lesson 1 (redrawn below) will emphasize this fact.

543 (3,4)
(0,3)

2
(3,2)

1( 2,1) (C) EXERCISES

(3,0)
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Consider the function f(x) whose graph is given bel
x

y
We restate the conclusions, adding the respective
6 values of f(c):

(a) x→-2lim f(x)=1 and f( 2) = 1. (b) x→0lim f(x)=3 and f(0) does not exist (or is
5432
1-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
undefined). (c) x→3lim f(x) DNE and f(3) also does not exist (or is
undefined). x

1
Based on the graph, fill in the table with the appropriate values.
c x→clim f(x) f(c) 2 1/2 0134
2. For each given combination of values of possible function that illustrates the combination. f(1) = 3,
then a possible graph of f(x) x→clim f(x) For and example, f(c), sketch if near x = 1 may be any the
graph of a x→1lim of the f(x)=2 two graphs and
below.
y
y
6

5432
1-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Do a similar rendition for each of the following combinations:
i. ii. iii. x→1x→1x→1lim lim lim f(x)=2 g(x) h(x) and f(1) = 2
= 1 and g(1) = 1 DNE and h(1) = 0
6

5432
1x

iv. x→1lim j(x)=2 and j(1) is undefined v. x→1lim p(x) DNE and p(1) is undefined
20
3. Consider the function f(x) whose graph is given below.
y6
5432
1-6

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
State state whether whether x→clim x→clim f(x) f(x) or and f(c) f(c) does are not equal exist.
or unequal at the given value of c. Also,
i. c = 3 ii. c = 2 iii. c = 0 iv. c = 0.5
v. c = 1 vi. c = 2 vii. c = 2.3 viii. c = 3
ix. c = 4
x. c = 6
21
TOPIC 1.3: Illustration of Limit Theorems

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON

(A) INTRODUCTION

Lesson 1 showed us how limits can be determined through either a table of values or the
graph of a function. One might ask: Must one always construct a table or graph the function
to determine a limit? Filling in a table of values sometimes requires very tedious
 calculations. Likewise, a graph may be difficult to sketch. However, these should not be
reasons for a student to fail to determine a limit.

In this lesson, we will learn how to compute the limit of a function using Limit Theorems.

Teaching Tip
It would be good to recall the parts of Lesson 1 where the students were asked to
give the value of a limit, without aid of a table or a graph. Those exercises were
intended to lead to the Limit Theorems. These theorems are a formalization of what
they had intuitively concluded then.

(B) LESSON PROPER

We are now ready to list down the basic theorems on limits. We will state eight theorems.
These will enable us to directly evaluate limits, without need for a table or a graph.

In the following statements, c is a constant, and f and g are functions which may or may not
have c in their domains.

1. The limit of a constant is itself. If k is any constant, then,

lim x→ck =
k.

For example,

i. lim x→c2=2 ii. lim x→c 3.14 =

3.14 iii. lim x→c789 =
789

2
2
2. The limit of x as x approaches c is equal to c. This may be thought of as the substitution
law, because x is simply substituted by c.
x→climx = c.
For example,
i. x→9lim x = 9 ii. x→0.005lim x = 0.005 iii. x→-10lim x = 10
For the remaining theorems, we will assume that the limits of f and g both exist as x approaches c
and that they are L and M, respectively. In other words,
x→clim f(x) = L, and x→clim g(x) = M.
3. The Constant Multiple Theorem: This says that the limit of a multiple of a function is
simply that multiple of the limit of the function.
x→clim k · f(x) = k · x→clim f(x) = k · L.
For example, if x→clim f(x)=4, then
i. x→clim 8 · f(x)=8 · x→clim f(x)=8 · 4 = 32. ii. x→c lim 11 · f(x) = 11 · x→clim f(x) = 11 · 4 = 44.
iii. x→c
3 · lim f(x) = 3 · 4=6.
lim 32 · f(x) = 2 x→c 2
4. The Addition Theorem: This says that the limit of a sum of functions is the sum of the limits of the
individual functions. Subtraction is also included in this law, that is, the limit of a difference of
functions is the difference of their limits.
x→clim ( f(x) + g(x) ) = x→clim f(x) + x→clim g(x) = L + M.
x→clim ( f(x) g(x) ) = x→clim f(x) x→clim g(x) = L M.
For example, if x→clim f(x)=4 and x→clim g(x) = 5 , then
i. x→clim (f(x) + g(x)) = x→clim f(x) + x→clim g(x)=4+( 5) = 1. ii. x→clim (f(x) g(x)) = x→clim f(x) x→clim
g(x)=4 ( 5) = 9.
23
5. The Multiplication Theorem: This is similar to the Addition Theorem, with multipli- cation replacing
addition as the operation involved. Thus, the limit of a product of functions is equal to the product of
their limits.
x→clim (f(x) · g(x)) = x→clim f(x) · x→clim g(x) = L · M.
Again, let x→clim f(x)=4 and x→clim g(x) = 5. Then
x→clim f(x) · g(x) = x→clim f(x) · x→clim g(x)=4 · ( 5) = 20.
Remark 1: The Addition and Multiplication Theorems may be applied to sums, dif- ferences, and
products of more than two functions.
Remark 2: The Constant Multiple Theorem is a special case of the Multiplication Theorem. Indeed, in
the Multiplication Theorem, if the first function f(x) is replaced by a constant k, the result is the
Constant Multiple Theorem.
6. The Division Theorem: This says that the limit of a quotient of functions is equal to the quotient of
the limits of the individual functions, provided the denominator limit is not equal to 0.
x→c lim f(x)
=
g(x)
L , provided M = 0.
x→clim f(x) x→clim g(x) = M
For example,
i. If x→clim f(x)=4 and x→clim g(x) = 5,
x→c lim f(x)
=
g(x)
x→cx→clim lim f(x)
 =4 =4 .
g(x) 5 5
ii. If x→clim f(x)=0 and x→clim g(x) = 5,
x→c lim f(x)
= 0 = 0.
g(x) 5
24
f(x) iii. If x→clim f(x)=4 and x→clim g(x)=0, it is not possible to evaluate x→c
, or we
lim g(x) may say that the limit DNE.
7. The Power Theorem: This theorem states that the limit of an integer power p of a
function is just that power of the limit of the function.
x→clim(f(x))p = (lim x→cf(x))p = Lp.
For example,
i. If x→clim f(x)=4, then
x→clim (f(x))3 = (lim x→cf(x))3 = 43 = 64.
ii. If x→clim f(x)=4, then
1 =1 .
x→clim (f(x))-2 = (lim x→cf(x))-2 = 4-2 = 4 2 16
8. The Radical/Root Theorem: This theorem states that if n is a positive integer, the limit of the nth
root of a function is just the nth root of the limit of the function, provided the nth root of the limit is a
real number. Thus, it is important to keep in mind that if n is even, the limit of the function must be
positive.
p qn pn
x→c lim nf(x) = x→clim f(x) = L.
For example,
i. If x→clim f(x)=4, then
p
x→clim pf(x) = qx→clim f(x) = 4=2. ii. If x→clim f(x) = 4, then it is not possible to evaluate x→clim pf(x)

because then,
p
qx→clim f(x) = 4,
and this is not a real number.
25
(C) EXERCISES
1. Complete the following table.c x→clim 2016 x→clim x

2 1/2 0 3.1416 p103

2. Assume the following:
3 , lim g(x) = 12, and lim h(x) = 3.
x→clim f(x) = 4 x→c x→c Compute the following limits:

a. x→clim ( 4 · f(x)) b. x→clim p12 · f(x) c. x→clim (g(x) h(x)) d. x→clim (f(x) · g(x))
e. x→c
lim g. x→clim (4 · f(x) + h(x))
h. x→clim (8 · f(x) g(x) 2 · h(x))
g(x) + h(x)
j. i. x→cx→clim lim (f(x) p · g(x) · h(x))

g(x) · h(x)
f(x)
k. x→c lim f. x→clim ✓f(x)
◆
h(x)
· g(x)
g(x)
(h(x))2
l. x→c
lim g(x)
· f(x)
(h(x))2
3. Determine whether the statement is True or False. If it is false, explain what makes it
false, or provide a counterexample.
a. If x→clim f(x) and x→clim g(x) both exist, then x→clim (f(x) ± g(x)) always exists. b. If x→clim f(x) and
x→clim g(x) both exist, then x→clim (f(x) · g(x)) always exists.
c. If x→clim f(x) and x→clim g(x) both exist, then x→c
lim f(x)
always exists.
g(x) d. If exists. e. If x→clim f(x) exists and p is an integer, then x→clim (f(x))p, where p is
an integer, always
x→clim f(x) exists and n is a natural number, then x→c
p
lim f(x), always exists.
n

1 = g(x) and c= 0.)

?f. If (Take x→clim f(x) (f(x) = x g(x)) = 0, then x→clim

f(x) and x→clim g(x) are equal. Answer: False.

?g. If x→c
lim f(x) = f(x)
1= g(x) = 1, then and c lim f(x) and lim g(x) are equal. Answer: False. (Take
g(x) x x→c x→c

= 0.)

26
4. Assume the following:
x→clim
f(x)=1, x→clim g(x) = 1, and x→clim h(x)=2.
Compute the following limits:
a. x→clim (f(x) + g(x)) b. x→clim (f(x) g(x) h(x)) c. d. e. x→clim x→clim x→clim (3 · g(x)+5 · h(x))

pf(x) pg(x)
⌘
f. x→c lim i. x→clim ⇣f(x) · g(x) · (h(x))2
j. x→c
lim f(x)
1
k. x→c
lim g(x)
1
p
3g(x)

l. x→c

lim h(x) 1g. x→clim (h(x))5

m. x→c lim h. x→c
lim 1
f(x) h(x) g(x) f(x) h(x)
n. x→c
lim f(x) + 1
g(x)
5. Assume f(x) = x. Evaluate
a. x→4lim f(x).
b. x→4
lim f. x→4lim ((f(x))2 f(x)).
.
1 f(x)
c. x→4
lim g. h. x→4lim x→4
p .
lim ((f(x)) n3 + (f(x))2 + 2 · f(x)). 1 (f(x))2
d. x→4
lim 3 · (f(x))2 + 4 · f(x).

pf(x).

i. x→4 lim (f(x))5 · e. x→4lim p9 · f(x).

2
f(x) f(x)
.

j. x→4
.
lim (f(x))(f(x))2 2 + 4f(x) 4f(x)
27
TOPIC 1.4: Limits of Polynomial, Rational, and Radical Func- tions
DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON
(A) INTROUCTION
In the previous lesson, we presented and illustrated the limit theorems. We start by recalling these
limit theorems.
Theorem 1. Let c, k, L and M be real numbers, and let f(x) and g(x) be functions defined on some
open interval containing c, except possibly at c.
1. If L = x→clim M.
f(x) exists, then it is unique. That is, if x→clim f(x) = L and x→clim f(x) = M, then
2. x→clim c = c. 3. x→clim x = c 4. Suppose x→clim f(x) = L and x→clim g(x) = M.
i. (Constant Multiple) x→clim [k · g(x)] = k · M. ii. (Addition) x→clim [f(x) ± g(x)] = L ± M. iii.
(Multiplication) x→clim [f(x)g(x)] = LM.
iv. (Division) x→c
lim f(x)
= L, provided M = 0.
g(x) M v. vi. (Power) (Root/Radical) when n is x→clim even.
[f(x)]x→c
p
lim p = nLp for p, a positive integer.
pn
f(x) = L for positive integers n, and provided that L > 0
Teaching Tip
It would be helpful for the students if these limit theorems remain written on the board or on manila
paper throughout the discussion of this lesson.
In this lesson, we will show how these limit theorems are used in evaluating algebraic func- tions.
Particularly, we will illustrate how to use them to evaluate the limits of polynomial, rational and radical
functions.
(B) LESSON PROPER
LIMITS OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
We start with evaluating the limits of polynomial functions.
28
EXAMPLE 1: Determine x→1lim (2x + 1).
Solution. From the theorems above,
x→1lim (2x + 1) = x→1lim 2x + x→1lim 1 (Addition)
=
◆
✓

2 x→1lim x+ 1 (Constant Multiple)

= 2(1) + 1
◆
✓ x→clim x = c=2+1
= 3.
.
EXAMPLE 2: Determine x→-1lim (2x3 4x2 + 1).
Solution. From the theorems above,
x→-1lim (2x3 4x2 +1) = x→-1lim 2x3 x→-1lim 4x2 + x→-1lim 1 (Addition)
= 2 x→-1lim x3 4 x→-1lim x2 + 1 (Constant Multiple) = 2( 1)3 4( 1)2 + 1 (Power) = 2 4+1 = 5.
.
EXAMPLE 3: Evaluate x→0lim (3x4 2x 1).
Solution. From the theorems above,
x→0lim (3x4 2x 1) = x→0lim 3x4 x→0lim 2x x→0lim 1 (Addition)
= 3 x→0lim x4 2 x→0lim x2 1 (Constant Multiple) = 3(0)4 2(0) 1 (Power) = 0 0 1 = 1.
.
We will now apply the limit theorems in evaluating rational functions. In evaluating the limits of such
functions, recall from Theorem 1 the Division Rule, and all the rules stated in Theorem 1 which have
been useful in evaluating limits of polynomial functions, such as the Addition and Product Rules.
29
1EXAMPLE 4: Evaluate x→1

lim x.
Solution. apply the Division First, note Rule. that Thus,x→1lim x = 1. Since the limit of the
denominator is nonzero, we can

x→1 lim x→1lim 1

1 (Division)
= x→1 lim x
1 = 1.
.
EXAMPLE 5: Evaluate x→2
.
lim 1x = x x + 1
Solution. We start by checking the limit of the polynomial function in the denominator.
x→2lim (x + 1) = x→2lim x + x→2lim 1=2+1=3. Since the limit of the denominator is not zero, it follows
that
x→2 lim x + x
=
1
x→2lim x→2lim (x + x
= 2 (Division)
1) 3
.
EXAMPLE 6: Evaluate x→1
lim (x 3)(x2 x2 + 1 2)
. First, note that

x→1lim(x2 + 1) = x→1lim x2 + x→1lim 1=1+1=2 = 0.

Thus, using the theorem,
x→1 lim (x 3)(x2 x2 + 1 2)
=

x→1lim x→1(x lim (x3)(x2 + 2 1) 2)

(Division)

=
x→1lim (x 3) · x→1lim (x2 2 2)
(Multipication)

=
◆✓◆
✓
(Addition) (1 3)(12
x→1lim x x→1lim 3x→1lim x2 x→1lim 22 = 2
2)
= 1.
30
Theorem 2. Let f be a polynomial of the form
f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + ... + a1x + a0.
If c is a real number, then
x→clim
f(x) = f(c). Proof. Let c be any real number. Remember that a polynomial is defined at any real
number. So,

f(c) = ancn + an-1cn-1 + an-2cn-2 + ... + a1c + a0.

Now apply the limit theorems in evaluating x→clim f(x):

x→clim f(x) = x→clim (anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + ... + a1x + a0)

= x→clim anxn + x→clim an-1xn-1 + x→clim an-2xn-2 + ... + x→clim a1x + x→clim a0 = an x→clim xn + an-1 x→clim

xn-1 + an-2 x→clim xn-2 + ... + a1 x→clim x + a0 = ancn + an-1cn-1 + an-2cn-2 + ... + a1c + a0 = f(c).
Therefore, x→clim f(x) = f(c).
EXAMPLE 7: Evaluate x→-1lim (2x3 4x2 + 1).
Solution. Note first that our function
f(x)=2x3 4x2 + 1,
is a polynomial. Computing for the value of f at x = 1, we get
f( 1) = 2( 1)3 4( 1)2 +1=2( 1) 4(1) + 1 = 5.

Therefore, from Theorem 2,x→-1lim (2x3 4x2 + 1) = f( 1) = 5.

.
Note that we get the same answer when we use limit theorems.
f(x)
Theorem 3. Let h be a rational function of the form h(x) =
where f and g are
g(x) polynomial functions. If c is a real number and g(c) = 0, then
x→clim h(x) = x→c
lim f(x)
= f(c) .
g(x) g(c)
31
Proof. x→clim f(x) From = f(c). Theorem Therefore, 2, x→clim by g(x) the Division = g(c), Rule which of
is Theorem nonzero 1,
by assumption. Moreover,
x→c lim x→clim f(x)
= f(c) .
x→clim g(x) g(c)
EXAMPLE 8: Evaluate x→1
lim f(x)
=
g(x)
1 1+3x2 5x
.
+ 4x4
Solution. Since the denominator is not zero when evaluated at x = 1, we may apply Theorem 3:
x→1 lim 1+3x1 5x
2 = 1 5(1)
+ 4x4 1 + 3(1)
2 = 4= 1 .
+ 4(1)4 8 2
.
We will now evaluate limits of radical functions using limit theorems.

EXAMPLE 9: Evaluate x→1lim px.

Solution. Note that x→1lim x = 1 > 0. Therefore, by the Radical/Root Rule,
p
x→1lim px = qx→1lim x = 1=1.

. EXAMPLE 10: Evaluate x→0lim px + 4.

Solution. Note that x→0lim (x +4)=4 > 0. Hence, by the Radical/Root Rule,
p
x→0lim px +4= qx→0lim (x + 4) = 4=2.

.
EXAMPLE 11: Evaluate x→-2
p
lim 3x2 + 3x 6.
Solution. Since the index of the radical sign is odd, we do not have to worry that the limit of the
radicand is negative. Therefore, the Radical/Root Rule implies that
x→-2
p r
lim x2 + 3x
3

p3 p
6 = 3x→-2lim (x2 + 3x 6) = 4 6 6 = 38 = 2.
.
32
pEXAMPLE 12: Evaluate x→2

lim 1 2x + 3x 5
.

Solution. using the Division First, note and that Radical x→2lim (1 Rules 3x) of = Theorem 5 = 0. 1,
Moreover, we obtain
x→2lim (2x +5)=9 > 0. Thus,

x→2 lim p1 2x + 3x 5
=

x→2lim qx→2lim (2x 5 p2x + 5

=
+ 5) x→2lim 1 3x
=

3 .
p5 9 = 5
.
INTUITIVE NOTIONS OF We investigate the limit at a INFINITE point c of a LIMITS
f(x)
rational function of the form
where f and g
g(x) are polynomial functions with f(c) = 0 and g(c)=0. Note that Theorem 3 does not
cover this because it assumes that the denominator is nonzero at c.
y
1 .
Now, consider the function f(x) = Note that the function is not defined x at 2
x = 0 but we can check the behavior of the function as x approaches 0 intuitively. We first consider
approaching 0 from the left.
1
f(x) = x 2
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
x f(x) 0.9 1.2345679 0.5 4 0.1 100 0.01 10,000 0.001 1,000,000 0.0001 100,000,000
Observe that as x approaches 0 from the left, the value of the function increases without bound.
When this happens, we say that the limit of f(x) as x approaches 0 from the left is positive infinity,
that is,
lim f(x)=+1. x→0 33
8

765432
1x

x f(x) 0.9 1.2345679 0.5 4 0.1 100 0.01 10,000 0.001

1,000,000 0.0001
100,000,000

Again, as x approaches 0 from the right, the value of the function increases without bound,
f(x)=+1.
so, x→0lim +

f(x)=+1, we may conclude that lim f(x)=+1.

Since lim x→0 f(x)=+1 and x→0lim + x→0
 Now, consider the function f(x) Note that the
1 . 1
function is not defined = at x x 2= f(x) = x2
1
0 but we can still check the behavior of the f(x) = x2
function as x approaches 0 intuitively. We
first consider approaching 0 from the left.

-1-

2-

3-

4-

5-

6-
x f(x) 0.9 1.2345679
7-8 0.5 4 0.1 100 0.01
10,000 0.001
1,000,000 0.0001
100,000,000

This time, as x approaches 0 from the left, the value of the function decreases without
bound. So, we say that the limit of f(x) as x approaches 0 from the left is negative infinity,
that is,

lim f(x) = 1. x→0 34

x f(x) 0.9 1.2345679 0.5 4 0.1 100 0.01 10,000 0.001 1,000,000 0.0001 100,000,000
As x approaches 0 from the right, the value of the function also decreases without bound, that is,
f(x) = 1. f(x) = 1, we are able to conclude that lim f(x) =
x→0lim + Since lim x→0 f(x) = 1 and x→0lim + x→0

1.

We now state the intuitive definition of infinite limits of functions:

The limit of f(x) as x approaches c is positive infinity, denoted by,
x→clim f(x)=+1
if the value of f(x) increases without bound whenever the values of x get closer and closer to c. The
limit of f(x) as x approaches c is negative infinity, denoted by,
x→clim f(x) = 1
if the value of f(x) decreases without bound whenever the values of x get closer and closer to c.
Let us consider f(x) = the right suggests that
1. The graph on
x
lim f(x) = 1 x→0 while
f(x)=+1.
x→0lim + Because the one-sided limits are not the same, we say that
x→0lim f(x) DNE.
y
1
f(x) = x Remark 1: Remember +1 exist or as x→clim a real f(x) number.
= 1 that describes 1 is NOT the behavior a number. of the It holds function no specific near x value. =
c, but So, x→cit lim does f(x) not =
35
5

432 -1
1-4 -3 -2 -1 0
1234
x
-2-3-4
-5
f(x) = ±1 or lim
Remark 2: vertical line x Whenever = c. This x→clim is + to indicate that the x→c graph
f(x) = ±1, we normally see the dashed
of y = f(x) is asymptotic to x = c, meaning, the graphs of y =
f(x) and x = c are very close to each other near c. In this case, we call x = c a vertical asymptote of
the graph of y = f(x).
Teaching Tip
Computing infinite limits is not a learning objective of this course, however, we will be needing this
notion for the discussion on infinite essential discontinuity, which will be presented in Topic 4.1. It is
enough that the student determines that the limit at the point c is +1 or 1 from the behavior of the
graph, or the trend of the y-coordinates in a table of values.
(C) EXERCISES
I. Evaluate the following limits.
p
1. w→1lim (1 + 3w)(2 w2 + 3w3)
2. t→-2
lim 4 t2 1
5. y→-2
lim 3y2 y3
6 y y2
t2 + 3t 1

6. x→-1 lim 3. z→2lim ✓2z + z2

z2 + 4
x3 7x2 + 14x 8
◆3
2x2 3x 4
7. x→-1 lim 4. x→0

lim px2 + 3 2
x2 x 2 x3 6x2 7x + 1
8. x→2
lim p2x x2 + p6 1
2
x4+x
x5
II. Complete the following tables. x x3
2
x x 6x + 9 2.5 2.8 2.9 2.99 2.999 2.9999
x5
x x3
x x2 6x + 9 3.5 3.2 3.1 3.01 3.001 3.0001
From the table, determine the following limits.
1. lim x→3
x5
xx3
x2 6x + 9
2. x→3lim +
4. lim x→3
5. x→3lim + x 5
x
3. x→3
lim x x x 5
3
3
x2 6x + 9
6. x→3
lim x2 x
6x + 9
36
III. Recall the graph of y = cscx. From the behavior of the graph of the cosecant function,
determine if the following limits evaluate to +1 or to 1.

1. lim cscx x→π 4. x→πlim

x→0 2. x→0lim cscx
+
cscx
+

3. lim cscx IV. Recall the graph of y = tanx.

1. Find the value of c 2 (0,⇡) such that lim tanx = +1.

x→c 2. Find the value of d 2 (⇡,2⇡) such that x→dlim +

tanx = 1.
 3
7
LESSON 2: Limits of Some Transcendental Functions and Some
Indeterminate Forms
TIME FRAME: 4 hours
LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:
1. Compute the limits of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions using tables
of values and graphs of the functions;
2. Evaluate the limits of expressions involving values; and
sint

, 1 cost
t t
, and et
t1
using tables of

“0 ”
3. Evaluate the limits of expressions resulting in the indeterminate form 0.
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Exponential functions 2. Logarithmic functions 3. Trigonometric functions
4. Evaluating t→0
lim sint
5. Evaluating t→0
lim 1 t
cost t
6. Evaluating t→0
lim et t 7. Indeterminate form 1
“0 ”
0
38
TOPIC 2.1: Limits of Exponential, Logarithmic, and Trigonomet- ric
Functions

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON

(A) INTRODUCTION
Real-world situations can be expressed in terms of functional relationships. These func-
tional relationships are called mathematical models. In applications of calculus, it is quite
important that one can generate these mathematical models. They sometimes use functions
that you encountered in precalculus, like the exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric
functions. Hence, we start this lesson by recalling these functions and their corresponding
graphs.
 (a) If b > 0, b = 1, the exponential function with base b is defined by

f(x) = bx, x 2 R.

(b) Let b > 0,b = 1. If by = x then y is called the logarithm of x to the base b, denoted

y = logb x.

Teaching Tip

Allow students to use their calculators.

(B) LESSON PROPER

EVALUATING LIMITS OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

First, we consider the natural exponential function f(x) = ex, where e is called the Euler
number, and has value 2.718281....

EXAMPLE 1: Evaluate the lim x→0ex. Solution. We will construct the table of values for f(x) =
ex. We start by approaching the number 0 from the left or through the values less than but
close to 0.

Teaching Tip
Some students may not be familiar with the natural number e on their scientific
calculators. Demonstrate to them how to properly input powers of e on their
calculators .

3
9