Physics Lab Manual

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
DOs
 Bring the observation book, lab manual & record book regularly.
 Bring scientific calculator to the practical class regularly.
 Handle the apparatus/equipment gently and carefully.
 Return the apparatus collected to the lab instructor before leaving the lab.
 Wear lab uniform compulsorily when you are entering the lab.
DON‟Ts
 Dumping your bag on the work table.

 Giving your observation book and record books to others.
 Forgetting to check your belongings before leaving the lab.
 Spoiling of the apparatus/equipment as it is meant for your benefit only.
 Switch on electronic equipment before getting the approval by the
teacher/instructor.
 Bringing mobile phones inside the Laboratory.
Instructions to students:
1. All calculations must be carried out using SI units.

2. All entries in the observation book should be done using pen only.
3. The graphs should be plotted using pencil only
BMS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
(Autonomous Institute affiliated to VTU)
YELAHANKA, BENGALURU-560 064
LABORATORY MANUAL/WORK BOOK
I/II SEMESTER (CBCS SCHEME)
SUBJECT: ENGG. PHYSICS LABORATORY
SUBJECT CODE: 21PYL 16/26
PREPARED BY:
Department of Physics, BMSIT&M.
DEC- 2021
BMSIT&M Engg. Physics Lab manual- 2021-22 (odd sem)
Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)
SEMESTER - I/II
Engineering Physics Laboratory (0:0:1) 1
(common for all branches)
(Effective from the academic year 2021 -2022)
Course Code 21PYL16/26 CIE Marks 50
Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P) 0:1:2 SEE Marks 50
Total Number of Practical Hours 26 Exam Hours 3
Course objectives:
This course will enable students to:
1. Apply the concepts required for the measurement of physical parameters related to
engineering.
2. Demonstrate and construct the electrical, mechanical and optical experiments.
3. Compare and analyze the results of the experiments.
4. Build simple experimental set up and estimate the physical parameters related to
engineering.
PART: A Regular Experiments
Sl.No. Title of the experiment
1. Measurement of velocity of ultrasonic waves in liquid medium.
2. Determination of inductance of unknown inductor using LCR series and parallel circuits.
3. Determination of spring constant and to verify laws of combinations of springs by
displacement method.
4. Determination of wavelength of laser using Laser diffraction.
5. Determination of Numerical Aperture of an Optical fiber.
6. Determination of radius of curvature of a Plano convex lens using Newton Rings.
7. Determination of Rigidity modulus using Torsional pendulum method.
8. Determinations of Young’s modulus of material of a material by single cantilever method.
9. Determination of Planck’s constant using LEDs.
10. Magnetic intensity measurement using current carrying circular coil.
PART: B Open ended experiments (Any 02 experiments)
Sl.No. Title of the experiment
1. Measurement of losses in optical fibers.
2. Magnetic Hysteresis - Loop tracing and energy loss estimation.
3. Measurement of slit width, thickness of wire and counting number of slits in grating using
Lasers.
4. Determination of thickness of metal strip/paper from interference at an air wedge.
5. Determination of Fermi energy of different metals.
6. Thermal conductivity of materials.
7. Determination of Bulk modulus.
8. Determination of wavelength of different LEDs.
9. Divergence of the Laser beam.
10. Simulation of Electrical experiment using P-spice/ comsol multiphysics software.
11. LCR series and parallel circuits, Photo diode, Zener diode, solar cell etc.
Page 2
PART: C Demonstration experiments

1. Determination of Mach number using Reddy’s shock tube
Course outcomes (CO s):
The students will be able to:
CO1: Applying the knowledge of laws of Physics to engineering problems.
CO2: Analyze the mechanical, optical and electrical properties of the materials.
CO3: Evaluate and interpret the obtained result(s) related to engineering fields
Question paper pattern:
 SEE will be conducted for three hours.
 Students has to perform two experiments carrying 50 marks for each which includes
write-up, conduction, calculation and viva-voce of that experiment.
 CIE will be for 50 marks.
 Part A: Conduction of the experiments and submission of record book carries 30 marks
and one test will be taken for 10 marks.
 Part B: Conduction of the experiments and submission of record book carries 10 marks.
SEE Scheme of evaluation:
The student has to perform TWO experiments during the practical examination of THREE hours
duration. The scheme of valuation shall be as follows.
Sl. Description Max. Marks Part: A Marks for Part: B Marks for
No. 100 First experiment Second experiment
1. Write up: Formula, Tabular column and 16 4+2+2=08 4+2+2=08
Circuit diagram/Ray Diagram
2. Experimental set up/Circuit connection 10 5 5
3. Conduction and reading 40 20 20
4. Graph, Calculations, Results and 20 2+4+2+2=10 2+4+2+2=10
accuracy
5. Viva-Voce 14 7 7
Total 100 50 50
Textbooks:
1. C L Arora, “B.Sc. Practical Physics”, S CHAND and company Ltd. 1st edition 2010.
References:
1. Worsnop and Flint, “Advanced physics practical for students”, Metuen and Co, London
2005.
2. D Chattopadhyay and P C Rakshit, “Advanced course in Practical Physics”, New central
book agency 8th edition, 2013.
Page 3
BMS Institute of Technology and Management

(Autonomous under VTU)
Avalahalli, Yelahanka – 560 064
ENGINEERING PHYSICS LAB EVALUATION RUBRICS
Headings Description Marks Max.

distribution Marks
Formula with units and 1
explanation of terms
Tabular column with units 2
and ranges
Write up 5
Circuit / ray diagram with 1
labeling
Least count formula / 1
specimen graph
Independent correct 5
Circuit connections
5
connection Connections with minor error 3
Connections with major error 2
All reading / trials taken 5
100% Expected readings 5
Readings 10
75% deviation in readings 3
50 % deviation in readings 2
Formula and Substitution 1
Simplification 1
Calculation 5
Result with units 1
Accuracy (tolerance ±10%) 2
Approval Observation approval in time 3 5
/Record (same day or next working
submission day)
Record submission (next 2
working lab)
Total Marks = 30
Page 4
PERFORMANCE SHEET
NAME OF THE CANDIDATE:
SECTION: SEMESTER: I
ROLL NO/USN: Max. Marks for each expt.: 30
Regular Experiments
Sl. Initial
Title of the Marks
No. of staff
SPRING CONSTANT AND LAWS OF COMBINATION
1.
OF SPRINGS
2. LASER DIFFRACTION.
3. TORSIONAL PENDULUM
4. PLANCK‟ CONSTANT
5. YOUNG‟S MODULUS BY SINGLE CANTILEVER
6. NUMERICAL APERTURE
7. SERIES AND PARALLEL LCR CIRCUITS
8. NEWTON‟S RINGS
9. MAGNETIC INTENSITY ALONG THE AXIS OF A COIL
10. ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER
Open ended Experiments
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Signature of Batch in charge Signature of Head of the Dept.
Page 5
CONTENTS
Page
Sl. No. Title of the Experiment
No.
SPRING CONSTANT AND LAWS OF COMBINATION OF
1. 6-16
SPRINGS
LASER DIFFRACTION.
2. 17-25
3. TORSIONAL PENDULUM 26-36
4. PLANCK‟ CONSTANT 37-44
5. YOUNG‟S MODULUS BY SINGLE CANTILEVER 45-53
6. NUMERICAL APERTURE 54-61

SERIES AND PARALLEL LCR CIRCUITS
7. 62-71
NEWTON‟S RINGS
8. 72-83
MAGNETIC INTENSITY ALONG THE AXIS OF A COIL
9. 84-93
ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER
10. 94-104
Page 6
1. SPRING CONSTANT AND LAWS OF COMBINATION OF SPRINGS
Theory
Springs are elastic materials taken in the form of a coil which undergoes extension or
compression when they are subjected to external force and regains its initial position after the
removal of the applied force.
Consider a spring fixed at one end and loaded at the free end as shown. Let “K” be the spring
constant of the material of the spring. When the mass attached to spring is pulled down and
released, the spring executes a vertical to and fro motion and makes SHM type of
oscillations. Let “y” be the displacement or extension produced in the spring due to pull in
the downward direction. The spring gets pulled in the upward direction due to the restoring
force “F ”.
re
Figure: Elongation of a loaded spring

According to Hooke‟s law the restoring force is given by 𝐹 𝛼 − 𝑦
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑦 − − − −(1)
Where “K” is a constant known as force constant or stiffness factor or spring constant.
Definition of spring constant:
Using equation (1) we can write 𝐾 = OR K = | |
Hence spring constant is defined as the magnitude of the applied force required to produce
unit extension in the spring when it is loaded at one end. It depends on the property/nature of
the material of the spring.
Physical significance of spring constant:
It represents how much force the spring takes to stretch the spring over unit length. Thus
springs with larger values of spring constant will be stiffer and elongated less compared to
Page 7
springs with lesser values of spring constant. Spring constant is also called stiffness factor.
Greater the stiffness factor of the springs, lesser will be the extension.
Example:
Vehicle suspension springs undergo less extension compared to other lightweight springs.
Natural frequency of oscillations of a spring:
From Newton‟s law 𝐹 =𝑚 ---------- (2)
From (1) and (2) we can write 𝑚 = −𝑘𝑦
𝑚 + 𝑘𝑦 = 0
+ (𝑘/𝑚)𝑦 = 0
+ 𝜔 𝑦 = 0------ (3), where 𝜔 = 𝑘/𝑚-------- (4)
Equation (3) represents the differential equation of a mechanical oscillator.

Natural frequency of a spring is the frequency with which the loaded spring oscillates under
no external force (or) opposing force acting on the spring.
It is given by 𝜔 = √ but 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
Therefore 𝑓 = √ ------- (5)
Equation (5) represents the natural frequency of oscillations of a loaded or mechanical

oscillator.
SPRINGS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATIONS
1. Expression for equivalent spring constant in series combination of springs:
Consider two spring of spring constants K and K loaded by a mass “m” and let y and y are
1 2 1 2
the extensions produced in the spring due to the load in the springs. Let the two springs are
now joined together in series and applied with the same load. Let “y” be the extension
produced in the combination as shown below. We can show that the effective spring constant
in series combination is given by
= + ---------- (4)
In general, when springs are connected in series, the effective spring constant of series combination is
given by = ∑
Page 8
Figure: Series combination of two sprigs

2. Expression for equivalent spring constant in parallel combination of springs:
Consider two spring of spring constants K and K loaded by a mass “m” as shown. Let y
1 2 1
and y are the extensions produced in the spring due to the load in the springs. Let the two
2
springs are now joined together in parallel and applied with the same load. Let “y” be the
extension produced in the combination as shown below.
Figure: Parallel combination of two sprigs

We can show that the effective spring constant in parallel combination is given by
𝐾𝑝 = 𝐾 + 𝐾 ------- (5).
In general, when springs are connected in parallel, the effective spring constant of parallel
combination is given by 𝐾 = ∑ 𝑘𝑛
Page 9
SELF-EVALUATION
1. The stiffness factor of spring is,

a) Extension per unit of axial force b) Force per unit cross-sectional area of spring
c) Ratio of mean coil diameter to wire diameter d) Force required to produce unit extension
2. Springs are used,
a) To absorb shocks and vibrations b) To store and release energy
c) To measure force d) All of the above
3. The type of spring used to absorb shocks and vibrations in vehicles is,
a) Helical extension spring b) Multi-leaf spring c) Spiral spring d) Belleville spring
4. Two springs of stiffness K1 and K2 are connected in parallel, the combined stiffness of the
connection is given by,
a) 𝐾𝑝 = 𝐾 + 𝐾 b) = + c) 𝐾𝑝 = 𝐾 − 𝐾 d) none of these
5. The type of spring used in door hinges is,

a) Helical extension spring b) Multi-leaf spring c) Spiral spring d) Helical torsion spring
6. When a helical spring is cut into two halves, the stiffness of each half spring will be,
a) Same as original spring b) Double of original spring
c) Half of original spring d) One fourth of original spring
7. A spring when suspended with a mass of 500 grams, its length increases by 5
cm. Determine its constant and its potential energy.
a) 2 N/m b) 4 N/m c) 2.4 N/m d) 10 N/m
a) 1/6 b)2/9 c)1/3 d) 2/3
9. A body having weight of 1000 N is dropped from a height of 10 cm over a close -coiled
helical spring of stiffness 200 N/cm. The resulting deflection of spring is nearly
a) 5 cm b) 35 cm c) 16 cm d) 100 cm
10. The springs in brakes and clutches are used
a) To apply forces b) To measure forces c) To absorb shocks d) To absorb strain energy
Page 10
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Aim: To determine spring constant for the material of the given spring and to verify the laws
of combinations of springs in series and parallel combinations.
Apparatus: Given springs, slotted weights and measuring scale
Principle: Elastic materials are those which retain their original dimensions after the removal
of deforming forces. Application of a force on a spring causes elongation. When subjected to
stress, strain is produced. Within the elastic limit, the ratio of stress to strain is a constant
known as modulus of elasticity. The restoring force is always directed opposite to
displacement.
Restoring force α – displacement
i.e., F   Kx
Here “k” is the proportionality constant known as spring constant. It is a relative measure of
stiffness of the material.
Formula: (1) Spring constant K= 𝑚
(2) Spring constant in series combination k1 k 2

KS 
k1  k 2
(3) Spring constant in parallel combination K P  K1  K 2
Procedure:
 Connect the given spring to a rigid support. Attach the weight hanger (mass = W).
Note down the initial extension of the spring “x” with the help of the measuring scale
attached with the support.
 Increase the weight in steps of 50 g. Note the displacement (X1) produced in the
spring. Enter the readings as shown in tabular column.
 Find the elongation x [=(X1-X)]. Using the formula find spring constant k.
 Connect the two springs in series combination and repeat the above procedure to find
the effective spring constant in series combination Kseries.
 Connect the two springs in parallel combination and repeat the above procedure to
find effective spring constant in parallel combination Kparallel.
 Compare the experimental results obtained with the theoretical value.
Page 11
Tabular column:
Determination of spring constant for spring 1
Extension for dead load (W+0) X= …..cm.
Tr. no Weight F= Extension X1 Elongation Spring
m (gm ) mg (cm) ∆X= (X1-X) constant K1
(N) (cm) (N/m)
1 W+50
2 W+100
3 W+150
4 W+200
Average K1= ………………….N/m

Determination of spring constant for spring 2
Extension for dead load (W+0) X= …..cm.
Tr. no Weight F= Extension X1 Elongation Spring
m (gm ) mg (cm) ∆X=(X1-X) constant K2
(N) (cm) (N/m)
1 W+50
2 W+100
3 W+150
4 W+200
Average K2= ………………….N/m

Determination of spring constant in series combination
Extension for dead load (W+0) X= …..cm
Tr. no Weight F= Extension X Elongation Spring
m (gm ) mg (cm) ∆X= (X1-X) constant
(N) (cm) Kseries (N/m)
1 W+50
2 W+100
3 W+150
4 W+200
Average Kseries= ………………….N/m
Page 12
Determination of spring constant in parallel combination

Extension for dead load (W+0) X= …..cm
Tr. no Weight F= Extension X Elongation Spring
m (gm ) mg (cm) ∆X= (X1-X) constant
(N) (cm) Kparallel
(N/m)
1 W+50
2 W+100
3 W+150
4 W+200
Average Kparallel= ………………….N/m

Diagrams:
Calculations:
Verification of law of series combination of springs:
Theoretical value of effective spring constant in series combination is
k1 k 2
KS 
k1  k 2
Experimental value of spring constant in series combination is Kseries =

Verification of law of parallel combination of springs:
Theoretical value of effective spring constant in series combination is K P  K1  K 2
Experimental value of spring constant in series combination is Kparallel =
Page 13
Result:
1. The spring constant of the given material of the springs are found to be
K1=…………… N/m
K2 ……………. N/m.
2. Spring constants in series and parallel combinations are found to be
Combination Theoretical Experimental
Series K series = K series =
Parallel k parallel = k parallel =
Page 14
WORK SHEET
Page 15
Page 16
ASSIGNMENT
1. Two springs A (of thicker wire) and B (of thinner wire) of the same material, loaded with
the same mass on their hangers, are suspended from a rigid support. Which spring would
have more value of spring constant?
2. If the load “M” on the spring is made 4 times its previous value, will the time period then
become exactly double its previous value? Explain your answer.
3. Consider a spring with a spring constant of 14000 N/m. A force of 3500 N is applied to the
spring. What will be the displacement of the spring? How much force is required to double its
elongation?
4. A 2 kg mass is attached to a spring. If the elongation of spring is 4 cm, determine potential
energy of elastic spring. Acceleration due to gravity is 10 m/s2.
VIVA-VOCE
1. Define spring constant.

2. What are free vibrations?
3. On what factors, Period of oscillation of a spring depends?
4. Mention the factors on which spring constant of a material depends.
5. Define elasticity?
6. Define elastic limit?
7. State Hooke‟s law.
8. Mention few applications of springs
9. Does two springs of same material but different thickness will have same spring constant?
10. Mention a physical quantity analogous to spring constant in case of electricity.
Page 17
2. WAVELENGTH OF LASER LIGHT USING LASER DIFFRACTION

Theory
Light travels in a straight line but it suffers some deviation from its straight path in passing
close to edges of opaque obstacles and narrow slits. Some of the light does bend into the
region of geometrical shadow and its intensity falls off rapidly. This bending of light which is
not due to reflection/refraction is called diffraction. The diffraction glasses are holographic
diffraction gratings. Diffraction gratings are made of many fine transparent vertical stripes
(1,000 lines/mm), or slits, not visible to the naked eye.
When light goes through a grating, it does something different than when going through a
simple piece of glass (we say it diffracts). On the other side of the grating, you will see a
straight-through (unbent) beam containing all colors (called zero order diffracted beam, or
m=0 beam), and additional light beams bent with respect to the straight-through beam (called
first order diffracted beams, or m=1). There are two such first order diffracted beams, one on
each side of the straight-through beam. In these diffracted beams, the colors are separated due
to diffraction.
So for a white light (such as from a flashlight), you will see a rainbow. For laser pointers, you
may also see higher order diffracted beams (m=2,3, …), or beams bent even more on each
side of the un-bent beam, but they usually get too faint fast. Diffraction happens because light
is also a wave. Each of the many slits of the diffraction grating emits light in all directions. If
the distance between the slits is very small, light coming from the slits doesn‟t just add up.
For special angles, the peaks of the waves from all slits arrive at the same time giving a bright
spot. For all other angles, both peaks and valleys arrive at the same time, and there is no
significant net light. The bending angle for bright spots increases with the light wavelength.
Red light has a longer wavelength than blue light, so the red diffracted beam will be found at
a larger angle than the blue diffracted beam, or the red dot will be further away from the blue
dot on the screen.
As a result, the colors composing white light are spread out at different angles that we see as
a rainbow. The effect is similar to the prism effect, but the reason for the spreading of the
colors is very different. An arrangement consisting of a large number of parallel slits of the
same width and separated by equal opaque spaces is known as diffraction grating. In optics, a
diffraction grating is an optical component with a periodic structure that diffracts light into
several beams travelling in different directions. A diffraction grating can be manufactured by
carving glass with a sharp tool in a large number of precisely positioned parallel lines.
Page 18
Figure: Diffraction of light at slit, at a Grating and Grating device.
SELF EVALUATION
1. The characteristic that distinguishes a laser beam from an ordinary light beam is:
a)The greater frequency of the laser beam b) The coherence of the laser beam
c) The color of the laser beam d) The greater polarization of the laser beam
2. Resonant cavity in semiconductor-lasers consists of
a) Intrinsic region b) Junction c) Two ends of junction d) Polished ends of junction
3. __________________ in the laser occurs when a photon colliding with an excited atom
causes the stimulated emission of a second photon.
a) Light amplification b) Attenuation c) Dispersion d) Population inversion
4. What type of laser is used in CD and DVD players?
a) Semiconductor b) YAG c) He-Ne d) CO2
5. What is the type of laser used most widely in industrial materials processing applications?
a) Dye Laser b) YAG c) Ruby Laser d) Carbon Dioxide Laser
6. Laser light is intense because
a) it has very less number of Photons that in phase
b) it has very less number of Photons that are not in phase
c) it has very large number of Photons that are in phase
d) it has very large number of Photons that are not in phase
7. Find the number of modes sustained in a cavity of length 1 mm for which wavelength is
630 nm.
a) 1. 3170 b) 2. 400 c) 3. 50 d) 4. 31700
Page 19
8. What does the letter "s" stand for in the acronym laser?
a) 1 b) Scientific stimulated c) Stimulated d) Solar
9. In a semiconductor laser, the population inversion followed by stimulated emission is
controlled by
a) Resistance b) Temperature c) Current d) Impedance
10. Why are lasers used in fiber optic communications systems
a) The government has mandated it b) They can be pulsed with high speed data
c) They are very inexpensive d) all of these
Page 20
AIM: To determine the wavelength of laser light by diffraction technique using a plane
diffraction grating.
APPARATUS: Semiconductor diode laser source, grating with holder, scale, screen.
PRINCIPLE: Diffraction of light occurs when the width of the obstacle is comparable to the
wavelength of the light source. The light from the laser source is allowed to fall normally on
the grating, by measuring the distance between the diffracted spots, the wavelength of laser
light is determined.
FORMULA: 1. = 𝑛𝑚
Where λ = Wavelength of laser light measured in m

d = Grating constant measured in m.
m = difference between the order of spots
“d” is given by It is given by = =
/
2. = ( )
Where, θm = angle of diffraction for mth order spot

Xm = distance between Zeroth order spot and mth order spot measured in m
R = distance between screen and grating measured in m
DIAGRAM:
Figure: laser diffraction Figure: Photograph of experimental set up
Page 21
Figure: Schematic representation of Laser diffraction and order of diffraction
Procedure:
 Place the grating in its holder and the screen is placed at a distance of R cm as mentioned
in the tabular column which is as shown in Fig. 1(a,b).
 The grating is kept between the laser source and the screen.
 Laser beam undergoes diffraction after passing through the grating. The diffraction spots
are observed on the screen.
 The distances 2xm between the symmetrical spots on either side of the central bright spot
are measured and recorded.
 The angle of diffraction θm is calculated using = ( )
 λ is calculated using the formula = 𝑛𝑚
TABULAR COLUMN
R Order of the
Trial (In diffraction 2xm xm
No. cm) pattern (in cm) (in cm) = ( ) =
1 1
2 2
3 80 3
4 4
5 5
1 1
2 2
90
3 3
4 4
5 5
Mean wavelength = …………………. nm
Page 22
CALCULATIONS:
1. = ( ) and = 𝑛𝑚
RESULT: - The wavelength of the given laser light source is: ………………..nm.
Page 23
WORK SHEET
Page 24
Page 25
ASSIGNMENT
1. Find the angle for the third-order maximum for 580-nm-wavelength yellow light
falling on a diffraction grating having 1500 lines per centimeter.
2. A diffraction grating has 2000 lines per centimeter. At what angle will the first-order
maximum be for 520 nm wavelength green light?
3. Coherent light with a wavelength of λ = 501.5 nm is sent through two parallel slits in
a large flat wall. Each slit has a width a = 0.700 μm, and the centers of the slits are at
a distance d = 2.80 μm apart. The light falls on a semi-cylindrical screen, with its axis
at the midline between the slits. Predict the direction of each interference maximum
on the screen, as an angle away from the bisector of the line joining the slits.
4. A diffraction grating has 12, 600 rulings uniformly spaced over 25.4 mm. It is
illuminated at normal incidence by yellow light from a sodium vapor lamp. This light
contains two closely spaced lines (the well-known sodium doublet) of wavelengths
589 nm and 589.59 nm. At what angle will the first order maximum occur for the first
of these wavelengths?
5. For a light of wavelength 450 nm, calculate the length of cavity for which 15th order
mode can be achieved.
VIVA-VOCE
1. What kind of LASER light source is used in this experiment?

2. What is diffraction? State the condition to have proper diffraction. Mention types of
diffraction.
3. State the principle of semiconductor diode laser? List a few applications of diode
lasers?
4. Why diffraction takes place through grating? or What is the significance of grating?
5. What is the order of diffraction?
6. What is a grating constant?
7. Mention the types of gratings.
8. Can this experiment be done with the use of sodium instead of laser light?
9. Distinguish between interference and diffraction.
10. What happens to the fringe pattern if monochromatic light is replaced by composite
source?
Page 26
3. DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY MODULUS OF THE WIRE USING

TORSIONAL PENDULUM METHOD
Theory
Torsional pendulum: A rigid/heavy body suspended by using a wire, which executes to and
fro motion about a mean position due to torsion/twist produced in the wire is called torsional
pendulum. When the rigid body fixed to the end of the wire gets turned through some angle
by applying a couple, it produces a twist in the wire. The restoring couple produced in the
wire tries to bring back the wire to its initial position and as a result the rigid body attached to
the end of the wire executes a to and fro motion/oscillations about the fixed axis. Such
oscillations are called torsional oscillations and the arrangement is called torsional pendulum.
The first torsion pendulum was developed by Robert Leslie in 1793.
Figure: Torsional pendulum

The period of oscillation of torsional pendulum is given by the relation
I
T  2      (1)
C
Where I - moment of inertia of the suspended body; C- couple/unit twist
But we have an expression for couple per unit twist C as,
1 nr 4
C    (2)
2 l
Where l - length of the suspension wire; r- radius of the wire; n- rigidity modulus of the
suspension wire
Page 27
Substituting (2) in (1) and squaring, we get an expression for rigidity modulus for the
suspension wire as,
 8l  I 
  4  2 
     (3)
 r  T 
Moment of Inertia (I): The Moment of Inertia is defined as the product of the mass of the
body and the square of the distance between the reference axis /axis of suspension and the
center of mass of the body. It is given by I   MR 2
Rigidity modulus: The modulus of rigidity, also known as shear modulus, is defined as a
ratio of shear stress to shear strain. Shear strain can be produced in a body when a tangential
deforming force acts on the body such as torque/couple. The effect of such a tangential stress
will change the shape of the body which can be measured in terms of the twisting angle Φ.
It is given by the expression F where Φ is the measure of shearing strain and F is

A A
the measure of shearing stress acting on the body.

Moment of Inertia of Irregular objects: According to equation (3), for a given material
wire of fixed dimensions, the ratio of  I  is always constant. Hence we can write two
 2
T 
different shaped objects when suspended from the same dimension wire,
 Io   I 
 2  2 
 To  T 
regular shaped body irregular shaped body
From this we can write, moment of inertia of irregular shaped body as
 I 
I0   2 
T 
regular shaped body  T02
SELF EVALUATION
1. Hooke‟s law essentially defines________
a) Stress b) Strain c) Yield Point d) Elastic limit.
2. The twisting couple per unit twist of a cylinder depends on __________
a) Young modulus b) Bulk modulus c) Modulus of rigidity d) None.
Page 28
3. The unit of twisting couple is__________

a) dyne/cm b) Nm c) N 2 m d) Nm2
4. The twisting couple is equal and opposite to the ________.
a) Force b) Work c) Pure shear d) Restoring couple
5. The geometrical moment of inertia is given by__________
a) Ig = a2 k b) Ig = ak2 c) Ig = a2/k d) None
6. When we're talking about a pendulum, what does T stand for ________
a) pi b) Period c) Length d) gravity
7. Where does a pendulum have maximum potential energy?
a) at the bottom of its arc b) at the end of its swing c) as it rises up d) as it falls
8. What is any motion that repeats itself?
a) variable b) cycle c) pendulum d) circle
9. The shorter the string, the __________ it swings
a) greater b) lesser c) least d) few
10. What happens to the period for a pendulum as gravity increases?
a) doesn't change b) increases c) decreases d) none of the above
Page 29
AIM: To determine the moment of inertia of an irregular body and to calculate the rigidity
modulus of the material by the principle of torsional pendulum.
FORMULA:
Moment of Inertia of an irregular body is given by
 I  kgm2 (1)
I 0   2   T02
 T  mean
Where I0 - moment of Inertia of an irregular body in kg.m2
I - moment of inertia of regular body in kg.m2
T- period of torsional oscillation of regular body in s.
T0 - period of oscillation of an irregular body in s.
The rigidity modulus of the material of the wire is given by
 8l   I 
2
N/m (2)
  4   2 
 r   T  mean
Where l - length of the wire in m and r- is the radius of the wire in m.
PRINCIPLE: The moment of inertia of a body about a given axis of rotation is defined as
the product of mass of the body and the square of radius of gyration. For a given length of the
wire, the ratio of moment of inertia to the square of period of oscillation is constant for
different axes of suspension/rotation, i.e., (I/T2) = constant.
There is no direct formula to determine the moment of inertia of an irregular body about any
axis. Hence, by the principle of torsional pendulum (I/T2) of a regular body = (I0/T02) of
irregular body. By knowing the mean (I/T2) for regular bodies & the period of oscillation of
an irregular body, the moment of inertia of an irregular body can be calculated using the
formula  I  .
I 0   2   T02
 T  mean
PROCEDURE:
 The mass (M1) of the given circular disc and mass (M2) of the rectangular plate are
indicated on the respective plates. The radius of the circular disc (R), length (L) and breadth
(B) of the rectangular plate are also indicated on the respective plates. The moment of inertia
values of the bodies about the respective axes are determined using the formulae indicated in
the tabular column.
 The circular disc is suspended using the check nuts of the experimental wire such that
the axis of suspension is perpendicular to the plane of the disc. A convenient reference mark
Page 30
is made on the edge of the disc, using a piece of chalk and a reference pointer is placed just in
front of the circular disc.
 The base of the chuck nut is twisted through a small angle (small amplitude) such
that torsional oscillations are setup. A stop clock is started when the reference mark on the
body crosses the reference stick in a particular direction. The time taken for the reference
mark on the plate to cross the reference pointer in the same direction is taken as time for one
oscillation.
 The time taken for 5, 10 and 15 such oscillations is noted using a stop clock. The
period of oscillations is calculated by dividing the time taken for 10 oscillations by 10 and the
mean period of oscillation is calculated.
 Again, suspend the circular disc in such a way that the axis of the suspension passes
through the diameter of the disc. The mean period of oscillation is calculated by repeating the
above procedure.
 Repeat the above procedure for a rectangular plate, first about an axis perpendicular to
the plane of the plate, next about an axis perpendicular to the length and about an axis
perpendicular to its breadth.
 The mean period of oscillation is calculated in each case separately. For each axis of
suspension of circular & rectangular bodies, the ratio of moment of inertia to the square of
period of oscillation i.e. (I/T2) is calculated and hence, the mean value of (I/T2) is calculated.
PART I: To determine moment of inertia of irregular body
 The given irregular body is suspended by the experimental wire, with an axis of
suspension perpendicular to its plane or its length or its breadth of the irregular body. The
body is set into torsional oscillation and the period of oscillation (T0) is calculated.
 The moment of inertia of the irregular body (I0) about an axis is calculated by taking
the mean value of (I/T2) from the regular bodies using the formula.
 I  kgm2
I 0   2   T02
 T  mean
PART II: To determine the rigidity modulus of the material of the experimental wire.
 The length (l) of the wire between the two chuck nuts is found by using a thread or
scale. Using the radius of the wire which is given and by noting the mean value of (I/T 2) of
regular bodies, the rigidity modulus of the material of the wire is calculated using the formula
 8 l   I  N/m
    2
 r   T  mean
4
Page 31
Figure: Torsional pendulum setup and different axis of rotations
OBSERVATIONS:
Mass of the circular plate, M1 = --------- Kg
Radius of the circular plate, R = --------- x10-2 m
Mass of rectangular plate, M2 = --------- Kg
Length of the rectangular plate, L = ------- x10-2 m
Breadth of the rectangular plate, B = ------ x10-2 m
l is the length of the wire, l = ------- x10-2 m

r is the radius of the wire, r = 0.45 x 10-3 m
Page 32
TABULAR COLUMN
1. Moment of inertia of regular bodies
Time (t)
Avg. Time
Time Time taken Period
Axis of Moment of No. of No. of (t) taken (I / T2)
Body „t‟ „t‟ For T =t/10 T2
suspension Inertia ( I) kgm2 oscillations oscillations For 10 10 Kgm2/S2
(sec) (sec) 10 sec
oscillations
oscillations
Perpendicular 0 10
I1= (M1R2) / 2 T1 (I1/T12 ) =
Circular to the plane 5 15
plate Along the 0 10

2
I2 = (M1R ) /4 T2 (I2/T2 2)=
diameter 5 15
Perpendicular 0 10
I3 = [M2 (L2+B2)] / 12 T3 (I3/T32)=
to the plane 5 15
Rectangular
Perpendicular 0 10
plate I4 = (M2 L2) / 12 T4 (I4/T42)=
to the length 5 15
Perpendicular 0 10
I5 = ( M2 B2) / 12 T5 (I5/T52 ) =
to the breadth 5 15
Mean value of (I/T2) = -------------- kgm2/s2
Page 33
2. Moment of inertia of an irregular body
Time (t) taken Avg. Time (t)

Moment of inertia of an
Axis of No. Time
of No. of Time For 10 taken Period
T0 2 irregular body
suspension oscillations „t‟ sec oscillations „t‟ sec oscillation for 10 T0 = t/10
I0 =( I/ T2)mean x T02
oscillations
Perpendicular 0 10
I0 = -------
to its plane 5 15
 8 l   I 
2
Calculation of Rigidity modulus N/m
  4   2 
 r   T  mean
RESULT:
1. The moment of inertia of the given irregular body about an axis perpendicular to its plane is found to be I0 = -------------- kgm2
2. The rigidity modulus of the material of the wire is η = -------- N/m2.
PRECAUTION:
While changing the axis of the plates care should be taken to see that the wire does not break/twist. Therefore, the chuck nut should be
removed from the top.
Page 34
WORK SHEET
Page 36
ASSIGNMENT
1. Determine the characteristic properties of the freely decaying oscillation of the
torsional pendulum in a different medium.
2. Find the rigidity modulus of the copper wire of radius 0.5mm and length 60 cm
by using the expt. mean value of (I/T2).
3. Find the moment of inertia of the disc and the rigidity modulus of a Zinc suspension
wire. The radius and length of the suspension wire is 0.6mm, 60cm. Take Mass and
radius of the disc as 1.5kg, 7cm respectively.
4. Find the ratio of time periods of two identical torsion pendulums with moment of
inertia I1= 25x10-4 kg m2, I2=12.5x10-4kgm2.
5. Find the time period of oscillations of a torsional pendulum, if the torsional constant
of the wire is k =10π2 J/rad. The moment of inertia of the rigid body is 10 Kgm2 about
the axis of rotation.
VIVA – VOCE
1. What is a torsional pendulum?
2. How is the torsional pendulum different from a simple pendulum?
3. Define moment of inertia?
4. What is the difference between center of mass and center of gravity?
5. What are the factors which affect the moment of inertia?
6. Define rigidity modulus? Express its unit?
7. On what factors the rigidity modulus depends?
8. Explain the applications of torsional pendulum?
9. Define elasticity? Give example for elastic materials.
10. Define frequency of oscillation
Page 37
4. DETERMINATION OF PLANCK‟S CONSTANT AND WAVELENGTH OF IR LIGHTUSING LEDS.

Theory
Planck‟s constant (h), a physical constant, was introduced by a German physicist named Max
Planck in 1900. The significance of Planck‟s constant is that „quanta‟ (small packets of energy)
can be determined by frequency of radiation and Planck‟s constant. It describes the behavior of
particles and waves at atomic level as well as the particle nature of light. The Planck constant has
dimensions of energy multiplied by time, which are also the dimensions of action. In SI units, the
Planck constant is expressed in joule seconds (J·s). The dimensions may also be written as
momentum multiplied by distance (N·m·s), which are also the dimensions of angular
momentum. It is related to the quantization of light and matter. It can be seen as a subatomic-
scale constant. In a unit system adapted to subatomic scales, the electron-volt is the appropriate
unit of energy and the peta-hertz the appropriate unit of frequency. Atomic unit systems are
based on the Planck constant.
An LED is a two terminal semiconductor light source. In the unbiased condition a potential
barrier is developed across the p-n junction of the LED. When we connect the LED to an
external voltage in the forward biased direction, the height of the potential barrier across the
p-n junction is reduced. At a particular voltage the height of the potential barrier becomes
very low and the LED starts glowing, i.e., in the forward biased condition electrons crossing
the junction are excited, and when they return to their normal state, energy is emitted. This
particular voltage is called the knee voltage or the threshold voltage. Once the knee voltage
is reached, the current may increase but the voltage does not change.
The light energy emitted during forward biasing is given by
= ---------------(1)
Where, c -velocity of light; h -Planck‟s constant; λ -wavelength of light.

If “V” is the forward voltage applied across the LED when it begins to emit light (the knee
voltage), the energy given to electrons crossing the junction is,
= ---------------(2)
Equating (1) and (2), we get =

Or = ( )---------(3)
The knee voltage „V‟ can be measured for LED‟s with different values of „λ‟ (wavelength of
light).
Page 38
= ( ) --------(4)
Now from equation (4), we see that the slope “S” of a graph of „V‟ vs „1/λ‟ on the horizontal
axis is = ---------(5)
Slope
Figure: Graph of V versus 1/

Alternately, we find the value of the Planck‟s constant “h”, using the formula
= ( ) ------- (6)
SELF-EVALUATION
1. LED stands for?

a) Light Emitting Diode c) Light Emitted Diode
b) Light Emitter Diode d) None of these
2. The value of Planck‟s constant is
a) 6.63x10-34 Js b) 6.63x1024 Js c) 6.63x10-24 Js d) 6.63x1034 Js
3. An LED is used in
a) Reverse bias b) Forward bias c) An unbiased state d) Forward or reverse bias
4. Which one of the following is a forced vibration?
a) Pulling a child back on a swing
b) Mass suspended on a stretched string
c) Hitting a tuning fork
d) Vibration of a building during earthquake
5. The mechanical oscillation about an equilibrium point refers
a) Vibration c) The angle of incidence is less than the angle of refraction
b) Reverberation d) Resonance
Page 39
6. To determine Planck ‟s constant, we equate two energy. The name of these two are
a) Optical pumping and radiation c) Thermal energy and electrical energy
b) Electrical energy and radiation d) electron and hole energy
7. Can we achieve the population inversion process in LED too?
a) Yes b) No c) Maybe
8. What is the Red Color wavelength range?
a) 350–450 nm b) 458–580 nm c) 550–578 nm d) 620–750 nm
9. Which material do we use an LED?
a) Gallium arsenide b) Phosphorous c) Sodium d) Nitrate Oxide
10. How photons emitted from the LED and from which section of the LED?
a) Electron movements in the conduction band „n‟ side to „p‟ side
b) Hole transition in valence band; p-region
c) Electron transition in conduction band; n-region
d) Electron-hole recombination; in depletion region
Page 40
AIM: Determination of Planck‟s constant using known wavelength LEDs and also to find
wavelength of IR light.
Apparatus: 0-10 V power supply, a one-way key, a rheostat, a digital milli-ammeter, a
digital voltmeter, a 1 K resistor and different known wavelength LED‟s (Light-Emitting
Diodes).
Formula: Planck‟s constant “h” is given by (1) = ( )
Where e- the electron charge, c- the velocity of light, λ- wavelength of light,

V- knee voltage
By graphical method “h” is given by (2) = ( )
Where S- the slope of the graph.
Wavelength of IR LED is given by (3) +
Circuit diagram:
Figure: Circuit diagram.

Procedure:
Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
 Insert key to start the experiment.

 Adjust the rheostat value till the LED starts glowing, or in the case of the IR diode,
whose light is not visible, until the ammeter indicates that current has begun to increase.
 Corresponding voltage across the LED is measured using a voltmeter, which is the knee
voltage.
Page 41
 Repeat, by changing the LED and note down the corresponding knee voltage.
 Using the formula given, find the value of the Planck's constant.
 Replace the LED with IR LED and find its knee voltage. Using the average Planck‟s
constant and the knee voltage estimate the wavelength of the IR LED.
Tabular column:
1. To find Planck‟s constant:
Colour Wavelength ( ) Knee Voltage ( x V) 1/ (m-1) = (JS)
of LED (nm) V (volt) (m.V)
Blue 350
Green 548
Yellow 576
Red 620
2. To find wavelength of IR light:

Colour of LED Knee Voltage V(volt)
IR LED
𝑕
+
Results:
1. Planck‟s constant is found to be h= Js.

2. Planck‟s constant by graphical method is found to be h = Js.
3. Wavelength of IR LED is found to be = nm.
Page 42
WORK SHEET
Page 43
Page 44
ASSIGNMENT
1. What happens when an LED is directly connected to a power supply? Which is the
most suitable value of resistor if a power supply of 0-12 V is used?
2. Calculate the Ratio of Energies of Two Sources which emits Light of Wavelength
4000 and 5000 Å to show the Relation of Energy (E) is Inversely Proportional to the
Wavelength (λ).
3. A Light Source of λ = 3000 Å Emits 0.6 J of Energy. Calculate the Number of
Photons.
4. The minimum energy required for the emission of a metal electron is 13.24×10−19 J.
Calculate the critical frequency and the corresponding wavelength of the photon (threshold
wavelength) required to eject the electron?
5. The de-Broglie wavelength of a tennis ball of mass 60 g moving with a velocity of 10 m/s is
approximately (Planck‟s constant, h = 6.63×10-34 J s).
VIVA-VOCE
1. What is an LED?
2. What is the mechanism of emission of light in an LED?
3. Why light emission is not observed in other diodes?
4. What is the significance of Planck‟s constant?
5. How Planck‟s law is different from all other laws of black body?
6. What are the applications of an LED?
7. Why light emission is not observed in the reverse bias?
8. Why the product of wavelength and knee voltage is constant for all LEDs?
9. Mention the differences between LED and Laser light.
10. Mention the factors on which colour of the LED light depends.
Page 45
5. YOUNG‟S MODULUS BY SINGLE CANTILEVER
Theory
Elasticity is the Property by virtue of which materials undergoes deformation by the
application of deforming force and regain their original shape and size after the removal of
deforming forces. The materials which shows the above property are called elastics.
Example: metals, rubber, wood.
Stress: When elastic materials are subjected to external deforming force, a restoring force
develops inside the material which tries to bring back the material to is initial state after the
external force is removed. The restoring force developed inside the material per unit area of
its cross section is called stress.
Strain: When elastic materials are subjected to external deforming force, deformations are
produced in the material. As a result, the dimensions of the material will change. The ratio of
change in dimension (𝛥D) to its original dimension (D) is called strain
There are three types of stress and strain.
1. Longitudinal stress and strain
2. Volume or Bulk stress and strain
3. Shear or Tangential stress and strain
Hooke‟s law gives the relation between stress acting on an elastic material to the strain
produced in it. It states that within elastic limit, strain produced in an elastic material is
proportional to stress acting on the body i.e., stress 𝛼 strain
Or stress = E. strain
E=
Where “E” is a constant known as modulus of elasticity or coefficient of elasticity. It is a

characteristic property of the material. It depends on the nature of the material as well as type
of stress produced in the material.
There are three modulus of elasticity depending on the type of stress and strain.
1. Young‟s modulus 2. Bulk modulus 3. Rigidity modulus
Young‟s modulus is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain with in
the elastic limit.
Y = = /
/
Page 46
Beam:
A homogeneous body of uniform cross section whose length is large compared to its other
dimensions is called beam. Beams are designed to carry heavy load on it.
Figure: Types of beams

Cantilever:
The beam clamped at one end and loaded at the free end is called a single cantilever. The
beam bends under the action of a couple produced by the load. Upper surface of the beam
gets stretched and the lower surface gets compressed. The extension is maximum in the upper
most filaments and compression is maximum in the lower most ones. The surface which does
not get affected is known as neutral surface. If the bending is uniform, the longitudinal
filaments get bent into circular arcs in planes parallel to the plane of symmetry (plane of
bending). The line of intersection of the plane of bending with the neutral surface is called the
neutral axis.
The bending produced when a single cantilever is loaded is as shown in figure.
Figure: Bending moment of a single cantilever
Young‟s Modulus of the cantilever can be calculated by using the formula

4Mgl 3
Y Nm 2
bd 3
Page 47
Where, where, M – mass for which depression is found ( kg).

g - acceleration due to gravity (= 9.8 ms-2).
l - distance between the needle and fixed end (in m).
b & d - breadth and thickness of the wooden scale (in m).
δ - mean elevation produced (in m).
SELF EVALUATION
1. Increase in the length of a wire is always accompanied by a decrease in_________

a) Length b) Breadth c) Cross section d) Height
2. The ratio of longitudinal stress to linear strain is called______
a) Young modulus b) Bulk modulus c) Modulus of rigidity d) None
3. The bending moment of a beam depends on only_______
a) Young‟s modulus b) Bulk Modulus c) Poisson‟s ratio d) None
4. The depression produced in the free end of a cantilever is _________
a) y = 𝑊2𝐿 /3𝑌𝐼𝑔 b) y = 𝑊2𝐿 /𝑌𝐼𝑔 c) y = 𝑾𝑳𝟑 / 𝟑𝒀𝑰𝒈 d) None
5. ____________ is the perfectly plastic material.
a) Quartz fiber b) Putty c) Silver d) Platinum.
6. The ratio of maximum deflection of a beam to it ___________ is called stiffness of
the beam.
a) Load b) Slope c) Span d) Reaction at the support
7. In cantilever beam the deflection occurs at ______
a) Free end b) Point of loading c) Throughout d) Fixed end
8. For a constant force, a rope breaks due to stress. Which of the following is useful to reduce
the stress?
a) Increase the length of the rope b) Apply small force
c) Increase the cross sectional area of the rope d) Use a different material of rope
9. When a rope is pulled on either side, what is the stress acting on it?
a) Compressive stress b) Tensile stress c) Normal stress d) Tangential stress
10. What will happen to the elastic property of Gold when Potassium is added to gold?
a) The elastic property of gold decreases
b) The elastic property of gold remains unaltered
c)The elastic property of gold increases
d) Gold loses its elastic property
Page 48
AIM: - To determine the young‟s modulus of the material of the given beam by the method
of single cantilever.
APPARATUS: - Single cantilever setup, slotted weights, travelling microscope, reading lens
and lamp.
PRINCIPLE: The experiment is based on the theory of bending moment of the beam.
Bending moment of a beam depends on the following factors:
a) Young‟s modulus of the material of the beam
b) The cross section geometry of the beam
FORMULA:
2
4 Mgl 3 N/m
Y
bd 3
Where, M – mass for which depression is found (in kg).
g - acceleration due to gravity (= 9.8 ms-2).
l - distance between the needle and fixed end (in m).
b & d - breadth and thickness of the wooden scale (in m).
δ - mean elevation produced (in m)
Experimental setup:
Figure: Single cantilever
PROCEDURE:
 The tip of the needle (inverted image) on the single cantilever is made to coincide
with the intersection of the cross wire of the travelling microscope (with no load in
the hook).
 Note down the readings of the travelling microscope in the tabular column as the dead
load reading (ie. x g).
Page 49
 Now add some weight to the hook (say 20 g). Again coincide the tip of the needle to
the intersection of the cross wire and corresponding readings are noted in the tabular
column.
 This is repeated up to 100 g in steps of 20 g every time and corresponding readings
are noted in the tabular column.
 The experiment is repeated by decreasing the load in the weight hanger in steps of 20
g and the corresponding readings are taken and are tabulated.
 The depression or deflection of the cantilever beam „δ‟, for load „M‟ in kg is found
out from the tabular column.
 By using the breadth (b) and thickness (d) of the bar, the young‟s modulus of the
material of the beam is calculated.
OBSERVATIONS
Least count of travelling microscope:
Value of 1MSD and 1
LC  value of 1MSD  cm
Total number of VSD 50
TR = MSR+ (CVD x LC)
Page 50
Tabular column to find depression
Load in Load increasing Load decreasing Mean Load Load increasing Load decreasing Mean Depression
hanger MSR CVD TR MSR CVD TR R1 in MSR CVD TR MSR CVD TR R2 δ= R1~R2
(g) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) hanger (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(g)
X+0 X+60
X+20 X+80
X+40 X+10
Mean depression, δ = -----------x10-2m
CALCULATION:
2
4 Mgl 3 N/m
Y
bd 3
RESULT:-Young‟s modulus of the material of the beam is found to be Y= -------------N/m2
Page 51
WORK SHEET
Page 52
Page 53
ASSIGNMENTS
1. Determine the value of Young's modulus of given wooden bar having breadth 1cm and
thickness 0.4cm. Fix the distance between knife edges at 25 cm and distance between weight
hangers at 35 cm. Choose earth as the environment and perform the whole experiment in the
uniform bending arrangement.
2. Perform uniform bending experiment by selecting the material as steel and the breadth and
thickness of the material to be selected as 2cm and 0.3cm. Calculate the Young's modulus of
steel in earth by fixing the distance between knife edges at 35 cm and distance between
weight hangers at 45 cm.
3. Measure the elevation produced by the copper bar with load 300g by uniform bending
when the distance between the weight hanger at 50cm and knife edges at 25cm respectively.
The bar of breadth 1.5cm and thickness 0.2cm add for a load 300g in Moon.
4. Derive an expression for the Young‟s modulus of a circular beam using a single cantilever.
5. A brass bar of length 1m, area of cross section 0.01 m2 is clamped horizontally at one end.
A weight of 1 Kg is applied at the other end. What is depression produced? (Young‟s
modulus is 9.78×1010 N/m2).
VIVA-VOCE
1. Define Young‟s modulus.
2. How many types of stresses are there?
3. What is elasticity? Give an example for an elastic body.
4. Explain the terms stress, strain and load.
5. State Hook‟s law.
6. What is a beam?
7. Explain the principle of the experiment.
8. What is meant by bending moment?
9. Explain the terms neutral surface and neutral axis.
10. Give example of good elastic materials and their engineering applications.
Page 54
6. DETERMINATION OF NUMERICAL APERTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER
Theory
An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a
diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Optical fibers are used mainly to transmit
light between the two ends of the fiber and find wide usage in fiber-optic communications,
where they permit transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates)
than wire cables.
Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with lesser amounts
of loss; in addition, fibers are also immune to electromagnetic interference. The optical fiber
cable uses the principle of total internal reflection of light to transmit the information from
one place to another over very long distances due its low power loss.
Optical fibers consist mainly of a central cylindrical core made up of optically active
dielectric material and an outer cylinder is also optically active medium surrounding the core
medium with refractive index lesser than the core and this outer jacket coated with buffer to
protect the fiber from the surrounding chemical reactions.
Figure: Schematic representation of parts of Optical fiber
Total Internal Reflection:

The total internal reflection is basically the refraction phenomena of light in which a ray of
light traveling from optical denser to rarer medium, returns back to the denser medium.
During this kind of refraction there is no loss in the intensity of the refracted light. The
conditions for TIR are
(1). A ray of light should travel from denser to rarer medium
(2) The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
The TIR phenomenon is shown below.
Page 55
Figure: Total Internal Reflection phenomena (TIR)
Where: n1 is the refractive index of the denser medium.
θ1 is the incident angle between the light beam and the normal
n2 is the refractive index of the rare medium.
θ2 is the refractive angle between the light ray and the normal
θc is the critical angle
ACCEPTANCE ANGLE (θo) AND NUMERICAL APERTURE (NA):
Acceptance angle of an optical fiber is defined as the maximum value of angle of incidence at
the entrance of the core to achieve TIR in optical fiber. The light rays that are outside this
acceptance cone are not accepted by the optical fiber, that's why it is known as an acceptance
cone. Numerical Aperture (NA) gives the meaning of light gathering capability of an optical
fiber. Mathematically, NA can be measured in terms of sine of acceptance angle.
i.e., NA = Sin(θo)
If the value of NA is larger in its magnitude, then a greater amount of light is accepted by the
fiber.
Factors on which NA and θo depends are
 Refractive index of the both core and cladding
 Refractive index of the surrounding medium
 Nature of the material
SELF-EVALUATION
1. In optical fiber communications, the signal source is ________ waves.

a) Light b) Infrared c) Radio d) Very low-frequency.
2. In optical fiber, the outer layer is _________ and the inner layer is ________________ .
a) Core, cladding b) cladding, core c) transmit, reflect d) reflect, transmit
Page 56
3. In an optical fiber, the fiber core ____________ the cladding.
a) is denser than b) has the same density as c) is less dense than d) is another name for
4. The material used for fabrication of inner core of an optical fiber is
a) glass or plastic b) bimetallic c) copper d) liquid
5. In an optical fiber, the fiber core ____________ the cladding.
a) is denser than b) has the same density as c)is less dense than d) is another name for
6. Unlike wired media, optical fibers are highly resistant to
a) refraction b) low-frequency transmission
c) electromagnetic interference d) high-frequency transmission
7. A step-index fiber has specified parameters for refractive index of fiber core and cladding
as 1.50 and 1.46, respectively. Its numerical aperture is
a) 0.344 b) 0.156 c) 0.486 d) 0.244
8. A step-index fiber has specified parameters for refractive index of fiber core and cladding
as 1.50 and 1.33, respectively. Its acceptance angle will be approximately.
a) 25° b) 20° c)15° d)10°
9. Consider a ray of light propagating from one medium to another medium having different
indexes of refraction. If the incidence angle is greater than the specified critical angle, then
_______ occurs.
a) Reflection b) Refraction c) Diffraction d) Scattering
10. When the incidence angle is ___________ the specified critical angle, the light rays bend
along the intersection line of two different mediums of propagation.
a) more than b)less than c) equal to d) not related with
Page 57
AIM: To determine the Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture of the given optical fiber.
APPARATUS: Laser source, Optical fiber, Screen, Scale.
PRINCIPLE: The Sine of the acceptance angle of an optical fiber is known as the numerical
aperture of the fiber. The acceptance angle can also be measured as the angle spread by the
light signal at the emerging end of the optical fiber. Therefore, by measuring the diameter of
the light spot on a screen and by knowing the distance from the fiber end to the screen, we
can measure the acceptance angle and thereby the numerical aperture of the fiber.
FORMULA:
1. The Acceptance angle, D
 0  tan 1  
 2L 
Where D – the diameter of the bright circle formed on screen, L – the distance between the
optical fiber end and screen.
2. Numerical Aperture, NA  sin 0
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Optical fiber cable

Laser source
c d
Fiber stand b
Screen
L
PROCEDURE:
 Switch on the laser source and adjust the distance between the output end of the
optical fiber and the screen „L‟ (say 2 cm).
 Place a graph sheet on the screen and observe the spot created on the graph in the
shape of a circle. Mark the points „a‟,‟b‟,‟c‟ & „d‟ on the inner bright circle as shown
Page 58
in the diagram. Note down the horizontal diameter D1 and vertical diameter D2 of the
inner bright circle in the tabular column.
 Repeat the above steps for different values of L (for 4 cm, 6 cm, 8 cm and 10 cm).
 Find the Acceptance angle from the tabular column and hence the Numerical aperture.
TABULAR COLUMN:
Trail L Horizontal Vertical Mean Acceptance Numerical

No. (in cm) diameter D1 diameter D2 Diameter D angle aperture NA
(in cm) (in cm) (in cm)  D
 0  tan 1  
NA  sin  0
 2L 
1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
5 10
 0 mean  NAmean 
CALCULATIONS:
1. The Acceptance angle, D

 0  tan 1  
 2L 
2. Numerical Aperture, NA  sin  0
RESULT: The Angle of acceptance and Numerical aperture of the given optical fiber are
found to be  0 =
NA =
Page 59
NOTE:
 The source of error in this experiment is, marking of the dark circle. The diameter
markings should be done only on the inner dark circle, not for the outer circle.
Refer to the diagram given above for correct markings. Error in this part would be
more as it depends on the eye sensitivity of the observer also.
 Avoid staring at the light spot for longer times, as it will strain the eye quickly. Do not
view the laser light directly from source as it may damage eye permanently
 Do not bend the fiber with sharp bending curvatures as it may damage the fiber
permanently. Do not touch the fiber end points with bare hands as it may contaminate
the fiber open end surface and it may degrade the output quality.
Page 60
WORK SHEET
Page 61
ASSIGNMENTS
1. A step-index fiber has a core index of refraction of n1 = 1.425. The cut-off angle for light
entering the fiber from air is found to be 8.50o. (a) What is the numerical aperture of the
fiber? (b) What is the index of refraction of the cladding of this fiber? (c) If the fiber
were submersed in water, what would be the new numerical aperture and cut-off angle?
2. A fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.358. (a) What is the cut-off angle when light enters
the fiber from air? (b) What is the cut-off angle for light entering the fiber from water?
3. A given fiber has a cut-off angle (when light enters the fiber from air) of 32°. (a) What is
the numerical aperture of the fiber? (b) If the core of the fiber has an index of refraction
of 1.56, what is the index of the cladding?
4. A beam of light going through a medium with an index of refraction of 1.14 has an angle
of incidence of 48°with another medium. If the light wave is at a new angle of 39°, what
is the index of refraction for the second medium
5. Light travels from air into an optical fiber with an index of refraction of 1.44. (a) In
which direction does the light bend? (b) If the angle of incidence on the end of the fiber
is 22o, what is the angle of refraction inside the fiber? (c) Sketch the path of light as it
changes media.
VIVA-VOCE
1. What is the basic principle that can guide the signal through optical fiber?
2. Define Numerical aperture.
3. What is acceptance angle?
4. What are the differences between Step Index and Graded index fibers?
5. What is V-number?
6. Difference between the SM and MM optical fibers
7. Define Total Internal Reflection phenomenon.
8. Explain the propagation of optical waves inside the fiber medium.
9. Explain the significance of core and cladding medium with varying R.I in an optical fiber.
Comment why n2> n1
10. Mention the different types of losses in optical fiber communications.
Page 62
7. VERIFICATION OF SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE USING L. C. R.
CIRCUITS
Theory
LCR circuit is a circuit with three elements. These three elements are Inductor, Resistor and
Capacitor. These elements can be connected in series or in parallel. This problem can be
solved using the impedance formula for LCR circuit. At resonance, impedance is equal to
resonance. Substitute this relation in the impedance formula for the LCR circuit and then
calculate the resonant frequency.
Resonance is the phenomenon in the circuit when the output of that electric circuit is
maximum at one particular frequency. In an LCR circuit, this frequency is determined by the
values of inductance, conductance, and resistance. If the inductor, capacitor and resistor are
connected in series then the circuit is called a Series resonance circuit.
But, if they are connected in parallel, then the circuit is called Parallel Resonance circuit.
In LCR series circuits, resonance occurs when the value of inductive and capacitive
reactances have equal magnitude but have a phase difference of 180°. Thus, they cancel each
other.
Impedance of a LCR circuit is given by, Z=√(R2+(XL−XC)2) ……………….(1)
Where, R is the resistance, XL is the inductive resonance, XCis the capacitive resonance
At resonance, Z=R, ∴XL=XC
Substituting values in above expression we get,
ωL=1/ωC,
2
∴ω =1/ LC
∴ω=1/ √LC ...........................(2)
But, we know f=ω/2π
Rearranging the above expression we get,
ω=f×2πω…………………….(3)
Page 63
Substituting equation (3) in equation. (2) we get,
f×2π=1/√LC
∴f=1/√2πLC ………………………(4)
This is known as the resonance frequency of a series LCR circuit.
The graph below shows the resonance frequency of the series LCR circuit. Where, f is in
Hertz, L is in Henry and C is in Farad.
Resonant frequency for a series circuit as well as parallel circuit is the same.
Note:
In LCR series, Impedance is minimum at resonance. Thus, Zmin=R
From Ohm's law, we know resistance is inversely proportional to current.
Thus, as the resistance is minimum in series LCR circuit, at the resonance, current will be
maximum.
When XL>XC, the LCR circuit is inductive.
When XL<XC, the LCR circuit is capacitive.
The circuit impedance at resonance is called Dynamic Impedance of the circuit.
SELF EVALUATION
1. A pure resistance R, pure capacitance C and pure inductance L are connected in series and
the impedance of the circuit at resonance is Z0. If they are connected in parallel to each other,
the maximum impedance at resonance will be:
a) Less than R b) dependent on the values of C and L c) Equal to Z0 d) More than R
2. To tune a parallel resonant circuit to a higher frequency, the capacitance should be
a) Increased b) Decreased c) Left alone d) Replaced with inductance
Page 64
3. A 15 Ω resistor, an inductor with 8 Ω inductive reactance, and a capacitor with 12 Ω
capacitive reactance are in parallel across an ac voltage source. The circuit impedance is
a) 12.7 Ω b) 127 Ω c) 4,436 Ω d) 6,174 Ω
4. In a parallel RLC circuit, the smaller reactance determines the net reactance of the circuit.
a) True b ) False
5. If the value of C in a series RLC circuit is decreased, the resonant frequency
a) Is not affected b) Increases c) Is reduced to zero d) Decreases
6. In a series RLC circuit that is operating above the resonant frequency, the current
a) Lags the applied voltage b) Leads the applied voltage
c) Is in phase with the applied voltage d) Is zero
7. The impedance at the resonant frequency of a series RLC circuit with L = 20 mH, C = 0.02
μF, and RW = 90 Ω is
a) 0 Ω b) 90 Ω c) 20 Ω d) 40 Ω
8. A 24 Ω resistor, an inductor with a reactance of 120 Ω, and a capacitor with a reactance of
120 Ω are in series across a 60 V source. The circuit is at resonance. The voltage across the
inductor is
a) 60 V b) 660 V c) 30 V d) 300 V
9. The phenomena of resonance is used in
a) Radio b) Capacitor c) Amplifier d) Transformer
10. In a series LCR circuit, the magnitude of resonance frequency can be altered by changing
the value of
a) R only b) C only c) L only d) L or C
Page 65
AIM: To study the frequency response of the given series and parallel resonance circuits,
and hence to determine the inductance value of the unknown inductor, bandwidth and quality
factor of the circuit in series resonance.
APPARATUS: Audio frequency oscillator, ac millimeter, standard inductance coil, standard
resistors and capacitors, patch cards, etc.
PRINCIPLE: This experiment is based on the principle of resonance in AC electrical
circuits. An LCR circuit is essentially an oscillator; therefore, it will have a definite natural
frequency depending on the value of L & C. When the natural frequency of the LCR matches
with the applied frequency of the signal generator, resonance takes place. In the case of series
LCR the current at resonance will be maximum, and in the case of parallel LCR current at
resonance will be minimum. A series LCR will be used as a tuning circuit and the parallel
circuit will be used as a filter circuit.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
(Choose L = L1, R = 750Ω & C = 0.01μF)
SERIES RESONANCE PARALLEL RESONANCE
FORMULA:
1. The unknown Inductance L is given by:
1
L
4 f r 2C
2
Where , f r = Resonant frequency (Hz), C = Capacitor value of the given LCR circuit. (μF)
2. The Band width of the given series LCR circuit is:
Δf = f2- f1 (Hz)
Page 66
Where f1 and f2 are lower and upper cut-off frequencies
fr
3. Quality factor Q is given by: Q
f
PROCEDURE: SERIES RESONANCE
 Connect the components, inductance L = L1, Resistance R = 750Ω, Capacitance C =
0.01μF in series and the function generator as shown in the circuit diagram. Initially the
circuit should be closed by switching on the power supply. The amplitude in the signal
generator is adjusted for an optimum value and the signal generator should be adjusted for
sinusoidal mode. The frequency in the signal generator is set to 1 KHz.
 The frequency is varied in steps of 500 Hz up to 4000 Hz, then insteps of 100 Hz
from 4000 Hz to 5500 Hz, then in steps of 500 Hz till 8000 Hz and the corresponding current
for each frequency is noted down. At a particular frequency we observe that, the current in
circuit becomes maximum and this frequency is called resonant frequency (fr).
 A graph is plotted between current and the frequency and the curve obtained is called
the frequency response curve of the given series LCR circuit. The bandwidth of the LCR
circuit gives us the measure of appropriate frequencies, which the given circuit can pick up
when used as a tuning circuit. The band width can be calculated as follows: in the frequency
response curve at a value of current equal to Imax/ √2 a straight line parallel to frequency
axis is drawn which cuts the curve at points A & B, the frequencies corresponding to A&B
are called f1& f2 respectively. The difference in f2& fl is called bandwidth. The quality factor
Q gives us the sharpness of the resonance curve which is given by the ratio of resonant
frequency (fr) to band width (Δf)
Figure: Series resonance graph
Page 67
PARALLEL RESONANCE:
 The circuit is connected as shown in the circuit diagram. The amplitude adjusted for
series resonance should be kept constant. The frequency is varied from 1 KHz to 8 KHz as
before and the corresponding current is noted down in the millimeter. In this case we observe
that the current in the circuit gradually decreases in the beginning and reaches a minimum
value at resonance. The frequency corresponding to minimum current in the circuit is called
resonant frequency of the given parallel LCR.
 Since we are using the same value of Inductance (L) and Capacitance (C) for both
series and parallel LCR circuit the value of resonant frequency in both cases should match. A
plot between current and the frequency is drawn as follows.
Figure: Parallel resonance graph
TABULAR COLUMN : Choose L = L1, R = 750Ω & C = 0.01μF

Series LCR circuit Parallel LCR circuit
Frequency Current (mA) Frequency Current (mA)
(Hz) (Hz)
1000 1000
1500 1500
2000 2000
2500 2500
3000 3000
3500 3500
4000 4000
4100 4100
4200 4200
4300 4300
4400 4400
Page 68
4500 4500
4600 4600
4700 4700
4800 4800
4900 4900
5000 5000
5100 5100
5200 5200
5300 5300
5400 5400
5500 5500
6000 6000
6500 6500
7000 7000
7500 7500
8000 8000
Calculations:
1
(1) L  (H)
4 f r 2C
2
(2) Δf = f2 - f1 (Hz)
fr
(3) Q 
f
RESULT: The frequency response curve is studied, the values of

Series Resonant frequency = …………………….Hz
Unknown Inductance = ………………………….H
Bandwidth= ……………………………………...Hz
Quality factor =…………………………………...
Parallel resonant frequency = …………
Page 69
WORK SHEET
Page 70
Page 71
ASSIGNMENT
1. Find the resonant frequency of an LC circuit consisting of a 0.22 F capacitor and a 1.7
mH.
2. An RLC series circuit has a 1.00 k Ω resistor, a 145 mH inductor and a 25.0 nF capacitor.
The voltage source has 408 V. What is the resonant frequency of the circuit?
3. An AC circuit is composed of a serial connection of a resistor with resistance 50 Ω, a coil
with inductance 0.3 H and a capacitor with capacitance 15 μF. The circuit is connected to an
AC voltage source with amplitude 25 V and frequency 50 Hz. Determine the amplitude of
electric current in the circuit and a phase difference between the voltage and the current.
4. A series resonance network consisting of a resistor of 30 Ω, a capacitor of 2 F and an
inductor of 20 mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply voltage which has a constant
output of 9 volts at all frequencies. Calculate, the resonant frequency, the current at
resonance, the voltage across the inductor and capacitor at resonance, the quality factor and
the bandwidth of the circuit.
5. A series circuit consists of a resistance of 4 Ω, an inductance of 500 mH and a variable

capacitance connected across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate the capacitance require to
produce a series resonance condition, and the voltages generated across both the inductor and
the capacitor at the point of resonance.
VIVA VOCE
1. What are inductor, capacitor and resistor?
2. What are active and passive circuit elements?
3. What is resonance?
4. Why current is maximum at resonance in series resonance circuit?
5. Why current is minimum at resonance in parallel resonance circuit?
6. What is meant by quality factor?
7. Is it possible to arrive at resonance without a resistor in either series or parallel LCR
circuit?
8. What do you mean by sharpness of resonance?
9. Why series resonance circuit is called an acceptor circuit?
10. Why parallel resonance circuit is called a rejecter circuit.
Page 72
8. MEASUREMENT OF RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF A PLANO CONVEX LENS
USING NEWTON RINGS METHOD
Theory:
Interference: The combination of two or more electromagnetic waveforms to form a
resultant wave in which the displacement is either reinforced or cancelled. During
interference, the energy gets redistributed. Interference may be constructive or destructive in
nature.
Figure: Interference of two waves leading to constructive or destructive interference.
Coherence describes the properties of the interrelation between physical quantities of a single wave or
between several waves. Two waves are coherent when they have a constant relative phase or when
they have zero or constant phase difference and the same frequency. Coherence is also the property
which enables waves to have stationary interference.
Lens: A lens is a piece of transparent glass which concentrates or disperses light rays when
passed through them by refraction. Due to the magnifying property, lenses are used in
telescopes and other magnifying devices. They are employed in cameras for gathering the
light rays.
Theory of Thin film interference:
A film is said to be thin when its thickness is about the order of one wavelength of visible
light which is taken to be 550 nm. When light is incident on such a film, a small portion gets
reflected from the upper surface and a major portion is transmitted into the film. Again a
small part of the transmitted component is reflected back into the film by the lower surface
and the rest of it emerges out of the film. These reflected beams reunite to produce
interference. Also the transmitted beams interfere too. This type of interference that takes
Page 73
place in thin films is called interference by division of amplitude. In this method, the
amplitude of the input beam is divided into two or more parts either by partial reflection or
refraction. Thus we have coherent beams produced by division of amplitude.
Figure: Interference of two waves both in reflection and refraction of waves cases.
These beams travel different paths and are finally brought together to produce interference. The
effects resulting from the superposition of two beams are referred to as two beam interference and
those resulting from superposition of more than two beams are referred to as multiple beam
interference.
Figure: Rays interference to determine the optical path-length.

The interference in thin films, Newton's rings, and Michelson's interferometer are examples
of two beam interference and Fabry-Perot's interferometer is an example of multiple beam
interference.
Page 74
FIGURE:
Figure: Experimental setup of Newton‟s rings.
SELF EVALUATION
1. In Newton‟s ring experiment, the diameter of the 15th ring was found to be 0.590 cm
and that of the 5th ring was 0.336 cm. If the radius of plano convex lens is 100 cm,
compute the wavelength of light.
a) 5885 Å b) 5880 Å c) 5890 Å d) 5850 Å
2. In newton‟s ring experiments, the diameter of bright rings is proportional to
a) Square room of odd natural numbers c) Natural Numbers
b) Even natural number d) Square room of natural number
3. In Newton‟s rings experiment, if monochromatic source of light is replaced by another
monochromatic source of higher wavelength. What will be the effect on radius?
a) Radius will decrease b) Radius will increase
c) There will be no effect
d) Radius will remain constant but there will be more brightness.
Page 75
4. In this experiment, if we reduce the radius of curvature of Plano Convex lens to zero,
what will be effect on Newton‟s rings?
a) They will become more bright c) They will become more dark
b) They will disappear d) They will be more dense.
5. In Newton‟s ring experiment, it is essential that
a) The white light from a narrow slit falls normally on the film
b) The light from an extended source is incident normally on the film
c) The white light falls normally on the film
d) There must be only air and no other medium in between the lens and the plane glass
plate.
6. In Newton‟s ring experiment, circular rings are formed
a) By division of amplitude c) By division of wavelength
b) By diffraction d) By polarization
7. n Newton‟s ring experiment, the expression for the measurement of wavelength is
a) λ= D2n+p - D 2n/4R c) λ= D2n+p - D 2n /4pR
b) λ= D2n+p - D 2n *4pR d) λ= 4R/ D2n+p - D 2n
8. In Newton‟s ring experiment the diameter of the rings are proportional to
a) λ b) λ2 c)√λ d) 1/√λ
9. An oil floating on the surface of water appears colored in white light. the expected
thickness of the film is
a) 100Å b) 10000 Å c) 1mm d) 1cm
10. The modification of the distribution of light energy due to the superposition of two or
more waves is called
a) Interference b) Diffraction c) Refraction d) Polarization.
Page 76
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
AIM: To determine the radius of curvature of a given Plano convex lens by Newton‟s rings
method.
APPARATUS: Plano convex lens, Plane glass plate, stand with a turnable glass plate,
traveling microscope, sodium vapor lamp etc.
PRINCIPLE: This experiment is based on the principle of interference of light in thin films.
In this experiment, an air film is formed between a glass plate and a plano-convex lens. When
a monochromatic light is made to incident on the combination of a plano-convex lens and the
glass plate, light partially transmits and partially reflects, the transmitted part of the light
passes through the bottom glass plate. The light components reflected from the bottom
surface of the lens and top surface of the glass plate of light undergo interference to form
Newton‟s Rings.
FORMULA:
The radius of curvature of the Plano-convex lens is given by
( − )
=
( − )
Where, R= radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens in m.
Dm= diameter of the mth dark ring in m.
Dn= diameter of the nth dark ring in m.
λ= Wavelength of sodium light i.e., 5893 x10-10 m.
FIGURE:
Figure: Experimental setup of Newton‟s rings and the ring patterns.
Page 77
PROCEDURE:
 Initially the Plano convex lens is tested to find out the curved surface and the plane
surface. Now we should place the curved surface towards the glass plate, care should be
taken to see that there are no dust particles on both the surfaces of the lens and the glass
plate.
 Now the inclined glass plate is to be adjusted until the intensity of light in the eyepiece
becomes maximum. Later the focusing screw of the traveling microscope is adjusted until
the fringe patterns are seen. Initially the center of the fringe pattern may not appear, and
then the traveling microscope is aligned such that the intersection of the cross wires
coincides with the center of the fringe pattern.
 In an ideal Newton‟s Ring setup there will be a central dark spot which corresponds to the
zeroth ring of the system, in case if the central dark spot is not present the innermost ring
should be taken as ring no 1, initially the vertical cross wire of the traveling microscope
should be taken tangentially to 12th dark ring, therefore 12 rings should be counted
carefully towards left of the centre and the vertical cross wire should be moved
gradually till tangential to the outer portion of the 12th ring. The reading corresponding to
the 12th dark ring is noted down and tabulated in the given tabular column.
 Later the vertical cross wire should be moved towards the centre and it should be made
coinciding with 10th dark ring and the reading for the 10th dark ring is noted. Similarly,
readings of 8th, 6th, 4th and 2nd dark ring of the left hand side are noted down by adjusting
the vertical cross wire tangential to the respective rings.
 Now the cross wire should be moved towards the RHS (right side) of the ring pattern. On
the right side, readings should be taken in the ascending manner i.e. in the order 2, 4, 6,8,
10 & 12.
 The difference between the LHS and RHS readings will give us the diameter of the
respective ring. Thus the diameters of 12th, 10th& 8th are calculated and tabulated under
the column Dm. Similarly, diameters of 6th, 4th& 2nd rings are calculated and tabulated
under the column Dn.
 The values of Dm2 and Dn2 are separately determined and finally the value of (Dm2- Dn2) is
determined in each case. As per the theory of the Newton‟s ring the value of (Dm2- Dn2) in
each case should be a constant. Therefore, the mean value of (Dm2- Dn2) is found out and
Page 78
radius of curvature (R) of the Plano convex lens can be determined by using the given
formula.
( − )
=
( − )
OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of Screw gauge type traveling microscope:
Distance moved on pitch scale on n rotations

Pitch of screw gauge = ------------------------------------------------------------
No of rotations given to head scale (n)
Pitch = ………… mm
Pitch
L.C = -----------------------------------------------------------
No.of divisions on the head scale
L.C = ………….mm
TABULAR COLUMN:
Ring No. PSR (mm) HSR TR= PSR+(HSRxLC) (mm)

LHS 12
10
8
6
4
2
RHS 2
4
6
8
10
12
Page 79
To determine Dm2 – Dn2 :
TM TM
reading reading
Ring Diameter Ring Diameter
(mm) Dm2 (mm) Dn2 Dm2 – Dn2
No Dm= Lm-Rm No Dn= Ln-Rn
Lef Righ (mm2) Righ (mm2) (mm2)
„m‟ (mm) „n‟ Left (mm)
t t t
Ln
Lm Rm Rn
12. 6.
10. 4.
8. 2.
Mean (Dm2 – Dn2) = …………….mm2 = ……………x 10-6 m2
RESULT: The radius of curvature of the given Plano-convex lens R = ………m.
Page 80
PRECAUTIONS:
1. While adjusting for the ring pattern, care should be taken to see that the centre portion of
the Plano convex lens is right below the objective lens of the traveling microscope.
2. While taking readings the cross wire should always be tangential to the outer portion of
the ring.
Page 81
WORK SHEET
Page 82
Page 83
ASSIGNMENTS
1. In a Newton‟s rings experiment the diameter of the 15th ring was found to be 0.59 cm and
that of the 5th ring is 0.336 cm. If the radius of curvature of the lens is 100 cm, find the
wavelength of the light.
2. Newton‟s rings are observed in the reflected light of wavelength 5900 Å. The diameter of
10th dark ring is 0.5 cm. Find the radius of curvature of the lens used.
3. Calculate the thickness of air film at the 10th dark ring in a Newton‟s rings system, viewed
normally by a reflected light of wavelength 500 nm. The diameter of the 10th dark ring is
2 mm.
4. In a Newton‟s ring experiment, the diameter of the 5th ring is 0.30 cm and diameter of the
15th ring is 0.62cm. Find the diameter of the 25th ring?
5. In a Newton‟s ring experiment, the diameter of the 6th ring is 0.45 cm and diameter of the
20th ring is 1.77 cm. Find the diameter of the 7th ring?
VIVA- VOCE
1. What do you mean by interference of light?
2. What are interference fringes?
3. Is there any loss of energy in interference phenomenon?
4. What is the physical significance of this phenomenon?
5. How are these rings formed?
6. Why are the rings circular?
7. What may be the reason if the rings are not perfectly circular?
8. Sometimes the centre is bright, why?
9. Why do you make the light fall on the convex lens normally?
10. What are the uses of Newton‟s rings?
Page 84
9. DETERMINATION OF MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF CIRCULAR COIL
CARRYING CURRENT AND EARTH‟S HORIZONTAL COMPONENT OF
MAGNETIC FIELD
Theory
Biot-Savart‟s Law
In 1820 Oersted found that a magnetic needle when placed near a current carrying
conductor showed deflection, by which he proved that a current carrying conductor produces
magnetic field. In the same year Jean Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart formulated the equation
for magnetic field produced due to a current carrying element (element is an infinitely small
length of conductor). Savart‟s law when combined with the principle of superposition is used
to calculate the magnetic field due to many types of current carrying conductors, namely,
finite length of conductor, infinite length of conductor, circular coil, solenoid etc.
Let us consider a conductor of length carrying
I
a current I. let the conductor be imagined to be
made up of large number of infinitely small P
segments of length called current elements.

Let P be the point the magnetic field
due to the current element being calculated.
Figure: Biot-Savart‟s law
Let the position vector from the current element to the point P be .
Statement: The magnetic field at any point due to a current element is

(1) directly proportional to the magnitude of current I ( )
(2) directly proportional to the length of the current element ( )
(3) directly proportional to sin of the angle between r and dl
(4) inversely proportional to the square of the distance between dl and P
Combining all the four facts, 𝛼 =𝐾

Where K is the constant of proportionality which depends on the medium between the
Page 85
point P and the current element and also on the system of units used. For free space and in
the S.I unit.
𝐾= =1 𝑚
𝜋
Hence Biot-Savart‟s law in S.I units can be written as
=( ) …. (1)
Laplace law or Principle of superposition: It states that, “the total magnetic field produced
at a point due to a current carrying conductor is equal to the vector sum of magnetic fields
produced by all the current elements”.
Magnetic field due to a circular coil or loop carrying current at any point along the axis
of a circular current loop:
Consider a circular loop of conductor of radius r and carrying a current I, as shown in figure.
Let P be the point at any distance x along the axis of the coil from the centre O at which the
magnetic field B to be calculated.
d
B
r
I P
d
B
Figure: Magnetic field at any point along the axis of a circular current loop
If the coil has n turns, then
= T …. (2)
( ) /
This is the formula for magnetic field at any point along the axis of a circular coil
carrying current.
If the point P lies at the centre of the coil, then
= T …. (3)
Page 86
Earth itself is a huge bar magnet: Magnetic fields originate from varying electric currents,
so we can conclude that circulating electric currents in the Earth's molten metallic core are
the Origin of the magnetic field.
Due to the rotation of earth about its axis, since every substance is made up of charged
particles, a substance rotating about an axis is equivalent to circulating current, which are
responsible for the magnetization.
The earth‟s core is very hot and molten. Circulating ions in the highly conducting liquid
region of the earth‟s core could form current loops and hence magnetic fields. In the outer
layers of earth‟s atmosphere, gases are in the ionized state on account of cosmic layers. As
earth‟s rotates, strong electric currents are set up due to movement of (charged) ions, which
are responsible for the earth‟s magnetization.
The earth‟s magnetic field can be resolved into two components, horizontal and vertical
components. A freely suspended bar magnet aligns in the north south direction, because of
the horizontal component of earth‟s magnetic field, BH, which is a constant at a given place.
An imaginary vertical plane passing through the length of the freely suspended or pivoted
magnet at a given place is called magnetic meridian.
Tangent law in magnetism: According to tangent law, if there is a magnetic field, B,
perpendicular to horizontal component of earth‟s magnetic field, BH, then a freely suspended
or pivoted magnet aligns in the resultant of the two fields and the strength of magnetic field,
B, is proportional to the tangent of the deflection.
B  BH tan T …. (4)
If B H is known, by measuring θ, B can be determined. In this experiment, the magnetic
field at different points along the axis of a circular coil is determined using a compass box by
measuring θ and using tangent law we calculate BExp. This is compared with the value
obtained from the equation (2). Since this equation is derived from Biot-Savart‟s law, we can
indirectly prove the validity of Biot-Savart‟s law. As the strength of the magnetic field
decreases along the axis, a graph of distance from the centre of the coil against B, gives the
variation of magnetic field along the axis, which must be symmetric on either side of the coil
along the axis.
Page 87
SELF EVALUATION
1. Magnetic fields are produced due to
a) Stationary charges b) Moving charges c) Both a and b d) None of these
2. 1 Gauss =
a) 104 Tesla b) 102 Tesla c) 10-4 Tesla d) None of these
3. The magnetic field density along the axial line of a circular coil carrying current
a) Zero b) Constant c) Varies with distance from the center of the coil d) None of
these
4. In magnetostatics, the magnetic field generated by a steady current is given by
a) Biot-Savart‟s Law b) Lenz‟s law c) Faraday‟s Law d) Ohm‟s Law
5. The magnetic field developed at different points on the axial line of a circular coil is
a) Directly proportional to the current b) Inversely proportional to the current
c) Independent of the current d) Directly proportional to the square of the current
6. Magnetic needle was found by
a) Faraday b) Newton c) Bardeen d) Oersted
7. Formula for magnetic field at any point along the axis of a circular coil carrying
current.
a). =( b) = c) =( d) =
) / ( ) / ) / ( ) /
8. B  BH tan is known as
a) Biot- Savart‟s Law b) Faraday Law c) Tangent Law d) Lenz‟s Law
9. Ampere‟s law states that
a) Divergence of H is same as the flux b) Curl of D is same as the current
c) Divergence of E is zero d) Curl of H is same as the current density
10. When a magnetic compass needle is carried nearby to a straight wire carrying current,
then
(I) the straight wire cause a noticeable deflection in the compass needle.
(II) the alignment of the needle is tangential to an imaginary circle with straight wire as its
centre and has a plane perpendicular to the wire
a) (I) is correct b) (II) is correct
c) both (I) and (II) are correct d) neither (I) nor (II) is correct
Page 88
AIM: To study the variation of magnetic field intensity along the axis of a circular coil
carrying current and to find earth‟s horizontal component of magnetic field (BH).
APPARATUS: Deflection magnetometer, sprit level, commutator, ammeter, variable power
supply and connecting wires.
FORMULA:
According to Biot-Savarts law, the magnetic field at any point along the axis of a circular coil
is given by,
= *( ) /
+ T
Where B – the magnetic field intensity at the centre of a circular coil,

n – Number of turns in the TG coil,
a – radius of the coil
x – Distance between the center of the coil and pointer in the compass box
 0 - Permeability of free space = 4πx10-7 Hm-1.
I – the current through the coil
According to Tangent law, the magnetic field at any point along the axis of a coil is given by
B  BH tan T
Where “BH” – horizontal component of earth‟s magnetic field and “θ” – mean deflection in
TG.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
A
x
Figure: Circuit diagram of magnetic intensity due to a circular coil carrying current
Page 89
PROCEDURE:
To set the TG in the magnetic meridian

 The compass box is placed at the centre of the circular coil (x = 0 cm position).
 Rotate the plane of the TG coil such that it is parallel to the magnetic needle (now the
TG is in the magnetic meridian).
 Rotate the compass box (without disturbing the alignment of TG) so that the
aluminium pointer reads 0-0 (in this position the plane of TG reads 90°-90°).
To study the variation of magnetic intensity of a circular coil carrying current
 Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
 Switch on the current source and set the current in order to obtain a deflection around
60o in the compass box, the deflections θ1 and θ2 are noted.
 Reverse the current direction using the commutator and note the corresponding
deflections θ3 and θ4. Calculate the mean (say θ) of the deflections θ1, θ2, θ3 and θ4.
 Shift the compass box from the centre to the position x = 5 cm, 10 cm, 15cm, in any
one side and note the mean deflections in each case as before. (The deflection should
not go less than 30o)
 Tabulate the readings in the tabular column and using the formula find B and BH.
TABULAR COLUMN:
Radius of the coil, a = 8.2 cm and for n = 50 turns
Sl. Distance “x” Deflections on the eastern arm B (10-6 T)

No. from the
Mean θ tan θ
centre
(10-2 m) θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4
1 0
2 5
3 10
4 15
Mean B=
Page 90
Calculations:
1 = *( ) /
+
2. BH = B/tan
Result:
(1) The value of magnetic field at the center of the coil is found to be B = T
(2) The value of Earth‟s horizontal component of magnetic field is found to be BH = T
Page 91
WORK SHEET
Page 92
Page 93
ASSIGNMENT:
1. A circular coil of wire has 100 turns of radius 12 cm, and carries a current of 1 A in a
clockwise direction when viewed from the right side. Find the magnitude and direction of the
magnetic field.
2. The magnetic field due to a current carrying circular loop of radius 3 m at a point on the
axis at a distance of 4 m from the centre is 54 μT. What will be its value at the centre of the
loop?
3. A circular coil of radius 5 × 10-2 m and with 40 turns is carrying a current of 0.25 A.
Determine the magnetic field of the circular coil at the center.
4. A long straight wire carrying current of 30 A is placed in an external uniform magnetic
field of induction 4 x 10–4T. The magnetic field is acting parallel to the direction of current.
Calculate, the magnitude of the resultant magnetic induction in tesla at a point 2.0 cm away
from the wire.
5. Compute the magnitude of the magnetic field of a long, straight wire carrying a current of
1 A at distance of 1 m from it. Compare it with Earth‟s magnetic field.
VIVA- VOCE
1. What is the principle involved in the experiment?

2. State Biot-Savart‟s law
3. Mention the factors on which magnetic field due to a circular coil carrying current
depends.
4. What is the magnetic flux associated with a current carrying a circular coil of radius with
the current strength equal to I?
5. Define 1 weber.
6. Mention Maxwell‟s equations.
7. What are the physical significances of Maxwell‟s equations.
8. State tangent law in magnetism.
9. Mention the effects of current.
10. Earth acts as magnet? Comment on this.
Page 94
10. DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY OF ULTRASONIC WAVES IN LIQUID
MEDIUM USING ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER
Theory
Ultrasonic refers to sound waves with a frequency greater than the human audible range (20
Hz to 20 KHz). When an ultrasonic wave propagates through a medium, the molecules in that
medium vibrate over a very short distance in a direction parallel to the longitudinal wave.
During this vibration, momentum is transferred among molecules. This causes the wave to
pass through the medium.
Generation of ultrasound:
Ultrasonics can be produced by different methods. The most common methods include:
Mechanical method OR Galton‟s whistle: In this, ultrasonic frequencies up to 100 KHz
are produced. But this method is rarely used due to its limited frequency range. It consists of
essentially a short cylindrical pipe blown in the form of an annular nozzle. The distance of
the nozzle from the edge of the pipe can be varied by turning a micrometre screw. By suitable
adjustment of this distance and the pressure of air blast, the pipe is set into resonant vibration
at a frequency depending on length and diameter of pipe.
Piezoelectric generator:
This is the most common method used for the production of ultrasound. When mechanical
pressure is applied to opposite faces of certain crystals which are cut suitably, electric fields
are produced. Similarly, when subjected to an electric field, these crystals contract or expand,
depending on the direction of the field. Thus a properly oriented rapid alternating electric
field causes a piezoelectric crystal to vibrate mechanically. This vibration, largest when the
crystal is at resonance, is used to produce a longitudinal wave, i.e., a sound waves.
What is the Piezoelectric Effect?
Piezoelectric Effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge in
response to applied mechanical stress. One of the unique characteristics of the piezoelectric
effect is that it is reversible, meaning that materials exhibiting the direct piezoelectric effect
(the generation of electricity when stress is applied) also exhibit the converse piezoelectric
effect (the generation of stress when an electric field is applied).
When piezoelectric material is placed under mechanical stress, a shifting of the positive and
negative charge centers in the material takes place, which then results in an external electrical
Page 95
field. When reversed, an outer electrical field either stretches or compresses the piezoelectric
material.
The piezoelectric effect is very useful within many applications that involve the production
and detection of sound, generation of high voltages and electronic frequency generation. The
piezoelectric effect is also used as an ignition source for cigarette lighters.
Piezoelectric Materials: There are many materials, both natural and man-made, that exhibit
a range of piezoelectric effects. Some naturally piezoelectric occurring materials include
Berlinite, cane sugar, quartz, Rochelle salt, topaz, tourmaline, and bone (dry bone exhibits
some piezoelectric properties due to the apatite crystals, and the piezoelectric effect is
generally thought to act as a biological force sensor). An example of man-made piezoelectric
materials includes barium titanate and lead zirconate titanate.
Magnetostriction generator: Magnetostriction method is used for the production of
ultrasonic. ranging from 8000 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
The general principle involved in generating ultrasonic waves is to cause some dense material
to vibrate very rapidly. The vibrations produced by the material causes air surrounding in it
begin vibrating with the same frequency. These vibrations then spread out in the form of
ultrasonic waves.
When a magnetic field is applied parallel to the length of a ferromagnetic rod made of
material such as iron or nickel, a small elongation or contraction occurs in its length. This is
known as magnetostriction. The change in length depends on the intensity of the applied
magnetic field and nature of the ferromagnetic material. The change in length is independent
of the direction of the field.
When the rod is placed inside a magnetic coil carrying alternating current, the rod suffers a
change in length for each half cycle of alternating current. That is, the rod vibrates with a
frequency twice that of the frequency of A.C. The amplitude of vibration is usually small, but
if the frequency of the A.C. coincides with the natural frequency of the rod, the amplitude of
vibration increases due to resonance. At resonance, the rod vibrates longitudinally with larger
amplitude producing ultrasonic waves of high frequency along both ends of the rod.
Condition for resonance:
Frequency of the oscillatory circuit = Frequency of the vibrating rod. It is given by the
equation = √
√
where, l - is the length of the rod, E is the young‟s modulus of the material of the rod, ρ is the
density of the material of the rod.
Page 96
Ultrasonic Interferometer: Ultrasonic interferometer is a simple device which yields
accurate and consistent data, from which one can determine the velocity of ultrasonic sound
in a liquid medium.
The schematic diagram of an ultrasonic interferometer is shown in the figure.
Figure: Ultrasonic interferometer

In an ultrasonic interferometer, the ultrasonic waves are produced by the piezoelectric
method. In a fixed frequency variable path interferometer, the wavelength of the sound in an
experimental liquid medium is measured, and from this one can calculate its velocity through
that medium. The apparatus consists of an ultrasonic cell, which is a double walled brass cell
with chromium plated surfaces having a capacity of 10 ml. The double wall allows water
circulation around the experimental medium to maintain it at a known constant temperature.
The ultrasonic interferometer consists of mainly two parts:
1) High frequency generator: The high frequency generator is designed to excite the
quartz crystal fixed at the bottom of the measuring cell at its resonance frequency to generate
ultrasonic waves in experimental liquid filled in the “Measuring cell”. A micrometer is
provided to observe the changes in current and to control for the purpose of sensitivity
regulation and initial adjustment of the micrometer are provided on the panel of the high
frequency generator.
Page 97
2) Measuring cell: The measuring cell is a specially designed double walled cell for
maintaining the temperature of the liquid constant during the experiment. A fine micrometer
screw has been provided at the top, which can lower or raise the reflector plate in the liquid in
the cell through a known distance. It has a quartz crystal fixed at its bottom. In ultrasonic
interferometer dual frequency, the frequency selector knob should be positioned at desired
frequency and the corresponding cell should be connected to the generator. For initial
adjustment two knobs are provided on high frequency generators, one is marked with “ADJ”
to adjust the position of the needle on the ammeter and the knob marked “GAIN” is used to
increase the sensitivity of the instrument for greater deflection if desired. The ammeter is
used to notice the number of maximum deflections while the micrometer is moved up and
down in the liquid.
The micrometer scale is marked in units of 0.01mm and has an overall length of 25 mm.
Ultrasonic waves of known frequency are produced by a quartz crystal which is fixed at the
bottom of the cell. There is a movable metallic plate parallel to the quartz plate, which
reflects the waves. The waves interfere with their reflections, and if the separation between
the plates is exactly an integer multiple of half-wavelengths of sound, standing waves are
produced in the liquid medium. Under these circumstances, acoustic resonance occurs. The
resonant waves are maximum in amplitude, causing a corresponding maximum in the anode
current of the piezoelectric generator.
If we increase or decrease the distance by exactly one half of the wavelength (λ/2) or an
integer multiple of one half wavelength, the anode current again becomes maximum. If d is
the separation between successive adjacent maxima of anode current, then, d 

2
We have, the velocity (v) of a wave is related to its wavelength (λ) by the relation,
v f
Where, f is the frequency of the wave.
Then, v  f  2df
The velocity of ultrasound is determined principally by the compressibility of the material of
the medium. For a medium with high compressibility, the velocity will be less. Adiabatic
compressibility of a fluid is a measure of the relative volume change of the fluid as a
response to a pressure change. Compressibility is the reciprocal of bulk modulus, and is
usually denoted by the Greek word beta (β). The adiabatic compressibility of the material of
Page 98
1
the sample can be calculated using the equation,   , Where “ρ” is the density of the
v 2
material of the medium and v is the velocity of the sound wave through that medium.
SELF-EVALUATION
1. The human audible range is
(a) 20 Hz - 20 KHz (b) 15 KHz- 2 MHz (c) Above 2 MHz (d) None of the
above
2. Ultrasonic waves have frequency
(a) Less than human audible range (b) In between human audible range
(c) Greater than the upper human audible range (d) none of the above
3. The velocity (v) of a wave is related to its wavelength (λ) by the relation,
(a) v = fλ (b) f = vλ (c) v = f/λ (d) λ = vf
4. Among the following, which is the unit of adiabatic compressibility?
(a) N/m² (b) m²/N (c) Kg/Nm² (d) None of these
5. Compressibility of a medium is defined as the reciprocal of
(a) Young‟s modulus (b) Rigidity modulus (c) Density (d) Young‟s modulus
6. Which of the following effects can be used to produce ultrasonic waves?
(a) Magnetostriction effect (b) Doppler Effect (c) Magnetic effect (d) Sound effect
7. What is the principle for measurement of the velocity of ultrasonic waves?
(a) Magnetostriction effect (b) Acoustical grating
(c) Doppler Effect (d) Acceleration effect
8. A quartz crystal of thickness 0.001m is vibrating at resonance. Calculate the fundamental
frequency. Density of quartz = 2.650×103 kg/m3 and Young‟s modulus for quartz =
7.9×1010 N/m2.
(a) 2.7299×106 MHz (b) 26.50×103 Hz (c) 2.093×106 Hz (d) 2.7299×1010 MHz
9. In the Magnetostriction method, a ferromagnetic substance changes its shape and size
when placed in a
(a) Magnetic field (b) alternating current (c) electric field (d) all the above
10. A device which is used to convert electrical energy into ultrasonic sound and vice-versa is
called
(a) Ultrasonic interferometer (b) Ultrasonic transducer
(c) Piezoelectric device (d) All the above.
Page 99
AIM: Determination of velocity of sound in a liquid medium using an Ultrasonic

interferometer.
APPARATUS: High frequency generator, Micrometre, Liquid chamber, Shielded cable
FORMULA: 1. v = f λ(ms-1)
1
2.  
v 2
Where, v - is the velocity (ms-1)

f - is the frequency of ultrasonic waves (2M Hz)
λ - is the wavelength of ultrasound(m)
β – is adiabatic compressibility
 - density of the liquid medium
PRINCIPLE: The experiment is based on piezoelectric and inverse piezoelectric effects.
When mechanical stress is applied across two opposite surfaces of a piezoelectric crystal, an
electric field is produced along its perpendicular surfaces, this effect is known as
piezoelectric effect. When an alternating field is applied along two opposite surfaces of the
same crystal, it vibrates in the perpendicular direction, and this effect is known as the inverse
piezoelectric effect. In this experiment inverse piezoelectric effect is used to generate
ultrasonic waves, whereas measurement of wavelength is done using piezoelectric effect.
Here the same piezoelectric crystal acts as source as well as detector.
PROCEDURE:
 An AC source of standard frequency of 2 MHz with a micrometer is connected to the

liquid chamber consisting of a crystal and the liquid column. A movable piston is
provided with the help of which the length of the liquid column can be adjusted using
a micrometer screw.
 When the power supply is switched ON the quartz crystal vibrates with an ultrasonic
frequency of about 2 MHz.
 There are two knobs on the instrument- “Adj” and “Gain”. With “Adj”, the position
of the needle on the ammeter is adjusted. The knob “Gain” is used to increase the
sensitivity of the instrument.
Page 100
 These ultrasonic waves traverse through the liquid column and undergo reflection at
the top surface of the movable piston and thereby forming a stationary wave,
whenever the length of the column is an integral multiple of half wavelength (λ/2).
 When the nodes appear at the end points the current in the micro ammeter becomes
maximum. When the anti-nodes appear at the end points the current in the micro
ammeter becomes minimum. Increase the micrometer setting till the anode current in
the ammeter shows a maximum. The reading in the micrometre is noted.
 Continue to increase the micrometer setting, noting the reading at each maximum.
 The difference in the micrometer readings are calculated as shown in the tabular
column. Hence wavelength can be determined. Once we know the wavelength and
frequency, the velocity of sound in the liquid can be calculated using the formula
V = f λ.
 Knowing the density of the medium, the adiabatic compressibility can be calculated
1
using the equation, 
v 2
DIAGRAM:
R2
R1
To determine least count of micrometer

Total No. of divisions moved onthe pitch scale
Pitch  = ------------------- mm
Total No. of rotations giventothe head scale
Page 101
Pitch
LC  = ---------------- mm
Total No. of divisions onthe screwhead
Total reading of the interferometer TR=PSR+ (HSR X LC) (mm)
TABULAR COLUMN:
To determine wavelength of ultrasound:
Trail Micrometer reading Trail Micrometer reading 2λ = RM~R M+4

No. No.
PSR HSR TR PSR HSR TR
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 R1= 5 R5=
2 R2= 6 R6=
3 R3= 7 R7=
4 R4= 8 R8=
Mean 2 λ = --------- mm
λ = ---------- m
RESULT:
(1). Velocity of sound in liquid (water) using an ultrasonic interferometer is found to

be V = ------------ m/s
(2). the adiabatic compressibility is found to be 𝛃=
Precautions:
1. Water should not be spilled over the crystal chamber.

2. Initially water should be filled up to the brim of the chamber so that no air bubble is
present in the liquid column.
3. While taking the readings the micro ammeter screw should be turned in one
direction only.
Note: When the deflection starts increasing the micro ammeter screw should be turned very
slowly to detect the maximum deflection
Page 102
WORK SHEET
Page 103
Page 104
ASSIGNMENT
1. Find the velocity of a 2 MHz ultrasonic wave through water using an ultrasonic
interferometer.
2. Sound wave of 2 MHz propagates through a medium of acetone. Calculate the velocity
with which the wave travels and also find the adiabatic compressibility of acetone.
3. Using the device ultrasonic interferometer, calculate the adiabatic compressibility of water,
castor oil, and glycerin. Compare the results and comment.
4. Calculate the velocity of propagation of 2 MHz pressure waves through a medium of
kerosene. Also calculate the adiabatic compressibility of kerosene.
5. Using an ultrasonic interferometer, calculate the density of castor oil. Given, the adiabatic
compressibility of the medium is 4.813x10-10 m2/N.
VIVA- VOCE
1. What are ultrasonic waves?

2. What is piezo and inverse piezo electric effect?
3. What are the factors on which velocity of sound depends?
4. What are the different methods to produce ultrasonic waves?
5. Why the current does become maximum and minimum alternatively as the piston is
moved in particular direction?
6. What is the principle behind the Magnetostriction oscillator?
7. What is meant by Sonar?
8. Mention the application of ultrasonics.
9. What is ultrasonic testing?
10. What are the advantages of ultrasonic testing?
Page 105
Page 106

Physics Lab Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Physics Lab Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Physics Lab Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

 Dumping your bag on the work table.

1. All calculations must be carried out using SI units.

LABORATORY MANUAL/WORK BOOK

I/II SEMESTER (CBCS SCHEME)

SUBJECT: ENGG. PHYSICS LABORATORY

SUBJECT CODE: 21PYL 16/26

Department of Physics, BMSIT&M.

PART: C Demonstration experiments

BMS Institute of Technology and Management

Headings Description Marks Max.

NAME OF THE CANDIDATE:

ROLL NO/USN: Max. Marks for each expt.: 30

Signature of Batch in charge Signature of Head of the Dept.

3. TORSIONAL PENDULUM 26-36

4. PLANCK‟ CONSTANT 37-44

5. YOUNG‟S MODULUS BY SINGLE CANTILEVER 45-53

6. NUMERICAL APERTURE 54-61

1. SPRING CONSTANT AND LAWS OF COMBINATION OF SPRINGS

Figure: Elongation of a loaded spring

Using equation (1) we can write 𝐾 = OR K = | |

From Newton‟s law 𝐹 =𝑚 ---------- (2)

From (1) and (2) we can write 𝑚 = −𝑘𝑦

+ 𝜔 𝑦 = 0------ (3), where 𝜔 = 𝑘/𝑚-------- (4)

Equation (3) represents the differential equation of a mechanical oscillator.

It is given by 𝜔 = √ but 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓

Therefore 𝑓 = √ ------- (5)

Equation (5) represents the natural frequency of oscillations of a loaded or mechanical

1. Expression for equivalent spring constant in series combination of springs:

Figure: Series combination of two sprigs

Figure: Parallel combination of two sprigs

1. The stiffness factor of spring is,

5. The type of spring used in door hinges is,

(2) Spring constant in series combination k1 k 2

(3) Spring constant in parallel combination K P  K1  K 2

Average K1= ………………….N/m

Average K2= ………………….N/m

Average Kseries= ………………….N/m

Determination of spring constant in parallel combination

Average Kparallel= ………………….N/m

Experimental value of spring constant in series combination is Kseries =

1. Define spring constant.

2. WAVELENGTH OF LASER LIGHT USING LASER DIFFRACTION

Figure: Diffraction of light at slit, at a Grating and Grating device.

Where λ = Wavelength of laser light measured in m

Where, θm = angle of diffraction for mth order spot

Figure: laser diffraction Figure: Photograph of experimental set up

Figure: Schematic representation of Laser diffraction and order of diffraction

 λ is calculated using the formula = 𝑛𝑚

Mean wavelength = …………………. nm

1. What kind of LASER light source is used in this experiment?

3. DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY MODULUS OF THE WIRE USING

Figure: Torsional pendulum

the measure of shearing stress acting on the body.

a) Young modulus b) Bulk modulus c) Modulus of rigidity d) None.

3. The unit of twisting couple is__________

Figure: Torsional pendulum setup and different axis of rotations

Mass of the circular plate, M1 = --------- Kg

Radius of the circular plate, R = --------- x10-2 m

Mass of rectangular plate, M2 = --------- Kg