Reproductive Anatomy and Physiology of the Cow

T
he ability of a cow or heifer to successfully mate, the infundibulum. When ovulation occurs, the oocyte
conceive, give birth, and raise a healthy calf each is picked up by the infundibulum and channeled into
year is essential for profitable and sustainable the oviduct. Fertilization takes place in the oviduct if
beef production. A good understanding of anatomy and viable sperm are present, but the oocyte remains capable
physiology of both the male and female is helpful in of fertilization for only a short time. Therefore, it is
successfully managing reproduction. essential that sperm be present in the oviduct near the
Causes for failures in reproduction must be identified time of ovulation. The oocyte moves through the oviduct
and overcome. Research has led to the development of into the uterine horn within the next 3 to 4 days. If the
numerous techniques for managing the reproductive ovum is fertilized, it begins embryological development;
processes of animals. These techniques provide many if not, it simply degenerates.
options to help progressive cattle producers accomplish
their production goals.

Anatomy
Ultimately, reproductive processes are regulated at the
level of the brain. The hypothalamus controls several
body processes and behaviors along with reproductive
processes. Body temperature, concentration and
components of body fluids, and the drive to eat and
drink are just a few functions of the hypothalamus. It is
classified as a neuroendocrine gland since it sends and
receives neural signals through the nervous system and Figure 1. Diagramatic sketch of the reproductive tract of the cow.
hormonal messages through the endocrine system.
The second organ, the pituitary gland, sits at the
base of the brain. The pituitary is about half an inch in The body of the uterus of the cow is short, while
diameter and weighs about 1 gram. Physiologically, the the uterine horns are relatively long and well developed.
pituitary is divided into two distinct regions: the anterior The fertilized embryo moves from the oviduct into
and posterior pituitaries. Each region secretes various the uterine horn, where fetal and maternal membrane
hormones that direct body processes. Some of these development begins. This newly developing fetus grows
hormones are responsible for reproductive events, while within a layer of membranes called the placenta, through
others control growth, metabolism, and water balance. which nourishment from the dam diffuses. This point
The female reproductive organs consist of the of interface is called the placentome. It is made of the
ovary, uterus, cervix, vagina, and vulva. A sketch of joining of the caruncle (maternal) and cotyledon (fetal).
the reproductive tract of the cow is shown in Figure 1. There is no direct blood connection between the fetus
Female reproductive tracts of various livestock species and the dam in the bovine placenta, but rather a complex
are similar to the tract of the cow but differ primarily in system that selectively allows certain molecules to pass
the shape of the uterus and cervix. from the maternal side of the placenta to the fetal side
The oviduct, also known as the Fallopian tube, and vice versa. It also provides nutrients and carries
begins as a funnel-shaped tube that engulfs the waste products from the fetus.
ovary. This funnel portion of the oviduct is called The cervix is a denser structure that contains more
connective tissue. The bovine cervix is often described
Revised by
as having a “turkey neck” feel when palpated. It has
Jordan Thomas, Assistant Professor, Animal Sciences thick walls and a small opening, or cervical os. The
Anita Ellis, Livestock Field Specialist cervix softens and relaxes around the time of estrus, the

extension.missouri.edu g2015
period of sexual receptivity. Cervical softening allows a time, and the oocyte and contents of the follicular cavity
passageway for sperm at mating and also for expulsion are released. Follicular development occurs in concert
of the fetus at the time of birth. During pregnancy, the with other reproductive and behavioral functions so that,
cervix is filled with a thick mucous secretion known near the time of ovulation, the female reproductive tract
as the cervical plug. This provides a physical barrier is prepared to receive both the oocyte from the female
between the vagina and the uterus, in order to protect and sperm from the male.
placental structures and the developing fetus. In the days Following ovulation, the cells that developed
prior to calving, the cervical plug is expelled, and the within the follicle undergo a differentiation process.
cervical opening begins to dilate. This process is called luteinization and gives rise to
The vagina serves as a receptacle for the male’s penis the second prominent ovarian structure, the corpus
during natural mating. In natural mating, semen is luteum (pl. corpora lutea). This structure is often
deposited in the vagina near the cervix. In artificial referred to simply as the CL and has the important
insemination, a catheter is inserted in the vagina and function of secreting the hormone progesterone.
manipulated through the cervix, allowing a smaller The CL goes through a maturation and regression
number of sperm cells to be deposited on the uterine cycle much the same as the follicle. A blood clot-type
side of the cervix. Urine is discharged from the urinary structure known as a corpus hemorrhagicum forms in
bladder through the urethra, which opens into the base the cavity left by the ruptured follicle and is transformed
of the vagina. The region behind the urethral opening into a CL by Day 5 of the cycle (Day 0 = estrus). The
is called the vestibule and is a common passageway for CL is fully functional from Day 5 to Day 15 of the
both the urinary and reproductive systems. The external cycle and then begins to regress if the female does not
opening of the vagina is called the vulva. become pregnant. The CL regresses and no longer
secretes progesterone as the follicle of the next estrous
cycle begins to develop. As the CL regresses further,
Physiology it becomes known as the corpus albicans and remains
The ovary produces the oocyte by a process visible on the ovary for several subsequent cycles.
called oogenesis. In contrast to spermatogenesis in the Figure 2 illustrates the changing structures on the
bull, which is continuous, oogenesis is cyclic. This cycle ovary during a typical 21-day estrous cycle. The dynamic
of oocyte development in cattle is called the estrous development and regression of the corpus luteum and
cycle and is typically 21 days in length. During the follicles are a continual process in the normal cycling
estrous cycle, two prominent structures are present cow until she becomes pregnant. In a pregnant female,
within the ovary: the follicle and corpus luteum. CL regression does not occur, and the cyclic activity
Each of these structures undergo a development stops until after calving. A cow generally remains
and subsequent regression phase during the estrous anestrous (does not cycle) for a period of time following
cycle. Follicles begin within the ovary as one of several calving. The length of the postpartum anestrous period
thousand primary follicles, which consist of a germ is on average around 60 days, but this is highly variable
cell surrounded by a layer of flattened cells. This germ among cows based on age, nutrition, lactation, presence
cell has the potential to mature into an oocyte if the of a suckling calf, environmental stress, and numerous
follicle completes the development phase. However, other factors. Management to control the length of this
only a small percentage of primary follicles continue interval is a main consideration in successful cow-calf
through the secondary and tertiary follicular phases enterprises, since a cow must rebreed within 85 days
and ultimately undergo ovulation. Primary follicles that after calving to produce a calf on a yearly interval.
never complete development undergo atresia and are Any condition that prolongs the period of time that
replaced by newly formed primary follicles. blood levels of progesterone remain high will have the
The relatively few primary follicles that complete same effect as pregnancy in stopping the regular 21-day
development do so through a series of phases. Many interval between occurrences of estrus. Occasionally
layers of cells are added to the single layer of cells the CL does not regress normally (persistent CL) even
surrounding the oocyte in the primary follicle and a though the animal does not become pregnant. This
central cavity forms. The follicle and cavity within the requires diagnosis and treatment by a veterinarian.
follicle grow larger, and the oocyte becomes attached Abnormally short estrous cycles (7 to 11 days) can
to a stalk of cells on the side of the follicle opposite the occur. This condition appears to be caused by either
future site of ovulation. As the follicle continues to grow no corpora lutea being formed, or if one is formed, it
larger, the outer layer of the follicle becomes thinner. is non-functional and progesterone levels remain low.
This follicle is mature and called a dominant follicle. An estrous cycle can be shortened intentionally by
The outer layer of the follicle ruptures at the appropriate administering a hormone called prostaglandin F 2a,

g2015 page 2 University of Missouri Extension

 the glandular cells and pass into the blood and lymph
systems for transport to specific parts of the body where
they produce their function.
The hormone, estradiol (or estrogen) is produced by
the granulosa cells of the follicle. Estradiol has various
effects, including:
• Development and function of the secondary sex
organs
• Receptivity to mating during and other behaviors
associated with estrus
• Rate and type of growth, especially relative to
deposition of fat
• Regulation of puberty attainment and length of the
postpartum anestrous period
Progesterone, secreted by the corpus luteum,
suppresses ovulation of a dominant follicle and the
associated secretion of high levels of estradiol. Therefore,
elevated levels of progesterone prevent a cow from
coming into heat. Progesterone is necessary for preparing
the uterus to receive the fertilized ovum and maintains
the proper uterine environment for continuation of
Figure 2. The ovarian changes during a typical 21-day estrous cycle
pregnancy.
in which pregnancy does not occur. Note that the development and
Estradiol and progesterone are not separate in
regression of the corpus luteum and of the follicles are continuous
their functions since both must be present for certain
processes.
processes to occur. For example, the ratio of the
concentration of estradiol to progesterone dictates the
which causes the CL to regress. Prostaglandin F 2a is a onset and duration of behavioral estrus. Development
key tool used in estrus synchronization protocols of the uterus is initiated by estradiol and completed by
Estrus is not always accompanied by ovulation, nor is progesterone. Estradiol causes contraction of the uterus
ovulation always accompanied by estrus. Heat without near the time of estrus and ovulation, which aids in
ovulation (anovulatory heat) will not result in pregnancy sperm transport. Progesterone has a quieting effect on
even though the female may be serviced. Ovulation the uterus so that there are no contractions which might
without behavioral estrus (silent heat) is not uncommon disturb pregnancy.
in cows, especially the first few weeks after calving. Such The production of ovarian hormones is under direct
females will not accept service from a male, but artificial influence of gonadotropic hormones produced by the
insemination can result in pregnancy if semen is placed anterior pituitary. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
at the appropriate time in advance of ovulation. and luteinizing hormone (LH) are secreted from the
There are wide differences between mammalian pituitary and travel through the blood to the ovary. The
species in various aspects of the estrous cycle. The cow release of FSH and LH is mediated by gonadotropin-
is in a group of species that exhibits estrus more than releasing hormone (GnRH) by the hypothalamus. FSH
one time per year and is therefore called polyestrus. stimulates the recruitment, growth, and development
Even though cows will cycle at any time during the year, of follicular waves, while LH supports continued
research suggests day length may influence cow fertility, development of a dominant follicle. Additionally, a surge
especially in some breeds or biological types. Slightly in LH release around the time of onset of estrus causes
lower fertility has resulted during the short-day length the follicle to initiate the ovulatory process and develop
period of the year as compared to the long-day length into a corpus luteum.
period of the year. The cyclic rise and decline of the reproductive
hormone concentrations is graphically illustrated in
Figure 3. This cyclic process continues every 21 days in
The hormones of female reproduction a normal-cycling cow, but changes if conception occurs.
Reproduction in the female is controlled by numerous Following pregnancy and a period of anestrus, the
hormones secreted from specialized glands called estrous cycle once again continues. Figure 3 shows the
endocrine glands. These secretions are produced in female hormones during a typical estrous cycle.

g2015 page 3 University of Missouri Extension

 seen on the ovary at this stage, but by Day 5 they
have begun to regress.
• Days 5 to 16: The corpus luteum continues to
develop and reaches its maximum growth and
function about Day 10. It secrets the hormone
progesterone, which inhibits (blocks) LH release
by the pituitary gland. During this period, the
ovaries are relatively inactive except for the
functional corpus luteum and wave-like follicular
development. A dominant follicle will reach
maturity but the existence of the high levels of
progesterone inhibit estrus and ovulation.
• Days 15-17: The corpus luteum regresses rapidly
due to luteolytic activity of the uterus caused by the
release of the hormone, prostaglandin F 2a
• Days 18 to 20: The corpus luteum is almost non-
functional and this releases the blocking action of
progesterone. Of the several follicles that commence
growth, one becomes more prominent by a surge in
rapid growth and activity. As the dominate follicle
grows, it secretes increasing amounts of estradiol.
The remainder of the follicles regress.
Figure 3. The rise and decline of reproductive hormones during a typical
• Day 21 or 0: With the increase in estradiol release
21-day estrous cycle.
by the dominant follicle and a corresponding
decrease in progesterone by the regressing corpus
The estrous cycle luteum, estrus or heat will occur (cycle has now
The reproductive cycle of the cow consists of a returned to Day 0). The high estradiol level in the
series of events that occur in a definite order over a blood triggers a release of LH near the end of heat.
period of days. In the cow, this cycle averages 21 days Following this surge in blood levels of LH, the
in length, although this can range from 17 to 24 days. mature follicle ruptures to release the ovum and
In this cycle, the reproductive system is prepared for the cellular tissue left behind becomes luteinized
potential establishment and maintenance of pregnancy. in response to the stimulation of a hormonal
Alternatively, in the event that fertilization does not complex to form a new corpus luteum (cycle has
occur or that establishment or maintenance of pregnancy now returned to Days 1 and 2). Progesterone again
fails, the female returns to estrus. Figures 2 and 3 show becomes the dominant hormone.
the ovarian changes and sequence of events in a typical It should be noted that the timing given for the
21-day cycle in which pregnancy does not occur. preceding events is only approximate and differs from
• Days 0 to 1: The cow is in for estrus (standing heat) female to female based on cycle length and the number
on Day 0 for an average of 18 hours (range 8 to 24 of follicular waves per cycle. It should also be noted that,
hours). Shortly after onset of estrus, a surge of LH is if fertilization occurs, and the maternal recognition
released by the pituitary gland. About 30 hours after process begins by the release of interferon tau, the corpus
the start of the standing heat, the mature dominate luteum does not regress but continues to function by
follicle ruptures (ovulates). secreting progesterone for maintenance of pregnancy.
• Days 1 to 2: The cells that formerly lined the follicle
change and become the luteal cells of the corpus Original author: Jack Whittier
luteum. This change in cell forms is caused by
hormonal action, primarily that of LH. Portions of this guide were adapted from Nebguide G80-537, by G.H.
• Days 2 to 5: The corpus luteum grows rapidly in Deutscher, Extension Beef Specialist, University of Nebraska.
both size and function. Numerous follicles may be

g2015 page 4 New 10/1993; Revised 3/2021