NAME: NADIA BATOOL

ROLL NO: 6213-F

DATE: 29/12/2020

PROGRAM: BBA 1ST SIMISTER

SECTION: A

COURSE: IT

ASSIGNMENT:09
6.1 FROM THE ANALOG TO THE DIGITAL AGE
 DIGITAL
Definition
A digital signal is a signal that is being used to represent data as a sequence of discrete values; at
any given time, it can only take on, at most, one of a finite number of values. This contrasts with
an analog signal, which represents continuous values; at any given time it represents a real
number within a continuous range of values.
Explanation
Simple digital signals represent information in discrete bands of analog levels. All levels within a
band of values represent the same information state. In most digital circuits, the signal can have
two possible valid values; this is called a binary signal or logic signal. They are represented by
two voltage bands: one near a reference value (typically termed as ground or zero volts), and the
other a value near the supply voltage. These correspond to the two values "zero" and "one" (or
"false" and "true") of the Boolean domain, so at any given time a binary signal represents
one binary digit (bit). Because of this discretization, relatively small changes to the analog signal
levels do not leave the discrete envelope, and as a result are ignored by signal state sensing
circuitry. As a result, digital signals have noise immunity; electronic noise, provided it is not too
great, will not affect digital circuits, whereas noise always degrades the operation of analog
signals to some degree.[5]
Digital signals having more than two states are occasionally used; circuitry using such signals is
called multivalued logic. For example, signals that can assume three possible states are
called three-valued logic.
In a digital signal, the physical quantity representing the information may be a variable electric
current or voltage, the intensity, phase or polarization of an optical or other electromagnetic
field, acoustic pressure, the magnetization of a magnetic storage media, etcetera. Digital signals
are used in all digital electronics, notably computing equipment and data transmission.
 ANALOG SIGNAL
 Definition
An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time-varying feature of the signal
is a representation of some other time-varying quantity, i.e., analogous to another time-
varying signal. For example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous voltage of the
signal varies continuously with the pressure of the sound waves.
Explanation
It differs from a digital signal, in which the continuous quantity is a representation of a
sequence of discrete values which can only take on one of a finite number of values.

The term analog signal usually refers to electrical signals; however, mechanical,
pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey or be considered analog
signals.
An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information.
For example, an aneroid barometer uses rotary position as the signal to convey pressure
information. In an electrical signal, the voltage, current, or frequency of the signal may be
varied to represent the information.

Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal; such a signal may be a measured
response to changes in a physical variable, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or
pressure. The physical variable is converted to an analog signal by a transducer. For
example, sound striking the diaphragm of a microphone induces corresponding
fluctuations in the current produced by a coil in an electromagnetic microphone or the
voltage produced by a condenser microphone. The voltage or the current is said to be an
analog of the sound.

Communication channels and signal processing operations subject to electronic noise and
distortion introduce an analog signal, which can progressively degrade the signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR). In contrast, although converting an analog signal to digital form introduces a
low-level quantization noise into the signal due to finite resolution of digital systems,
once in digital form, the signal can be processed or transmitted without introducing
significant additional noise or distortion. In analog systems, it is difficult to detect when
such degradation occurs. However, in digital systems, degradation can not only be
detected but corrected as well.

The most serious disadvantage of analog signals compared to digital transmission is that
analog transmissions always contain noise. As the signal is copied, transmitted, or
processed, the unavoidable noise introduced in the signal path will accumulate as a
generation loss, progressively and irreversibly degrading the signal-to-noise ratio, until in
extreme cases, the signal can be overwhelmed. Noise can show up as "hiss" and
intermodulation distortion in audio signals, or "snow" in video signals. Generation loss is
irreversible as there is no reliable method to distinguish the noise from the signal, partly
because amplifying the signal to recover attenuated parts of the signal amplifies the noise
as well. Digital signals can be transmitted, stored and processed without introducing
noise.

In electrical analog signals, noise can be minimized by shielding, good connections and
the use of certain cable types such as coaxial or twisted pair.

MODEMS
Definition
A modem – a portmanteau of "modulator-demodulator" – is a hardware device that
converts data from a digital format, intended for communication directly between devices
with specialized wiring, into one suitable for a transmission medium such as telephone
lines or radio.

Explaination
 A modem modulates one or more carrier wave signals to encode digital information for
transmission, and demodulates signals to decode the transmitted information. The goal is
to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded reliably to reproduce the
original digital data.

Modems can be used with almost any means of transmitting analog signals, from light-
emitting diodes to radio. A common type of modem is one that turns the digital data of a
computer into a modulated electrical signal for transmission over telephone lines, to be
demodulated by another modem at the receiver side to recover the digital data.

6.2 Networks
Definition:
Network: system of interconnected computers, telephones, and/or other communications
devices that can communicate with one another and share applications and data.
 Benefits of network
Guide
Setting up a computer network is a fast and reliable way of sharing information and
resources within a business. It can help you make the most of your IT systems and
equipment.
Advantages of computer networking
Main benefits of networks include:
 File sharing - you can easily share data between different users, or access it remotely if
you keep it on other connected devices.
 Resource sharing - using network-connected peripheral devices like printers, scanners
and copiers, or sharing software between multiple users, saves money.
 Sharing a single internet connection - it is cost-efficient and can help protect your
systems if you properly secure the network.
 Increasing storage capacity - you can access files and multimedia, such as images and
music, which you store remotely on other machines or network-attached storage devices.
Networking computers can also help you improve communication, so that:
 staff, suppliers and customers can share information and get in touch more easily
 your business can become more efficient - e.g. networked access to a common database
can avoid the same data being keyed multiple times, saving time and preventing errors
 staff can deal with queries and deliver a better standard of service as a result of sharing
customer data
Cost benefits of computer networking
Storing information in one centralized database can also help you reduce costs and drive
efficiency. For example:
 staff can deal with more customers in less time since they have shared access to customer
and product databases
 you can centralize network administration, meaning less IT support is required
 you can cut costs through sharing of peripherals and internet access
 You can reduce errors and improve consistency by having all staff work from a single
source of information. This way, you can make standard versions of manuals and
directories available to them, and back up data from a single point on a scheduled basis,
ensuring consistency.
Types of networks: WANs, MANs, & Others
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly
of four types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN (Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such
as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters,
and Ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.

PAN (Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically
within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal
Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by
simply using wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the
USB.
 Examples Of Personal Area Network:
o Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person. For
example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network
connection and then creates a connection with another device to share the information.
o Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also known
as a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as
printers, computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.
o Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and to a
corporate network using a VPN

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-3,
ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the customers
in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This
network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.
Advantages Of Wide Area Network:
Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:
o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area. Suppose
if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through
WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we can connect with another
branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not
need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web
application like Facebook, WhatsApp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software and
other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high
bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases
the productivity of our company.
Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:
The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:
o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and
MAN network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security
problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can
be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can
inject the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the
purchasing of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.

Internetwork
o An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or
computer network segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a
local addressing scheme. This process is known as internetworking.
o An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government
computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.
o An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
o The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection(OSI).
Types Of Internetwork:
1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such
as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information
sharing. The access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login
credentials. An extranet is the lowest level of internetworking. It can be categorized
as MAN, WAN or other computer networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN,
atleast it must have one connection to the external network.
 2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such
as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an
organization which is only accessible by the organization's employee or members. The
main aim of the intranet is to share the information and resources among the organization
employees. An intranet provides the facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.
Intranet advantages:
o Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of the
organization can communicate with another employee through email, chat.
o Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-saving.
o Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the intranet. The
information is distributed among the employees of the organization and can only be
accessed by the authorized user.
o Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be connected to
another device with different architecture.
o Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the browser and
distributes the duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the cost.

6.3 Wired Communications Media

Communication media
Communication media refers to the means of delivering and receiving data or
information. In telecommunication, these means are transmission and storage tools or
channels for data storage and transmission.
Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable, or coax cable, is designed to transmit high-frequency signals. It’s
comprised of a round copper conductor and three layers of insulation and shielding which
prevents crosstalk from motors, lighting and other sources of EMI. With the shield
construction, the coaxial cable can support longer cable lengths between two devices.
Twisted-pair wire
Twisted pair cables are majorly used in telephone networks, data networks and cable
shielding. Applications of coaxial cable include feedlines connecting radio transmitters
and receivers with their antennas, computer network (Internet) connections, digital audio
(S/PDIF), and distributing cable television signals. And they also can be used for high-
definition media interface connections.

Fibre optic cable

also called as optical fiber cable, is a type of Ethernet cable which consists of one or more
optic fibers that are used to transmit data. Fiber optic cable transmits data as pulses of
light go through tiny tubes of glass. The transmission capacity of optical fiber cable is
26,000 times higher than that of twisted pair cable.
 Fiber optic cable

Fiber optic cable can be divided into single mode fiber (SMF) and multimode fiber
(MMF). Single mode optical fiber has a small core, and only allows one mode of light to
propagate at a time. While multimode fiber cable comes with a larger core and is
designed to carry multiple light rays or modes at the same time. The common single
mode fiber cable is OS2 cable, and multimode fiber cable is OM1, OM2, OM3, OM4,
and OM5. And the transmission distance of single mode fiber cable is up to several
kilometers, while the multimode fiber is up to 550 meters over 10G network. To know
more details about fiber optic cable types, working principle and installation tips, please
read: Fiber Optic Cable Guide:

 Wired connection media for the home

Ethernet
Ethernet is a family of wired computer networking technologies commonly used in local
area networks (LAN), metropolitan area networks (MAN) and wide area networks
(WAN). It was commercially introduced in 1980 and first standardized in 1983 as IEEE
802.3. Ethernet has since been refined to support higher bit rates, a greater number of
nodes, and longer link distances, but retains much backward compatibility. Over time,
Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN technologies such as Token Ring,
FDDI and ARCNET.

The original 10BASE5 Ethernet uses coaxial cable as a shared medium, while the newer
Ethernet variants use twisted pair and fiber optic links in conjunction with switches. Over
the course of its history, Ethernet data transfer rates have been increased from the original
2.94 megabits per second (Mbit/s) to the latest 400 gigabits per second (Gbit/s). The
Ethernet standards comprise several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI physical
layer in use with Ethernet.

Systems communicating over Ethernet divide a stream of data into shorter pieces called
frames. Each frame contains source and destination addresses, and error-checking data so
that damaged frames can be detected and discarded; most often, higher-layer protocols
trigger retransmission of lost frames. Per the OSI model, Ethernet provides services up to
and including the data link layer.The 48-bit MAC address was adopted by other IEEE
802 networking standards, including IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), as well as by FDDI.
EtherType values are also used in Subnetwork Access Protocol (SNAP) headers.

Ethernet is widely used in homes and industry, and interworks well with wireless Wi-Fi
technologies. The Internet Protocol is commonly carried over Ethernet and so it is
considered one of the key technologies that make up the Internet.
HOME PNA
HomePNA Alliance is an incorporated non-profit industry association of companies that
develops and standardizes technology for home networking over the existing coaxial
cables and telephone wiring within homes, so new wires do not need to be installed.

HomePNA was developed for entertainment applications such as IPTV which require
good quality of service (QoS). HomePNA 3.1 uses frequencies above those used for
digital subscriber line and analog voice calls over phone wires and below those used for
broadcast and direct broadcast satellite TV over coax, so it can coexist with those
services on the same wires.

HomePNA does not manufacture products, although its members do. HomePNA creates
industry specifications which it then standardizes under the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) standards body. The HomePNA Alliance, tests
implementations, and certifies products if they pass.

HomePNA promoter companies are AT&T Inc., Technicolor SA, Pace plc, Sigma
Designs, Motorola, Cisco Systems, Sunrise Telecom and K-Micro.[1]

Devices that use HPNA technology as part of whole-home multi-media content products
include Advanced Digital Broadcast,[2] Inneoquest and NetSys.

Alternatives to HomePNA include: Power line communication, Wi-Fi, data over cable,
and multimedia over coax.
HOME PLUG
HomePlug is the family name for various power line communications specifications
under the HomePlug designation, with each offering unique performance capabilities and
coexistence or compatibility with other HomePlug specifications.

Some HomePlug specifications target broadband applications such as in-home

distribution of low data rate IPTV, gaming, and Internet content, while others focus on
low-power, low throughput, and extended operating temperatures for applications such as
smart power meters and in-home communications between electric systems and
appliances. All of the HomePlug specifications were developed by the HomePlug
Powerline Alliance, which also owns the HomePlug trademark.

On 18 October 2016, the HomePlug Alliance announced that all of its specifications
would be put into the public domain and that other organizations would be taking on
future activities relating to deployment of the existing technologies.[1] There was no
mention in the announcement of any further technology development within the
HomePlug community.
6.4 Wireless Communications Media
Electromagnetic spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies (the spectrum) of
electromagnetic radiation and their respective wavelengths and photon energies.

The electromagnetic spectrum covers electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging

from below one hertz to above 1025 hertz, corresponding to wavelengths from thousands
of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atomic nucleus. This frequency range is
divided into separate bands, and the electromagnetic waves within each frequency band
are called by different names; beginning at the low frequency (long wavelength) end of
the spectrum these are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-
rays, and gamma rays at the high-frequency (short wavelength) end. The electromagnetic
waves in each of these bands have different characteristics, such as how they are
produced, how they interact with matter, and their practical applications. The limit for
long wavelengths is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short
wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length. Gamma rays, X-rays, and high
ultraviolet are classified as ionizing radiation as their photons have enough energy to
ionize atoms, causing chemical reactions.

In most of the frequency bands above, a technique called spectroscopy can be used to
physically separate waves of different frequencies, producing a spectrum showing the
constituent frequencies. Spectroscopy is used to study the interactions of electromagnetic
waves with matter. Other technological uses are described under electromagnetic
radiation.
Radio spectrum
he radio spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum with frequencies from 30
Hz to 300 GHz. Electromagnetic waves in this frequency range, called radio waves, are
widely used in modern technology, particularly in telecommunication. To prevent
interference between different users, the generation and transmission of radio waves is
strictly regulated by national laws, coordinated by an international body, the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU).

Different parts of the radio spectrum are allocated by the ITU for different radio
transmission technologies and applications; some 40 radiocommunication services are
defined in the ITU's Radio Regulations (RR).In some cases, parts of the radio spectrum
are sold or licensed to operators of private radio transmission services (for example,
cellular telephone operators or broadcast television stations). Ranges of allocated
frequencies are often referred to by their provisioned use (for example, cellular spectrum
or television spectrum).Because it is a fixed resource which is in demand by an
increasing number of users, the radio spectrum has become increasingly congested in
recent decades, and the need to utilize it more effectively is driving modern
telecommunications innovations such as trunked radio systems, spread spectrum, ultra-
wideband, frequency reuse, dynamic spectrum management, frequency pooling, and
cognitive radio.
BANDWIDTH
Bandwidth: range (band) of frequencies that a transmission medium can carry in a given
period of time
• Analog bandwidth is expressed in hertz, digital bandwidth usually in bits per
second (bps)
• Narrowband (voice band): used for regular telephone communications
• Transmission rate 1.5 megabits per second or less
• Broadband: For high-speed data and high-quality audio and video; wide band of
frequencies
• Transmission rate 1.5 megabits per second to 1 gigabit per second or more
TC/IP (Ch. 2) is the protocol for getting wired devices connected to the Internet
WAP (wireless application protocol): Wireless handheld devices such as cellphones use
the Wireless Application Protocol for connecting wireless users to the Web. Just as the
protocol TCP/IP was designed to provide a wired connection to your Internet access
provider, WAP is a standard designed to link nearly all mobile devices
telecommunications carriers’ wireless networks and content providers. Infrared
As discussed earlier in the chapter, infrared (IR) is a wireless transmission medium that
sends signals using infrared light waves. Mobile computers and devices, such as a mouse,
printer, and smart phone, often have an IrDA port that enables the transfer of data from
one device to another using infrared light waves.
 FIVE TYPES OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION MEDIA
Broadcast Radio
Broadcast radio is a wireless transmission medium that distributes radio signals through
the air over long distances such as between cities, regions, and countries and short
distances such as within an office or home. Bluetooth, UWB, Wi-Fi, and WiMAX
communications technologies discussed earlier in this chapter use broadcast radio signals.
Cellular Radio
Cellular radio is a form of broadcast radio that is used widely for mobile
communications, specifically wireless modems and cell phones. A cell phone is a
telephone device that uses high-frequency radio waves to transmit voice and digital data
messages.
Some mobile users connect their notebook computer or other mobile computer to a cell
phone to access the Web, send and receive e-mail, enter a chat room, or connect to an
office or school network while away from a standard telephone line. Read Looking
Ahead 8-2 for a look at the next generation of cellular communications.
Personal Communications Services (PCS) is the term used by the United States Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) to identify all wireless digital communications.
Devices that use PCS include cell phones, PDAs, pagers, and fax machines. 
Microwaves
Microwaves are radio waves that provide a high-speed signal transmission. Microwave
transmission, often called fixed wireless, involves sending signals from one microwave
station to another (shown in Figure 8-1 on page 296). Microwaves can transmit data at
rates up to 4,500 times faster than a dial-up modem.
A microwave station is an earth-based reflective dish that contains the antenna,
transceivers, and other equipment necessary for microwave communications.
Microwaves use line-of-sight transmission. To avoid possible obstructions, such as
buildings or mountains, microwave stations often sit on the tops of buildings, towers, or
mountains.
Microwave transmission is used in environments where installing physical transmission
media is difficult or impossible and where line-of-sight transmission is available. For
example, microwave transmission is used in wide-open areas such as deserts or lakes;
between buildings in a close geo- graphic area; or to communicate with a satellite.
Current users of microwave transmission include universities, hospitals, city
governments, cable television providers, and telephone companies. Home and small
business users who do not have other high-speed Internet connections available in their
area also opt for lower-cost fixed wireless plans. 
Communications Satellite
A communications satellite is a space station that receives microwave signals from an
earth-based station, amplifies (strengthens) the signals, and broadcasts the signals back
over a wide area to any number of earth-based stations.
These earth-based stations often are microwave stations. Other devices, such as smart
phones and GPS receivers, also can function as earth-based stations. Transmission from
an earth-based station to a satellite is an uplink. Transmission from a satellite to an earth-
based station is a downlink.
Applications such as air navigation, television and radio broadcasts, weather forecasting,
video conferencing, paging, global positioning systems, and Internet connections use
communications satellites. With the proper satellite dish and a sat- ellite modem card,
consumers access the Internet using satellite technology. With satellite Internet
connections, however, uplink transmissions usually are slower than downlink
transmissions. This difference in speeds usually is acceptable to most Internet satellite
users because they download much more data than they upload. Although a satellite
Internet connection is more expensive than cable Internet or DSL connections, sometimes
it is the only high-speed Internet option in remote areas. 

Long-Distance Wireless: One-Way Communication

• GPS (Global Positioning System)
• 24 to 32 MEO satellites continuously transmitting timed radio signals to
identify Earth locations
• Each satellite circles earth twice each day at 11,000 miles up
• GPS receivers pick up transmissions from up to 4 satellites and pinpoint
the receiver’s location
• Accurate within 3 – 50 feet, with a norm of 10 feet accuracy
• Not all services based on GPS technology are reliable
 • One-way Pagers: radio receivers that receive data sent from a special radio
transmitter
• Radio transmitter sends out signals over the special frequency; pagers are
tuned to that frequency
• When a particular pager hears its own code, it receives and displays the
message
• Often used in hospitals and areas where smartphones are not allowed
Long-Distance Wireless: Two-Way Communication
• 1G: First-Generation Cellular Service
• Analog cellphones
• Designed for voice communication using a system of hexagonal ground-
area cells around transmitter-receiver cell towers
• Good for voice – less effective for data because of handing off
• 2G: Second-Generation Cellular Service
• Uses digital signals
• First digital voice cellular network
Long-Distance Wireless: Two-Way Communication
• 3G: Third-Generation Cellular Service
• Broadband technology
• Carries data at high speeds: 144 kilobits per second up to 3.1 megabits per
second
• Accepts e-mail with attachments
• Displays color video and still pictures
• Plays music
• 4G: Fourth-Generation Cellular Service
• A nationwide 4G network is in development; up to 100 megabits/second
• Enables faster Internet surfing
• Includes LTE (Long Term Evolution), an international standard widely adopted
in the United States and several countries in Europe and Asia. LTE supports data
transfer rates of up to 100 megabits per second over cellular networks.
Personal area wireless
Bluetooth®
Examples of WPAN include Bluetooth®. It use the 2.4GHz band.
For applications that continuously transmit data (i.e. sensor information from a gaming
controller or music from a mobile device to a speaker) the fast communication speed of
Bluetooth® is particularly effective.
EnOcean
EnOcean is a system for transmitting data wirelessly that requires no power supply or
maintenance, and instead uses energy harvesting technology to generate the small amount
of energy needed from the environment (i.e. light, temperature difference).
The frequency varies depending on region. In Japan this is classified as specified low
power wireless using the 315MHz and 928MHz frequencies. In the US 315MHz and
902MHz are employed while the EU adopts 868MHz.
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi utilizes the 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands and features fast communication speeds.
This, combined with a communication distance of about 100m, make it the preferred
method for implementing a wireless network for connecting to the internet in the home.
Wi-SUN
This standard has been attracting increased attention since its adoption by power
companies in Japan for smart meter communication.
Japan uses the 920MHz band referred to as specified low power, which is characterized
by slower communication speeds than Wi-Fi but features longer communication distance,
lower power consumption, simpler connection, and greater performance against
obstacles.
Short-Range Wireless: Two-Way Communication
• Short-Range Wireless for Home
• Insteon
• Combines electronic power line and wireless technology
• Can send data at 13.1 kilobits per second with 150 ft. range
• ZigBee
• Entirely wireless sensor technology
• Can send data at 128 kilobits per second with 250 ft. range
• Z-Wave
• Entirely wireless power-efficient technology
• Can send data at 127 kilobits per second to range of 100 ft.