Unit 1: Fundamental Properties of Fluid

Abstraction

A. The science of Hydraulics

Fluid mechanics is encountered in almost every area of our physical lives. Blood flows through
our veins and arteries, a ship moves through water and water flows through rivers, airplanes fly in
the air and air flows around wind machines, air is compressed in a compressor and steam expands
around turbine blades, a dam holds back water, air is heated and cooled in our homes, and
computers require air to cool components. All engineering disciplines require some expertise in
the area of fluid mechanics.

In this book we will present those elements of fluid mechanics that allow us to solve problems
involving relatively simple geometries such as flow through a pipe and a channel and flow around
spheres and cylinders. But first, we will begin by making calculations in fluids at rest, the subject
of fluid statics. The math requirement is primarily calculus but some differential equation theory
will be used. The more complicated flows that usually are the result of more complicated
geometries will not be presented in this book.

In this first chapter, the basic information needed in our study will be presented. Much of it has
been included in previous courses so it will be a review. But, some of it should be new to you. So,
let us get started.

The importance of flow phenomena is out of question. Natural phenomena or technological

applications are completely or partially involves flow phenomena. It can be met in a diverse range
of length of time scales. Atmospheric flows and blood flows are two examples for this diversity.
As a tool making specie, humankind learned also how to utilize flow phenomena. Hence, those,
who deal with flowing matter, should be better equipped with theoretical understanding and
capability to use experimental and numerical investigation tools.

Fluid mechanics have played an important role in human life. Therefore, it also attracted many
curious people. Even in the ancient Greek history, systematic theoretical works have been done.
The development of governing equations of fluid flow started already in the 16th century. In the
18th and 19th century, the conservation laws for mass, momentum and energy was already known
in its most general form. In the 20th century, developments were in theoretical, experimental and
recently numerical. In the theoretical field, mostly solutions of the governing equations for special
cases were provided. Experimental methods have been developed to measure flow velocities and
fluid properties. By the development of computers, the numerical treatment of fluid mechanical
problems opened new perspectives in research. It is the common belief that in the 21th century,
the activities would be most intensive in the development new experimental and numerical tools
and application of those for developing new technologies.
Fluid Mechanics is the study of fluids at rest (fluid statics) and in motion (fluid dynamics). A
fluid is defined as a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress
regardless of the magnitude of the applied stress. Whereas a solid can resist an applied force by
static deformation.

B. Units used in Fluid Mechanics

Fluid mechanics, as all other engineering areas, is involved with physical quantities. Such
quantities have dimensions and units. The nine basic dimensions are mass, length, time,
temperature, amount of a substance, electric current, luminous intensity, plane angle, and solid
angle. All other quantities can be expressed in terms of these basic dimensions, e.g., force can be
expressed using Newton’s second law as

𝐅 = 𝐦𝐚

In terms of dimensions we can write (note that F is used both as a variable and as a dimension)
𝐋
𝐅 = 𝐌
𝐓𝟐
where F, M, L, and T are the dimensions of force, mass, length, and time. We see that force can
be written in terms of mass, length, and time. We could, of course, write

𝐓𝟐
𝐌 = 𝐅
𝐋
Units are introduced into the above relationships if we observe that it takes 1 N to accelerate 1 kg
ft
at 1 m=s 2 (using English units it takes 1 lb. to accelerate 1 slug at 1 s2 ), i.e,

𝐦 𝐟𝐭
𝐍 = 𝐤𝐠 · 𝐥𝐛 = 𝐬𝐥𝐮𝐠.
𝐬𝟐 𝐬𝟐

These relationships will be used often in our study of fluids. Note that we do not use ‘‘lbf’’ since
the unit ‘‘lb.’’ will always refer to a pound of force; the slug will be the unit of mass in the English
system. In the SI system the mass will always be kilograms and force will always be Newton.
Since weight is a force, it is measured in Newton, never kilograms. The relationship

𝐖 = 𝐦𝐠
m
is used to calculate the weight in Newton given the mass in kilograms, where g = 9.81 (using
s2
ft
English units g = 32.2 s2 ). Gravity is essentially constant on the earth’s surface varying from 9.77
m
to 9.83s2 .

Five of the nine basic dimensions and their units are included in Table 1.1 and derived units of
interest in our study of fluid mechanics in Table 1.2. Prefixes are common in the SI system so they
are presented in Table 1.3.
Note that the SI system is a special metric system; we will use the units presented in these tables.
We often use scientific notation, such as 3 · 105 N rather than 300 kN; either form is acceptable.

C. Fluid
Liquids, gases, plasmas and, to some extent, plastic solids are accepted to be fluids. A perfect fluid
offers no internal resistance to change in shape and, consequently, they take on the shape of their
containers. Liquids form a free surface (that is, a surface not created by their container) whereas
gases and plasmas do not, but, instead, they expand and occupy the entire volume of the container.

Fluids are generally divided into two categories: ideal and real fluids.

Ideal Fluids
 Assumed to have no viscosity ( and hence, no resistance to shear)
 Incompressible
 Have uniform velocity when flowing
 No friction between moving layers of fluids
 No eddy currents or turbulence

Real Fluids

 Exhibit infinite viscosities

 Non-uniform velocity distribution when flowing
 Compressible
 Experience friction and turbulence in flow
Real fluids are further divided into Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian fluids.

Most fluids problems assume real fluids with Newtonian characteristics for convenience. This
assumption is appropriate for water, air, gases, steam and other simple fluids like alcohol, gasoline,
acid solutions, etc. However, slurries, pastes, gels, suspensions may not behave according to
simple fluid relationships.

The substance of interest in our study of fluid mechanics is a gas or a liquid. We restrict ourselves
to those liquids that move under the action of a shear stress, no matter how small that shearing
stress may be. All gases move under the action of a shearing stress but there are certain substances,
like ketchup, that do not move until the shear becomes sufficiently large; such substances are
included in the subject of rheology and are not presented in this book. A force acting on an area is
displayed in Fig. 1.1. A stress vector is the force vector divided by the area upon which it acts. The
normal stress acts normal to the area and the shear stress acts tangent to the area. It is this shear
stress that results in fluid motions. Our experience of a small force parallel to the water on a rather
large boat confirms that any small shear causes motion. This shear stress is calculated with

∆Ft
τ = lim
∆A→0 ∆A
Each fluid considered in our study is continuously distributed throughout a region of interest,
that is, each fluid is a continuum. A liquid is obviously a continuum but each gas we consider is
also assumed to be a continuum; the molecules are sufficiently close to one another so as to
constitute a continuum. To determine whether the molecules are sufficiently close, we use the
mean free path, the average distance a molecule travels before it collides with a neighboring
molecule. If the mean free path is small compared to a characteristic dimension of a device (e.g.,
the diameter of a rocket), the continuum assumption is reasonable. In atmospheric air at sea
level, the mean free path is approximately 6 𝑥 10−6 cm and at an elevation of 100 km, it is about
10 cm. So, at high elevations, the continuum assumption is not reasonable and the theory of
rarified gas dynamics is needed.
If a fluid is a continuum, the density can be defined as:
∆m
τ = lim
∆V→0 ∆V

where ∆𝑚 is the infinitesimal mass contained in the infinitesimal volume ∆𝑉.

D. General Properties of Fluids

 Mass density (𝛒, 𝐫𝐡𝐨)
The density of a fluid is its mass per unit volume:

𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐢𝐝, 𝐌
𝛒=
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞, 𝐕

UNITS SI ENGLISH
 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠
𝑚3 𝑓𝑡 3

For an ideal gas, its density can be found from the specific gas constant and ideal gas law:

𝐩
𝛒=
𝐑𝐓

where:
ρ = absolute pressure of gas in PA
Joule lb − ft
R = gas constant or
kg − °K slug − °R
T = gabsolute temperature in Kelvin or Rankine

This table shows the approximate room temperature densities of common fluids

 Specific Volume (𝐕𝐬)

It is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid:

𝟏
𝐕𝐬 =
𝛒

 Unit Weight or Specific Weight (𝛄, 𝐠𝐚𝐦𝐦𝐚)

It is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid:

𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐢𝐝, 𝐖
𝛄=
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞, 𝐕
 𝛄 = 𝛒𝐠

UNITS SI ENGLISH
𝑁 𝑙𝑏
𝑚3 𝑓𝑡 3

 Specific gravity (𝐒)

It is a dimensionless ratio of a fluids density to some standeart reference density. For liquids and
solids, the reference density is water at 4°C.

𝛒𝐥𝐢𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐝
𝐒=
𝛒𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫

𝛒𝐠𝐚𝐬
𝐒=
𝛒𝐚𝐢𝐫

 Absolute Viscosity (𝛍, 𝐦𝐮)

The property of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to shearing forces. A prefect
fluid would have no viscosity.

Consider two large, parallel plates at a small distance y apart, the space between them being filled
with a fluid. Consider the upper plate to be subject to a force F, so as to move with a constant
velocity μ. The fluid in contact with the upper plate will adhere to it and will move with the same
velocity while the fluid in contact with the fixed plate will have a zero velocity.

𝛕
𝛍 = 𝐝𝐕
𝐝𝐲

where:
τ = shear stress
μ = absolute viscosity
y = distance between the plates

 Kinematic Viscosity (𝐯, 𝐧𝐮)

Kinematic viscosity is the ration of the dynamic viscosity of the fluid to its mass density.
𝛍
𝐯 =
𝛒
where:
ρ = density
μ = absolute viscosity

We can relate the shear to the applied torque as follows:

𝐓 = 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 ∗ 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 ∗ 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐚𝐫𝐦 = 𝛕 ∗ 𝟐𝛑𝐑𝐋 ∗ 𝐑

where the shear acting on the ends of the long cylinder has been neglected. A device used to
measure the viscosity is a viscometer.

In this course, we focus our attention on Newtonian fluids, those that exhibit a linear relationship
between the shear stress and the velocity gradient as displayed in Fig. 1.5. Many common fluids,
such as air, water, and oil are Newtonian fluids. Non-Newtonian fluids are classified as dilatants,
pseudo plastics, and ideal plastics and are also displayed.
A very important effect of viscosity is to cause the fluid to stick to a surface, the no-slip condition.
If a surface is moving extremely fast, as a satellite entering the atmosphere, this no-slip condition
results in very large shear stresses on the surface; this results in extreme heat which can burn up
entering satellites. The no-slip condition also gives rise to wall shear in pipes resulting in pressure
drops that require pumps spaced appropriately over the length of a pipe line transporting oil or gas.

Viscosity is very dependent on temperature. The viscosity of a liquid decreases with increased
temperature but the viscosity of a gas increases with increased temperature. In a liquid the viscosity
is due to cohesive forces but in a gas it is due to collisions of molecules; both of these phenomena
are insensitive to pressure so we note that viscosity depends on temperature only in both a liquid
and a gas, i.e., μ = μ T

The viscosity is often divided by density in equations, so we have defined the kinematic viscosity
to be
𝛍
𝐯 =
𝛒

PROPERTY SI ENGLISH

𝑁−𝑠 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Absolute Viscosity, μ 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑠
𝑚2 𝑓𝑡 2

Kinematic Viscosity, 𝑚2 𝑓𝑡 2
v
𝑠 𝑠

 Surface Tension (𝛔, sigma)

The membrane of “skin” that seems to form on the free surface of a fluid is due to the
intermolecular cohesive forces, and is known as surface tension. Surface tension is the reason
that insects are able to sit on water and a needle is able to float on it. Surface tension also causes
bubbles and droplets to take on a spherical shape, since any other shape would have more source
area per unit volume.
𝟒𝛔
𝐩 =
𝐝
where:
σ = surface tension
d = diamter of the droplet
p = gage pressure

 Capillary Action ( Capillarity)

It is the name given to the behavior of the liquid in a thin-bore tube. The rise or fall of a fluid in a
capillary tube is caused by the surface tension and depends on the relative magnitudes of the
cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquids to the walls of the containing vessel.
Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes they do not wet (cohesion >
adhesion). Capillarity is important when using tubes smaller that about 3/8 inch in diameter.

𝟒𝛔𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
𝐡 =
𝛄𝐝

For complete wetting, as with water in a clean glass, the angle is 0degrees, hence the formula
becomes
𝟒𝛔
𝐡 =
𝛄𝐝

where:
h = capillary rise or depression
γ = unit weight
d = diameter of the tube
σ = surface tension
The table below shows the contact angles between commonly uses materials.

 Compressibility (𝛃, 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐚)

Compressibility is the fractional change in the volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure in a
constant temperature process.
∆𝐕 𝐝𝐕
− 𝟏 −
𝐕 𝐕
𝛃= = or 𝛃=
∆𝐩 𝐄𝐁 𝐝𝐩
where:
∆V = change in volume
V = original volume
∆p = change in pressure
dV
= change in volume ( usually in percent)
V

 Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, 𝐄𝐁

The bulk modulus of elasticity of fluid expresses the compressibility of the fluid. It is the ratio of
the change in unit pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit of volume.
𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 ∆𝐩 𝐝𝐩
𝐄𝐁 = = ∆𝐕 or 𝐄𝐁 = − 𝐝𝐕
𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧
𝐕 𝐕

 Pressure Disturbances
Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves. The velocity of pressure wave (also
known as acoustical of sonic velocity) is expressed as:

𝐄𝐁 𝟏
𝐜= √ = √
𝛒 𝛃𝛒

 Property Changes in Ideal Gas

For any ideal gas experiencing any process, the equation of state is given by:

𝐩𝟏 𝐕𝟏 𝐩𝟐 𝐕𝟐
=
𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟐

When the temperature is held constant, equation reduces to (Boyle’s Law)

𝐩𝟏 𝐕𝟏 = 𝐩𝟐 𝐕𝟐

When the pressure is held constant, equation reduces to (Charle’s Law)

𝐕𝟏 𝐕𝟐
=
𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟐

For adiabatic and isentropic conditions (no heat exchanged)

𝐩𝟏 𝐕𝟏 𝐤 = 𝐩𝟐 𝐕𝟐 𝐤

𝐕𝟏 𝐤 𝐩𝟐
( ) = = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝐕𝟐 𝐩𝟏

𝐤−𝟏
𝐩𝟐 𝐤 𝐓𝟐
( ) =
𝐩𝟏 𝐓𝟏

where:
𝐩𝟏 = initial absolute pressure
𝐩𝟐 = final absolute pressure
𝐕𝟏 = initial volume of gas
𝐕𝟐 = final volume of gas
𝐓𝟏 = initial absolute temperature of gas
𝐓𝟐 = final absolute temperature of gas
k = ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume. Also
known as adiabatic exponent

 Vapor Pressure
Molecular activity in a liquid will allow some of the molecules to escape the liquid surface.
Molecules of the vapor also condense back into the liquid. The vaporization and condensation at
constant temperature are equilibrium processes. The equilibrium pressure exerted by these free
molecules is known as the vapor pressure of saturation pressure.

Some liquids, such as propane, butane, ammonia, and Freon have significant vapor pressure at
normal temperatures. Liquids near their boiling point of that vaporizes easily are said to be
volatile liquids. Other liquids such as mercury, have insignificant vapor pressures at the same
temperature. Liquids with low vapor pressure are used in accurate barometers.
The tendency toward vaporization is dependent on the temperature of the liquid. Boiling occurs
when the liquid temperature is increased to the point that the vapor pressure is equal to the local
ambient pressure. Thus, a liquid’s boiling temperature depends on the local ambient pressure, as
well as the liquid’s tendency to vaporize.

The table below shows the typical vapor pressures of common fluids.
E. Properties of Water and other Fluid
Examples:
1. A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1,200 kg and a volume of 0.952 cu. m, Find its
a. Weight, W
b. Unit weight
c. Mass density and
d. Specific gravity
Solution:

a. Weight, W = Mg
= (1,200 kg) (9.81m/s 2 )
Weight, W = 11,772 kg−𝐦/𝐬𝟐 ) or 11.772 kN
𝐖
b. Unit Weight, 𝛄 = 𝐕
11.772 kN
=
0.952 m3
Unit Weight, 𝛄 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟔𝟔 𝐤𝐍/𝐦𝟑
𝐌
c. Density, 𝛒 = 𝐕
1200 kg
=
0.952 m3
Density, 𝛒 = 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟎. 𝟓 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑
𝛒𝐠𝐥𝐲𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧
d. Specific Gravity, 𝐒 = 𝛒𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫

1260.5
=
1000
Specific Gravity, 𝐒 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔
2. The specific gravity of a certain oil is 0.82. Calculate its
(a) Specific Weight in lb/ft3 and kN/m3
(b) Mass density in slugs/ft3 and kg/m3
Solution:
a) Specific Weight, 𝛄 = 𝛄𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐱 𝐒
 = 62.4 X 0.82 = 𝟓𝟏. 𝟏𝟔𝟖 𝐥𝐛/𝐟𝐭 𝟑
= 9.81 X 0.82 = 𝟖. 𝟎𝟒𝟒 𝐤𝐍/𝐟𝐭 𝟑
b) Density, 𝛒 = 𝛒𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐱 𝐒
𝐬𝐥𝐮𝐠𝐬
= 1.94 X 0.82 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗
𝐟𝐭 𝟑
= 1000 X 0.82 = 𝟖𝟐𝟎 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑

3. Air is kept at a pressure of 200 kPa absolute and a temperature of 30 deg C in a 500-liter
container. What is the mass of air?
Solution:
𝐩
𝛒=
𝐑𝐓
200 x 103
=
287(30 + 273)
𝛒 = 𝟐. 𝟑 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑

𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 = 𝛒 𝐱 𝐕
500
= 2.3 X
1000
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓 𝐤𝐠

4. Water in a hydraulic press, initially at 137 kPa absolute is subjected to a pressure of 116280
kPa absolute. Using EB = 2.5 GPa, determine the percentage decrease in the volume of water.
Solution:
𝐝𝐩
𝐄𝐁 = −
𝐝𝐕
𝐕
(116,280−137)x 103
1.5 x 109 = − dV
V

dV
= −0.0465
V
𝐝𝐕
= 𝟒. 𝟔𝟓% 𝐝𝐞𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐞
𝐕
5. If the viscosity of water at 70 deg C is 0.00402 poise and its specific gravity is 0.978. Determine
its absolute viscosity in Pa – s and its kinematic viscosity in m2/s and in stokes.

Solution
Absolute Viscosity:

0.1 Pa−s
𝛍 = 0.00402 poise x = 0.000402 Pa - s
1 poise

Kinematic Viscosity:

μ 0.000402 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐦𝟐
𝐯=ρ= = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟏 𝐱
(1000 x 0.978) 𝐬

10−7 m2 1 stoke
𝐯 = 4.11 x x
s m2
0.0001 s

𝐯 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟏 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐤𝐞
 Utilization of Learning

Review Problems:

1. A liter of water weighs about 9.75 N. Compute its mass in kilograms.

2. If an object has a mass of 22 kg at sea level,
a) What will be its weight at a point where the acceleration due to gravity g = 9.75 m/s2?
b) What will be its mass at the point?
3. What is the weight of a 45-kg boulder if it is brought to a place where the acceleration due to
gravity is 395 m/s per minute?
4. If the specific volume of a certain gas is 0.7848 m3/kg, what is its specific weight?
5. What is the specific weight of air at 480 kPa absolute and 21 deg C?
6. Find the mass density of helium at a temperature of 4 deg C and a pressure of 184 kPa gage, if
atmospheric pressure is 101.9 kPa ( R = 2079 J/ kg.K)
7. At 32 deg C and 205 kPa gage, the specific weight of a certain gas was 13.7 N/m3. Determine
the gas constant of this gas.
8. A cylindrical tank 80 cm in diameter and 90 cm high is filled with a liquid. The tan and the
liquid weighed 420 kg. The weight of the empty tank is 40 kg. What is the unit weight of the liquid
in kN/m3?
9. A lead cube has a total mass of 80kg. What is the length of its side? Specific gravity of lead is
11.3
10. A liquid compressed in a container has a volume of 1 liter at a pressure of 11 MPa and a volume
of 0.995 liter at a pressure of 2MPa. What is the bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid?
11. What pressure is required to reduce the volume of water by 0.6 percent? Bulk modulus of
elasticity of water, EB = 2.2 GPa.
12. Water in a hydraulic press, initially at 137 kPa absolute, is subjected to a pressure of 116,280
kPa absolute. Using EB = 2.5 GPa, determine the percentage decrease in the volume of water.
13. If 9 m3 of an ideal gas at 24 deg C and 150 kPaa is compressed to 2 m3;
a) What is the resulting pressure assuming isothermal conditions
b) What would have been the pressure and temperature if the pressure is isentropic? Use =
1.3
14. Two large plane surfaces are 25 mm apart and the space between them is filled with a liquid
of viscosityμ = 0.958 Pa − s. Assuming the velocity gradient to be a straight line, what force
is required to pull a very thin plate of 0.37 m2 area at a constant speed of 0.3 m/s if the plate
is 8.4 mm from one of the surfaces?
15. A cylinder of 125 mm radius rotates concentrically inside a fixed cylinder of 130 mm radius.
Both cylinders are 300 mm long. Determine the viscosity of the liquid which fills the space
between the cylinders if a torque of 0.88 N-m is required to maintain an angular velocity of 2π
radians/sec. Assume the velocity gradient to be a straight line.

16. An 18-kg slab slides down a 15-degree inclined plane on a 3-mm-thick film of oil with
viscosity µ = 0.0814 Pa-sec. If the contact area is 0.3 m2, find the velocity of the slab. Neglect
air resistance.

17. Estimate the height to which water will rise in a capillary tube of diameter 3mm. use σ = 0.0728
N/m and γ= 9810 N/m3 for water.
18. Estimate the capillary depression for mercury in a glass capillary tube in 2 mm in diameter.
Use σ = 0.514 N/m and θ = 140 degrees.
19. What is the value of the surface tension of a small drop of water 0.3 mm in diameter which is
in contact with air if the pressure within the droplet is 561 Pa?
20. An atomizer forms water droplets 45 µm in diameter. Determine the excess pressure within
these droplets using σ = 0.0712 N/m.
21. Distilled water stands in a glass tube of 9 mm diameter at a height of 24 mm. What is the true
static height? Use σ = 0.0742 N/m.
 Supplementary Materials

e-books:

a. AL-SHEMMERI (2012). Engineering Fluid Mechanics, ISBN No. 978-87-403-0114-4

b. MERLE C. POTTER AND DAVID C. WIGGERT (2008). Schaum’s Outline of Fluid
Mechanics

Power point presentations

A. The science of Hydraulics

B. Units used in Hydraulics
C. Fluid
D. General Properties of Fluids
E. Properties of Water and other Fluid

Print resources

 White, Frank M. 1979. Fluid Mechanics. UNI Ed Inc, Manila Phil.

 Stretcher, Victor, Wytewi E. Benjamin and Redford Keith W. 1909. Fluid Mechanics.
McGraw Hill

 Daughterty, Robert C., Franzini, Josepth B., and Finnimore, E. John. 1989. Fluid Mechanics
with Engineering Application. Mcgraw Hill Co. New York.

 King, Horace W., Wisler, Chester O., And Woodburn, James C. 1948. Hydraulics 5th
Edition, John Wiley and Son’s Inc. New York.

Video Presentation

A. Properties of Fluids -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zqLicugjwZE&feature=share
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OGIkuJoQzok&feature=share