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:? 1 Formal Logic

PREVIEW

Aristotle was the pioneer of logical reasoning. The Stoics developed an early form of
propositional logic, where the propositions have a truth-value such that at any time they are
either true or false. Logic is the study ofvalid inference. First order predicate logic is a kind of
mathematical logic which was developed to provide a logical foundation for Mathematics. Logical
reasoning provides the theoretical base for many areas of Mathematics and consequently computer
science. Logic is concerned with reasoning and with establishing the validity of arguments. It
allows conclusions to be deduced from premises according to logical rules and the logical argument
establishes the truth of the conclusion provided that the premises are true.

TEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, the students will be able to:
o understand proposition and propositional variables
o understand compound propositions, basic connectors and derived connectors
I
I
o understand principle of duality and logical equivalence of propositions
I
a
r understand the algebra ofpropositions
o understand tautology, contradiction and contingency
o understand functionallycomplete sets of connectives
. understand argument and its types
. understand rules of inference, proof of validity and normal forms
o understand existential and universal quantifiers, negation ofquantifred propositions
and multiple quantified propositions.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Logic is about deducing whether a statement is true or false on the basis of information we
have been given. Logic plays an important in the development of every area of learning. Math-
ematical logic is often used for logical proofs. Proofs are valid arguments that determine the

M-3.1
 M-3.2 A TEXTB@K OF ENGINEER]NG MATHEMATICS

truth values of mathematical statements. There are two parts of logic. The
propositional or sentential logic and the second part is callei
first part is called
first-order or predicate logic. propo-
sitional Logic is concerned with statements to which the truth values, .true,
and ofalse,, can be
assignerl' The pur?ose is to analyze these statements either individually
or in a composite
manner' Propositional logic has very limited expressive power. First
order togi" o"p""dicate logic
generalizes propositional logic by involving quantifiers
{;for au", "there exists""). Fiist-order Iogic
is an extension ofpropositional logic, which allows quantification
overvariables. In propositional
logic we can onlytalk about specifics, whereasin predicate logicwe
can also talk more generally.
This chapter discuses basic concepts of propositional logic, mlthods
orp"oorr, oo;.1forms and
introduction to first order predicate logic.

t.2 PROPOSTTTON

A proposition is a statement which is either true or false. It is a declarative

sentence.
For example The following statements are all propositions :
(j) Jawahar Lal Nehru was the first prime
minister ofrndia.
(a) It rained yesterday.
(iii) lf x is an integer, then 12 is a + ve integer.
For example The following statements are not propositions :
(r) Please report at 11 a.m. sharp
(a) What is your name ?
(iii) x2 = 13.

1.2.1 PropositionalVariables
The lower case letters starting from P onwards are used to represent propositions
e.g.,
p : India is in Asia
q:2+2=4.
B3q'"'ple l. Clossify the following statements as propositions or non-propositions.
(i) The population of India goes upto 100 rniilion
in year 2000.
(ii)x+t=30
(iii) Come here
(iu) The Intel Pentiurn-Ill is a 64-bit computer.
Sol. (l) Proposition (u) Not a proposition
(ru) Not a proposition (du) Proposition.

1.3 COMBINATTON OF PROPOSITIONS

We can combine the propositions toproducenewpropositions.lhere
are three fundamental
and three derived connectors to combine the propositiJns. firese are
explained as follows one by
one.

1.3.1 Fundamental Connectors

There are three fundamental connectors namely Conjunction,
Disjupction and negation.
 FORMAL LOGIC iI.3.3
13.1.1 Coqiunction. It means AI{Ding of two statements. Assumep and g be two propo-
sitions" Conjunction ofp and g to be a proposition which is true when bothp and g are true,
otherwise false. It is denoted byp a q. (Fig. 1)
Tluth tables are used to determine the truth or falsity of the combined proposition.

Fig. 1. Truth Table of p nq.

1.3.1.2 Diejunction.It means ORing oftwo statements. Assumep and g be two propo-
sitions. Disjunction ofp and i' to be a proposition which is true when either one or Uottrp *a q *
true and is false when bothp and g are false. It is denoted byp ,, q (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Truth Table of p v q.

1.3.1.3 Negation. It means opposite of original statement. Assumep be a proposition.
Negation ofp to be a proposition which is true whenp is false, and is false whenp is true. It is
denoted by -p.(Fig. 3)
lr

Fig.3. Truth Table of -p.

I

I
Exanple 2. Consider the following :
p : He is rich
q : He is Generous.
Write the proposition which combines the proposition p and q using conjunction (n),
disjunction (v), and negation (-).
Sol. Conjunction. He is rich and generous i.e., p
Disjunction. He is rich or generous i.e., p v q. ^q.
Negation. He is not ichi.e., - p
He is not generous i.e., - q.
It is false that he is rich or generous i.e., - (p v q).
He is neither rich nor generous i.e., - p t - q.
It is false that he is not rich i.e., - (- p).
Example 3. Let p be "It is hot day" and q be "The temperature is 45"C". Write in simple
sentences the meaning of following :
(i)-p (ii) -(pvq) (iii) - (p nq)
(iu) - (- p) (u)pvq (ui) p aq
(uii) -p n-e (uiii)-(-pv-q).
 M-3.4 r ^F :iJ3^€=a..v3
\.ATHEMATICS
=t-:t:r:r
Sol. (j) It is not a hot day.
(il) It is false that it is hot day
or temperarure is 4b.C.
(iii) Itis not true that it is hot day
(lu) It is false that it is not
ur,ji"-p""ature is {5"C.
a hot iay.
(u) It is hot day or temperature
is 4S"C.
(ui) It is hot day and temperature
is 4boC.
(uii) h is neither a hot day nor
temperature is 4S.C.
(uiii) h is false that it is not a hot
day o" t"-p"".ture is not 45oc.
Example 4. Consider the following statements: -
p : He is coward.
q : He is lazy.
r : He is rich.
Y!i!: tl, following compound statements in the symbolic
(i) He is either coward i, porr. form.
(ii) He is neither coward, nir lazy.
(iii) It is false that he is cowqrd,
but not lazy.
(iu) He is coward or lazy but
not rich.
(u) It is false that he is coward
or lazy but not rich.
(ui) It is not true that he is
not rich.
(uii) He is rich or else he is both
coward and. lazy.
Sol.(l)pv-r (ii)-pn-q (p n-
(iu)(pvq)n-r tiii) - q)
(u)-((pvq)n-r) tui) - (- r)
(uii)rv(pnq).

L.3.2 DerivedConnectors
The commonlyused derived connectors
are NAND, NoR and XoR.
l'3'2'1 NAND' It means negation after ANDing of two statements.
two propositions' Nanding ofp and q Io be proposition ^\sume p and q be
a which is fal-"e *,hen bothp and q are true,
otherwise true. It is denoied by p T q.(Fiel.
a)

Fig.4. Truth table of NAND.

l'3'2'2 NoR or Joint Denial. It means negation after oRing of nr-o srarements.
p and q be two propositions'-Noring of p Assume
andq,tou"", p"opo.iiiJ., rtt i.t, is rrue *-henbothp
q are false, otherwise false. It is denoted and
by p'ls iFis:;i""^"'"'
p-q
T T F
T F F
F T F
F F T
Fig. 5. Truth table of NOR
FORMAL LOGIC M-3.5

1.3.2.3 XOR. Assume p and q be two propositions. XORing ofp and q is true ifp is true or
if g is true but not both and vice-versa. It is denoted byp @ q. (Fig. 6)
p@q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
Fig.6. Truth table of XOR.

Example 5. Generate the truth table for following:

(,A@B@C Oil AT BT C.
(i)
Sol. The truth tabie for is shown in Fig. 7.
(,) AIBIC A@B AOBOC
T T T F T
T T F F F
T F T T F
T F F T T
F T T T F
F T F T T
F F T F T
F F F F F
Fig. 7. Truth table of A @ B @ C.
(il) Truth table for (ii) is shown in Fig. 8.

A1B ATB,IC
T T T F T
T T F F T
T F T T F
T F F T T
F T T T F
F T F T T
F F T T F
F F F T T
Fig. 8. Truth table of A'l B t C.

Example X @Y = (X n - Y) v (- X rY).
6. Proue that
Sol. Construct the truth table for both the propositions. (Fig. 9)
x@Y -Y -x Xn -Y - XnY (Xn-Y)v(-XnY)
T T F F F F F F
T F T T F T F T
F T T F T F T T
F F F T T F F E\

Fig.9
 M-3.6
A TEXTB@K OF EI.IGINEERII.JG I'ATHEMATICS

As the truth table for both the proposition

are same.
Thus Xoy=(Xn_Vi"(_Xay).
Hence proved.
Example 7. Show that ( p @ q) u (p i q)
is equiualent to p T q.
SoI. Construct the truth table for
both the propositions.
(p@s) (plq) (p@q)v(plq) pT q
T T F F F F
T F T F T T
F T T F T T
F F F T T T
. Fig. t0
the values of (p d v
@ 1o J q) is same asp t q as shown in Fig. 10. Hence,
they are
"qri"rf,'#:"
Exampre g'showthat(p tq) @
@T dis equiuarentto (p v a) a@ !q).
SoI. Construct the truth table for both
the propositions
q plq (ptq)@@lq) pvq ptq (pvq)n(plq)
T F F T F
T F
T F T F F
.tl
T F T F
F Ti F T
_t,

F'
Fig I!
Since, thevalues of (pT
e@@T ilar:d,p .q .p - g. are sarne as shown in Fig. 11. Hence,
they are equivalent.

1.3.3 Some Other Connectors

The other commonry used connectors
are cond-itro=,a: a;,1 Biconciitionar.
1'3'3'1 conditional' statements ofthe forrn'Ifp
then o- a- t-aled conditional statements.
is denoted asp + q and read as "p
implie, q- o. -g i-. aff;...1-.. i3yp', or,p is sufficieri
forq,,.It
conditional statement is true if bothp and
g are true or if p is :i:. .. . i js
iai:re ifp is true
l,tlf ilffl.i;H"rt,r"X.,,,"1l#:ti;a
rrrnotrresi.;;;;";;[-"o, e ,-. ca,irtr conc]usi<,n. rhe

T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Fig. 12. Truth Table of p _+ q.
FORMAL LOGIC M-3.7

For example: The followings are conditional statements :

1. Ifo = b and b = c.then a = c.
2. If I will get money, then I will purchase computer.
1.3.3.1.1 Variations in Conditional Statement
Contrapositive. The proposition - q ) - p is called contrapositive ofp -; q.
Converse. The proposition g -+p is called the converse of p -+ q.
Inverse. The proposition - p -+ - q is called the inverse of p -+ q.
Exampleg.Showthatp->qanditscontrapositiue-q+-parelogicallyequiualent.
Sol. Construct truth table fbr both the propositions. (as in Fig. 13)
-q)-p
T T F F
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
Fig. 13. Truth table ofp + g and its contrapositive - q + - p.
As, the ualues in both cases dre same, hence both propositions are equiualent.

Example Show that proposition q -+ p and - p -) - q is

1O. ruot equiualent to p -+ q.
Sol. Construct truth table for all the above propositions :
q+p -p+-q
T T F F T T T
T F F T F T T
F T T F T F F
F F T T T T T
Fig.14
As the values ofp -+ q in table is not same to q -+ p and - p -+ - g as in Fig. 14. So both of
them are not equal to p -+ q but they are themselve-q logically equivalent.

Example 11. Proue that the following propositions are equiualent to p -+ q.

(i)-@n-q) (ii) -pv q (iiil-q+-p.
Sol. Construct the truth table for all the above propositions :

-s+-p I @n-q) -(pn-q) p-+q

T F F F
T F T T
F T F F
F T T F

Fig.15
In the above table (Fig. 15), the values ofp -+ q is equivalent to (l), (ii) and (iii), hence they
are equivalent top -+ g. Hence proved.
 r
=r-EEF :F
Biconditional. Statements of the form _if and crr-r-_i- 1_;
.,ur"_lrrt"1.r., ::. :nditional
It is denoted.sr q and read as "p,if and
? and is only ifq-. Tne proposirrc,i-:
q have the same truth values :- :s ::-re ifp and
falseifp and q do rr.r" ,rr" iame r,rth , i,r._. -
The name
biconditional comes from the fact thatp e+ "oi to (p _>
q is equivalent q I n (q __+ p
The truth table ofp e+ q is shown in Fig.
16.
q

T T
F F
T F
T' T
Fig. f 6. Truth Table of p <-+ q
For example : (l) Two rines are parallel if and
onry if they have same slope.
(il) You will pass the exam if
and only ifyou will work hard.
Example 12. Proue that p ++ q is equiualent to (p _+
a) n (q - Or.
Sol. Construct the truth tables ofboth propositions
:

(p --: q) a (q -+ p)
T T T
T F T
ir IT
l"
T'
F

Fig. f 7. Truth table of p <+ q

F
ir T
Fig. 18. Truth table of (p -+ q) n (q _+ p)
Since, the truth tables are same, hence they are logically equivalent. (Fig. 17 and
Fi€!. 18). Hence proved.

L.4 PRINCIPTE OF DUALITY

T\Mo formulas A, and A, are said
to be duals of each other if either one can
the other by replacing rANfl bv (oil be obtained from
" n e replace" r v (oR) uv Al-.a if the fcrmula co.tai,s T
(True) or F (Farse), then
uy r,"rrd
and uv
Note 1' Tr.re two connectives n and v are calred
i "1.owu.
iir
rut,il, th* .l,rui.
duar of each other.
2. Like AND and OR, t (NAND) and J (NOR)
are dual of each other.
3' If an-v fonnula of proposition is valid, then
its dual is also a valid forrnuiu.
Example lB. Determine the dual of each of.the followirug:
(a)pi,(qnr) (b)_pv_q
d)@T qlT @T^q)
@)@,r_dv{_onr,
te)((l pv q),^.(q n- s)) v (pv F), he.reFmeansf.alse.
the dual of ali the above formulas, replace
n by v and v by,r, and also replace
, o, o?lrl?;lt6:"
Also replace t Uy J and vice_versa.
b)p n(.q ,rr)=p.v (q v r) $) _ p v _ q = _ p _q
(r.)(p z, - g) v l- p rtq) (p u, _ q) (_ ^
= a p v q)
(c')@.lqlltplqS
@) (i- p v q),r(qn ^ sr) v (p vl.)=((-p aq)v (q v _s))n(p ,rT)
FORMAL LOGIC M-3.9

1.5 LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE OF PROPOSITIONS

Two propositions are said to be logically equivalent if they have exactly the same truth
values under all "circumstances. The table 1 contains the fundarnental logical equivalent
expressions:
Table 1. Logically equivalent expressions.
1. De Morgan's Laws 6. Complement Properties
-(pnq)=-pv-q p=--p
-(pvq)=-p^-q 7. Transposition
2. CommutativeProperties (p-+q)=(-q-+-p)
p v q=qv p; p 8. Materiallmplication
^q=q
3. AssociativeProperties^p (p-+q)=(-pvq)
(pvq)vr=pv(q*r) 9. MaterialEquivalence
(p nq) nr=p x(q nr) (p <-+ q) [(p + q) r (q -+ p))
=
4. Distributive Properties (p <+ q) [(p -> q) v (- p n - q))
=
p r)=(p nq)v (p xr) 10. Exportation
^(qv
pv(qnr)=(pvq)n(pvr) [(P n q) '+ rl = lp -+ (g -+ r)i
5. Impotent Laws
pvp=pandp ,.p=p
Example 14. Consider the following propositions
-pv-qand-(pnq).
Are they equiualerut?
Sol. Construct the truth table for both (as shown in Fig. 19).
-p -q -pv-q p^q * (p ,.q)

T T F F TFI T
T F T Irl F
F T
E'
T F lrl F
F F T T
bl -
Fig. 19. Truth table of - p v q and
- (p rq).
F

Since, the final values of both the propositions are same, hence the two propositions are
equivalent.

T.6 ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS

Propositions satisfy various laws which are shown in Table 1.

L.7 TAUTOLOGIES
A proposition P is a tautology if it is true under all circumstances. It means it contains
only T in the final column of its truth table.
Example that the statement (p -+ q) <+ (- q
15. Proue ) - p) is a tautology.
Sol. Make the truth table of above statement :
 M-3.10
A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

p p)q -q -p -q)-p (p-+q)<+(-q)-p)

T T T F F T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T
Fig.20. Truth table of (p -+ q) e> (_ q ) _ p).
As the final column contains all T,s, so
it is a tautology. (Fig. 20)
Example 16. Proue that p v p e p is a tautology.
Sol. Construct the truth table of the given
statement:
pvp€p

Fig. 2f . Truth table ofp vp e+ p.

As the last column contains all T,s, so
it is a tautolog;r. (Fig. 21)

1.8 CONTRADICTION
A statement that is alq.a-vs false is caileci a
.(-,nrracliction.
Example 17. Show that the statemen:; . _
i :; 2 ._rrti:radiction.
Trtr
Flr I

Fig.22. Truth tabje oi; _:

Sol. Construct the truth table of the given statemenr.
since, the last column contains alr F's, so it
is a contradi*:c: rg -.-

1.9 CONTINGENCY

can be either true or false depending on

t, ."r.fi;?Tff#ift the
=j- ia-,rr:r r -:- 1i3flss,

p+q p^q i-r

T
-i --

T T T
T F F F
F T T F
F F T F a

Fig. 23. Truth table of (p -+ q) _+ n

@ d.

Example 18. Proue that the statement (p

-+ q) --> (p a d is a continge .4
Sol. Construct the truth table of the given statement.
FORMAL LOGIC M-3.11

As, the value of final column depends on the truth value of the variables, so it is a contingency.
(Fig.23)

Example 19. From the following formulae, find out tati,tology, contingency and contra-
diction.
(il A=A n(Av B) (ii)(pn-q)v(-p^q) tiii)-(pvq)v(-pv-q).
Sol. (j) Construct the truth table for A -+ A n (A v B).
AvB A t(A vB) A -+A t'(A vB)
T T T T T
m T
T F T .1

F T T F T
F F F F T
Fig.24. Truth table ofA -+A x(Av Bl.
Since, the last column of the table contains all T's, hence it is a tautology. (Fig. 24)
'(li) Construct the truth table for (p n - q) v (-p g) as shown in Fig.25.
^
(pa-q)r(-pnq)
T T F F F F F
T F F T T F T
t1 T T F F T T
F F T T F F F

Fig. 25. Truth table of (p n - g) v (- p r g).

Since, the value of the final column depends on the value of the different variables, hence it
is a contingency.
(ili)Constructthetruthtabieoftheproposition-,yorq)v(-pv-q)asshowninFig.26.
-q I p^q i -(pnq) I -pv-sl-@vq)v(-pv-q)
T T F F T F F' F
T F F T F T T T
F T T ol
F F T T T
F F T rl l' T T T
Fig. 26. Truth table of - (p v q) v (- p v - q).
Since, the value of final column depends upon the value of different variables, hence it is a
contingency.

Example 2O. Verify that proposition p , - (p n q) is tautology.

Sol. Construct the truth table for the given proposition. (FiS.27)
-(p n q) Pv-(Pnq)
T T T F T
T F F T T
F' T F T T
F F F T T
Fig.27.Truth table ofp v - (p n q).

Since, the last column contains all T's, hence it is a tautology.

 M-3.12 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Example 21, Determine whether the following is a tautology, contingencT,

or a contrad,ic-
tion :
(i), - (p -+ q) (ii) p -+ (q -+ p) (iii)p,^,-p.
sol. (j) construct truth tabre forp -+ (p --> q) as shown in Fig. 2g.
p)q p-+(p-+q)
T T T T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T
Fig. 28. Truth table of p -+ (p _+ q).
Since' the value of lasL'column depends on the value of different variables,
hence it is a
contingency.
(ii) Construct truth table forp --> (q -+ p) as shown in Fig. 29.

p-+(q-+p)

Fig. 29. Truth table of p -+ (q _+ p).

Since, the last column contains all T's, hence it is a tautolory.
(lll) Construct truth table forp n -p as shown in Fig. 30.
Since, the last column contains all F's, hence it is a contradiction.

Fig.30. Truth table ofp,^. -p.

1.10 FUNCTIONALTY COMPLETE SETS OF CONNECTTVES

We have three basic and two coriditional connectives i.e., t,V,
-, 3 and <+. Ifwe have given
any formula containing all these connectives, we can write an equivalent
formula rvith certain
proper subsets of these connectives.
A set of connectives is called functionally complete if every formula can
be expressed in
terms of an equivalent formula containing the conne.tir", from this set.

Example 22. Write an equiualent formula for p t (R e S) v IS <= p, u.hich does not
inu ol ue bi condition al.
Sol. We know that P <+ Q = (P
= e) n (e =
p) ...(,)
59, applying eqn" (l) to the given formula, we can obtain an equivalent
formuia s-hich does
not involve biconditional.

- [Pn ((R + S) n (S =+ R)) v ((S + p) n (p + S,r]

 FORMAL LOGIC

Example 23. Write an equiualent formula for R v (S e T), which rloes not inuolue
biconditional as well as conditional.
Sol. We know that
(P<+Q)=(P=Q)n(Q=+P) . ..(i)
(P+Q)=-PvQ ...(,r)
So, applying the eqn. (l) and (il) on the given formula, we can obtain an equivalent formula,
which does not involve biconditional as well as conditional.
lR v (S <+ T)l = [R v (($ =+ T) v (T S))]
=
= [Rv ((- S v T) v (- T v S))].
Example that {-, N is functionally complete.
24. Show
Sol. Take any formula which involve all the five connectives r, v, -,
= and <+. We can
obtain an equivalent formula by first replacing biconditional and then replacing conditional and
finally replacing v.
Wehave P<+Q-(P=Q)n(Q=P)
=(- PvQ)r.(- Q"P)= (- (--Pn - e)) (- p))
Hence, {-, n} is functionally complete.
"(- - en -
Similarly, ue can show that (-, vlis functionally complete.

Example 25. Show that { -, -+} is functionally complete.

Sol. Weknowthat P -+ Q= - P v Q. i

So, we have P"Q=-P-+Q. t

Since, { -, v} is functionally complete. Hence f}om above, {-, -+} is also functionally complete.
'e.-
i given any formula which involve all the five connectives, we can obtain an equivalent for-
mula using {-, -->} by first replacing biconditional (er) and then replacing (n) AND and finally
replacingv (OR).

Example 26. Express P a e in terms of | -, N only.

Sol. (P <+ Q) = (P
= Q),r (Q = P)
= (- PvQ)a (- QvP) P+ Q= - pv e
=(-(- -Pa-Q))"(-(- - Q,^. -P))... pve=-(-p"-e).
Example 27. Express (P n - Q) v (- P n - e) in terms of (-, v) only.
Sol. (P - Q) v (- P - Q) = (- (- P v - - Q)) v (- (- - P' - - e)), ... p e - (- p v -
" ^ ^ = e).

PROBLEM SET.I
1. Let p be "Aditya speaks English" and let q be "Arshita speaks Hindi". Given a simple verbal
sentence which describes each of the following:
(i)pvq Gi) p nq (iii) p n -q
(iu) -p v -q (u) --q fui) -(-p n -q)
M-3.14
A TEXTEECK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

2'Let p be " It is cold " and g be " It is raining".

write each of the following in symbolic form:
(j) It is not cold (il) It is cold or raining
(iil) It is cold and raining
0u) It is cold or it is not raining
(u) It is neither cold nor raining (ul)
It is not true that it is not raining
3. Consider the following:
p: It is Hot day
q: The temperature is 45"C.
Write in simple sentences the meaning of the following:
O-p {ii)pvq (iii) p np
(iu) -(pvq) b) -(p nq) (ui) -p t -q
tuii) -(p v -q)
4. Consider the following:
p: The weather is pleaseirt.
q : It is raining.
r : Th.e cold wind is blowing.
Write ii: simple sentences the meaning of the following:
(i) p + r (ii) -q + @ ,.r) eii) _p+ (p v r)
Gu)(pvq)++r' b)@ne)=tr (ui)_p+_r
5. If p is true and g is false, frnd the truth values of the following:
(i)p,.,p (ii)p+q Uii)_p(p+_q)
(iu) q) + (p v q \
1p n fu) -(p r, g) v -(q <+p)
6. Construct the truth tables for the follovi,ing:
(i)-pvq=-q Gi)pn-q-r
(iii)pn-reqv r (iu)-@,..q)v-{qap)
7' write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following:
(i) If today is holiday, then it is Sunday.
(ii) lf n is a prime number, then n is 2 or n is
odd.
(iii) If p is a room, then p is a square.
8. Which of the following propositions represent talltologies:
(i)p+(q+p) (ii)(pnq)+p
(iu)(p,.q)+(p+q) eiil(q+p)+p
(.u)(p+@=r) +((p=+ q)+@+r)
(ui)(pn(p+q))+q fuii)(-p+_g) =+ (q+p)
9. Determine the dual of each of the following:
(i) (p t -q -r) v (p ,.r) v (-p nq nr)
^
(ii)pvqv -qv -r ^q
(iii)(p,t_en_r)v(qxr)
(iu)pv(pv -q)xT (u)(qn p)vp=p
10' show that the following pairs ofpropositions are logically
equivalent:
(i) p nq andq np (iil p v (p ,.q) and.q
(iii) -(p n q) and -p v -q) (iu) (p v q) =r r and (p
=+ r) r, (q + r)
(u)p <+q and -(p v q)v (p nq) (ui) p n(_qv q) andp
11. write the converse, inverse, contrapositive and negation
of the given statement:
"If Manish finishes his work, he will go to see IpL match.,,
12. Which of the following is a tautology?
(i)(aeb)+(atb) (ii) (a e b) e (an b) v (-a n -b)
(iii) (av b) n(av -b) (it') (a + T) n (F b)
=
FORMAL LOGIC M-3.15
(u)(Fva)=+(bnF) (ul) ((A -+ B) a (B -+ -A))
-r A
(ujj) (-B
-r -A) -+ (-B -+ A) + B)
13. Show that the following pairs of proposition are logically equivalent, without using truth table.
(i) (p r' q) -+ r and p -+ (q -+ r) 1i;1 1q v r) -+ p and (q --+ p) n (r -s p)

ANSWERS AND HTNTS (PROBLEM SET t)

1. (i) Aditya speaks English or Arshita speaks Hindi.
(ll) Aditya speaks English and Arshita speaks Hindi.
(iii) Aditya speaks English but Arshita does not speaks Hindi.
(lu) Aditya does not speaks English or Arshita does not speaks Hindi.
(u) It is not true that Arshita does not speak Hindi.
(ui) It is not true that Aditya does not speak English or Arshita does not speak Hindi.
2. (i) -p (ii)pvq (iii) p s
(iu) p v -q (u) -p n -q ^
(uD --q
3. (i) It is not a hot day.
(li) It is a Hot day or the temperature is 45"C.
(ill) It is a Hot day and the temperature is 45'C.
(iu) It is false that it is a Hot day or the temperature is 45.C.
(u) It is not true that it is Hot day and the temperature is 4b"C.
(ui) It is neither a Hot day nor the temperature is 45.C.
(uii) k is false that it not a cold day or temperature is not 45.C.
4. (j) If the weather is pleasent then the cold wind is blowing.
(rr) If it is not raining, then the weather is pleasent and the cold wind is blowing.
(iii) If the weather is not pleasent then It is raining or the cold wind is blowing.
(iu) The weather is pleasent or it is raining if and only if the cold wind is blowing.
(u) If weather is pleasent and it is raining then the cold wind is blowing.
(ui) If the weather is not pleasent then the cold wind is not blowing.
5. (,) F (") F (rrr) F (iu) T (u) T

6. (i) p q -p -q -pvq -pvq+-q

F F T T T T
F T T F T F
T F F T F T
T T F F T F

Qit p q r -q p^-q p^-q+r

T T T F F T
T T F F F T
T F T T T T
T F F T T F
F T T F F T
F T F F F T
F' F T T F T
F F F T F T
M-3.16 A TEXTBOC|< OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

p q r p^-r qvr p^-reqvr

T T T F T F
T T F T T T
T F T F T F
F F T F F
F T T F T F
F T F F T F
F F T F T F
F F F F F T
Qu) p q -!o no) -(pnq)v-(q<+p)
T T F F
T F T T
F T T T
F F T T
7. (l) Converse: tI'it is Sunday then today is holiday:
Inverse: Iftodal.is not holiday then it is not Sunday
Contrapositive: If it is not sunday then today is not holiday
(ii) If n is 2 or n is odd then z is a pi.ime number.
rnverse: If z is not 2 or n is not odd then z is not a prime number.
contrapositive: If ,, is not a prime number then z is not 2 or n isnot odd.
(iii) If p is a square thenp is a room.
Inverse: Ifp is not a room then p is not a square.
Contrapositive: Ifp is not a square thenp is not a room.
8. (j) It is a tautology (il) It is a tautology (lii) It is not a tautology
(lu) It is a tautology. (u) It is a tautology (ui) It is a tautology
(uii)Itisatautology.
9. (i) (p v -q v -r) n(p v qvr) n (-p v q v r)
Gi)pxq^-q^-r (iii) (p v -q v -r') n (q v r)
Uu)qn(pn-q)vT (u)(pvq)^p=p
11. Converse: If Manish goes to see IpL match, he will finish his work.
rnverse: If Manish does no frnish his work, he will not go to see the IpL
match.
contrapositive: If Manish does to go to see IpL match, he does not finish his work.
Negation: Manish frnishes his work and he does not go to see the IpL match.
12. (l) It is not a tautology (ll) It is a tautology (iil) It is not a tautology
(iu) It is a tautology. (u) It is not a tautology (ui) It is not a tautology
(uii)Itisatautology.
13. (i)(pnq)-+r Def. of Conditional
=-(pnq)-sr
=(-pv-q)vr De-Morgan's law
= -Pv(-Pvr) Associative law
=-Pv(q-+r) Def. of Conditional
.
=P-+(q-+r) Def. of Conditional
 :CRMAL LOGIC

M-3.17
Itt.) (qvr\--s1c _|qvr)vp
= Def. of Conditional
=(_qn_r)vp De-Morgan,s law
(_q v p) n (_r vp)
= Distributive law
=(q_+p)a(_rvp) Def. of Conditional
=(q_>ptr(r_+pr Def. of Conditional

1.11 ARGUMENT
An argument is an assertion
that a gr-oup ofpropositions
oroposition' cailed the conclusio". ; called premises, yields another
ionciLrsion e. Then, it is
r,"ie, rr", rr,- , ri'i."r"# group
ofpropositions that yierds
denoted * f, er, p,,,...,p, the
l_ e.
,",,, tl,"
"l;il:lffi;#Hffi:',Tffiff ";"*;J'''" proposition that is asserted on the
which are assumed for accepting
.,.," o""o,rrlil'r1,"J;Ji?i,1,Tr"";;:""', the concrusion, are cajred

1.11.1 Valid Argument

argurnent is called valid argument
.,." ,.# if the conclusion is true whenever
all the premises
is arso valid if and onrv
ifrhe ANDing
.,,n.1,,1:; I':rir"r lf thu *1:r, of propositions impries
:he group al';;;,r"gvl wn'"." 6iiio,o,,
"ro;#:ilf,li;6',{tff;ft;ilj;l-
Some common valid
,p,,) is
argument forms are given
in Table 2.
7.lL.2 Falacy Argument
An argument is callecl falacy
or an invalid argument if
it is not a valid argument.
7,L2 RULES OF INFERENCE

A rule of inference is just

an instruction for obtaining
'ist of true statements' There ut" tott additional true statements
oi.ules of inferen.",? *".r. f..om a
rists of true riri""r"rrr, with. we sha, use rures of
.::ffi:r"'ffi:ffmtte cared proofs. A proof is a
how a way of showing
newstateme,,.f.,;#;:::T*il1T:[IT":H;:i:*i:;*":*".:*tdih:*:m:
clrarvirrg conclusions from 'rrrese
the o*".i.". are rur"r.Inference
ill'i;1TH$:ilT,i[::.*:.:, ;,:f i"io",,,,"t""i"-a"rrrri'r"" rules preserve
ur.o r," ti," *,".u.,r".;ii;i;,ence
can be
Premise 1
Premise 2

Premise #n
Conclusion

,. ,n"J1:J.;,:,0",:iiXT"fl:,I1#l[$:*"rence we can arso u;i: any of the

srandard rautoro5;ies
 M-3.18
A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

For example. The first inference rure

is known as mod.us ponensis written
as:
p+q
p

The Modus Ponens is the firslt rule

of inference. Modus ponens allows
as statements in a proof; tr,", *".i"
us to say that,
justified.in-rd;id;
if
ffi"ffi:1,X11"'rflpear as anothe.

Table 2.. Rules of Inference

1. Modusponens 2. Modus tollens
p+q p)q
p+
q
-q
o Hypothetical syllogism
-p
4. Disjunctive syllogism
plq pvq
q-+r
p-+r -p
q
o. Constructive dilemma
6. Absorption
(p-+q)n(r-+s)
p+q
pvr p-+@aq)
.'. g vs
7. Simplifrcation 8. Co4iunction
p^q p
:.p q
:. P^q
9. Addition
p
.'. pvq.
Example 28. Show that the ad.dition rule
is ualid, :
p l_pvq or p ... pvq.
Sol. We can prove addition rule from
the truth table as shown in (Fig. B1)

T T
T F

Fig. 3f. Truth table for addition.

In the truth table p is true in line 1
and 2 andp v g is also true in line 1 and
argument is valid. 2. Hence,
 ma L LOGTC
M-3.19
E-nrnple 29. Show that the rule mod,us ponens is ualid..
p)q
p
q
sol. The truth table of the rure modus ponens is as shown in : (Fig. 82)
p q I p)q
T T T
T F F
F T T
.F F T
Fig. 32. Truth table for modus ponens.
Inthe truth tablep is true in line 1 and 2 andp + q and, pboth are true in line 1 and q is
also true in line 1. Hence, argument is valid.

E:ample 8o. show that the rure of hypotheticar syuogism is uarid.

p)q
q+r
p +r.
sol. The truth table of the given rule is as shown in Fig. BB. In the truth table.
p q r p+q q+r p)r
T T T T T T
T T F T F F
T F F F T F
T F T F T T
F T T T T T
F T F T F' T
F F T T T T
F F F T T T
Fig. 38. Truth table for hypothetical syllogism.
p -+ q is true in lines 1,2, 5, 6,7,9.
q ) r is true in lines l, B, 4, 5, 7, g.
Bothp -+g and q +r is true inrines r,5,7,g andp -+ ris also truein
rines r,5,7,g.
Hence, argument is valid.

Example 31. Show that the rule of Modus Tollens is ualid.

p+q
-q
-p.
 M-3.20 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Sol. The truth table of modus tollens is shown in (Fig. 84)

p q -p -q p)q
T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T F T

F F T T T

Fig. 34. Truth table for modus tollens.

Inthetruthtable,p -+q istrueinline 1,3 and4 and -q istrueinline2andl.Bothp -rg and
- q are true in line 4 and *p is also true in line 4. Hence, the argument is valid.

Example 32. Show that the rule of disjunctiue syllogism is ualid

pvq
-p
:. q.
Sol. The truth table of the rule disjunctive syllogism is as shown in (Fig. Bb).
ptq -p pvq
T T F T
T F F T
F T T T
F F T F

Fig. 35. Truth table for disjunctive syllogism.

In the truth table, p v e is true in line 1, 2 and 3 and - p is true in line 3. Bothp v g and
- p is true in line 3. As q is also true in line B. Hence, urgrr-".rt is valid.
Example 33. Show that the rule of simplification is ualid

p.
sol. The truth table of the rule of simplification is as shown in (Fig. 86).
p q p^q
T T T
T F F
F T -nr
.l
F F F
Fig. 36. Truth table firr simplifrcation.
In the truth table, p n g is true in line 1 andp is also true in line 1. Hence, the argument
is valid.
 =ORMAu LOGIC M-3.21
Example 34. Show that the rule of conjunction is ualid,.
p
q
p
^q.
Sol. The argument is valid if p n q -) p q is a tautology. The truth table for the rule of
conjunction is shown in (Fig. B7). ^

p p^q p^q+p^q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F. F F
Fig. 37. Truth table for conjunction.
As the proposition is a tautology. Hence, the argument is valid.

Exanple 35. Show that the rule of absorption is ualid

p-+q
p -+ (p nq).
Sol. We have to show that (p -+ q) -+ h -+ @ ,,, Ql is tautology. The truth table of the rule
of absorption is as shown in (Fig. BB).

p -+(p nq) (p -+q) -+ h + (p nq)l

Fig. 38. Truth table for absorption.

Since, the argument is a tautology. Hence, it is a valid argument.
1.13 PROOF OF VALIDITY
We can test the validity of any argument by constructing the truth tables. But as the
number of variable statements increases, the truth tables grow unwieldly. So, a more efficient
method to test the validity of the argument is to deduce its conclusion from its premises by a
sequence of elementary arguments each of which is known to be valid or rules of inference.
Example36.Prouethqttheargumentp)-q,r-)q,rl-pisualidwithoutusingtruth
table.
Sol.(i) p)-q (Given)
(ii) r -+ q (Given)
(iii) -q+-r Contrapositive of(li)
Gu) p-+-r Hypothetical syllogism using (i) and (jrj)
(u) r->-p Contrapositive of (lu)
(ul) r is true (Given)
(uii) -pistrue Modus ponens using (u) and (ul).
 M-3.22
A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEEBING MATHEMATICS

Example 37- Proue that the argrtment p ) ) re

using truth tables. e, e r, s, - s, pvt l_ t is uarid without
Sol. (l) p --) q (Given)
(ii) q -+ r (Given)
(iii) r -+ s (Given)
(iu) - s (Given)
kt) pvt (Given)
(.uii p -+ r -
Hypothetical syllogism using 0) and 0l)
(li7) p -+ s
Hypothetical syllogism using (ul) and 0ll)
''uiii) - p Modus tollens using (ujl) and (ju)
(r-r) t
Disjunctive syllogism using (u) and(uiii).
38. Proueit ot th" argument p, S I @ v r) n q is ualid, wi.thout using truth
tables.Example
Sol. (i) p (Given)
\ii) pvr Ruie of addition using 0)
iii.\ q (Given)
(ir') (p 'r r) te Rule of conjunction using (jl) and.(iii).
Example 39. Proue that the argument p rI
-, e, F^ q is ualid witlrcu.t using truth table.
Sol.ii) p-q (Given)
tit) p r, r (Given)
(uii) p
Rule of simplification using U)
(i.tt) q
Modus ponens using U) and fiii).
Example 4O. Proue that th.e arguntertt (p ; q) a (r -s s), (p v r)
^
(q,.t r) I q'r s
SoI. (l) (p + g) l. (r -+ s) (Given)
(ii) tpvr)n(qvr) (Given)
Gii) (p v r) Simplifi cation using Gir )
(i,u) q v s
Constructive dilemma using(j) and (jlj).
Example 41. Proue thot the argument (p n q) v (r -+ s), t _.> r, _ (p t, q.) ll _r s ls ualjt,
withou.t usi.ng tnr.th tables.
SoI. (l) Qt r, q) v (r -.> s) (Given)
(il) I -+ r (Given)
(iii) - (p nq) (Given)
(iu) r --+ s Disjunctive syllogisrn using (i) anci (rli )
(tr; t 3., HSrpothetical syilogism usingUi) and (r.ij),
Example 42. Proue thet th,r argutnerut (p -+ q,l n ('r -+ il, q __; s, (.cl _+
t,alid usin€ ded.uciion rnet\rcd.. il _+ (p v r) l._q v s l.s

Sol. ti ) \p -+ q) ,r (r -+ s) (Given)
(ii) q -+ s (Given)
Gii) (q + .s) -> (p v r) (Given)
(iu) P , ,'
Modus ponens using0ll) and (jj)
(i,) q rz.s
Coirstructive dilem,ma using 0) antl (ll).
: -=t,rAL LOGIC M-3.23

Example 43. Proue that the argument p -> (q v r), (s n t) + q, (q v r) -+ (s n t) | p -+ q is

:.:C uithout using truth toble.
Sol. (l) p -+ (q v r) (Given)
(li) (s n t) -+ q (Given)
(iii) (qvr)+(snf) (Given)
(lu) p -+ (s n f) Hypothetical syllogism using (l) and (iir)
(u) p-+q Hypothetical syllogism using (il) and (iu).
Example 44. Proue that the argument p v (q t p.), - p r I - q is ualid without using
^
: -'..: h tables.
Sol. (i) p v (q.-+ p) (Given)
Qi) -pnr (Given)
(iiil -P + Rule of simplification using (ii)
(iu) q )p Disjunctive syllogism using (l) and.(iii)
(u) -q Modus tollens using (lu) and (ili).
Example 45. Test the ualidity of foltowing argument. If I witl select in IAS examination,
:'.;t I tLtili not be able to go to London. Since, I am going to London, I utill not select in IAS
- .t.trttirtcttion.
Sol. Letp be "I will select in IAS examination" and q be "I am going to London". Then the
1fi,','e ?.rgument can be written in symbolic form as follcws :
p+-q
q
.,, -p
Construct the truth table for above argument as shown in (Fig. 39)

Fig.39
Inthetruthtable,p-)-gistrueinline2,Sand4.qistrueinlineland4and-pistrue
:n line 3 and 4. Hence, all three are true in line 4. So it is a valid statement.
Example 46. Consider the following argument and determine whether it is ualid.
Either I will get good marks or I will not graduate. If I did. not graduate I will go to
Canada. I get good marks. Thus, I would not go to Cana.da.
Sol. Let p be "I will get good marks" and g be "I will graduate" and r be "I u'ill go to
Canada". Thus, the above argument can be rn'ritten in symbolic form as follows:
pY-q
-q-)r
p
-r
M-3.24 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Construct the truth table of above proposition as shown in (Fig. 40)

p q r -q -r pv-q -q+r
T T T F F T T
T T F F T T T
T F F T T T F
T F T T F T T
F T T F F F T
F T F F T F T
F F T T F T T
F F F T T T F
Fig.40.
lnthe truthtable, p v - q is true in line 1,2,3,4,7,8 and - q -+ ris true inline\,2,4,
5,6,7 andpistrueinlinel,2,Sand4.-ristruein2;3,€and,p.Alltheabovearetrueinline2.
Hence, the argument is valid. ....-------
Example 47 . Determine the ualidity of the following argument without usinjtrud-h tables.
Either I will pass the examination, or, I will not graduate. If I do not graduate, I':}xllgo
\'\\\
to Canada. I failed : Thus, I will go to Canada.
Sol. Letp be "I will pass the examination" and g be "I will graduate" and r be "I will go to
Canada". Thus the above argument, in symbolic form can be written as
pv-q
-q+t
-p
.'. t
Thus to prove the validity of the argument, use the standard results as follows :

(i)pv-q (Given)
(ii)-q'+t (Given)
(iiil - p (Given)
(iu) - q Disjunctive syllogism using (l) and (ili)
(u) t Modus ponen.3 :-rsrng (ii) and (iu)
Hence proved.

Example 48. Determine the ualidity of the following argument using deduction metlnd.
If I study, tlten I will pass examination. If I do not go to picnic, then I will study. But I
failed. exami,nation. Therefore, I went to picnic.
Sol. Letp be "I study" and q be "I will pass examination" and r be "I go to picnic". Then the
above argument is written in symbolic form as follows :
p+q
-t +p
*p
t
=:IMAL LOGIC
M-3.25

Thus to prove the validity of the argument use the rules of inference.
(i)p+q (Given)
Qi)-t-->p (Given)
(iiil - p (Given)
(lrD- - I Modustollensusing(il)and(lii)
fu) t Complement property using (lu)
Hence proved.

Example 4g. Proue the ualidity of the following argument using truth tqble as well as
:--,luction method.
"If the market is free then there is no inflation. If there is no inflation then there are price
:,-,:trols. Since there are price controls, therefore, the marhet is free"'
Sol. Letp be "The market is free" and q be "There is inflation" and r be "There are price
:,:rntrols". Thenthe above argument can be written in symbolic form as follows:
p)-q
;"'
,,. p
Ist Method. By using truth table
construct the truth table of above argument as shown in (Fig. 41)
p q r -q p)-q -q+r
T T T F F T
T T F F F T
T F F T T F

T F T T T T

F T T F T T
F T F F T T
F F T T T T
F F F T T F

Fig.41
In the truth tat'Ie , p ) - q is true in line 3, 4, 5,6, 7 and 8 - q --s r is true in line 1,2, 4,
5.6,Tristrueinline !,4,S,T.Alltheabovethreearetrueinline4and5.Alsopistrueinline4'
Hence the argument is valid.
IInd Method. Using deduction method
(i)p--+-q (Given)
(ii)-q+r (Given)
(iii) p + r Hypothetical syllogism using (i) and (li)
(iu) - p -+ - r Transpositionusing(lil)
(u) r (Given)
(ui) - - p Modus tollens using (iu) and (u)
(uii) p ComPlementof(ul).
Hence proved.
M-3.26 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGTNEERTNG TvtATHEMATICS

L.L4 NORMAL FORMS

One method to determine whether two logical expressions P, and P, are equivalent
is by
comparing their truth tables. This process is very bulky if the number of viriables increases.
A
more better method is to transform the logical expressions to some standard
fornrs and a simple
cornparison of these standard forms shows whether P, Pr. This type of standard
= forms are called
normal forms or canonical forms.
There are two types of Normal Forms. These are:
(o) Disjunctive Normal Form
(b) Conjunctive Normal Form

L.L4.L Disjunctive Normal Form

A disjunctive normal form (DNF) is a normali zationof a logical formula. It is a disjunction
of conjunctive clauses or we can say it is an ORing of ANDs. It is also known as sum
of products.
Definition: A logical formula is said to be in disjunction normal form (DNF) if and only if
it is a disjunction (ORing) of one or more conjunctions (ANDs) of one or more literals.
Note : The and ; or and not are the only propositional operators in DNF. The not operator can only
be used as a part ofliteral, this means that it can onlv precede a propositional
variable.
All logical formulas can be converted into DNF. But in same cases, the conversion to DNF
leads to an exponential increase of clauses in the formula e.g. the logical formulas
ofthe following
form have 2n terms in DNF:
@rv yr) n(xrv y) n (r, vy.r)n.......... A(x.,,v y,,)
Example 5o.The following formulas are in d,isjunctiue nonnal form (DNF)
(i) p nq
\ii) p
Gii) @ nq)v r 6u)pvq
tu) -p bi)pv(-qnr)
fuii)pvqv-q v-r
Example 5l.The following formulas are not in Disjun.ctiue Normal Form (DNF).
(r-(AvBvC) (ii)pn(qvr)
(iiil@nq)n-q
Example i?.which of the following are in Disjunctiue Normal Form (DNF).
(i) @ n q n r) v (p n r)v Q' ,r r) (ii) (p n -q) v (p v r)
(iii)@nq,.r)v-r iul t-p nqlv(p nql nq
Sol.
(l) It is in DNF (ll) It is not in DNF
(iii) h is in DNF (lu) It is not in DNF
Example 53.Which of the foltowing are ruot in Disjunctiue Normal From (DNF).
(i) (p n -q)v (p nr) (ii) (p nq)v -q
(iii) (prv qrv rr) v (pr ,r rr) v (q, l' rr) (iu) (p v q v r) ,,, -r
Sol. The formula (lll) and (iu) arenot in DNF.
 FORMAL LOGIC
M-3.27

L.L4.L.L Steps to Obtain DNF of a Logical Expression

The following steps are applied to obtain a DNF using algebraic maniprrlations:
l. Remove all conditional (=) and Bi-conditional (<+) using an equivalents expression con-
taining the conrrectives and (n), or (v) and noi (-) only' Usep - q -p v q and
=
peq=(pnq)v(-pn-g).
2. Eliminate not (-) before sums and products by using the double negation and/or using
Demorgan's law.
Repeat the steps 1-2 until the only connectives are and (n) and or (v) and all the
negations are attachecl to sentential coustants rather than to formulas.
(ANDs)
3. Applv tire distributive law until the logical expression is a ORing of conjunctions
ofclauses. ,
Example 54. Obtain the DNF of the following logical expressions:
I
(i)pn@+q) Gi) -@ +(qnr))
Sol. (i) The given logicai expression is
= q)
p n(p =p x(-P v q) (Elimination of conditional i
n
=(p -p)
v (P ,r q)
The required logical expression in DNF.
(il) The given logical expression is
-(p - (q nr) = -(-p v (q n r) (Elimination of conditional )
= -(-p) - n r)
(q
a (De Morgan's law)
=p n(-q v -r) (IdempotentlawsandDemorgan'slaw)
= (p n -Q) v (p n -r) (Distributive law)
The required logical expression in DNF.
Example 55. Obtairu the DNF of the following logical expression's:
(r) p v (-p * (q v (.q -r))) (ii) (p q) n(-p nq)
= =
Sol. (l) The given logical expression is
=pY(-p+(qv(q=-r)))
(Elimination of conditional)
=pv(-p=(gt(-qv-r))) (Elimination of conditional )
=pv(pv(qv(.-qv-r)))
=pvpvqv-qv-r (Idempotent law)
=pvqv-qv-r
This is the required logical expression in DNF.
(il) The given logical expression is
(P q)n (-P,r q) (-P v q),r (-P I q) (Elimination of conditional)
= = (Using distributive law)
=(-pn-p^q)v(qn-pnq)
=(-pnq) v(-p nq)
(Using idempotent law
and commutative law)
This is the required logical expression in DNF.

L.L4.t.2 Truth Table Method to Find DNF

Consider a statement P that contains n variablesp 1,P2,Ps, ....,Pn.Its truth table contains
2, rows, we can obtain the DNF from the truth table. For each row of the truth table, in which the
valueofPisT,formtheconjunctionp,
^pz^ps.....^-pjA......AP,,whereprisput,ifthereisT
in theyil[ position in the row andp, if there is F in the jth position in the row. This type of term is
M-3.28 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

called a minterm- The disjunction (ORing) of the minterms is the DNF of the given logical
expression. This type of form is calledprl rucipal Disjunctiue Norntal
form.
For Example: Letp and q be two statement variables, thenp e, p -q, -p n q and -p n
-q are the minterms ofp and q. ^ ^
Let p,q and r be three statement variables, then p q r, p q A -r, p -q r, p _q
^
-r, -p Aq ,'.r, -p ^q A -r, -p -q
^r, -p A -q _r are the^ minterms ^ ^
of p, q and r.
^ ^ ^
^ ^
Steps to find DNF using Truth Table
The following steps are applied to a logical expression to obtain DNF.
1. Construct the truth table ofthe given proposition.
2. For every truth value T of the given proposition, select the minterm, which also has the
value T for the same combination of the truth value of the statement variables,
3' Then take the disjunctive (ORing) of the minterms selected. in step 2. It is the required
disjunctive normal form.
Example 56. Obtain the DNF or principal disjunctiue Normal form of the following
logical expressions using truth table.
=s
(i) p (ii) -p v -q (iii) (-p -+ r) r, (p e q)
(l)
Sol. The truth table ofp + q is shown in Fig. 42

p q p-q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Fig.42
There are three combinations in which the expr:essionp
three minterms corresponding top q isp n e, -p
= q has truth value T. So the
= and -p n -q. Now to obtain the
disjunctive normal form take the disjuntion of these^qminterms. Thus,
(p n q) v (-p r' q) v (-p n -q) is the requared DNF.
(li) The truth table of -p v -g is shown in Fig. 48

p -p q -q -pv-q
T F T F F
T F F T T
F T T F T
F T F T T
Fig.43
There are three combinations in which the expression -p v -q has truth value T. So the
three minterrns corresponding to -p v -q is (p n -d,Gp,r q) and -p -q.Now to obtain
the disjunctive normal form take the disjunction of these minterms. ^ Thus,
(p n -q) v (-p nq) v (-p r -q) is the required DNF.
=CRMAL LOGIC M-3.29

(lll) The truth table of (-p -+ r) ,t (p <+ q) is shown in Fig. 44

p q r -p (-p
= r) (p eq) (-p -+ r) n(p e q)

T T T F T T T
T T F F T T T
T F T F T F F
T F F F T F F
F T T T T F F
F T F T F F F
F F T T T T T
F F F T F T F

F'ig.44
There are three combinations in which the expression (-p + r) n (p e q) has truth
value T. So the three minterms corresponding to (-p = r) n (p <+ q) are (p n q r' r), (p
^
q -r) and (-p -q r). To obtain the disjunctive normal form take the disjunction of
^ ^
these minterms. Thus,
^
(p x q n r) v (p n q n -r) v (-p v -q r) is the required DNF.
^

L.L4.2 Conjunctive Norma! Form (CNF)

Aformula is in conjunctive normal form (CNF) if it is a conjunction (ANDing) of clauses,
g'here a clause is a disjunction (ORs) of literals. We can say it is an ANDing of ORs. It is also
krown as product of sums.
Defrnition: A logical formula is said to be in conjunctive normal form (CNF) if and only if
it is a conjunction (ORing) of one or more disjunctions (ORs) of one or more literals.
Note: The and (n), or (v) and, not (-) are the only propositional operators in CNF. The not operator
can only be used as a part ofa literal, this means that it can only precede a propositional variable.
Every proposition of formula can be converted into an equivalent formula in CNF. But in
some cases, the conversion to CNF leads to an exponential increase in clauses in the formula.
Example 57. The following formulas are in conjunctive normal form (CNF)?
(i) -p n(q v r) (ii) p v q
(iii) p nq (iu) (pv q) n(-o vrv -s)
(u)(pvq)n(rv-s)
Example 58. The following formulas are not in conjunctive normal form (CNF)?
(i) -(p v q) (ii) (p n q) v r
(iii) p n(q v (rns))
Example 59. Which of the following are in conjunctive normal form (CNF)?
(i) -p n-q (ii) (pv q)n(qvr)
(iii) p v (-p nq) (iu) (p v q v r) n(-p v r)
M-3.30 A TEXTtsC{-Ti,( OF ENGINEEBING MATHEMATICS

Sol.
(l) It is in CN!' (li) It is in CNF
(iii) h is not in CNF (ir,) It is in CNF
Exarnple 60. Which of the following are not in conjunctive normal form ICNF)?
(i) -pv (qnr) (li) (p v qvr')rx-r
(ii{) ip v ,-) ,r (-q vp)
Sol.
(i) It is not in CNF (li) It is not in CNF
(iii) It is in CNF

3,.14.2.L Steps to obtain CNF of a Logica! Expression

The following steps are applied to a logical expression to obtain a CNF using algebraic
manipuiations.
1. Remove all conditional (=) and Bi-Conditional (c+) using an equivalent expression con-
taininq the connectives and (n); or (v) and not (-) only. Usep + q -p v q andp e q
(.-pvq).,-qrp) = =

2. Eliminate nut (-) before products and sums by using the double negation anilor using
DeMorgan's law.
Repeat the steps 1-2 until tlte only connectives are and (n) and or (v) and all the negations
are attached to sentential constants rather than to formulas.
3. Apply the distributive law until the logical expression is a ANDing of disjunctions
(ORs) of clauses.

Example 61. Obtain the CNF of the following logical expressions:

(i)(pnq)v(.-pnq nr) (iil@v(pnr))n-(@vr)nq)
Sol. (i) The given logical expression is
= (p nq)v (-p nq nr)
=(p
v (-p r'q nr)) r (g v (-p nq nr)) (Distributivelaw)
=((pv -p) n(p vq) n (p vr))n ((qv -p) n@v q) n(q vr)) (Indempotentlaw)
=(p v q) n(p v r) n (g v -p) r,q n(q v r) (Complementlaw)
This is the required logical expression in CNF.
(li) The given logical erpression is
(qr(pnr))n-((pvr)nq)
=
(q v (p n r)) n (-(p v r) v-e) (DeMorgan's lar,v)
(q v (p r' r)) n ((-p v -r) v -e) (DeMorgan's law)
=
(-p v -q) n(-rv -q) (Distributivelaw)
=(qv p) n vr) n
(q
This is the required logical expression in CNF.
Example 62. Obtain the CNF ofthe follou'inglogical expressions:
(i)pn(p=q) Gi)(-p=r)n(peq)
Sol. (l) The given logical expression is
p q) = p n(-p v q) (Elimination of conditional)
^(p -
This is the required logical expression in CNF.
FORMAL LOGIC
M-3.31
(ii) The given logical expression is
(-p=r) n(p <+q)= (-p=r't n(@
=q)n (q=p)) (EiiminationofBi-conditional)
(-(-p) v rl n ((-p v q) n (-qvp) (Elimination ofconditional)
=
= (p v r') n (-p v q) t {-q v p) (Double negation)
This is the required logical expression in CNF.

L.L4.2.2 Truth Table Method to Find CNF

Consider a statement P that contains n rrariablesp
1,p2,ps, ....,pn.Its truth table contains
2" rows. We can obtain the CNF from the truth table. tr'oi eactrlow of ihe truth table, in which
the value of P is F forrn the disjunctionp, v pzv ps .... v -p;v .... y p,twherep, is put, if there is
T in theT-th position in the row and -r, ii there iif in thei-th position in the'row. This type of
term is called a mq,xterm. The conjunc"tion (ANDing) of the maxterms is the CNF' of the given
logical expression. This type of form is called Prl ncipal Conjunctiue Normal Forrn.
For Example. Letp and q be two statement variables, thenp v e, p v -q, -p v q and -p v
-q are the maxterms.
Let p,q and r be the three statement variables then p v q v r, p v q v -t., p v _q v r,
p \, -q v -t, -p v q v r, -p v q v -r, -p v -q vr., and _p v _q v _r arethemaxterms.

Steps to Find CNF Using Truth Table

The following steps are applied to a logical expression to obtain cNF.
1. Construct the truth table of the given proposition.
2. For every truth value F of the given proposition, select the maxterm, which also has
the value T for the same combination of the truth value of the statement variables.
Negate each row.
3. Then take the conjunction (ANDing) of the maxterms selected in step 2. It is the required
Conjunction Normal Form.
Example 63. Obtain the CNF or principal conjunctiue norrlql fornt of the following logical
erpressions using truth tables.
(i)qe+ p (ii){pvq)n(pvr)
(iii) (-p + r) a. (p e+ q)
Sol. (l) The truth table of q <+p is shown in Fig.4b
p q qep
T T T
F F
F T F
F F T

Fig.45
There are two combinations in which the expression q ep has truth value F. So, the
two terms corresponding to q <+p is (p n -q) and (-p n q).
Now negate these terms -(p n -q) and -(-p zr, g). These becomes (-p v q) and (p v -q).
These are required maxterms. Now to obtain the CNF, take the conjunctionr of tU"r"
maxternrs. Thus,
(-p v q) n (p v -q) is the required CNF of the expression.
M-3.32 A TEXTtsOCK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

(il) The truth table of (p v q) t (p v r.) is show in Fig. 46

p p r (pvq) (pvr) (prq)n(pvr)
T T T T T T
T T F T T T
T F T T T T
T F F 'T T T
F T T T T T
F T F T F F
F F T F T F
F F F F F F

Fig.46
There ail
three combinations in which the expression (p u q) r (p v r) has truth value F.
So the three terms corresponding to (f v g) a (p v -r) is (-p n q -r), (-p -q and
(-p n -q r' -,). Now Negate these terms, we obtain (p, -q ^v r),(p v^g v ^r) -r) and
(p v q v r). Now to obtain the CNF, take the conjunction of these maxterms. Thus,
(p u-q v r) n(p v q v -r) (p v qv r) is the required CNF ofthe expression.
(lii) The truth table of (-p ^r) n (p e q) is shown in Fig. 47
=
p q r -p Gp=r) peq (-p r) n(p e q)
=
T T T F T T T
T T F F T T T
T F T F T F F
T F F F T F F
F T T T T F F
F T F T F F F
F F T T T T T
F F F T F T F
F.ig.47
There are five combinations in which the expression (-p .r) n (p a q) has truth value F.
=
So the frve terms corresponding to the expression are (p n -q n r), (p n -q n -r),
(-p nq r"r),(-p t,q n -r) and (-p n -q n-r). Now negate these terms to obtain the
maxterms. The obtained maxterms are (-p v q v - r), (-p v q v r), (p, -q y -r),
(p u-q v r) and (p v q v r). To obtain the CNF, take the conjunction ofthese maxterms.
Thus, (-p, q v -r) n (-p u q v r:) n (p v -q v -r) n (p v -g v r) n (p v q v r)is the required
CNF ofthe expression.
FORMAL LOGIC M-3.33

PROBLEM SET.II
l. Which of the following logical expressions are in DNF?
(i)(prqn-r)v(-pnr) (ii) (p) v (-p v q)
(iii) p v q (iu) p
(u)pn(-pvq)
2. Which of the following logical expressions are in CNF?
(i) (p) n (-p, q) (ii)pvq
(iii) p (iu)pv(-pnq)
(u) (((p v q) t -r) v -p) (vi)(pvqv-r)n(-pvr)
3. Obtain the conjunctive normal form (CNF) of the following formulas.
O -Gp vq)n(r=-s) (ii)(-p+g)+(q+-r)
4. Convert the following logical expressions into CNF
(i) (p*q)e(p+r) (ii) (p v q) t(p ,.r)
b. Convert the following formula into CNF using truth table
(peq)+(-pnr)
6. Obtain the CNF and DNF from the following truth table.
(r) x Y Z flx,y,z)
T T T T
T T F F
T F T F
T F F T
F T T F
F T F T
F F T T
F F F F

Fig.48
(r,) p q r l\p, q, r)
F F F T
F F T F
F T F T
F T T F
T F F T
T F T F
T T F F
T T T T

Fig.49
7. Obtain the DNF of the following logical expressions:
(i)(pr.(p+q))+q (ii) (p + q) n (-p + q)
(iii) (-p +r) n (p eq)
M-3.34 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

8. Convert the following formulas into DNF and CNF

(i)p,.(p=>q) (ii) (p v q) e (p nq,\
(iii)pe(-pv-q) (iu) (p v -q) q
=
9. Obtain the conjunctive normal form using truth tables.
(i)qn(pv-q) (ii) (p ,r q) v (-p r' r)
(iii) -(pvq)ep nq
10. Obtain the DNF using truth table
(l) (p nq ) v (-p xr) v (q nr)
11. Convert the following logical expressions into CNF without using truth table.
(j)(A=B)+C (jj) A =+ (B C)
=
(iii) (A + B) v (B ==r A) (iu) (-p + (p + s))
(u)(p =+ (q=+r))=+(p + (r+q)) (ui) (p + q ) + ((o =+r)+(p
=r))
12. Consider ' '

Promises: If there was a rally, then travellingwas difficult. If they arrived on time, then travelling
was not diffrcult. They arrived on time.
Conelusion: There u'as no rally.
Determine whether the conclusion follows logically from the premises. Explain by representing
the statements symbolically and using rules of inference.
13. Consider
If Manjeet has public support, then he will contest from Bengaluru. If Manjeet says "Jai Hind" in
Bengaluru, he will not content froin Bengaluru. Manjeet says " Jai Hind" in Bengaluru. 'fherefore,
Maenjeet does not have public support.
Determine whetler the conclusion follows logically from the premises. Explain by representing
statements symbolically and using rules of inference.
14. Show that the following inferenee is valid using rules of inference.
"peq
q=r
.,p

ANSWERS AND H|NTS (PROBLEM SET []

l. (j) It is in DNF (jj) It is in DNF (jii) it is in DNF
(lu) It is in DNF (u) Not in DNF
o (j) It is in CNF (jj) It is in CNF (lii) It is in CNF
(iu) Not in CNF (u) Not in CNF (ul) It is in CNF
3. (i) (p v -r v -s) (-g v -r v -s)
".
(iil (-p v -q v - r) ,r (-q v -r)
4. (.il \-q v -p v r),^. (-r v -p v q)
(il) This formula is in CNF. It can be read as \p v q) A p r
^
5. The CNFformulais (p vg vr) n (-p v -qv r) n(-pv -qv -r)
6. (r) DNF'.(x ny nz)v (x rx -! n -z)v(-xnv r -z')v (-x r' -y nzl
CNF : (-r v -y v z) n (-.:r v y v -z) n (x v -v v -z) r' (x v y v z)
(rr) DNF :(-p x -q n -r') v (-p nq n -r) v (p n -q n -r) v (p r'q xr)
CNF : (p vq v -r) (-p u qv -r) n (-p v -qv r)
^(p -q'v -r)n
v
7. (ir -p v (p n -q)v q Gi) (-1t .,. g) v (q .r -p ) \iii\ (p rg n r) v (.p xt1 n -r\
 rcRMAL LOGIC M-3.35
8. (r) DNF : (p r. q). It is also in CNF.
(rr) CNF (pvq)n(-pv -q); DNF:(q n-p)v(p ,.-q)
(rrr) CNF : (-p v -q) np n(q v p); DNF : (-p np)
(iu)CNF:(-pvq)nq; DNF:(-p xq)vq
9. (i) (-p v q) x(p v -g) n (p v q)
(ii)(-p vqv;') r(-pvq v-r),r(pvqv r)n(pv -qvr)
(iii) (p v q) n(-p v -q)
10. (i) (-pv S v -r) n (-pu q vr) r. (p v -qv r) n(p v qv r)
11. (r) (AvC)n(-B vC) (r,) -Av -B vC (,r,) (-AvB)v(-BvA)
(iu)pv-pvq (u)-pvqv-r
fui) (p v -p v q v r) n(-p v q v - q v r)
12. Letp be "There was a rally" q be " travelling was diffrcult' and r be "They arrived on time".
Then
Premises: p -) q, r -) -q, r Conclusion : -p
So,
l.p -+ q premises
2. r -+ -q premises
3. r premises
4. -q 2,3, modus ponens
5.-q --> -p 1, Contrapositive
:. -p 4, 5, modus ponens
Thus, the conclusion that there was no rally is logically true on the basis of given premises.
13. l.p q -+ premises
2. r -+ -q premises
3. r premises
4.rn(r->-q) 2n3
5. -q 4, modus ponens
6.-q -+ -p 1, contrapositive
7.-q n(-q -+ -p) 5n6
:. -p 7, modus ponens.
Therefore, "Manjeet does not have public support is logically true from the given premises.
14. 1. -p a q premises
2.-p+q Froml
3.q -.+ -p From 1
4.q * r Premises
5. -r= -q 4, contrapositive
6. -r Premises
7. -q 5,6 modus ponens
8. -q * p 2, contrapositive
:. p 7,8 modus ponens.

1.15 PREDICATE LOGIC OF FIRST ORDER LOGIC

First order logic or predicate logic generalizes propositional logic by involving quantifiers
,-for all", "there exits"). These quantifiers can only range :.:er individual elements in your dornairr
of discourse. E.g. "for all r P(r)", or " there exists r Q(r)". P and Q are just propositions from
M-3.36 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

propositional logic. All the inference rules in propositional calculus are also valid in predicate
calculus.
There are two important rules:
1. Universal Quantifier: Form (Vr)F(r), infer F(o), where a is a constant, and F(o) is
obtained frcm F(r) with r substituted by o throughout F.
2. Existential Quantifier: From F(o), infer (fr)F(r), where o is a constant, and F(r) is
obtained form F(o) with a substituted byr throughout F.
Intuitively, the frrst one says that what is true for everything must be true for a given
thing. The second one says that it is fine to replace a constant name with an existential variable.

1.15.1 Existential Quantifier

lf p(x) is a propositionlrver the universe U. Then it is denoted aslx p(x) and read as "There
exists at least one value in the universe of variable r such that p(x) is true. The quantifier I is
called the existential quantifier.
There are several ways to write a proposition, with an existential quantifier 1.e.,
(1 e A)p(r) or lx e A such thatp(r) or (1x) p(x) or p(r) is true for some r e A.

L.L5.2 Universal Quantifier

lf p(x) is a proposition over the universe U. Then it is denoted as V r, p(r) and read as "For
every r e u, p(r) is true". The quantifier v is called the universal quantifier.
There are several ways to write a proposition, with a universal quantifier.
Vr e A, p(r) or p(x), Vr e A
or Yx, p(x) or p(r) is true for all r e A.

Example64.LetA(x):xhasawhitecolour,B(x):xisapolarbear,C(x):xisfoundin
cold. regions, ouer the uniuerse of animals. Translate the following into simple sentences:
6 3x @(x) n - A(x)) Qi) (1x) (- Ck))
Uiil Nx) (B(il r,C(x) __;A(x)).
Sol. (i) There exists a polar bear whose colour is not white.
(li) There exists an animal that is not found in cold regions.
(ill) Every polar bear that is found in cold regions has a white colour'

Example6S.LetK(x):xisatwo-wheeler,L(x):xisascooter.M(x):xismanufactured
by Bajaj. Express the following using quantifiers.
(i) Euery two wheeler is a scooter.
(ii) There is a two utheeler that is not manufactured by Bajaj.
(iii) Ttrcre is a two wheeler maruufactured by Bajaj that is not a scooter.
(iu) Euery two wheeler that is a scooter is manufactured by Bajaj'
Sol. (i) (V r) (K(r) + L(r))
(li) (l r) (K(r) r. M(r))
(,,,) (= r) (K(r) n M(r) -+ - L(r))
(lu) (Vr) (K(r) r L(r) + M(r))
=:EMAL LOGIC M-3.37
1.16 NEGATION OF qUANTIFIED PROPOSTTTONS
When we negate a quantified proposition i.e., when a universally quantified proposition is
:egated, we obtain an existentially quantified proposition and when an existentiaily quantified
:rcposition is negated, we obtain a universally quantified proposition
The two rules for negation of quantified proposition are as follows. These are also called
D; Morgan's law.
(i) - 1x p(x) x - p(x)
=Y (iil-Vxp(x)=1*-p(*).
Example 66. Negate each of the following propositions:
(i) All boys can run faster than all girls.
(ii) Some girls are rnore intelligent than all boys.
Qii) Some students do not liue in hostel.
(iu) All students pass the semester ex,arrls.
(u) Some of the students are absent
and the classroom is empty.
(l)
Sol. Some boys can run faster than some girls.
(rr) All girls are more intelligent than some boys.
(rrr) All students live in hostel.
(lu) Some students do not pass the semester exams.
(u) All students are present and the class-room is full.

Example 67. Negate each of the following propositions :

(i) Yx P(x) n1y q(y) (ii)Yxp(x)nYyq(y)
(iii)1xp(x)vYyq(y) (iu))xp(x) v1y q(y)
(u)(1xeU)(x+6=25) iui) Nx e U) (x <25).
SoI. (i) - nl y q(y))
(Y x p(x)

=-Yxp(x)v-1yq(y) ('.. -(pnq)=-pv-q)

=3x-p(.r)vVy-cO)
(ii) - (Y x p(x) nY y q(y))
=-Yxp(x)v-Yyq(y) (.'.' -(pnS)=-pv-q)
=1x-p(x)vty -q(y)
(iii) -(3xp(a)vYyq(y))
=-1xp(x)"-Yyq(y) ('.' -(puq)--p^-q)
=Yx-p(x)n1y-q(y)
(iu) - (1x v 1y q(y))
p(xs)
=- 1x p(x) n - 1y q(y) ('.' -(pvq)--p^-q)
=Yx-p(x),^,Yy-qO)
(u) -(lreU)(r+6)=25
=V.reU-(r+6)=25
=(VreU)(r+6)+25
(ui) -(Vre U)(r<25)
=lxqU-(x<25)
=(lre U)(r>25)
M-3.38 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

L.L7 PROPOSITIONS WITH MULTIPLE QUANTIFIERS

The proposition having more than one variable can be quantifred with multiple quantifi-
ers. The multiple universal quantifiers can be arranged in any order without altering the meaning
of the resulting proposition. Also the multiple existential quantifiers can be arranged in any order
without altering the meaning of proposition.
The proposition which contains both universal and existential quantifiers, the order of
these quantifiers can't be exchanged without altering the meaning of proposition e.g., the propo-
sition 1xY y p(x,y) means " There exists some r such thatp(a y) is true for everyy".

Example 68.Write the negation for each of the following. Determine whether the result'
ing statement is true or false. Assume U = R.
(i)Y xlm(x2 <m) ' (ii)lmY x(x2 <m).
Sol. (l) Negation of V r ! m(x2 <m) is I xY m (x2 > m).The meaning of3 r Y m(x2 > m) is
that there exists some r such that x2 ) nt, for every rz. The statement is true as there is some
greatest r such that x2 2 m, for eYery m.
(il) Negation of 1mY x(xz <nl)is Y m1x(x2>-m).ThemeaningofY mlx(x2 >m)isthat
for every m,there exists some r such that (x2 2 m). The statement is true as for every m,thete
exists some greatest r such that x2 >- m.

Example 69. Check the ualidity of following formula under giuen interpretation.
(a) Y x 1 y P(x, y) under interpretation dornain = {1, 2) and P(1, 1) = T, P(1, 2) = F,
Pe, 1) = T, P(2, 2) = T where T and F refer to true and false respectiuely-
(b)Vx(P(x)-->Q@,f(x))underinterpretationdomain={1,2}anda=1,t(1)=2,f(2)=1,
P(1)=F,P(2)=T,Q(7,7)=T,Q(1,2)=T,QQ, 1)=FandQ2,Zl=T.HereTandFrefertotrue
and false respectiuely.
Sol. (o) Y x 1 y P(x, y) means for every r, there exists y such that P(x, y) is true.
some
Since P(1, 1) = T and P(2, 1) = T. Hence, the formula is valid under the domain = ll,2l.
(b) V r (P(r) -+ Q(o, F(r)) means for every r, whenever P(r) is true implies Q(o, flr)) is
also true. So, under the domain 11.,2l, the different values of V r (P(r) -+ Q(o, flf)) are as
follows:
Q(o,flr))

Fig.5o
So. when P(r) is true, Q(o, flr)) is also true. Hence, the formula is valid.

PROBLEM SET.III
1. Determine the negations of the following quantifred predicates without'-' in front of any quantifrer.
1. Vrly: lr,-vy)=z
2. V,t Vy: (r >y) =r (r -y) > 0
3. Vr V-y: (r <y) = 3z (x <z <y)
;ORMAL LOGIC M-3.39
2. Write the following propositions as quantified predicates.
(i) No pigs have wings (ii) Men with short hair have all been to prison
(rrr) All soldiers can march (iu) Some babies are not soldiers
3. Let the universe be a social club, and let r and y range over the members of the club. Define the
predicate P(r, y) as
P (x, y) = r loves y
Translate the following quantified predicate into English sentences.
(i) Yx Yy P(x, y) (ii) lx 1y P(x, y)
(iiil YxlyP(x, y) (iu) 1x YyP(x, y)
4. Transform the informal argument below into predicate logic.
"All cats are liked by some dogs. No dog likes a pig. There fore, no cat is a pig."

ANSWERS AND HTNTS (PROBLEM SET m)

t. (i) Vr 3y: (r vy) + z =1x - 1y ((x v y) + z)
=1xYy-((xvy)+z)
=lrVy((xvy)n-z)
(ii) -Yx ly: ((r >y) =+ (r -y) > 0)
=1x -Yy ((x>y) = (r-y) > 0)
=1x1y - ((r >y) + (r -y) > 0)
=1x]y ((r >y) n - (r-y) > 0)
=3x1y((x>y)n(r-y)<0)
=1x3y ((x>y) n (r <y))
(iii) 1x 1y Yz ((z < tc< y) v (x < y < z))
2. (i) Let p(x): r is a pig and g(r): r has wings. Then we have Vr[P(r) + -q(x)].
(ii) Let p(x): r is a man with short hair and q(r): r has been in prison therr we have Vr(p(x) + q(x)).
(iii) Let p(x): r is a soldier, g(r): r is a baby and /(r): r can march, then we have, Vr(p(lr) + t(x'))
Qu) 1x(q(x) n -p(x)
3. (j) All members love each other
(ii) There are some members who love some of the members
(rrr) All members love some members
(iu) There are some members who love all of the members.
4. Let C(.r) = "r is a cat", D(r) = "r is a dog",p(r) ='? is a pig" and L(x,g = "r likesy".
Yxly ((x) -+ D(y) n L(y, r))
Vr Vy ((D(r) t p(x) -+ -L(y, x))
.'. Vr ((C(r) -+ -p(r))

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem l. Translate the following statements in proposition logic :

(i) If you study, you will get good marks. If you do not study, you will enjoy. Therefore,
either you will get good marks or you will enjoy.
(ii) If the catalogue is correct, then if the seeds are planted in April, flowers will bloom in
July.
M-3.40 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

(iii) If John is elected class representatiue, then either Mary is elected treasurer or Alice is
elected uice -treasurer.
(iu) Either taxes are increased or if expenditures rise, then the debt ceiling is raised.
Sol. (i) Letp be'You study" and q be'You will get good marks" and r be'You will enjoy".
'lhen the proposition logic is
p+q
-p+r
:. qvr
(ii) Let p be "The catalogue is correct" and g be "Seeds are planted in April" and r be "The
flowers bloom in July". Then, proposition logic is
p-+(q-+r)
(iii) Letp be "John is electdd class representative" and g be "Mary is elected treasurer" and
r be "Alice is elected vice-treasurer". Then, proposition logic is
p)qvr
(iu) Let p be "Taxes are increased" and q be "Expenditures rise" and r be "The debt ceiling
is raised". Then proposition logic is
Pv(q+r)'
Problem 2. The meaning of proposition p -) q is "If p then q" or "q is a necessary
condition fu p" or "p only if q" or "p is a sufficient condition for q".
Write the following statements in terms of aboue.
1. p : New Delhiis capitaloflndia q : IndiaisinAsia.
2.p:x2=4 e:x=2
3.p:x2=y2 e:x=y.
4. p = he works hard q : he is a Gold Medalist.
Sol. 1. (l) If New Delhi is capital of India, then India is in Asia.
(ii) India is in Asia is a necessary condition for New Delhi to be capital of India.
(lll) New Delhi is capital of India only if India is in Asia.
(iu) The fact that New Delhi is capital of India is a sufficient condition that India is in Asia.
2. G) If x2 = 4,then x = 2
(ii) r = 2 is necessary for x2 = 4
(.iii)x2-4onlyifx=2
iu) x2 = 4 is sufficient for x = 2.
3. Q)If x2=y2t]nenx=y
lii) x = y is necessaty for x2 = yz
Gii) x2 - y2 only if x = !
Qu) x2 = y2 is sufficient for r = y.
4. (l) If he works hard then he is a Gold Medalist.
(ll) Gold medal is necessary for hard work.
(lli) He works hard only ifhe is a Gold Medalist.
(lu) llard work is sufficient condition for Gold Medalist.
FORMAL LOGIC M-3.41

Problem 3. Construct the truth tables for the following statements

(il(p->p)+(p+-p) (ii)Gq+-p)+(p+q).
Sot. (r) The truth table for @ + p) -r (p -+ -p) is shown in (Fig. 51)
p)p p-)-p (p-+p)-s(p-t-p)
F' F
T T/
Fig.6r
(a) The truth table of statement(- q -> - p) + (p + q)is shown in (Fig. 52)
-q1-p p+q (-q-+-p))(p-+q)
T T F F T T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T

Fis.62
Problem 4. Construct the truth tables for the following statements
O b + @ -> r)) -> ((p + q) + (p + r))
(ii)p<+(-pv-q)
(iii) (p +p) v (p + - p).
Sot. (i) The truth table for 1p -+ @ + r)) -+ ((p + q) + (p + r)) is shown in (Fig. 53)
1p -> @+r)) |
((p -t q) --> (p +r)) | K-+ L
T T T T T T T T T
T T F F T F F F T
T F F T F F T T T
T F T T F T T T T
F T T T T T T T T
F T F F T T T T T
F F T T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T T
K
Fig.68
(a) The truth table forp er (-p r, - q) is shown in (Fig. 54)
-pv-q p<->(-pv-q)
T T F F F F
T F F T T T
F T T F T F
F F T T T F
Fig.64
M-3.42 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

(zil) The truth table for (p -+p) ,',,(p + -p) is shown in (Fig. 55)
p)-p (p-+p)v(p-+-p)
F T F T
T T T T
Fig.56
Problem 5. Assume the ualue of p + q is false. Determine the ualue of (- p v - q) -+ q.
Sol. Construct the truth table for both the statements and determine the value of
(- p , - q) ) q against the false values of p -+ q. (Fig. 56)
p q -p -q I p)q -pv-q (-pv -q)+q
T T F F T F T

T F F T F T F

F T T F T T T

Fig.66
So,whenp -+ q is false,the value of (- p v - q) --+ q is also false.
Problem 6. Giuen the ualue of p + q is true. Determine the ualue of - p v (p <+ q).
Sol. Construct the truth table for both statements. (Fig. 57)

p q -p I p)q peq -pv(peq)

T T F T T T
T F F F F F

F T T T F T

T T T

Fig.57
So, when the value of p + q is true in line 1, 3 and 4. The value of -p v (p <-+ q) is also true.
Problem 7. Proue that the negation of conditional statement - (p -+ q) is equiualent to
p^-q.
Sol. The truth table of the given propositions are shown in (Fig. 58)
p+q - (p --> q)
T T F T F F
T F T F T T
F T F T F F
F F T T F F

Fig.58
As the values of both the propositions are same in the truth table, hence - (p -+ q) =p - q.
^
 M-3.43
=ORMAL LOGIC

Problem 8. Proue that the negation of biconditional statement - (p <-> q) is equiualent to

.re-qor-peq.
sol. The truth table of all the given propositions is shown in (Fig. 59)
-q poq I -(p++q) po-q -peq
T T F F T
T F F T F
F T T r F
F F T T T
Fig.69
-
As the values of o q are same, hence they all are equivalent.
@++ q) andp
- e g and - p

Problem 9, Frorn the following formulae, find out tautology, contingency and
contradiction.
O) - 6-+B)v (-Av (A,.B)) Gil @ -+(I t0) + - (H +I)
(iii) @ €q) rq) v (- P ,.q).
=(p
Sol. (i) Construcfthe truth table for - (A -+ B) v (- A " (A n B)) as shown in Fig. 60.
-A I -Av(ArB) A-+B I -(e-rS) -(A-rB)v(-Av(A,rB))
T T F T T F T
T F F F F T T
F T T T T F T
F F T T T F T
Fig.60
As the last column of the table contains all T's, hence it is a tautology'
(lr) Construct the truth table for (H + I n J) + - (H + I)) as shown in (Fig' 61)
InJ) I H-r H-r -rI -+InJ)-+- -+I

T T T T T T F F
T T F F F T F T
T F F F F F T T
T F T F F F T T
F T T T T T F F
F F T F T T F F
F T F F T T F F
F F F F T T F F

Fig.61
As the value oflast column depends upon the value ofthe variables, hence it is a
contingency'
(iii) Construct the truth table for ++ q) + n
(p (p q) v (- n n q) as shown in (Fig' 62)

p^q (p,rq)v(-pnq) (pe+s)-+(pnq)v(-Pnq)

T T F T T F T T
T F F F F T T T
F T T F F T T T
F F T T F F F T

Fig.62
As the last column contains all T's, hence the above formulae is a tautology'
 M-3.44 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Problem lO. Proue that foltowing is a tautology

ev (E nC) =(Av Al C.
"
Sol. Construct the truth table for A v fg;Tl _r (A v gl ,, e as shown in (Fig. 68)

n"c la"G"cl I ta"Bl I re"Bl"c I Av(B^T) -+(Avslrc

T T T F F F T T T T
T T F F T T T T T T
T F F T T T T T T T
T F T T F T T T T T
F T T F F F F F F T
F T F F T T T F T T
F F T T F T T T T T
F F F T T T T T T T
Fig.68
As the last column of the table contains all Ts, hence it is a tautorogy.
Problem l,. Determine whether the following are equiualent, using biconditional
statement.
(i)p<+e=@nq)v(-p,.-q) '
(ii)(p+d-+t=(p^-d+t.
Sol. To prove that the above pairs are equivalent. prove
and ((p -+ q) -+ t) -+ ((p n - g)
that @ <+ q)_r ((p n q) v (_ p t _ q))
-r /) are tautologies.
(l) Construct truth table for (p <+ q) _+ ((p q) (_
v p _ q))as shown in (Fig. 64)
^ ^
peqlp^q -p^-el (pnq)v(-pn-q) (p+rq)+(pndv{-On-0,
T T F F T T F T T
T F "F T F F F F T
F T T F F F F F T
F F T T T F T T T
Fig.64
As the proposition (p q) ((p n q) v (- p n
equivalent.
<-+ -r - q)) is a tautology, hence they are
(ir) Construct the truth table for ((p -+ q) -+ t) --> ((p - q) -+f) as shown in Fig. 6b.
^
p)ql @+q)-+t 1p,.,-q p !, - S -r t ((,o -r g) + t) + ((p n - q) +
| t))
T T T F T T F T T
T T F F T F F T F
T F F T F T T F F
T F T T F T T T T
F T T T T T F T T
F T F F T F F T F
F F T T T T F T T
F F F F T F F T F
Fig.6E
since, the proposition is not a tautology, hence they are not
equivalent.
 M-3.45

Problem 12. Determine the dual of each of the following:

r,a) (P n Q) v (- P v (- P Q))
(- "
b) - P a Q nR) v (Q nR) v (P nR)
@@I@,lR. -
Sol. The dual of above propositions are as follows:
(a) (Pn Q) v (- P v (- P Q) = (P v Q) n (- P n (- P" Q))
(b) - P (- Q a R) v (Q n" R) v (P n R) - P v (- Q v R) n (Q v R) n (P v R)
^ =
(c)(PJQ)tR=(PtQJn.
Problem 18. Express P + Q using Nand f only.
Sol. P+ Q= - Pv Q= - (- - P" - Q) PvQ=-(-P^-Q)
J
=-(p^-e) --P=P
=Pt-q PT Q= - (Pr Q)
=ptQtQ -P=PtP.
Problem 14. Express P I q using I only.
Sol. P J Q - (P v Q) = (P v Q) t (p v q;
=
= t(P
tP) t (e 1 qlt t (P t P) 1(e t en pve=(ptp)t(ete)
Problem 16. Express the following forrnula using only - and n.
@Iqtn
r+i.e ! denotes NOR and f denotes NAI'ID.
sol. (PJQltR=-(PvQ)tn PJQ=-(pvQ;
=-((-PvQ)nR) PtQ=-(PnQ)
=-((---(Pa-Q))nR) PvQ=-(-P^-Q)
=-((-(Pn-Q))aR) --P=P
Note. t (NAND) and J (NOR) are dual of each other.

Problem 16. Show that the connectiue T Nand) is functionally complete.

Sol. To show that the connective 1 is functionally complete. We have to show that the set
dconnectives (n, -) and (v, -) can be expressed in terms of l alone that can be expressed as
5[ows:
-P=-Pv-P=-(PnP)=PtP
P,, Q= - (-P^ - Q)= - P t - Q (P t pl t (e t e)
=
Dd PaQ=-(pte)=Gtelt(ptq;
Since the above expresses n, v and - in terms of t alone. Hence t is functionally complete.

Problem 17. Proue the ualidity of following arguments without using truth tables.
1.pvq,-pl-q 2.p,p+e,e+rl-r
3. p,q,(p
"q)
+r l-r 4.p,(pn-q)+-pl-p+q.
Sol. 1. (i) p v q (Given)
(iil _p (Given)
(iiil q Disjunctive syllogism
M-3.46 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

2.(i) p (Given)
(ii) p -+q (Given)
(iii) q +r (Given)
(iu) p +r Hypothetical syllogism using (ir) and (iir)
(u) r Modus ponens using (lu) and (l)
s. (j) p (Given)
(ii) q (Given)
(iii) (p n q) -+ r (Given)
(iu) p nq Rule of conjunction using (i) and (ii)
(u) r Modus ponens using (lrl) and (iu)
4.(il p (Given)
(iil @ (Given)
(iii) -(p^-q)+-p
n-q) Modus tollens using (ii) and (i)
(iu) --(p+q) As-(p+q)=(pn-q)
(u) p+q Complement property using (ru).

Problem lS.Prouethat theargument (p

"q) )t,
p +q l- p -+(O r.q) ,.r) isualid
without using truth table.
Sol. (l) (p ,'q) +r (Given)
(ii) p-+q (Given)
(iiil p+(prq) RuIe of absorption using (li)
(iu) (p a q) -+ ((p ,', q) n r) Rule of absorption using (l)
(u) p+((png)nr) Hypothetical syllogism using (iii) and (iu).

Problem 19. Proue that the following arguments are ualid without using truth tables.
1.(pvd+-r,rvt,pl-t
2. (prq) + r, (r + q), (r + q) -s (q n r) l-(p -+(q nr)
"q)
Sol. 1.(i) (pvq)+-r (Given)
(iil rvt (Given)
(iii) p (Given)
(iu) pvq Rule of addition using (lri)
(u) -r Modus ponens using (i) and (iu)
(ui) t Disjunctive syllogism using (ll) and (u)
2.(D p^q+r (Given)
(ii) r -+ q (Given)
(iiil(r n g) -+ (q n r) (Given)
(iu) r -> (r n q) Rule of absorption using (ii)
(u) (prg)+(rnq) Hypothetical syllogism using (r) and (iu)
(ui) (p n g) -+ (q t r) Hypothetical syllogism using (u) and (iii)
ryr.aL LOGTC M-3.47

Problem 2O. Proue the ualidity of following argument using deduction system.
(1)A+B (2)B-+-C
Q)-CtD @)A-+D
:. B.
Sol.(j) A+B (Given)
(ii) B-r-C (Given)
(jjj) -CnD (Given)
(iu) A -r D (Given)
(u) A+-C Hypothetical syllogism using (r) and (ii)
(ui) - C Simplification of (iri)
(uii) -A+C Tlansposition of(iu)
(uiii) A Modus tollens using (uii) and (ul)
(,tr) B Modus ponens using (i) and (uiil)

Problem 21, Proue the ualidity of following by deduction method.

ta) (rP+Q (B)(i) PvQ @O @ +R) n(S +T)
(iil-evR (ii) Q +R (iil @ -+V) n(W +X)
Oii)-(Rn-S) (iii) ErS (ii.i) Qv u
(iu) P (iu) P+S :. RvV
... s (u) P
.'. s
Sol. (A) (i) P + Q (Given)
(ii) -evR (Given)
(iii) -(Rn-S) (Given)
(lu) P (Given)
(u) e Modus ponens using (l) and (lu)
(ur) Rv-Q Commutative property using (ii)
(uii) - R Rule of Modus tollens using (ul) and (u)
(uili) -RvS De Morgan's Law using (lll)
(l,c) S Modus ponens using (uiir) and (uii)
(B)(i) PvQ (Given)
(,,) Q+R (Given)
(iri) RnS (Given)
(iu) P+S (Given)
(u) P (Given)
(uD S Modus ponens using (lu) and (u)
(C)(,) (Q+R)n(S+T) (Given)
(,0 (U+V)n(W+X) (Given)
(,,,) QVU (Given)
(iu) (Q + R) Simplification using (i)
(u) (U+ V) Simplification using (rl)
(u,) (Q-t R) n (U + V) Conjunction using (iu) and (u)
(uri) RvV Constructive dilemma using(ud) and (rii)
M-3.48 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

Problem 22. Proue the ualidity of fottowing argurnent using truth tables.
"If it rains then it will be cold. If it is cold then I shall stay at home. Since it rains
therefore, I shall stay at honle".
Sol. Letp be "It rains" and q be "It will be cold" and r be "I shall stay at home". Then the
above argument in symbolic form is
p+q
q+r
p
r
construct the truth table of (p + g) n (q -s r) + r as shown in (Fig. 66).
^p
g -+r I @ +q) r(q --tr) (p+q)n(g-rr)np (p+q)n(q+r)z.p-+r
T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F T
T F F F T F F T
T F T F T F F T
F T T T T T F T
F T F T F F F T
F F T T T T F T
F F F T T T F T
Fig.66
As the last column contain all T's, hence the argument is valid.

Problem 23. Translate the following into syrnbolic form and test the ualid.ity of the
argument.
If 6 is euen then 2 does not diuide 7. Either 5 is not prime or 2 d,iuid,es 7. But 5 is prirne,
therefore, 6 is odd.
sol. Let p be "6 is even" and q be "2 divide 7" and r be "5 is prime". Thus, the above
argument in symbolic form can be written as
p)-q
-rvq
r
-p
Construct the truth table to test the validity as shown in (Fig. 6T)
r -q -r -r-q
TIT T F F F
rlr F F F T
F
F
T
T
rlr F F' T T T F
T F T F T F T T
F T T T F F T T
FIT F T F T T T
Flr' T T T F T F
Flr F T T T T F
Fig.67
 3:RMAL LOGIC M-3.49

In thetruthtable, p -, - q is true in line 3,4,5,6,7 and 8, - r vg is true inline 7,2,3,

*.5andristrueinlinel,4,SandT.Allthethreearetrueinline4andSand-pistrueonlyin
-:-oe 5. Hence, argument is not valid.
E
Problem 24. Determine the negation of the following staternents
(i) V r Yy Yz, p(x, y, z) (ii)Yx1r,pk,!)
(iii) 1"V ,V p(x, y, z).
",
Sol. (i) - (V,V yV p(x, y, z)) =1 ,1r1" - p(x, !, z)
(i, - (V, 1r, p(x, y))
",
=1,Y r, -
p(x, y)
(rrr) - (l
,Y "Y, p(x, !, z)) =Y r1,1", -p(x, !, z).
Problem 26, Detepmine the negation of the following statements
(, 3, Vy (p(x) v q(y)) (ii) Y (p(x, y) -+ q(x, y))
(n, V, Vr(ok) nq(y)). "1y

Sol. (i) - (3x Vr, (p(r) v qlyD = V,l, - (p(r) v q0))

=
V,3, (- p(x) - S0))
^
(rr) - V, 3, (p(x, y) + q(x,J)) = 3, Y, - (p(x, y) -+ q(x, y))
(iii) (x) npQ)) =1*3r(- p(x) v -p(y)).
=V,Vy(p ^p(y)) =),3r- @k)
Problem 26. Let U = Q. Use quantifiers to express the following statements
Q) Ji is not rational.
(ii) Subtraction of any two rational numbers is rational.
lE Sol. (i) -(3 r) (r2 = 5)
(ir) (Vr) (Vy) (r -y is a rational).

ve
MITLTTPLE CHOTCE QTTESTIONS
l. Which one of the following is false? Read n as AND, u as OR, - as NOT, -+ as one way implication
and e+ as two way implication. (GATE, 1996)
(a) ((x -->y)nx) -+y (b) ((- x-+y) n(-*--r-y))-->r
(c) (,r + (r vy)) (d ((* vy ) o (- r --> - y)).
2. Which of the following proposition is a tautology? (GATE, 1997)
(a) (pvq)+p (6) pv(q-+p)
(c) Pv(P-+q) (d) p ) (p -+ q).
3. Which of the following is not a proposition?
(o) India is in Asia (b) 2+2=4
(c) The Intel Pentium - III is a 64-bit processor
(d) X+Y=30.
4. Letp: He is coward and g: He is rich. Which of the following is the symbolic form of the statement
"He is neither coward nor rich"?
(a) - (p nq) (b) -pn-q
(c) -p-q (d) -(pn-q).
M-3.50 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

5. Let p -+ g is a proposition, which of the following is FALSE?

@) - q + -piscontrapositiveofp-+ S $) q-+pisconverse of p -->q
(c) - p -+ - q is inverse ofp -+ q (d) -(q -+p)isinverse of p--tq.
6. The biconditional statement p € q is equivalent to
(a) (p -+ q) n (q --> p) (b) (p -+ q) v (q -+ p)
(c) (p v q) n(q -+ p) (d) (pvq)v(q)p).
7. Which of the following statements is true about the formula?
(P-+q) e+(-9 -+-p)?
(o) It is a contradiction (b) It is contingency
(c) It is tautology (d) None of these.
8. Which of the following statement is the negation of the statement "4 is even or
(a) 4 is odd and - 5 is<rot negative
- S is negative,,?
(6) 4 is even or - 5 is not negative
(c) 4 is odd or - 5 is not negative (d) 4 is even and - 5 is not negative
9. Which one is the contrapositive of q -s p?
(a) p-+q ($) -p-+-q
(g) -q +-p (d) None of these
10. Letp be "He is tall" and let g "He is handsome". Then the statement "It is farse that he is short or
handsome" is
(a) p tq (b) -(-pvq)
k) Pv-q (d) -pnq.
11. Which of the following proposition is a tautology?
(a) (pvq)-+p b) pv(q-->p)
(c) pv(p-+q) (d) p -+ (p -> q).
12. What is the converse of the following assertion?
I stay only ifyou go.
(a) I stayifyou go. (b) Ifyou do not go then I do not stay
(c) Iflstaythenyougo. (d Ifyou do not stay then you go.
13. In propositional logic which one of the following is equivalent to p -+ q
(a) F -+q (b) p-+4
(c) p vq @) 4vV.
14. Which of the following statement is the negation of the statement "2 is even or B is negative,,?
(o) 2 is even and - 3 is negative
-
(b) 2 is odd and - 3 is not negative
(c) 2 is odd or - 3 is not negative @) 2 is even or - 3 is not negative.
15. The statement (p n q) =+ p is a
(o) Contingency. (b) Absurdity
(c) Tautology (d) None of the above
16. l-qn(p-+g))-+-pis,
(o) Satisfiable (b) Unsatisfiable
(c) Tautology (d) Invalid.
L7. p -+ g is logically equivalent to
@) -q-:p (b) -p-+q
k) -p nq (d) -pvq.
18. Which of the following statement is the negation of the statem ent,"2 is even and B is negative',?
-
(o) 2 is even and - 3 is not negative (b) 2 is odd and - 3 is not negative
(c) 2 is even or - 3 is not negative (d) 2is odd or 3 is not negative.
-
=3RMAL LOGIC M-3.s1

ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. $) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (a)
7. (c) 8. (o) 9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (c) t2. (b)
13. (c) L4. (b) 15. (c) 16. (c) 17. @) 18. (d)

REVTEW QUESTTONS
1. What is proposition? Give example.
2. Explain fundamental connectors by giving examples.
3. Explain derived connectors by giving examples.
4. Explain conditional,and Bi-conditional connector by giving example.
5. Write truth tables for fundamental, Derived, conditional and Bi-conditional connectors.
6. Explain contrapositive, converse and inverse ofa conditional statement.
7. Explain principal of duality by giving example.
8. What is logical Equivalence of propositions?
9. What id Tautology? Give example.
10. What is contradiction? Give example.
11. What is contingency? Give example.
12. Explain functionally complete sets of connectives by giving example.
13. What is argument?
14. What is valid and Falacy argument? Give example.
15. Explain rules ofinference.
16. What is Proof of validity?
17. What is Normal Form? Why it is used?
18. Explain various types of Normal forms by giving example.
19. Explain the steps to obtain DNF of a logical expression.
20. How you can frnd DNF of a logical expression using truth table?
21. Explain the steps to obtain CNF ofa logical expression.
22. How you can frnd CNF of a logical expression using truth table?
23. What is frrst order logic?
24. What is Existentiol and universal Quantifier?
25. Explain Negation of quantified propositions.
26. Explain propositions with multiple Quantifiers.

CIIAPTER END PROBLEMS

1. For each ofthe following sentences:
(o) Determine if it is a statement;
(6) If it is a statement, determine whether it is always true, always false, or neither always true
nor always false. (Assume that variables * and y are real numbers)
(c) Rewrite (whenever possible) in terms of simple statements and connectives.
(i) A non-declarative sentence does not have a truth-value.
(ii) Some sentences are statements but all statements are sentences.
(iil) Is a declarative sentence which is either true or false but not both a statement?
(lu) This sentence is not true.
 ----Y----

M-3.52 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

(u)r=1or-1if12=1
(ui) x = 1 or- L onlyif 12 I
=
(uii) x = 1 or - 1 if and only if x2 L
=
(ulii) For all integers r, r must be either an even or an odd
number.
(lr) There is a real number r such that r is neither a positive nor
a negative number.
(r) There is no smallest positive integer.
(ri) r is 5rrr".
kii) I = 2.
kiiil rf a number is not divisible by B or 4, it is also not divisible by 12.
(riu) The sum ofthe angles ofa rectangle is 1g0 degrees.
(xu)x=2 and,y =2 impliesry=4
(xui)xy =4 implies $.=2 and y=2
(ruil) An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
kuiii) lf it is saturday morning, turn on the TV and watch the cartoons.
(rlr) I don't like computing, Mathematics, or Statistics, but Computer Related
Mathematics
and Statistics rocks.
(rr) Just do it.
2. Write in simple English:
-( - (.t > 0 ty > 0) n -( x <0 v y< 0)) =ry*0
3' If p and q are statements, construct truth tables to verify that the following compound statements
are tautologies.
(i) (pn(qv-q))<+p
(ii) (p n (C ,. - C)) *-t (q n -q )
(iii) (p v (q v -q)) <-+ (q v -q)
Gu) (p v (q n -q)) <+ p
4' If p, q, and r are statements, construct truth tables to determine whether each of the following
compound statements is a tautolory, a contradiction, or a contingency.
(i) (p v (q v r)) <+ ((-p n (-q n -r))
(ii) ((p -+ q) --s r) --+ (p + (q -+ r))
(iii) -((-p nq) v -(-q r r)) -+ (p v -r)
(iu) p v (-q --+ (p v -q))
(u) (p tI -@ --t r)) _+ (p _+ ((p n _q\ -+ r))
(ui) p --+ ( -p v (-q -> q))
5. Prove that the following implications are tautologies:
(,) ((p -+q) ,.p) -+ q (RTU,2009)
(ii) p^q+ pvq (RTU,2010)
(iii) -p -+ (p -+ q) (RTU,\010)
6. Show that the propositional formula (p ,t q) n (r n s) -+ p
for any propositions p, q, r, s is a tautology.
(RTU,2010)
7. Prove that the following statement is a tautology:
A student studied in the VCE finds employment in computer science or information
technology. To
find employment in computer science, he must haue a good. understanding of logic. Howeuer, ii ao",
not haue a good understanding of logic. Therefore, hi
finds employment in information technology.
8. Using truth tables prove that the following statement is a tautology:
-(p v ( -q v r))=r ( ( -p ng ) n -r )
9. Prove by constructing truth table that:
(p v q ).r r e p v (.q v r)is a tautology. (MDU,02(MCA))
FORMAL LOGIC M-3.53
10. Write a compound statement that is true, when none or one or two of the three statementsp, q, r
are true. Justify your answer. KUK,
2006)
11. Using truth tables, determine whether the following statement is a tautology, a contradiction, or
is contingency:
-((p n -q ) v ( q -p )) -(-p <+ -q)
=
^
12. Provethefollowingisafallacy: (pnq)a-(pvg) (RTU,Z00g)
13. Write the contrapositive, the converse, and the inverse of the following statement:
If today is Easter, then tomorrow is Monday.
14. Write the meaning of each statement in English. State whether it is true or false. The universe of
discourse in each case (for both* andy) is the set ofall integers greater than or equal to 0.
(i) 1x Yy(x > y) (ii) 1x1y(x+y=51
(iii) Yx ly (r < y - 5).
15. Given the following argument form,
If interest rates are going up, stock market prices will go down.
Interest rates are not going up.
.'. Stock market prices will not go down.
(o) Write the argument form in propositional logic.
(b) Is the following argument form valid or invalid? Explain your answer using a truth table.
Indicate which columns represent the premises and which the conclusion.
16. Simplify the following expression:
n(p -+ q)) -+ q
(p
17. Complete the truth table for each:
p is a sufficient p Ls necessat)i
condition for q conditi.on for q

18. Connect left expression with its equivalent expression on the right by drawing bidirectional
arrows:
(i) -(p --> q) (a) -pvq
(ii) -(p nq) (b) -pv-q
(iii) -(pvq-+-q) (c) pn-q
(iu) p )q (d) q
19. Consider the statement:
U: If n and n2 + 8 are prime, then n3 + 4 and na + 2 areprime.
(o) What is the converse statement of U?
(b) What is the contrapositive statement of U?
20. Write in English the converse of the following assertion:
"If I go to the station, I will take the train, unless I am late.,'
21. Write in English the negation of the following assertion:
"The sum of any two odd integers is an even integer."
22. Prove that (p v q) + (p r. g) is logically equivalent to p e q.
M-3.54 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

23. Write down statement in symbolic form

Letp be "sam is rich" and let q be "sam is happy". (Assume "sam is poor" means "sam is not rich",
i.e., -p).
(a) Sam is poor but happy. (b) Sam is neither rich nor happy
(c) Sam is either rich or unhappy. (d) Sam is poor or else he is rich and unhappy.
24. Prove the following proposition using the method of proof by contraposition:
For all integers n, if n2 is even then n is even.
25. Prove that for any propositions p, q , r , t}re compound proposition
1p -+ @ -+ r)) -+ l(p -+ q) -+ (p -+ r)) is a tautology.
(b) Prove the following logical equivalences without using truth tables
(i) pvpn(pvq)lep, (ii) [(-pi7-q)-+(pnqtr)i<=p^q (VTUJul'07)
26. For any statementsp, q, prove that:
(l) -(pJq)oi-pt-e), Gi) -(ptq)o(-pJ-q), (VTUJul'l7)
27. Let p and q be primitive statements for which p 1 q is false. Determine the truth value of the
following:
(i) pnq, (ii) -pve, Gii) q-+p, (ip) -q-+-p
28. Prove the following logical equivalences without using truth tables
(p -+ q) n [- q n (r v - q)] s, - (q vp) (VTU Jan'07)
29. Given statements p and g, show that (p v q) e+ (q v p) is a tautolog"y. (VTU Jul'06)
30. statement has truth value 1, determine the truth value assignments for the statements p, r
If q
and s for which the truth value of the following statement is 1:
[q-->l(-pnr)n-s]l {-s+(-rnq)} (VTUJan'06)
31. (o) Prove for any propositionsp, q,r: l(p + q) n (q -+ r)J + (p -+ r) is a tautology.
(b) Prove without using truth tables
(i) pv [pn(pva\etp, (ii) -[-{(pvS)r} v-q)eq,rr. (VTUJan'06)
32. Provethat[(-pvq),.lp n(prq)]l + pnq.Hencededucethat[(-p nq)v{p v(pvS)}] epvq.
(VTU Jul'05)
33. Simplify the following statements using laws of logic:
(l) (pvq)n-(-pvq) (li) -[-{(pvq)nr}v-g] (VTUJan'05)
34. Test the validity of the following argument:
I will become famous or I will not become a musician.
I wili become a musician. Therefore, I will become famous. (VTU Jul'07)
35. Exarnine the validity of following argument:
Ifprices are higher than wages are high. Prices are high or there are price
controls. Ifthere are price controls then there is not an inflation, there is an
inflation. therefore wages are high. (RTU 09,11)
3G. Find whether the following argument is valid:
No engineering student offirst or second semester studies logic.
A.nil is an engineering student who studies logic.
Therefore Anil is not in second semester. (VTU Jan'07)
37. Consider the following argument:
I will get grade A in this course or I will not graduate.
If I do not graduate, I will join the army.
I got grade A. Therefore, I will not join the army. (VTU Jul'06)
::Ft,lAL LOGIC
M-3.55
38. Test whether the following arg'ument is valid:
If interest rates fall, then the stock market will rise.
The stock market will not rise. Therefore, the interest rates will
not fall. (VTU Jan'06)
39. Check the validity of the following argument: (RTU 2010)
Lions are dangerous animals.
There are lions.
Therefore, there are dangerous animals.
{O. Test whether the following argument is valid:
If I drive to work, then I will arrive tired.
I am not tired (when I arrive at work). Hence I do not drive to work. (VTU Jul ,05)
l1' If a band could not play rock music or the refreshments were not delivered on time, then the New
Year's party would have Seen cancelled and Alicia would have been
angry. If tire party were
cancelled, then refunds would have to be made. No refunds were made,
therltore thetand could
play rock music. Convert the given arguments into symbolic form
and establish the validity of the
arguments. (VTU Jan,\S)
{2. Check the validity of the following argument: ( RTU 2009)
pYq
p)-q
p)r
Therefore, r
{3' (o) Write down the following propositions
in symbolic form and find their negation:
(l) Ifall triangles are right angred, then no triangle is equiangurar
(r'l) For all integers n, if n is not divisible by 2, then
n is odd.
(b ) Prove that the
following argument is valid for open statements p (x), q(x), r(x):
Y x [p(x) --> q(x)); Yxlq(x) -s r(x)); .'. V r
lp(x) -+ r(x)l (VTU Jul'07)
4d Prove that for all integers & and l, iffr and I are both odd, then & + I is
even and ft.I is odd.
(VTU Jan'02)
{5. GivenR(l,y): r +y is even and the variables x and y are integers. Write a sentence for each ol'the
following: Y xly R(r,y) andlr Vy R(r,y) (VTUJul,06)
{6. Consider the following open statements with the set of all real numbers
as universe:
p(x):x>0;q(x):x2>0;r(r):x2-Bx-4=0; s(r):x2-B>0,thenfindthetruthvaluesofthefollowing
statements:
G) lxlpk),rr(r)1, Uil Yx [P(r) -+ q1a.11,
tiii)Yx [q(r) + s(r)]. (VTU Jan'06\
{7. For the universe of all people, frnd whether the following is a valid argument:
All mathematics professors have studied calculus.
Ramanujan is a mathematics professor.
Therefore, Ramanujan has studied calculus. (VTU Jan'06)
{8. to) Give (l) a direct proof, (jj) an indirect proof, Gjl) a proofby contradiction,
for
"Ifn is an odd integer, then (z + 9) is an even integer.',
(b) For the universe of all students, find whether the following
is a valid argument:
No engineering student is bad in studies.
Ram is not bad in studies.
Therefore, Ram is an engineering student. (VTU Jul ,06.t
{9. Let p, q, r be propositions. prove that ((p _+ q) n (q _+ r)) -+ _s r) is a tautology.
@
50. Let p, q, r be positions. Which of the following statements
are true?
fu) @ n q) -+ (p v q) is a tautology.
(b) (p n q) -+ (p @ g) is a tautology.
M-3.56 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

r p . q, + 'p n q) is logically equivalent to p ++ q.

,c
tdt tp e qt ) (p n g) is logically equivalentto p <+ q.
k) (p -+ q) r' (q ---r r) is logically equivalent to (p _+ q) n (p -+ r).
(ft (p -+ q) --> r is logically equivalent to (p n q) --> r.
(g) - p -+ (g -+ r) is logically equivalent to q -+ (p v r).
(h) p -> (q v r) is logically equivalent to (p r, q) ) r.
-
(i) - p + (q v r) is logically equivalent te - q (p v r).
\il (p tg) Jris logicallyequivalent to p ! @ ! i.
51. Letp, q, r, s, t stand for the following propositions.
p: The program terminates.
q: The program gives correct output.
r: The program is syntactically correct.
s: The program has bugs.
/: The correct algorithm is implemented.
Consider the statement P: "Ifthe program terminates, but gives incorrect
output, then the program
is syntactically correct, but either the program has 6ugs or the ."";;;';i;;"iti-
implemented."
i. ,rot
(o) Write P as a logical proposition involvingp, q, r, s, t.
(b) Write in English the negation of p.
(c) Write in English the contrapositive of p.
(d) Write in English the coverse of p.
(e) Write in English the inverse of p.
(fl Write the following statement as a logical proposition: "Although the program has
terminates and gives the correct output.,,
bugs, it
(6t) Write the following statement as a logical proposition:
"Since the program has bugs, it either
does not terminate or does not give the correct output.',
52. Let P(r), Q(r) be predicates. Prove or disprove:
(o) (Vr) [P(r) -+ Q(r)] (Vr) tP(r)l -+ (Vr) te(r)].
=
(b) (Vr) [P(r)+ Q(r)] = (l*) tP(r)l -+ (Vr) tQ(r)1.
53. Consider the following predicates.
A(r) Program r implements the correct algorithm.
B(r) Program r has bugs.
C(:r,y) Program r gives correct output upon inputy.
D(*,y) : Program r halts upon inputy.
Express the following general statement about a program: "If any program
that gives correct
outputs on all possible inputs implements the correct algorithm, then for some
input any buggy
program either does not halt or gives incorrect outpui.,, Write in
English the negation, the
contrapositive and the converse ofthe above statement.
54. Let p, q, r be propositions. Which of the following statements are true?
(tt) p +q is equivalent to -p v g.
(b) @ + q't t Q =+ r) is equivalent to p r.
=
tc) (p + q) nQ=r) isequivalentto(p + q) n(p + r).
ld) p + @ + r) is equivalent to (p n q) + r.
(e) - p (g =r r) is equivalent to q
= =+ (p v r).
55' Determine the true or false statements from the following statements. If False write
the corect
statement.
(l) A conditional statement is noi logically equivalent to its contrapositive.
(ll) A conditional statemer.t a,d its converse are logically equivalent.
 FORMAL LOGIC M-3.57

(iii) "Yx,r(r) is a sufficient condition for s(r)" means "V*, if s(r) then r(*)".
(iu) "Yx, r(*) is a necessary condition for s(r)" means "Yx,if -r(x) then -s(r)."
(u) "Yx, r(x) only if s@)" means "r, if -s(*) then -r(r)."
66. Write the each of the following statements in symbols using quantifrers and variables.
(i) Any odd natural number is twice some natural number minus one.
(rr) All students in CSE can correctly solve some assigned problems.
(iii) Everybody loves somebody but nobody loves everybody'
67. Write the each of the following statements in words with and without using quantifiers or variables.
(i) Yn e n (n is even -) lk e x(n =2kD.
(rr) lS (S is a student in CSE ,^. VP (P is an assigrred problem -+ S can correctly solve P))
(rrr) V lecturers L, f student S (L thinks they know more than S)
n3 student.s, V lecturers L (S thinks they know more than L)
58. Write in predicate calculus notation using quantifiers and variables:
The sum of any f,wo integers is also an integer.
69. Write in simple English with and without using quantifiers or variables:
3r e R, Vy e R (x>y)
60. LetL(r,y)bethepropositionalfunction"rlovesy".Theuniverseofdiscourseisthesetofallliving
people. Write each of the following propositions symbolically:
(o) Somebodyloveseverybody. (b) Everybodyloveseverybody,
(c) Somebody loves somebody. (d) Everybody loves somebody.
61. Convert the following formulas into CNF and DNF.
(d p+@xr) (b) (pvg)-rr
(c) -(-pvg)v(r-r-r) @) -((p-t(g-rr)))-r((p-+q)-+(p+r))
(e) p v (-q ,'.(r -+ -p))) U) - (((" -+ 6) -r a) -+ a)
@) -(av(o-rb)

ANSWERS AND HINTS TO CHAPTER END PROBLEMS

1. (i) Statement, -p
(iu) Not a statement.
(uid) Statement, (P v Q) e R
(r) Statement, -P
(riii) Statement, -(P v Q) + -R
(ruii) Simple statement, neither always true nor always false
(rr) Not a statement
3. All (i), Gi),(iiil and (iu) are tautologies.
ct 4. (i) Contradiction Ui) Tautology
(rir) Contingency (iu) Tautology
s
be (u) Tautology (ur) ContingencY
7. It is a tautology and is a valid argument.
66. G) Vne G(nis odd-+ 1k e E(n =2k -].))
(ii) V student in CSE, 3 assigned problem p (s can correctly solve p)
(rri) V people r 3 person y (r dislikes y) r, - 3 person r, "people y (* loves y)"
67. (il lYithout quantifrers and variables: Any even integer is twice some integer.
lVith quantifrers and variablee: For all integers n,if n is even then there exists an integer A

such that n =2k.

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Algebraic Stractures

PREVIEW

There are many types of algebraic structures namely semigroups, monoids, groups rings,
fields etc. An algebtaic structure will have an underlying set, binary operations, unary opera-
tions, and constants. The algebraic structures have some properties like commutativity, asso-
ciativity. identity elements, irlierse elements, and distributivity etc. The different kinds of
structures will have different operations and properties. The algebraic structures are abstrac-
tions and for each kind of structure there will be more than one example. Lagrange,s theorem
is about finite groups and their subgroups. The theorem is named after Joseph-Louis Lagrange.
There ard some alglebraic structures which have more than one binary operation. Rings and
fields have additioi, subtraction and multiplication operations. In a field, division is also
possible' Rings were studied in the 1800s. Noether gave general concept of commutative ring
in 1921 which was later generalized to include non-commutative rings.

IEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, the students will be able to:

. understand the concept of binary operations and their properties
r understand the concept of semigroups, subsemigroups, free semigroups, product of
semigroups, congruence relation and monoids
o understand the concept ofgroups, their properties, finite and infinite group, order of
group, subgroup, abelian group and product ofgroups
o understand the concept ofcyclic groups, their properties and their type
r understand the concept of cosets, Lagrange's theorem and Normal subgroup
' understand the concept of Homomorphism, isomorphism and automorphism
o understand the concept ofpermutation groups and operations
' understand the concept of rings, types of rings, sub-rings, integral domain and fields.

M-3.58
ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES M-3.59

2.L INTRODUCTION
In the year 1850's Cayley gave the general definition for a group. A group is one of the
fundamental objects of study in the field of mathematics known as abstract algebra. A group
consists of a set of elements and an operation that takes any two elements of the set and forms
another element of the set in such a way that certain conditions are met.
Group theory many applications in mathematics, science, and engineering. Many algebraic
structures such as rings, integral domain, ideals and frelds my be defined concisely in terms of
groups. A group is an algebraic structure consisting of a set together with an operation that
combines any two of its elements to form a third element.
Groups having ability to represent geometric transformations find applications in chemistry,
computer graphics, and other fields. This chapter explains basic concepts ofgroups, types of
groups, properties of fioups, Lagrange's theorem, cosets, permutation and cyclic groups, rings,
integral domain and frelds.

2.2 DEFINITION
If there exists a system such that it consists of a non-empty set and one or more opera-
tions on that, set, then that system is called an algebraic system. It is generally denoted by
I A, opL, op2, ..., opr), where A is a non-empty set and oPL, oPz, ..., oP, are operations on A.

An algebraic system is also called an algebraic structure because the operations on the
set A define a structure on the elements of A.

ru-ARY Operation
Afunction f : Ax A x ... A+Ais called ar,n'ary operation.

2.3 BINARY OPERATION

Consider a non-empty set A and a function /such that /: A x A -+ A is called a binary
operation on A. If x is a binary operation on A, then it may be written as d * b'
A binary operation can be denoted by any of the symbols *, -, l', (D, A, E, rz, n etc.
The value of the binary operation is denoted by placing the operator between the two
operands.
0.g., (l) The operation of addition is a binary operation on the set of natural numbers.
(li) The operation ofsubtraction is a binary operation on set ofintegers. But, the opera-
tion of subtraction is not a binary operation on the set of natural numbers.because the sub-
traction of two natural numbers may or may not be a natural number.
(lri) The operation of multiplication is a binary operation on the set of natural numbers,
set of integers and set of complex numbers.
(lu) The operation ofset union is a binary operation on the set ofsubsets ofa universal
set. Similarly, the operation ofset intersection is a binary operation on the set ofsubsets ofa
universal set.
M-3.60 A TEXTBOOK OF ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS

2.4 TABLES OF OPERATION

Consider a non empty finite set A = {a1, a2, ast ...t anl. Abinary operation * on A can be
described by means of a table as shbwn in Fig. 1.
al a2 a3 do
a7 @r*at

d^ dz*dz
a3 aB*@g

an dn*an

Fig. 1. Table of operation.

The entry in theTth row and &th column represent the element ar*au.

Example l. Consider the set A = {7, 2, 3J and a binary operation * on the set A defined by
a*b=2a+2b.
Represent operation'x as a table on A.
Sol. The table of the operation is shown in Fig. 2.
2

6
8
10

Fig. 2. Operation * as a table on A.

2.5 PROPERTIES OF BINARY OPERATIONS

There are many properties of the binary operations which are as follows :

2.5.t Closure Property

Consider a non-empty set A and a binary operation * on A. Then A is closed under the
operation *, if c * b e A, where o and b are elements of A.
e.9., The operation of addition on the set of integers is a closed operation.

Example 2. Consider the set A = (- 1, 0, 1]. Determine whether A is closed under

G)addition (ii) multiplication.
Sol. (j) The sum ofthe elements is (- 1) + (- 1) = - 2 and, 1 + 1 = 2 does not belong to A.
Hence A is not closed under addition.
(ii) The multiplication of every two elements of the set are
-1x0=0; -1*1- -1; -1x-1=1
0*-1=0; 0*1= 0; 0*0=0
1*-1=-1; 1x0 = 0; 1*1=1
Since, each multiplication belongs to A hence, A is closed under multiplication.