996 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 16, NO.

5, SEPTEMBER 2008

Antilock Brake System With a Continuous Wheel Slip Control

to Maximize the Braking Performance and the Ride Quality
Seibum B. Choi

Abstract—In this paper, a new type of antilock brake system desired front-wheel angular velocity
(ABS) algorithm is developed. A full-time feedback control algo-
desired rear-wheel angular velocity
rithm differentiates the new ABS from rule-based conventional
ABS algorithms. The rear wheels are controlled to create limit 4WD: four-wheel drive
cycles around the peak friction slip points. From the cycling
patterns of the rear wheels, the optimal slips are defined. The
front wheels are controlled to track the optimal slips defined by I. INTRODUCTION
monitoring the behaviors of the rear wheels. The new algorithm
can be implemented on any production ABS hardware without
any modification or extra sensors. The test results show significant
performance improvement in both the stopping distance and the
noise, vibration, and harshness on homogeneous surfaces, and
V EHICLE antilock brake systems (ABS) have been used
and evolved for about three decades since they came into
widespread use in production cars in 1978 developed by Bosch
also quick detection of surface transition. The robustness of the [1]. ABS was designed to keep a vehicle steerable and stable
new ABS algorithm is proven by vehicle tests on various speeds, during heavy braking moments by preventing wheel lock. There
surfaces, and driving conditions. have been no major changes to the original rule-based control ar-
Index Terms—Antilock braking system (ABS), brake system, chitecture. However, there have been many minor rules added on
continuous slip, feedback control, limit cycle. to the existing control algorithm to refine the performance. As a
result, the rule-based control algorithm has ended up with hun-
dreds of trimming parameters. Wheel velocities are controlled
NOMENCLATURE
through the modes of pressure dump, apply, and hold. At each
introduced brake control lag mode, hydraulic valves on each wheel are commanded to open
DD: double differential or to close based upon very complex rules. Due to the com-
tire normal force plexity of the rules, tuning of the control parameters is very time
consuming. Also, the switching between control modes causes
FWD: front-wheel drive the wheel velocity to cycle around a peak tire-to-road friction
wheel angular moment of inertia slip point. A certain level of the cycling is inevitable to find the
slope of locally linearized -slip curves optimal slip point especially when individual wheel brake pres-
control proportional gain sure is not measured. However, the excessive amount of cycling
deteriorates braking performance as well as ride quality and ve-
control derivative gain hicle-handling stability. Especially, cycling of front wheels on
PD: proportional and differential high-friction surfaces makes the ride very harsh.
wheel brake pressure There have been other efforts to enhance braking perfor-
R: tire nominal radius mance as well as ride quality by applying modern state feedback
control methods. The results look promising. However, most
RWD: rear-wheel drive of the methods need the information of full vehicle states,
S: Laplace Transform e.g., absolute vehicle speed, wheel brake pressure, the peak of
wheel brake torque surface-to-tire friction-slip curves, and surface type as well as
absolute vehicle speed equivalent to the free extremely fast brake actuators [2]–[12]. These vehicle states,
rotating wheel speed surface condition information, and fast actuators are available
at an extra cost, but it is hard to justify the hefty extra cost for
wheel speed
the benefits. ABS controls using other advanced types of brake
wheel slip actuators suffer the similar cost-versus-benefit issues [13]–[18].
desired slip of rear wheels equivalent to In this paper, a new continuous wheel slip ABS algorithm
tire-to-surface friction coefficient is developed. In the new ABS algorithm, rule-based control of
wheel angular velocity wheel velocity is reduced to the very minimum. Rear wheels
cycle independently through pressure apply, hold, and dump
modes, but the cycling is done by continuous feedback con-
Manuscript received November 5, 2006; revised July 2, 2007. Manuscript
received in final form October 3, 2007. First published March 31, 2008;
trol. While cycling rear wheel speeds, the wheel peak slips that
last published July 30, 2008 (projected). Recommended by Associate Editor maximize tire-to-road friction are estimated. From the estimated
R. Rajamani. peak slips, reference velocities of front wheels are calculated.
The author is with the Graduate School of Automobile Technology, Korea The front wheels are controlled continuously to track the ref-
Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, 305-701, Korea
(e-mail: [email protected]). erence velocities. By the continuous tracking control of front
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TCST.2007.916308 wheels without cycling, braking performance is maximized and
1063-6536/$25.00 © 2008 IEEE
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 16, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2008 997

Fig. 2. Typical data trace of a conventional ABS on a homogeneous surface.

Fig. 1. Typical tire longitudinal friction -slip curves.

cussed. As mentioned in Section I, the algorithm is comprised

of apply, hold, and dump modes.
ride quality is improved significantly. The new ABS algorithm is
Fig. 2 shows the typical data trace of a conventional ABS on a
implemented on a conventional production ABS harness using
homogeneous high- surface. While the wheel speed is recov-
production sensors and brake actuators.
ering from a large departure (a–b), the wheel pressure is held
II. TIRE constant. When the wheel speed is judged to be fully recovered
(b), the wheel pressure is applied (b–c) according to a predeter-
Tires are the hard-working key element of ABS controls. mined schedule in open loop control. If any unscheduled event
There have been many efforts to model tires mathematically. happens before the apply schedule is completed, the apply mode
Generally speaking, the mathematical modeling of rubber is can be terminated. Otherwise, the pressure apply is held briefly
very difficult. The modeling of tires is even more difficult due (c–d). If any large departure of the wheel speed is not observed
to the irregular shape of a tire track surface and the very wide during the brief pressure hold mode, the pressure is finally reap-
scope of load conditions. Also, tire characteristics change with plied (d–e) to induce the departure of the wheel speed. Finally,
the aging of tire materials. There are a few empirical tire models the pressure is dumped until the wheel speed departure is re-
more widely used than mathematical models [19]. Empirical duced and/or the wheel acceleration reaches a certain accelera-
tire models express tire forces as a function of tire longitudinal tion threshold (e–f). Then, a next cycle pressure hold mode starts
and lateral slips, tire normal force, and surface conditions. The (f–g).
tire longitudinal slip is defined by the difference between a Tuning the rule-based control algorithm is a very time con-
true absolute vehicle speed, equivalent to a free rotating wheel suming process. Even if the algorithm is tuned perfectly, it suf-
speed, and an actual measured wheel speed after being nor- fers some inherent flaws. The cycling of wheel speeds is in-
malized by the same vehicle speed. Unfortunately, the absolute evitable to find the optimal slip (peak slip) that induces peak fric-
vehicle speed cannot be measured easily. The normal force has tion. However, the excessive cycling of wheel speed around the
direct effect on wheel dynamics, but cannot be measured at a peak slip reduces average friction and also increases the fluctu-
low cost. Also, it is rather safe to say that the surface condition ation of friction. The effects are much worse for the front-wheel
is unknown in real time. Fig. 1 shows typical longitudinal cycling of high center-of-gravity vehicles like sport utility ve-
friction curves as a function of a wheel slip on several hicles (SUV) on a high- surface, since as much as 90% of
surface conditions for cases without a wheel side slip. total vehicle weight can be shifted to front wheels during heavy
The longitudinal slip of wheel is defined as braking. It is also very critical to detect the transition of the sur-
face quickly. Slow detection of a transition to high leads
(1) to the longer stopping distance due to underbraking. Also, slow
detection to low leads to vehicle instability due to the exces-
As the figure shows, there is a wide variation of peak slip points sive amount of wheel slip for an elongated time period. Unfor-
and peak friction values depending upon surface types. For tunately, the transition of during the fully recovered period of
example, wet Jennite and gravel surfaces have similar peak wheel cycling modes (a–b, or f–g) is very difficult to detect.
values, but the peak slip points are far apart. Combining this Another issue of the conventional ABS is turning stability.
wide variation with the even wider variation of tire normal load ABS can be activated during severe turning maneuvers. Wheel
especially on deformable surfaces like gravel and unpacked lateral friction is affected by wheel longitudinal slips. There-
snow, it is safe to say that any ABS algorithm that depends fore, the cycling front-wheel slips can cause significant noise,
heavily on an accurate tire model would not work well in vibration, and harshness (NVH) and vehicle instability espe-
nonideal real-world situations. cially during braking and turning combined maneuvers. Other
known issues of the rule-based control algorithm include but
III. CONVENTIONAL ABS are not limited to the lack of robustness to different tires, uphill/
In this section, the control algorithm of a typical conventional downhill braking, vehicle loading condition and driver pedal
ABS is reviewed, and the limitation of its functionality is dis- pumping.
998 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 16, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2008

IV. ADVANCED ABS WITH CONTINUOUS SLIP CONTROL

In this section, a new continuous slip control ABS algorithm
is developed with an intention to be implemented on existing
production ABS harness without any modification or addition of
sensor(s). During a normal driving condition without ABS activa-
tion, apply valves stay open and dump valves stay closed. If ABS
is activated, the both valves are closed and wheel brake pressure is
isolated from master cylinder pressure. When more wheel pres-
sure is commanded by ABS, apply valves open. However, actual
fluid flow—and therefore the amount of pressure increment—is
determined by the pressure head across the valve. In reality, the
apply valve can open just to speed up draining the fluid to master Fig. 3. Diagram of a rear-wheel control system.
cylinder. This can happen due to the pumping of a brake pedal by a
driver. It is very hard for the conventional rule-based controller to
distinguish the difference between pedal pumping and a surface is not considered in this study. There have been many efforts to
transition. On the other hand, the pressure head across a dump estimate vehicle speed during ABS activation. None of the esti-
valve is always the same as wheel pressure which can be assumed mations are accurate but fairly good enough for the application
to be proportional to vehicle deceleration. Therefore, the pressure on ABS. Therefore, the algorithm to estimate vehicle velocity
drop during a dump mode can be estimated fairly accurately is excluded from the scope of this study.
through the known dump command. By monitoring the wheel
recovery and the pressure drop during a dump mode, surface A. Rear Wheel Cycling Control
conditions like the slop of a -slip curve can be estimated. Out Usually, feedback control algorithms are designed to stabi-
of the estimated slop of a -slip curve, approximate optimal lize a controlled system and also to minimize a tracking error.
peak slip and therefore a desired wheel speed can be calculated. The lag on a feedback term always makes the tracking perfor-
In this advanced ABS algorithm, a vehicle is imagined as two mance deteriorated. In this case, the good tracking control of
bicycles. On each bicycle, a rear wheel and a front wheel are as- rear-wheel speed is not meaningful since desired rear-wheel
sumed to follow the same surface and trajectory. This assump- target speed is not well defined. As mentioned briefly at the
tion is reasonable above a certain vehicle velocity since the front beginning of Section IV, the optimal slip or the optimal wheel
and the rear wheels are on the same friction surface except for velocity can be estimated by monitoring cycling wheel speed
a short moment of surface transition. For example, for a vehicle and dump valve command. For a flat surface with a given wheel
with 2.5 m of wheel span and 100 km/h of longitudinal speed, pressure, the change rate of wheel deceleration exceeds a cer-
the travel time delay between the wheels to pass the same spot tain threshold if the wheel slip is over a peak slip point. Since
is less than 0.1 s. At a lower speed, the time delay is increased. vehicle acceleration and jerk are limited physically, the desired
However, in terms of vehicle stopping distance, the braking per- rear-wheel velocity is estimated simply by limiting
formance of ABS at a low speed is not as important as that at measured wheel speed within a certain physical boundary and
a high speed. Also, the front-wheel speed control algorithm is smoothing it by a low-pass filter [20]. However, this estimation
designed to find a true optimal slip point around the target speed gives just the approximate range of the optimal value since the
calculated out of rear-wheel speed information. estimation process is corrupted by wheel speed noise, wheel
Rear wheels are allowed to cycle independently by contin- load change, surface change, and other uncertainties. Therefore,
uous feedback control instead of the rule-based control. While it is necessary to make the rear wheels find the optimal slip
cycling rear wheels, the optimal amounts of wheel slips are velocity using the desired rear-wheel velocity.
calculated. From the calculated optimal slips of rear wheels, In this section, a new control strategy is developed for the
desired front-wheel speeds are calculated. With front-wheel wheel speed to cycle around an approximately optimal rear-
continuous slip control, front wheels are controlled to stay at wheel speed such that the range of the cycling wheel speed
optimal slip points. The main concept of continuous control includes a true optimal slip speed. The rear wheels are rather
algorithm is described in the following subsections. forced to become unstable and to cycle around a peak slip point
The actual application of this concept on a real vehicle is a lot which is not well known by introducing lag in feedback control
more complex with many minor details added to work for a very command intentionally. The controller is defined to be simple
wide spectrum of real-world driving conditions. The conditions PD type.
to be considered include but are not limited to deformable sur- The diagram of a rear-wheel control system is shown in Fig. 3.
faces, surface transition, checker board, split friction, bumps/ The wheel dynamics can be expressed as follows:
potholes, turning and braking, uphill/downhill, and mismatch
tires. The developed control concept can be applied equally well (2)
to FWD and RWD systems with no difference to the control al-
gorithm except for a few minor details. 4WD can make a differ- It needs to be reminded that, the change rate of brake pressure
ence if it has a hard-coupled-type center differential. Since this (or brake torque) is proportional to fluid flow rate, and flow rate
type of differential box is disappearing from the market espe- is proportional to control valve opening. Therefore, the brake
cially for the vehicles equipped with ABS, hard-coupled 4WD pressure rate is proportional to the valve command. Since the
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 16, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2008 999

brake control command is PD-type with an intentionally intro-

duced first-order phase lag, the change rate of brake torque can
be expressed as follows:

(3)
(4)

It should be noted that the relationship between the brake pres-

sure and the total flow volume is not linear but still monotonic.
Therefore, the partial derivative of the pressure with respect to
the flow is always positive. Combining (3) and (4)

(5)

Combining (2) and (5), a closed-loop dynamic equation can be

described as follows:

Fig. 4. Stable limit cycle in a phase plane.

(6)
It is generally assumed that tire normal load Fz is unchanged
during a short time period or changed very slowly compared to Therefore, in the linear region of a -slip curve where is a
the fast wheel dynamics. Also, the friction is constant around large positive constant, the closed-loop system is stable even
the peak slip point. Since vehicle speed is changing very slowly for a very small , i.e., for a large control phase lag, or always
compared to wheel speed and the desired rear-wheel speed is stable for the proper combination of the feedback gains .
proportional to the vehicle speed, it is further assumed that the Therefore, the rear wheels create stable limit cycles for the ap-
time derivative of is negligible. Therefore, (6) can be sim- propriate amount of the phase lag and the target wheel speed de-
plified as follows: fined around or over the peak slip point. Fig. 4 shows an example
of a stable limit cycle created in simulation with the model of a
(7) typical dry surface -slip curve and the feedback controller with
the phase lag described in (3) and (4).
The characteristic equation of the closed-loop system given in The optimal amount of phase lag, that induces an appropriate
(7) can be written as follows: amount of cycling depth, can be defined as a function of esti-
mated and measured vehicle states. However, it needs to be fine
(8) tuned by the vehicle testing on a real test track considering the ir-
regular shape of real -slip curves, surface irregularity, a brake
By Routh’s stability criterion [21], the system is unstable for actuation lag, wheel speed sensor noise, and other uncertain-
ties. Also, the brake control gains need to be tuned as the func-
(9) tion of surface irregularity. For example, on an irregular surface,
wheel speed tends to become very jerky. This can be interpreted
Therefore, for a small enough (a large phase lag), the closed- as accelerating wheel departure that leads to the overdumping
loop system becomes unstable. In reality, is not a constant and command of brake pressure. The surface irregularity can be es-
rather a linear function of a slip for the linear region where timated by monitoring the moving average of wheel jerk.
the slip is small, i.e.,
B. Front-Wheel Slip Control
(10) By monitoring the cycling pattern of rear wheels, the optimal
wheel speed inducing peak is calculated on each side of a
Combining (10) with (2)–(4), the closed-loop system character- vehicle. The optimal wheel speed is represented by the point
istic equation can be written as follows: where wheel deceleration increases rapidly compared to slowly
changing wheel pressure. Considering the fact that the optimal
speed is not accurate, and an insufficient wheel slip can cause
(11) significant underbraking, some amount of extra slip margin is
added to define desired front-wheel speed as follows:
Similar Routh’s stability analysis shows that the system is stable
for (13)

where and are the desired slips of front and rear wheels
(12) equivalent to and . By adding some slip margin
1000 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 16, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2008

to the optimal speed, front-wheel target speeds—one on each

side—are defined to be on or over the optimal slip points. Since
the front wheels are intended to follow the target speeds tightly
without cycling, a simple PD-type controller is tried but with
no additional phase lag. The stability of the closed-loop control
system is analyzed under the assumption that a -slip curve is
locally linear, i.e.,

(14)

where can be positive, zero or negative depending on the

region of the -slip curve. Since vehicle speed changes much
slowly compared to wheel speed, (1) and (14) can be combined
with the time derivative of vehicle speed neglected as follows:

(15)

Fig. 5. Front-wheel control with a PD-type controller.

It can be assumed similarly to the front wheels that the normal
load Fz changes slowly. Therefore, the differentiation of (2) is
described as follows: feedback term which is applied asymmetrically only when the
control error rate is negative, i.e.,
(16)

If a simple PD-type controller is chosen similarly to the rear-

wheel controller but without an intentional phase lag, control
input can be described as follows:

(17) (20)
The controller suggested in (20) is validated by simulation on a
Combining (15), (16), and (17), a closed-loop dynamic equation very peaky surface similar to the wet Jennite surface described
is derived as follows: in Fig. 1. Initially, friction increases very stiffly proportional to
a slip. When the slip passes a peak point , friction
(18) decreases equally rapidly before it becomes stabilized and de-
creases gradually.
For the simulation, a target slip is set to be 0.05. Targeting slip
The characteristic equation of the closed-loop control system
error is only 0.03, but the resulting loss of surface friction is as
described in (18) is expressed as follows:
much as 10% from the peak value. Fig. 5 shows the simulation
result of the original tracking controller defined in (17). Due to
(19) the severe negative slop of the friction-slip curve at the target
slip point (0.05), the control becomes unstable. It is possible to
As (19) shows, the closed-loop system is always stable for the track the target slip by increasing the differential gain—shown
stable region of the -slip curve where k is positive. Also, the in Fig. 6. This is possible only if a brake actuator is fast enough.
derivative gain can be chosen to be large enough to make the However, the good tracking control of the suboptimal target slip
system stable around and just past the peak slip where k is zero is not the goal of good ABS algorithm design. Fig. 7 shows the
or slightly negative. The magnitude of the derivative gain is lim- simulation result of the front-wheel control with the modified
ited by the noise level of wheel speed signals though. Also, the controller described in (20). There exists steady state tracking
performance of the closed-loop control is affected by actuation error, but the wheel slip rather follows the optimal slip point
performance limit. (0.02) automatically. Therefore, the goal of the front-wheel slip
The above PD-type front-wheel control scheme is working control with maximized friction is achieved.
fine for most surfaces except for a wet Jennite surface shown
in Fig. 1 and other very peaky surfaces. If the slip passes the V. TEST RESULTS
peak point, the friction coefficient of the wet Jennite surface The performance of developed advanced continuous slip
drops significantly. Therefore, even a slight amount of exces- ABS is implemented on several test vehicles using d-Space, and
sive target slip can cost stopping distance significantly. Also, it evaluated on diverse surface conditions. The true vehicle speed
is practically impossible to define the exact target wheel speed and the wheel pressures are measured only for the purpose of
that represents the peak slip. To deal with this kind of unusual monitoring and are unknown to ABS algorithm.
and extreme surface condition, the PD-type controller described Fig. 8 shows the performance of advanced ABS imple-
in (17) is modified with an additional double derivative error mented on a BMW 740i and tested on a dry asphalt surface.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 16, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2008 1001

Fig. 6. Front-wheel control with a PD-type controller—increased differential

control gain. Fig. 9. Advanced ABS on loose gravel.

Fig. 7. Front-wheel control with a PD+DD-type controller. Fig. 10. Advanced ABS on wet Jennite.

Rear wheels are tuned to cycle faster than the cycling frequency
of conventional ABS. In this way, rear wheels consume a little
bit more fluid but find optimal slips much faster. Front wheels
follow optimal target wheel speeds without cycling. Since front
brake channels have much more fluid capacity than rear ones
for the same pressure level, noncycling front wheels save a
significant amount of fluid consumption. Vehicle deceleration
exceeds 1.0 g and approaches very close to the physical friction
limit of the surface.
Fig. 9 shows the performance of advanced ABS implemented
on a Ford Windstar minivan and tested on a loose gravel sur-
face. As Fig. 1 shows, this kind surface needs a deep slip to
achieve optimal friction. Front wheels follow an optimal slip
fairly well in the sense of average considering a loose and bumpy
surface condition. Also, front wheels hold fairly constant brake
pressure.
Fig. 10 shows the performance of advanced ABS imple-
mented on the same minivan and tested on a wet Jennit surface.
Fig. 8. Advanced ABS on dry asphalt. Jennite has a very peaky characteristic -slip curve. As Fig. 1
1002 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 16, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2008

Fig. 13. Average deceleration [m/second ].

Fig. 11. Conventional ABS on wet Jennite.

Fig. 14. Average flow rate normalized by deceleration [cc/second]/[m/

second ].

brake actuation performance, i.e., the pumping capability of

ABS pump/motor and the size of the hydraulic valves.

VI. COMPARISON OF ADVANCED ABS

WITH CONVENTIONAL ABS
In this section, the performance of advanced continuous slip
ABS is compared with that of conventional ABS. The best ABS
Fig. 12. Advanced ABS on a surface transition condition. maximizes vehicle deceleration while minimizing NVH. NVH
is mostly associated with the fluctuation of brake pressure and
brake pedal feedback. Since both of them are well represented
shows, peak is at less than 3% slip. For any slight offset by the fluctuation of brake fluid flow, the average flow rate, and
from the peak slip, is reduced significantly. Therefore, it is the flow rate variance of the brake fluid are compared along
one of the most difficult surfaces to achieve a good control per- with vehicle deceleration. Both ABS algorithms are tested on
formance. Front-wheel slip and pressure show that the control a Ford Windstar minivan, and the performances are compared
is very robust. Front wheels show no sign of underbraking or on several homogeneous surfaces.
overslip. The control performance is quite distinguished com- Fig. 13 compares average vehicle decelerations. As the figure
pared to that of a conventional production ABS tested using shows, the average deceleration is improved from about 5% on
the same vehicle on the same surface that is shown in Fig. 11. dry asphalt to as much as 40% on ice and other medium sur-
Average vehicle deceleration is much lower, and the variation faces. With 5% improvement of stopping distance on dry as-
of wheel pressure is much larger—the worst combination. The phalt, the braking performance reaches the physical limit of
departures of front-wheel speeds are quite significant. tire-to-surface friction. On a low surface like ice, it takes a
Fig. 12 shows the performance of advanced ABS imple- long time for a deep departed wheel slip to recover to an op-
mented on the same minivan. The quick response to surface timal slip point. Therefore, the deep cycling wheel slip control
transition even without any transition detection algorithm is the of conventional ABS deteriorates braking performance signifi-
virtue of the developed ABS algorithm. The surface transition cantly. Also, a deep cycling wheel slip causes the already low
from wet tile to concrete happens at 3.8 s. At the moment of the lateral friction to be reduced even further, and therefore the yaw
surface transition, front-wheel slips are reduced significantly, dynamics stabilizing effect of ABS function is not fully utilized.
and the constant slip controller increases wheel pressure imme- Fig. 14 compares average brake fluid consumption rates after
diately. The rise rate of brake pressure is limited only by the being normalized by average vehicle decelerations during ABS
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 16, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2008 1003

Due to the optimal continuous slip control of front wheels,

stopping distance is reduced up to 40% depending on the
control surfaces. On dry asphalt, 1.1 g vehicle deceleration is
achieved. This number approaches the physical limit of the
surface friction very closely. With the reduction of brake fluid
flow and also flow fluctuation, brake pedal feedback and other
vehicle NVH characteristics are improved significantly. Also,
more stable steering response is achieved during braking and
turning combined maneuvers.

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