Appendix Laboratory Report Manual

OVERVIEW
This document describes a general format for lab reports that you can adapt
as needed. Laboratory reports are the most frequent kind of document
written in engineering and can count for as much as 25% of a course yet little
time or attention is devoted to how to write them well. Worse yet, each
professor wants something a little different. Regardless of variations, however,
the goal of laboratory reports remains the same: document your findings and
communicate their significance. With that in mind, we can describe the
report's format and basic components. Knowing the pieces and purpose, you
can adapt to the particular needs of a course or professor.

A good lab report does more than present data; it demonstrates the writer's
comprehension of the concepts behind the data. Merely recording the
expected and observed results is not sufficient; you should also identify how
and why differences occurred, explain how they affected your experiment,
and show your understanding of the principles the experiment was designed
to examine. Bear in mind that a format, however helpful, cannot replace
clear thinking and organized writing. You still need to organize your ideas
carefully and express them coherently.

TYPICAL COMPONENTS
Here are the typical components of an effective laboratory report:

∙ Title Page
∙ Abstract
∙ Introduction
∙ Methods and Materials (or Equipment)
∙ Experimental Procedure
∙ Results
∙ Discussion
∙ Further Analysis
∙ Conclusion
∙ References
∙ Appendices

Title Page
This page contains the name, department and address of the school. Also,
this page should contain the title of the experiment, the group members and
its leader and criteria for assessing the report.
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Abstract
This page summarizes four essential aspects of the report: the purpose of the
experiment (sometimes expressed as the purpose of the report), key findings,
significance and major conclusions. The abstract often also includes a brief
reference to theory or methodology. The information should clearly enable
readers to decide whether they need to read your whole report. The abstract
should be one paragraph of 100-200 words.

Quick Abstract Reference

Must have:
∙ Purpose
∙ Key result(s)
∙ Most significant point of discussion
∙ Major conclusion

May Include:
∙ Brief method
∙ Brief theory

Restrictions:
∙ ONE page
∙ 200 words MAX.

Introduction
Introduction is more narrowly focused than the abstract. It states the
objective of the experiment and provides the reader with background to the
experiment. State the topic of your report clearly and concisely, in one or two
sentences.

A good introduction also provides whatever background theory, previous

research, or formulas the reader needs to know. Usually, an instructor does not
want you to repeat the lab manual, but to show your own comprehension of
the problem. If the amount of introductory material seems to be a lot,
consider adding subheadings such as: Theoretical Principles or Background.

Quick Introduction Reference

Must Have:
∙ Purpose of the experiment
∙ Important background and/or theory

May include:
∙ Description of specialized equipment
 ∙ Justification of experiment's importance

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Appendix Laboratory Report Manual

Methods and Materials (or Equipment)

This page can usually be a simple list, but make sure it is accurate and
complete. In some cases, you can simply direct the reader to a lab manual or
standard procedure.

Experimental Procedure
Experimental Procedure describes the process in chronological order. Using
clear paragraph structure, explain all steps in the order they actually
happened, not as they were supposed to happen. If your professor says you
can simply state that you followed the procedure in the manual, be sure you
still document occasions when you did not follow that exactly (e.g. "At step 4
we performed four repetitions instead of three, and ignored the data from the
second repetition"). If you've done it right, another researcher should be able
to duplicate your experiment.

Results
This page are usually dominated by calculations, tables and figures; however,
you still need to state all significant results explicitly in verbal form.

Graphics need to be clear, easily read, and well labeled (e.g. Figure 1: Input
Frequency and Capacitor Value). An important strategy for making your
results effective is to draw the reader's attention to them with a sentence or
two, so the reader has a focus when reading the graph.

In most cases, providing a sample calculation is sufficient in the report. Leave

the remainder in an appendix. Likewise, your raw data can be placed in an
appendix. Refer to appendices as necessary, pointing out trends and
identifying special features.

Quick Results Reference

∙ Number and Title tables and graphs
∙ Use a sentence or two to draw attention to key points in tables
or graphs
∙ Provide sample calculation only
∙ State key result in sentence form
Discussion
Discussion is the most important part of your report, because here, you show
that you understand the experiment beyond the simple level of completing it.
Explain. Analyze. Interpret. Some people like to think of this as the "subjective"
part of the report. By that, they mean this is what is not readily observable. This
part of the lab focuses on a question of understanding "What is the
significance or meaning of the results?" To answer this question, use both
aspects of discussion:

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Analysis Interpretation

What do the results indicate What is the significance of the

clearly? What have you found? results?
Explain what you know with What ambiguities exist? What
certainty based on your results and questions might we raise?
draw conclusions. Find logical explanations for
problems in the data.

More particularly, focus your discussion with strategies like these:

Compare expected results with those obtained.

If there were differences, how can you account for them? Saying
"human error" implies you're incompetent. Be specific; for example,
the instruments could not measure precisely, the sample was not
pure or was contaminated, or calculated values did not take
account of friction.

Analyze experimental error.

Was it avoidable? Was it a result of equipment? If an experiment
was within the tolerances, you can still account for the difference
from the ideal. If the flaws result from the experimental design
explain how the design might be improved.

Explain your results in terms of theoretical issues.

Often undergraduate labs are intended to illustrate important
physical laws, such as Kirchhoff's voltage law, or any principles.
Usually you will have discussed these in the introduction. In this
section move from the results to the theory. How well has the theory
been illustrated?

Relate results to your experimental objective(s).

If you set out to identify an unknown metal by finding its lattice
 parameter and its atomic structure, you'd better know the metal
and its attributes.

Compare your results to similar investigations.

In some cases, it is legitimate to compare outcomes with
classmates, not to change your answer, but to look for any
anomalies between the groups and discuss those.

Analyze the strengths and limitations of your experimental design. This is

particularly useful if you designed the thing you're testing (e.g. a
circuit).

Conclusion
Conclusion can be very short in most undergraduate laboratories. Simply
state what you know now for sure, as a result of the lab.

The writer provides a justification. We know it is nickel because of its structure

and size. This makes a sound and sufficient conclusion. Generally, this is
enough; however, the conclusion might also be a place to discuss

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Appendix Laboratory Report Manual

weaknesses of experimental design, what future work needs to be done to
extend your conclusions, or what the implications of your conclusions are.

Quick Results Reference

Must do:
∙ State what's known
∙ Justify statement

Might do:
∙ State significance
∙ Suggest further research

References
References include any outside reading you have done. Check the site's
documentation page to help you organize references in a way appropriate
to your field.

Appendices
This page typically include such elements as raw data, calculations, graphs
pictures or tables that have not been included in the report itself. Each kind of
item should be contained in a separate appendix. Make sure you refer to
each appendix at least once in your report.
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