Review Article

of red palm weevilRhynchophorus ferrugineusin Egypt

DR: Mohamed Kamal Abd-El Latif Abbas

Abstract

The date palm crop in Eastern Arab countries is under threat. Red palm weevil
Rhynchophorus ferrugineus,was probably introduced to the Middle East on infested
ornamental palm from India or Pakistan. Red palm weevil was firstly discovered
attacking palm in the Arabian peninsula, especially United Emirates in 1986 and
progressively spread to Gulf states and crossed the red sea into North Africa as the
latest record since 1992 in Egypt. Where it is a well-known problem for the damage it
causes to palm grown in plantations. The larval and adult stages of this insect feed
within tunnels inside the trunk of palms and this behavior frequently damage the
infested tree. In infested plantations, yield has been dropped from 4.2 to 0.3 metric
tons/Fadden.Here we review the biography, basis of morphology, biology study,
ecological, chemical control and biological control of red palm weevil in Egypt.
Introduction

Egypt is at the first place in the world concerning the production of dates
approximately 1.5 million tone. There are16 million date palm trees belonging to
eight genera13 palm species. The Red Palm Weevil
(RPW) Rhynchophorusferrugineus is the major destructive insect pest of date palm
treesanddiscovered in Egypt during 1992. Distribution in Egypt all governorates
expected some locations example Oasis Paris and last discovered 2013 in Oasis
Siaw in Egypt.

E Mail: Mohamed .kmal 55@ yahoo.com.

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Nowadays, the date palm crop in Eastern Arab countries is under threat. Red palm
weevil was probably introduced to the Middle East on infested ornamental palm from
India or Pakistan. Red palm weevil was firstly discovered attacking palm in the Arabian
peninsula, especially United Emirates in 1986 and progressively spread to Gulf states
and crossed the red sea into North Africa as the latest record since 1992 in Egypt. It is
found over a wide geographical area in Asia, involving many different Agro
ecosystems. The related species are highly polyphagous with a number of known hosts
exceeding more than ten different palm species (Murphy and Briscoe 1999). The wide,
uncontrolled translocation of offshoots is considered the main factor governing the
spatial distribution pattern of red palm weevil. The larval and adult stages of this insect
feed within tunnels inside the trunk of palms and this behavior frequently damage the
infested tree. In infested plantations, yield has been dropped from 4.2 to 0.3 metric
ton/Fadden (Gush 1997). Because of the concealed nature of the larvae, effective
method for integrated management of the red palm weevil was quit difficult to develop.
Date palm weevil management practices in Egypt were completed .Damage in many
palm tree species (Areca catechu, Arenga pinnata, Borassus flabellifer, Caryota
maxima, C. Cumingii, Cocos nucifera, Corypha garbage, C. elata, Elaeis guineensis,
Livistona decipiens, Metroxylon sagu, Oreodoxa regia, Phoenix canariensis, P.
dactylifera, P. sylvestris, Sabal umbraculifera, Trachycarpus fortunei, Washingtonia sp.
etc.). It can also attack Agave Americana, Saccharum officinarum.

1- Morphology of red palm weevil

Studied the morphology of the red palm weevil in Egypt and indicated that the egg of
this curculionid is oval in shape and its posterior end is more rounded than the anterior.
The newly laid egg is white in color, but when the insect completes its embryonic
development and soon hatching, the top of anterior end of the egg becomes transparent.
The eggs show different lengths in a range of 2.150 - 2.700 mm. With an average of

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2.434 ± 0.103 mm. While the egg width (measured from the broadest part) ranged from
0.850 - 1.100 mm. Being 0.955 ± 0.048 mm. In average. Eggs of red palm weevil hatch
to small apodous larvae having very strong mandibles and maxillae that enable them to
chew and penetrate xylem tissue inside the trunk. At the same time, larvae push fibers
outside to close the entrance hole. The larva has scarabeiform shape and white,
yellowishcolor with brownish head. The full grown larva has 35 - 55 mm. At length
and 18 - 22 mm. In diameter. The larva has 12 segments; the color of the first and
second thoracic segmentis light brown. The last segment is oblate, elongated and carries
in the lateral margins four pairs of long hairs, cleared that the last larval instar transfers
to an execrate pupa after a short period of cocoon construction. The color of the pupa is
either light brown or reddish dark-brown. The pupa is uniformly white when first
formed and then the color gradually changes to brown subsequently. The pupa has a
length of 28 - 36 mm. And a width of 10.69 mm. (In mean) studied the morphology of
the red palm weevil, R. ferruginues and indicated that both length and width of adult
males are shorter than those of females. The range 3.075 - 3.330 and 0.940 - 1.110 cm.
with means of 3.199 ± 0.095 cm. and 1.049 ± 0.072 cm. Were recorded for the length
and width of insect male, respectively. But, insect female recorded somewhat long and
wide body to record ranges of 3.055 - 3.650 cm. in long (3.404 ± 0.143 cm.) and 1.000
- 1.200 cm. (1.138 ± 0.077 cm.) in width. The rostrum (snout) in the female is longer
than in male and more slender and smooth. In males, there is a distinct row of relatively
long branched hairs on the dorsal surface of apical half of the rostrum Mesallam (1999)
:Biological Studies -2
Mentioned that in Egypt, female of R. ferrugineus throughout its whole life,
lays eggs from 200 to 400 (300 in average).The oviposition period ranged from 25
to 42 days. Egg has a length of 2-3 mmHussein (1998). Abbas (2005) conducted
biological studies in Egypt under constant temperature on red palm weevil and
found that the time required for completion of embryogenesis increased as the
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temperature decreased. The mean incubation period for egg stage ranged between
20-3 days when exposed to15, 20, 25, 27 and 35°C., respectively. The
developmental threshold (zero) of egg stage was estimated as 12.2°C. under
laboratory conditions. The highest potentiality of egg emergence expressed as
percentages of hatchability was 87% at 27°C., while the lowest percentage (20%)
was recorded at 15°C.. Obtained results also revealed that temperature in the range
of 27 to 35°C. with an average of 30°C.
- Larval stage:
Saleh and Gouhar (1993) in Egypt stated that the larva of red palm weevil,
R. ferrugineus is considered the destructive and injurious stage. In case of old
palms, the hatched larvae attacked trunk tissues below crown region or in crown or
in bases of leaves. Larvae tunnel through the soft wood of the trunk several
galleries in different directions and feed voraciously so that the voice of their
feeding can be heard by ear or using a special apparatus. Reported that the larval
duration ranged from 38 - 175 days (106.5 days on average). The larval stage has 9
- 13 instars .Abbas (2005) Showed that the larval duration of R. ferrugineus, on
sugarcane stem slices was 144, 67 and 48.5 days at 15, 27 and 35°C., respectively.
The developmental threshold (zero) for this stage was 14°C. The average thermal
unit (DDs) required for the larvae development of the insect to complete its
development was 716.0 degree-day.Hussein (1998)Indicated that the prepupal
period for three consecutive generations throughout one year was 2 - 6, 3 - 15 and
3 – 7 days, but the pupal period ranged between 7 - 17, 10 - 23 and 9 - 13 days for
the three generations, respectively. Salama et al. (2002) mentioned that laboratory
and field experiments were conducted using the calculated thermal constant of the
pupal stage of the red palm weevil (R. ferrugineus) to determine the dates and
number of weevil emergence cycles in Ismailia, Egypt, during 1999 - 2000. They
found that the pupal duration at two different temperatures (29.5 and 21.2 degrees
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°C.) revealed that the thermal threshold was -2.3 degrees °C., while the thermal
constant was 423 degrees-days. Around 20.7 cycles of weevil emergence per year
have been predicted in Egypt. A temperature between 44 - 45 degrees °C. was
found to be the higher threshold at which the pupae are killed. The heat units
required for the pupal development were utilized to predict the dates of adult
emergence throughout the year. Alfazairy et al. (2003).Observed in Egypt, the
pupal stage lasted 15 to16 days with an average of 15.2 ± 0.1 days, when the larvae
were reared on the cooked diet based on carrot and sweet potato. While in case of
the larval rearing on peeled pieces of sugarcane internodes, the pupal stage lasted
15 to 17 days with an average of 15.7 ± 0.1 days. Abbas (2005) indicated that the
presence of a significant relationship between pupal duration and the
corresponding rearing temperatures. The range from 12 to 21 days was considered.
Accordingly, 27°C. could be considered as the most optimum for pupal activity
expressed as pupation. The developmental threshold for this stage was illustrated
and estimated as 8°C. The average thermal unit (DDs) required for pupa
development of the insect to complete its development was 248.8 degrees-
days.Abbas (2005)Indicated that the highest percentage of adult emergence (13)
was obtained at 35°C. followed by 11 and 9% at 15 and 27°C., respectively. The
estimated longevity of adult survivors was decreased when the corresponding
increase in the tested three temperatures took place. The average of adult longevity
of this weevil lasted for 88.5, 74.5 and 48 days when exposed to 15, 27 and 35°C.,
respectively. The developmental threshold when estimated was 13°C. under
laboratory conditions for both male and female individuals. The average thermal
units (DDs) required for the adult development of the insect to complete its
development were 751.1 degrees-days. The sex ratio figures were approximately
(1:1) at 15 and 27°C.. A considerable change was obtained expressed as the
percentage revealed the presence of an obvious increase in the numbers of males
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occurred with the rise in temperature indicating the sex ratio of 62.5% for males
and 37.5% for females. Abed El-Fattah (2010) stated that the longest longevity of
males and females of R. ferrugineus were found in adults emerged from larvae fed
on the artificial diet, whereas the shortest one occurred with adults resulted from
rearing on sugarcane stem pieces.
Life cycle and generations:
Carried out biological studies and concluded that R. Ferruginous underwent 3
annual generations per year from the date of egg deposition to the emergence of
new adult and lays its first egg recording 63 - 90, 110 - 126 and 185 - 200 days,
respectively. The life span ranged between 105 - 152, 136 - 274 and 219 - 326
days, respectively Hussein (1998). Abbas (2005) Cleared that the time required for
completing one generation decreased as temperature increased from 201.5 days at
15°C. to 73.5 days at 35°C. and it was 158.2 days at 27°C.. The accumulated
temperatures (DDs) of 1132.7 were recorded as a mean of one generation.
3-Rearing on artificial diets
Hussein (1998) reared the palm weevil on two artificial media as well as on
shredded sugarcane stems as control for one generation in an electrical incubator
running at 29°C and 75-90% R.H. The basic ingredients of the artificial diets were
sweet potato tubers. The two other components were the same in both quantity and
quality.Each medium (about 400g) was composed from 250g minced basic
ingredient (sweet potato), 50g sugarcane bagasse, 10g cane sugar, 4g starch, 0.5g
food salt (Sodium chloride), 0.5g mixture of mineral salts (140g of the mixture
contain 60g Manganese, 45g Zinc, 30g Iron, 5g Cupper, 0.5g Iodine, 0.2g Cobalt
and 0.1g Selenium), 0.5g Vitamin C, 0.2 granular dry yeast, 60 ml sugarcane juice,
3 ml vitamin and 20 ml glucose. About 133g of each medium as well as shredded
sugarcane were put in three glass jars (1/2 kg in capacity) as replicates. In each jar,
five newly hatched larvae were introduced and jars were tightly covered with
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perforated plastic covers and incubated at 29°C and 75-90% R.H. After two weeks,
larvae became larger in size and therefore, they must be transferred to another gal's
jar of larger size (2 kg) with the same amount of medium. The medium was
replenished every week till the larvae completed their development. During the
insect pre-pupal period, karina fibers were added in each jar to enable full-grown
larvae to construct their cocoons. After cocoons construction, they were removed
from jars and put in plastic boxes. Larval pupation, adult emergence, longevity of
emerged adults and female fecundity of eggs were recorded.Salama and Abdel-
Razek (2002) studied the development of the red palm weevil, R. ferrugineus on a
newly developed semiartificial diet compared with two natural diets namely
sugarcane stem and banana fruit.The weevil was successfully maintained on these
diets, and duration of the life cycle for males and females, respectively, were
164.97 and 194.61 days on the semi artificial diet ,192.5 and 186.5 days on banana,
and 172.00 and 170.00 days on sugarcane.The average egg production per female
was shown to be significantly higher on the semi artificial diet, being 184.00 ±
18.68 eggs compared with an average of 125.00+or-11.97 and 133.00 ± 15.21 eggs
on sugarcane and banana respectively. The fertility ranged between 94-100% in
those eggs deposited by females previously reared on the tested diets. The
developed semi artificial diet was shown to be suitable for maintaining laboratory
colonies of the red palm weevil, and it can substitute natural dietsAlfazairy et al.
(2003) reared R. ferrugineus (Olivier) in the laboratory in Alexandria, Egypt on
cooked diet based on carrot and sweet potato, and on peeled pieces of sugarcane
internodes as well. In the case of larval rearing on the cooked diet,the life cycle
from egg to adult emergence(1st generation )ranged 215-249 days with an average
of 230.6± 3.6 days. The oviposition period was 81.5 ± 5.9 days (57 - 126 days),
and each female oviposited 104 - 399 eggs with an average of 255.6 ± 23.7 eggs.
The daily oviposition weighted mean of 2.7 eggs. Eggs hatched in two to three
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days 2.9 ± 0.1 days, and the hatchability averaged 95.3 ± 1.1% (85.9 - 100%). The
larval stage took 200-234 days with an average of 217± 4.0 days; while the pupal
stage lasted 15 to 16 days with an average of 15.2 ± 0.1 days. Adult male longevity
was 77-162 days (100.3± 9.7 days), while adult female survival for 80-180 days
(113.9±8.5 days ),and pre-oviposition period was 2 - 4 days with an average of 2.5
± 0.2 days. On the other hand, the corresponding figures for larval rearing on
peeled pieces of sugarcane internodes were in respect, 108-196 days (137.3±
11.6days); 85.5 ± 8.2 days (37 - 188 days); 91 - 426 eggs (262 ± 32.0 eggs); 2.8
eggs; 2 - 5 days (2.9 ± 0.2 days) and 91.6 ± 3.3% (84.8 - 100%); 93-177 days
(128±8.3 days ); 15 to 17 days (15.7±0.1 days); 79-137 days(100.1±5.1 days), 44-
174 days (106.9±5.7 days), and 2-4 days (3.2±0.2 days).El-Sebay et al. (2003)
Laboratory trials were conducted to set up rearing program for red palm weevil R.
ferrugineus. An artificial diet (1 kg potatoes or sweet potatoes, 250 g carrot, 20 g
glucose, 4 g casein, 15 g agar, 250 g cereals, 1 mg, B vitamins, and 0.2 mg vitamin
D and 0.5 liter water) specified for red palm weevil was created. All contents
except vitamins were blended, boiled, cooked, and cooled. Thereafter, vitamins
were added and autoclaved. Newly laid eggs from adult culture were inserted into
plastic cups containing 5 g artificial diet, covered with muslin cloth and kept at 27
degrees C and 85% RH. Data indicated that 3 g artificial diet was enough for the
first larval instar to complete its stage within 3-4 days (with an average of 0.001 g
of weighted larvae). Five grams of artificial diet were consumed by the second
larval instars. The other 9 instars consumed 6, 8, 11, 14, 15, 18, 18, 22 and 24 g.
Periods of larval instars were 3-4, 3-4, 5-6, 5-6, 6-7, 6-8, 7-9, 7-9, 11-14, 11-15
and 14-16 days for the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th and 11th
instars, respectively. The larval weight was 0.001, 0.064, 0.149, 0.240, 0.540,
1.530, 2.700, 3.600, 4.600, 5.600 and 7.300 g for the respective 11 larval instars.
One kilogram of the artificial diet could rear 6 larvae for ~3 months.
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Olfet (2015) The red palm weevil (RPW) Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier.)
(Curculionidae: Coleoptera) is the most important pest of the date palm trees in
Egypt.Biological studies: on new semi-artificial diet (potato diet)found that the
mean incubation period of egg was 3 days, hatchability percentage was 88
%.Larval duration was 50 days, larval mortality percentage was 59 %. Pre-pupal
period was 6 days,pupal stage was 8 days, and adult remain inside cocoon period
was 8 days.The pre-pupal period mortality percentage was 66%, the pupal stage
mortality percentage was 69 % and adult remain inside cocoon period mortality
percentage was 74% .The sex ratio percentage of male was 49.98 % .The mean
pre-oviposition period of female was 11days. The average of oviposition period
was 50 days.The post-oviposition period of female was 7 days. Female and male
longevity were 68 and 40 days, respectively. Fecundity of female was about
170eggs/female.The fertility percentage was 78.5%.The total life cycle was 71.3
days. Generation period was about 115 and 143 days, per males and females,
respectively.
3- Varietal Resistance:.
Showed the effect of feeding of the newly hatched larvae on trunk pieces of
offshoots of three date palm varieties namely Zaghloul, Hayani and Amry as well
as on those of the ornamental palm under the laboratory conditions of 14 - 38°C.
and45 - 90% R.H. on some biological characteristics of the red palm weevil, R.
ferrugineus such as durations of different stages, adult emergence, sex ratio of
emerged adults and female fecundity of eggs. In general, the obtained results
clearly revealed that Zahgloul variety of date palm appeared to be the most suitable
host either for the insect post-embryonic development or for the adult longevity
and emergence as well as the fecundity of females showing the lowest mean
periods of larval and pupal stags (23.00 and 7.38 days, respectively) and the
highest means of adult longevity (232.13 days), emergence (80.00%) as well with
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female fecundity (306.00 eggs per female). Contrarily, the feeding on ornamental
palm gave the oppositeHussein (1998).Abdel-Salam et al. (2008), Investigated
the developmental time of immature stages, developmental rate, longevity,
fecundity, and life table parameters of the red palm weevil (RPW), R. ferrugineus
(Olivier) on ten cultivars from four groups of palms (soft date, semi-dry date, dry
date and ornamental palms) under laboratory conditions. The data indicated that
there was a significant variation in the developmental time of immature stages
when reared on the four groups. The highest developmental rate was achieved
when reared on Samany and Amri cultivars. In addition, there were significant
differences between the ten palm cultivars in larval stage, while there were no
significant differences in incubation period and pupal stage on the tested palm
cultivars. There was a significant difference in the longevity of males and females
of RPW on the tested cultivars. The longest male and female longevity was shown
when the insect was reared on Samany cultivar. Whereas, the shortest longevity
was recorded with Bartamouda. The fecundity rate (number of eggs/female/day)
was high when female reared on Amri cultivar (5.34 eggs/female/day) while, it
was low on Meloky (3.99 eggs/female/day).AbdEl-Fattah(2010).Studied that
infestation of different varieties i.e. Hayani , Zaghloul, Bent–esha,Samani,Aglan
and Amry and infestation due to varieties were recorded .Total number in each
variety and number of infestation palms with red palm weevil was recorded under
each variety. The results obtained that infestation of RPW of experimented
different varieties as (Hayani, Zaghloul, Bent –Esha, Samani, Aglan and
Amry).The highest infestation varieties were Zaghloul, followed by Hayani, while
the weakest infestation was in the varieties Aglan, Amry, Bent –Esha and Samani
during the two seasons
Massllem (2010) The number of larval instars under laboratory conditions on
Hayani, Eglany, Amry, Zaghlool date palms and Pritchardia ornamental palm were
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12, 12, 10, 10 and 9 instars, respectively. Regarding mean duration of the different
larval instars on Hayani date palm variety, the shortest duration of 1.25 ± 0.44 days
was recorded with the first larval instar at means of 29.74°C and 51.38% R.H.,
whereas the longest period of 62.00 ± 46.86 days was obtained with the 11th instar
at means of 25.87°C. and 60.43% R.H.. The effect of temperature was negative in
case of the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 10th, 11th instars and highly significant with the 1st, 2nd,
8th, 10th instars, but in case of the other instars the effect was positive and
insignificant. Atmospheric relative humidity proved to have a negative effect
during both second and fourth instars showing highly significant impact with the
first and third instars only.
In the Eglany date palm, the shortest duration of 1.27 ± 0.48 days was recorded
with the first instar larvae at means of 29.74ºC. and 51.37% R.H., but the longest
periods of 23.67 ± 6.53 and 23.67 ± 5.54 days were recorded with both the 10th
and 11th larval instars at means of 31.38, 30.59ºC. and 58.63, 58.53% R.H.,
respectively. The effect of temperature was negative in case of the 2nd, 3rd, 10th,
11th instars and highly significant in the 1st, 2nd instars as well significant in 9th,
10th instars. Relative humidity proved to be had a negative impact in case of the
2nd, 7th, 9th instars reaching significant level in the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 8th, 10th and
highly significant in both 1st and 6th instars.The shortest duration of 1.04 ± 0.20
days was recorded on Amry date palm with the first and second larval instars at
means of 29.71ºC. and 51.27% R.H. for both, whereas the longest duration period
was obtained with the last instar (29.13 ± 7.85 days) at means of 30.83 ºC. and
58.94% R.H.. Both temperature and relative humidity high significantly affected
the first three instars as well as the 7th, 8th instars for temperature and 9th for
relative humidity. The effect of temperature was significant in case of the 5th and
6th instar, but that respecting relative humidity was significant in the 4th instar.In
Zaghlool date palm, the shortest mean duration of larvae was 1.06 ± 0.24 days that
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recorded with the third larval instar at means of 29.66 ºC. and 49.66% R.H., but the
longest one of 27.14 ± 10.58 days was obtained with the 9th instar at means of
31.41 ºC. and 58.67% R.H.. The two tested weather factors showed negative
effects in all instars except with the 1st, 5th, 7th, 8th and 1st, 3rd, 6th, 9th for the
first and second factors, respectively. In addition, the effect of both temperature
and relative humidity was highly significant on the instars of 1st, 2nd, 7th, 8th and
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 6th, 7th, successively. Temperature proved to have a significant
effect on the duration of the 6th larval instar.In Pritchardia ornamental palm, the
shortest larval period of 1.08 ± 0.36 days was recorded with the first larval instar at
means of 29.77 ºC. and 51.26% R.H.. Whereas, the longest period of 23.70 ±
13.74 days was recorded with the last instar (9th) at means of 31.47 ºC. and
58.17% R.H. The effect of temperature was not significant in case of the 3rd, 6th
and 9th instars and significant with the 5th instar; but with the other instars, the
effect proved to be statistically highly significant. Also, the influence of relative
humidity was not significant in case of the 1st, 3rd, 5th and 8th instars and
significant in one case (9th larval instar). The shortest mean periods of male
longevity were 109.50 ± 49.32 and 56.00 ± 23.58 days that recorded with Zaghlool
in the first generation and Amry date palms in the second one. But, the longest
periods of 147.80 ± 28.24 and 198.80 ± 81.02 days occurred with Hayani and
Eglany date palms in the 1st and 2nd generations, respectively. In the first
generation, the correlation coefficients of temperature and relative humidity were
statistically highly significant and significant for Hayani date palm,
alternatively.Female longevity was more sensitive to changes of temperature
where in the 1st generation, female longevity ranged between 78.00 ± 7.81 –
136.25 ± 19.36 days at daily means of temperature of 16.71 – 18.38 ºC.; while, in
the 2nd generation the increase of temperature (21.77 – 29.51ºC.) the decrease of
female longevity (57.13 ± 11.45 – 80.50 ± 7.78 days). The influence of
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temperature on this biological character proved to be highly significant at 1% level
of probability with Eglany in the 1st generation, Amry and Zaghlool date palm in
the 2nd one. Significant differences were recorded at 5% level of probability for
the same weather factor with Eglany date palm in the 2nd generation. In case of
atmospheric relative humidity, the correlation was negative in case of Hayani,
Eglany and Amry date palms in the first generation. The degree of significance of
correlation coefficients between female longevity and daily means of relative
humidity proved to be highly significant in case of Eglany in both 1st and 2nd
generations and Zaghlool date palms in the second only. The shortest means of life
cycle period of 146.57 ± 6.40, 251.75 ± 7.36 and 253.00 ± 7.07 days were obtained
with Pritchardia ornamental palm, Amry and Zaghlool date palms in the 1st, 2nd
and 3rd generations, respectively at means of 28.05, 23.56, 19.91 ºC. and 57.32,
58.01 and 63.50 % R.H., respectively. But, the longest mean periods of 194.25 ±
47.10, 326.33 ± 2.31 and 276.67 ± 11.02 days were obtained with Hayani date
palm, Pritchardia ornamental palm and Eglany date palm in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd
generations, respectively at daily means of 25.74, 23.15, 20.72 ºC. and 59.45,
58.92, 62.93 % R.H., successively.The shortest mean of generation intervals of
222.86 ± 40.60 and 295.83 ± 13.54 days were recorded with Zaghlool and Amry
date palms in the 1st and 2nd generations, respectively. But, the longest mean
periods were 286.00 ± 24.02 days (Hayani date palm in the 1st generation) and
401.38 ± 93.34 days (Eglany date palm in the 2nd generation). The correlation
between generation interval and temperature proved to be highly significant with
the tested palm varieties except with Amry and Zaghlool date palms in the 2nd
generation that exhibited insignificant relationships. Relative humidity had no
significant effect in case of Hayani in the first generation and Amry in the second
one. Moreover, a significant impact at 5% level of probability was detected in case
of both Eglany and Zaghlool date palms in the second generation The lowest mean
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numbers of eggs of 22.86 ± 8.92 and 35.33 ± 5.13 eggs/ female were recorded with
Pritchardia ornamental palm at daily means of 16.97, 20.52ºC. for temperature and
67.49, 65.99 % for relative humidity during the first and second generations,
successively. Whereas, the highest mean numbers of 107.33 ± 19.41 with Amry
date palm and 127.50 ± 7.78 eggs /female in case of Zaghlool date palm occurred
during the 1st and 2nd generations, respectively. The corresponding daily means of
temperature and relative humidity were 15.29, 27.29 ºC. and 68.43, 57.65% R.H.,
consecutively. The impact of both temperature and relative humidity on this
biological aspect proved to be statistically highly significant in case of Zaghlool
date palm only, during the second generation. In metallic greenhouse the
attraction of adults differed according to varieties where all trees of Eglany, Amry
and Zaghlool date palms were attacked with insects, whereas the percentage of
attraction to the trees of Pritchardia ornamental palm and Hayani date palm were
nil and 25%, respectively. On the other hand, the mean numbers of larvae, pupae,
adults and total of individuals/tree were high significantly varied in the five tested
varieties. The mean numbers of total individuals recorded the highest values for
both Eglany and Zaghlool date palms. All trees of Pritchardia ornamental palm
were not invaded by this insect.El Deeb (2015) Studysusceptibility of five date
palm trees varieties to infestation with red palm
weevil,Rhynchophorusferrugineus(OLIVIER) during four 2010-2013 and relation of
plant bio chemical compunction. The results appeared that Zaghloul&Hayani
varieties were the more preference for infestation than other varieties, where,
the percentages of infestation were appeared about (27, 16.5, 16.8 and 13.8 %)
for Zagloul, (25, 15.3, 11.2 and 11.3 %) for Hayani and (19, 8, 5 and2 %) for Bent
Eshia, (12, 5, 1and 0 %) for Samani and (4, 3, 0 and0%) for Amry during the four
successive seasons, respectively

14
4-Ecogical studies
Hussein (1998) in Egypt reported that the Red palm weevil R ferrugineus
completed three overlapping generations per year. Environmental changes do not
appear to have any remarkable influence on both population growth and larval
development patterns. It could be concluded, however that the overlapping of
generations and long cycle of all developmental stage were found inhabiting the
inside palm trunk. El-Garhy (1996) reported that in Egypt experiments were
carried out to examine the use of pheromone/food traps to determine seasonal
variation of the abundance of adult R. ferrugineus and the effectiveness of traps for
monitoring populations. Pheromone/food traps were strapped to date palms 3 m
above ground to prevent vandalism and to be above off-shoots. Many more adults
were captured during the warmer summer months than during the cooler winter
months. The threshold for R. ferrugineus was found to be in the range 12-14
degrees C with very low number of weevils being captured in December and
January, the only months in which the average daily temperature fell below 14
degrees C. Captures rates were highest in the months of April, May and June,
which corresponds to the onset of warmer weather in Egypt. The higher capture
rates during this period were probably due to the emergence of broods whose
development was slowed by the cooler winter months. Twice as many female as
male weevils were caught. El-Sebay (2003) founded that ethyl acetate was 2.5
times more effective for weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus attraction than regular
food in the traps. Female density was higher than male density and constituted
52.8-57.8% of the total population in the field.
Abbas (2000) in Egypt estimated four overlapping generations of red palm weevil
adults per year. The obtained results reveal that the first three generations for 1995

15
demonstrated the greatest activity during these months and nearly equal in size,
which consists 30-32% of the total number of captured weevils. During 1996, the
first and second generations' harbored about 69% of the total number captured of
adults. These data proved that the distinct weevil flight activity period commonly
occurred during the warm months from March until October. Therefore, traps must
be used during this period to obtain reliable mass trapping figures, reducing the
population density to the lowest level. The flight activity in more abundant
captured numbers in both investigated seasons was occupied essentially most year,
which extended from the end of February until the end of December then it was
declined in low number during January and the first half of February where the
mean weekly numbers of captures were 2.93 and 4.88 adults/trap for the two
investigated seasons, respectively .The captures were more abundant in traps
during the summer months than that during the winter months. It reached 35.59%
and 37.72% of the total captures during the period extended from April until June
in the two seasons respectively. Five peaks of capture during mid-March, end of
April, end of June,mid of September, and end if October, were recorded of during
the first investigated season 1995.The mean bi-weekly numbers were 8.67 ,
12.67 ,11.33,9.33 and 11.76 adults/trap,respectively.Six peaks of activity at mid –
March, end of April,mid of June,mid of July, end of September and mid of
November were recorded during season 1996.The mean bi-weekly numbers were
24.67,20.33,8.33,9.67 and 9.33 adult/ trap, respectively .El-Sebay(2003).
Determined that seasonal abundance and seasonal activity of red palm weevils
(R.ferrugineus) , the effect of weather factors (temperature and relative humidity)
on the seasonal abundance of the pest, and the effect of replacing regular food with
ethyl acetate as a source of food odour (kairomone). R. ferrugineus had two main
active seasons annually. The first adult brood was observed in April and the second
one was in November. There was no relationship between seasonal population
16
fluctuations and weather factors. Adult females were attracted to the traps after
laying eggs. Female density was higher than male density and constituted 52.8-
57.8% of the total population in the field.Abbas (2005)Carried out field
experiment and stated that, R. ferrugineus had two main seasonal activities
annually in Egypt. The first adult brood was during April and the second one was
during November. It was found that there was no relationship between seasonal
population fluctuation and weather factors. Adult females were attracted to the
traps after laying eggs. Female's density was more than males and represented 52.8
– 57.8 % of the total population in the field in Egypt estimated four overlapping
generations of red palm weevil adults per year. The obtained results reveal that the
first three generations since 1995 demonstrated the greater activity during these
months and nearly equal in size, which consists 30-32% of the total number of
captured weevils. During 1996, the first and second generations' harbored about
69% of the total number captured of adults. These data proved that the distinct
weevil flight activity period commonly occurred during the warm months from
March until October. Therefore traps must be used during this period to obtain
reliable mass trapping figures, reducing the population density to the lowest level
Generally, it could be concluded maximum and minimum temperature figures
demonstrated positive and highly significant values when the first brood were data
figures considered. The combined effect of the three weather factors however
show not quite strong effect for weather factors For 2002, the combined effect of
these three factors expressed as the total variance explained was relatively higher
(97.47%) than in 2001 (94.89%).The optimum day maximum temperature daily
minimum temperature and relative humidity (RH %) for R. ferrugineus were
average 30.2C 16Cand 54.5%. which is considered as the optimum for the two
seasons. Salama et al. (2009) studied that the field behaviour and bionomics of
the red palm weevil (R.P.W.) Rhynchophorus ferrugineus have been
17
demonstrated.The microclimatic temperature conditions where the insects live
were recorded monthly (August-February).The insect lives in a microhabitat with
temperatures much lower compared to the outer sunny atmosphere during summer.
During winter, the minimum microclimatic temperature during daytime was 12
degrees C compared with 16.1 degrees C in the outer atmosphere. Records in the
microclimate of infected trees have been always higher compared to those of
healthy ones, with a difference of 1-2 degrees C. A highly significant difference
was observed with respect to infestation levels among different cultivars of date
palm Phoenix dactylifera .El-Rehewy (2010) The height values of internal palm
tree temperature at 6 pm of infested and healthy palm trees 34.8 and 28.8,
respectively while the lower ones were 12.8 °C and 12.7°C.The differences
between internal palm trees temperature at 6 am of infested and healthy palm
ranged 0.1 during January to 6.9°C during April . Internal palm trees temperature
at 12 pm reached the highest value of 30 °C for infested palm and 25.2 °C for
healthy ones during August .The lowest values were 11.9°C and 6.8°C recorded
January and February for infested and health trees respectively  .The differences
between internal palm temperature at 12 pm of infested and healthy palm ranged
from 2.1 during December to 7.8 °C October . The moisture content was lower in
the infested trees than in healthier ones during the whole study. General the
differences between internal temperature of infested and uninfested palm were
significantAbbass and Al- Nasser (2012) The relative weevil -attracting
potential of the aggregation pheromones procured from different countries
and used in trapping the red palm weevil, R. Ferruginous Olivier, was
evaluated in date plantations of Ismail IGovernor ate, Egypt. The results of
this study indicated that high release rate pheromone obtained from Chemtica
Natural, Costa Rica type pheromone was more attractive than France and
Spain types pheromone. Moreover, ecological studies have clearly shown that
18
the adult stage of red palm weevil , R. ferrugineus has two peaks of
swarming activity on date palm trees throughout the year , one of them
during October 2011 whereas, t hot her during March 2012. Results also,
appeared that the female captured contains numbers of eggs not laid. The
mean number of egg per female attractive and newly female were220. 2
and 261.8 eggs, respectively. No significant differences were found between
numbers of eggs in the newly female and the female attractive. Abbass and
Ibrahim (2103) Field and laboratory treatments were carried out to evaluate the
different pictures of the aggregation pheromone used in attracting red palm
weevil in palm plantations at Ismailia Governorate, Egypt. Results showed that
the use of pheromone bag mixture with glycerin (carrier material), pesticide and
ethyl acetate attracted adult of the RPW and there are insignificant differences
between attraction to (pheromone + Ethyl acetate+ water + insect iced killed).
The use of this technique led to a provision in the use of pheromone costs by
limiting the examination number.Also the durian of the efficiency of pheromone
change compared with aggregation pheromone with requires only examination
only once a week for two months.Hashim, et al. (2013). found that Monitoring
studies were conducted at Amria district (Alexandria governorate) during the two
successive seasons 2007-2008 and 2008-2009 using pheromone traps
(Ferrolure+700 mg). Weevils of R.ferrugineus were found to be existed in
pheromone traps all year round on the course of two successive seasons 2007-2008
and 2008-2009. Two flight peaks were recorded during both years of study, the 1st
peak was recorded in the 1st half of September (mean number 0.13 weevil/trap),
the 2nd peak occurred in the 2nd half of March (mean number 0.19 weevil/trap)
during 2007-2008 seasons. In 2008-2009 seasons, there were also two recorded
peaks, the 1st peak was recorded two weeks earlier than 2007-2008 seasons (in the
2nd half of August, mean number 0.15/trap), the 2nd peak was recorded also two
19
weeks earlier than the foregoing seasons (in the 1st half of March, mean number
0.21 weevils/trap). The effect of weather factors upon the weevil density
population was studied.Abbass and Gadalla (2015) The study carried out in date
plantations of Nobaria , Beheira Governorate. Results of this study indicated that
the percentage of palms infestation 25 % and 16.8 % of total number of palms
infestation during season 2012 and 2013,respectvely.The palm trees which contain
air roots were highly infestation compared palms without air roots arrived 44.8%
and 47.6 % of total palm trees, infestation during two years respectively and high
percentage of infestation recorded 0.0 – 1.0 m above ground and low infestation
were occurred in top head ranged 7.1-8 % from number of palms infestation.
High number of palms infestation found in farm more irrigated. The availability of
humidity under the palm trees compared with farm that were irrigated through drip
irrigation lines, and it’s were Irrigated on long intervals. High number of palm
infestation found with air offshoots compared with removed offshoots with
treatment fogging using sulfur powder after removed recorded 11.6% and 33.3%
with remove and no remove offshoots and no significant different between healthy
palm and infestation palm (low and medium)on yield product of date palm during
two seasons.El- Bannaet al (2015)The aggregation pheromone traps of red palm
weevil Rhynchophorusferrugineus considered as an essential method for Integrated
Pest Management of field trials. Experiments were carried out on date palm
plantations at Kasassin district, Egypt. Number of captured weevils were
significantly affected by the pheromone trap types and synthetic attractants
material, recorded numbers were 75, 25, 92 and 26 mean weevil / trap with the
following corresponding four types.Trap I (bucket trap new,, trapII (bucket trap
contain without holes +funnel without cover-up) and recommend, trap III, trap
design (Picusan®), and trap VI bucket trap, respectively.On other hand the
combined effect of both sugarcane honey +pheromone + ethyl acetate gave more
20
attractiveness than sugarcane honey +pheromone + pesticides, sugarcane honey+
pesticides, pheromone +ethyl acetate+ water +pesticides and ethyl acetate+ water
+pesticides treatments, increasing of captured weevils might due to the combined
effect for such treatments.This mixture (EtAc: EtOH, 1:3) is able to boost
pheromone and can be at least as effective as the use of a complete bait
(pheromone+ plant material+ molasses). Ethyl acetate (EtAc) alone does not
improve the attraction power for aggregation pheromone. Generally, to achieve
more effectiveness for weevils capturing with aggregation pheromone traps to
control red palm weevil, it is preferred to use trap type (trap design (Picusan®)and
The mixture (EtAc:EtOH, 1:3) can replace the use of plant material+ molasses to
attract weevils.
Olfet (2015) The red palm weevil (RPW) Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier.)
(Curculionidae: Coleoptera) is the most important pest of the date palm trees in
Egypt.Seasonal abundance of capturing adults using pheromone traps during two
successiveseasons, 2012 and 2013 clear that the highest activity numbers captured
by pheromone traps recorded in April. Four peaks were recorded for RPW during
April, June, September and November respectively. The sex ratio in captured
adults was reached to 38.20 % for males and reached its maximum in March
(44.44 %). Effect of weather factors on capturing in two successive seasons, 2012
and 2013 show that both simple correlation and regression values were
insignificant positive effects for maximum, minimum, mean temperature on
number of captured adults of RPW while it was insignificant negative effects for
mean relative humidity and wind velocity and the explained variance percentage
(E.v.%) for the three weather factors on the number of captured adult was 28.45 %
in two investigated seasons..The interaction between number of infested date palm
trees and adult captured were positive significant effect in two successive
seasons,2012 and 2013.Pheromone trap types design for controlling red palm
21
weevil,necessary using trap shape (holes and funnel without cover) during season,
2010.Pheromone trap hanging heights for controlling red palm weevil, necessary
sited trap shape (holes and funnel without cover) on the ground heightduring
season, 2011.Attraction of the weevil by different fermented foods matters to
assess the most suitable one record that the higher efficiency of dates with
pheromone during season, 2012.Effect of infested areas of date palm trees on the
number of attracted adults to pheromone traps record that the captured adults in
traps on 450 m2 (trap /150 m2.) were more capturing during season, 2013.Effect of
pheromone types on capturing record that the accumulated number of traps with
Costa Rica was more capturing in traps during season 2013.Repellent materials
used for controlling red palm weevil record that the dencar material was
considered the highest repellent materials in 2013 year.Susceptibility of date palm
trees varieties to infestation: The results clear thatZaghloul &Hayani varieties were
the more susceptibility for infestation than other varieties during four successive
seasons extended from 2010 until 2013.
5- Control
A- Biogical control
El-Bishry(2000)Palm tissues heavily infested with the red palm weevil, R.
Ferruginousis characterized by their paste-like consistency, high moisture content and
bad smell. Different degrees of tissue decay are observed, accompanied bymold growth
in some parts. Other microorganisms are expected to be extensively present. Using
entomopathogenic nematodes as biocontrol agents against R. ferrugineus necessitates
delivering nematode IJs to site of infestation. This can be done either by directly
injecting nematode suspension through the natural galleries made by the boring larvae,
or through artificial tunnels made from the trunk surface extending to the site of
infestation. The impact of the environment inside the infested palms on nematode

22
juveniles was the aim of the present study, as a first step, before testing the
susceptibility of host larvae to nematode infection or before conducting any field
applications. Injecting nematode juveniles into host galleries, which are filled with the
gummy oozing, will subject these juveniles to the direct effect of this oozing. When the
oozing was diluted (1:5) it had a deleterious effect on nematode survival during 48
hours. So, undiluted oozing is expected to have a more injurious effect, in addition to
the gummy nature which will naturally affect the motility and migration of these
juveniles. The arrival of nematode juveniles to the site of infestation either through their
migration in the host galleries or by injection through the artificial tunnels subjects them
to several unfavorable effects. As seen in the obtained results, nematode juveniles
quickly die in the infested tissue, where complete mortality was evident after 24 hours.
This lethal effect is most probably caused by the toxic metabolites caused by the
extensive propagation of millions of microorganisms and moulds present in the infested
tissues, in addition the possibility of the presence of nature.El-Sufty, (2010) Biological
control of the red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus was studied using the local
strain, UAE-B2 of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana. For mass
production of dry conidia, a new economic simple medium containing granulated rice
was evaluated and used. The culture medium yielded 5.2 mg cyanide/cm2 with a
potential of 91.7% on adult weevils. The conidia were stored at –10°C for 13 months
without a decrease in its virulence. Preliminary field investigations were carried out in
date palm plantations at Ras Al Khaimah to evaluate the efficacy of the fungus.
Spraying date palm trees with an oil formulation containing 5 x 107 con. / ml at a rate
of 5 L / tree caused a mortality of 13.7-19.2% in the adult population during the three
weeks after application with a monthly delayed mortality of 2.3-12.5% in the following
four months. Dusting a date palm tree with 40 g of a powder formulation containing 5%
conidia killed 8.9% of adult population during the three weeks after application and
caused monthly delayed mortality of 4-5.9% in the following three months. Abd-
23
Elhady(2013)Identification of local natural enemies in Egypt The red palm weevil is
the Survey the natural enemies in some location in Egypt . The obtained results
showed that red palm weevil inside cocoons stages were attacked by the
ectoparasitoides mites ; Uropodina phoritic and Aegyptus rhynchophorusthe other
hand recorded local strain of Beauveria bassiana ( mycosis disease on RPW was
verified On The pathogenic fungi ( B bassiana exhibited three peaks of seasonal
activity in the field during February. March and May (last larvae ,pupae, inside cocoon
and emergence adult) .Also Anisolabis manitime predator eggs
B-Chemical control
Saleh and Gouhar (1993) showed that the used insecticides can be applied as follows:
in case of date palm plantations completely free from forages, vegetables or fruit trees,
insecticides are sprayed on palm trunk only from its upper part to lower by using one of
the following insecticides: dimethoate 40% (400 ml/100 litre water), deltamethrin 2.5%
(150 ml/100 litre water), diptrex 80% (400 ml/100 liter water) and oxydemeton methyl
(150ml/ 100 liter water). The treatment is repeated according to infestation status
without spraying of both leaves and fruits. Using of insecticides must be ceased two
months before fruits collecting.When forages, vegetables or fruit trees are cultivated
between date palm trees, leaf bases in the upper part of the date palm are dusted by one
of the following dusts: drusban 5 - 10% and diptrex 10%. The cutting sites of offshoots
from mother palm also should be dusted and dusting is repeated when the insecticide is
disappeared. Dusting must be ceased at the beginning of fruiting stage and the used
insecticide must not be reached to dates, forages, vegetables and fruits growing between
palms.In Egypt, field experiments were conducted to study the effect of Gastoxin
(Phostoxin: 57% aluminium phosphide) on red palm weevil by Saleh et al. (1996) who
reported that excellent results (100% mortality) were recorded with Gastoxin since all
stages of the pest were killed in the case of 3 tablets x 3 holes/tree as compared with
untreated trees (control). Therefore, it can be concluded that this method was very
24
effective with other methods to control this destructive pest, but it is very necessary to
inspect the treated palms continuously, and if they are reinvested, the treatment must be
repeated. In addition, the heavy infested trees are recovered and become healthy after
treatment by Gastoxin. The same authors mentioned that using 5 - 15 g of
paradichlorobenzene per hole (3 holes/tree) did not give mortality results. In field
experiments in Salhia region ,Egypt, four granular pesticides namely Furdan, Nemacor,
Mocap and Temic 10% G were tested at three doses 10, 15 and 20 g per tree and they
found that all stages of red palm weevil were unaffected with the tested compounds.
The poor effect of granules may be due to the following three reasons: 1- Using low
dosages of the granules. 2- Raining in winter and the nature of the soil as sandy soil can
increase the leaching effect. 3- As a behavior of red palm weevil to make tunnels
through its life and to feed on tree contents of cellulose in the trunk and root. Tunnels
make as barriers to prevent the pesticide reaching the larvae. Also, pupae are covered
by certain substances (cocoon) which may be prevent any insecticidal effect. On the
other hand, used Actelic 50% EC and Dimethoate 40% EC in three doses of each (5, 10
and 15 ml/hole) and three holes per tree showed that the two tested insecticides had
moderate efficiency giving mean mortality percentages of all stages ranging from 38.0 -
54.4%.
Barranco et al. (1998) in Egypt, studied the efficiency of chemical control ofR.
ferrugineus. Evaluation of pesticides was carried out in two essays, the first with 7-day-
old larvae and the second with 1-month-old larvae. In both cases, the insecticides were
incorporated into semi–artificial diet, which is used to rear this species in the laboratory.
The insecticides tested were a natural extract of neem tree seeds (azadirachtin 3cc/l) and
Exp 60720 A (fipronil at 1500, 0.4, 0.2, 0.1, 0.05 and 0.01 ppm). Efficacy values were
obtained using the equation of about 15 days after treatment. The obtained results
showed that for younger larvae, the mortality reached 100% at doses greater than 0.1
ppm of fipronil. On the other hand, the mortality caused by azadirachtin was less than
25
50%. Mortality of 100% was only reached for 1-month old larvae with doses of fipronil
exceeding 0.2 ppm.Hussein (1998) mentioned that the fumigation is applied in case of
heavy infested date palm trees. 2-3 tablets of Phostoxin (Gastoxin 3 g 57% ALP
aluminium phosphide: Hydrogen phosphide: phosphine) in the hole inside palm trunk
made either by hand (conventional method) or by using an electrical drill. Then, some
of palm fibres must be put over tablets and holes are stopped by cement. The number of
holes as well as number of tablets in each hole can be determined according to the
degree of infestation. Insect stages are died due to the poisonous effect of gas.Bream et
al. (2001) in Egypt mentioned that, the prepupae of R. ferrugineus were topically
applied with one of three dose-levels (0.1, 0.005 or 0.001 μg/insect) of Jojoba oil (Joj)
or azadirachtin (Azt). The daily O2 consumption and CO2 respiratory output were
determined and the respiratory quotient (RQ) was calculated. After Joj treatments, O2
consumption of early- and late-pupae increased as the dose-level was decreased. The
respiration curve did not assume an U-shaped pattern as common in the pupal stage of
many insect species. Also, an inhibitory action of Azt on the pupal respiration has been
clearly exhibited. A similar result of the respiration curve was observed by Azt. All
dose levels of Joj, but only the higher two ones of Azt, suppressed the CO2 release.
Both botanicals inhibited the RQ during the pupal stage. However, all RQ mean values
of treated or control were <1.0 and >0.7. Ghoneim et al. (2001) in Egypt applied
topically prepupae of R. ferrugineus with one of three dose-levels (1.00, 0.10, or
0.01μg/insect) of lufenuron (GCA-184699) or diofenolan (GGA-259205). The daily O2
consumption and CO2 output were determined and the respiratory quotient (RQ) was
calculated. Lufenuron prohibited the pupae to consume O2, regardless of their age.
Considering the CO2 release, this IGR exerted an inhibitory action on pupae
increasingly correlated with the increasing dose-level. Volumes of consumed O2
reversely correlated with the dose value of diofenolan. Also, CO2 output was suffered
an inhibitory effect of diofenolan, which was consecutively related to the dose value. A
26
U-shaped pattern of daily respiration was not, unfortunately, attained irrespective of the
IGR or its dose level. In addition, RQ mean values were less than unity but exceeded
0.7. El-Sebay (2004)in Egypt reported that, injection method of infested trees with R.
ferrugineus was carried out, applying 15 insecticides belonging to 11 chemical active
ingredients. Results indicated that at 10000 ppm of all tested chemicals gave 100%
mortality, except in Actara (thiamethoxam) and at 1000 ppm a reduction in infestation
ranged between 80-100%. While at 100 ppm the most effective compound gave 60%
mortality by Selecron (profenofos), Quick (methomyl) and Vydat (oxamyl), while the
other chemicals gave less mortality. At 10 ppm the mortality ranged between 0 – 60%.
The most effective active ingredients were chlorpyrifos (Dursban, Chlorozan and
Pyriban), followed by Diazinon (Basudin and Diazenox), phenthoate (Cidial) and
methomyl (Quick).The ovicidal, larvicidal and adulticidal activities of four insecticides
against eggs, larvae and adults stages of R. ferrugineus under laboratory conditions
were estimated by Abbas (2005)His data revealed that profenofos (72% EC) proved to
be the most potent compound followed by emamectin (5% SG), abamectin (1.8% EC)
and lufenuron (50% EC) especially against one and two days old eggs. The
advancement of embryogenisis correlated negatively with the susceptibility of eggs to
the four tested insecticides. Considering the larval stage, emamectin proved to be the
most effective compound followed by profenofos, abamectin and lufenuron against all
tested instars. The susceptibility of tested insecticides was negatively correlated with
the progression of larval development. The efficiency of tested insecticides against
adult stage showed that, emamectin was the most effective followed by profenofos,
lufenuron and abamectin, respectively. As a general trend, larvae were the most
susceptible stage followed by egg and adult stages, respectively. The obtained results
revealed that there were significant differences between the tested compounds on the
reproduction of females. The tested insecticides treated as LC50 against egg stage

27
induced a drastic effect on the number of mature and immature oocytes in the ovaries of
virgin females.
Selma and Ismail (2007) evaluated the potential of 13 plant extracts for the control of
the red palm weevil, R. ferrugineus in Egypt. The ethanol extracts of sea ambrosia
(Ambrosia maritima), French cotton (Calotropis procera) and curcuma (Curcuma
longa) have superior toxicity compared to the extracts of other tested plants, estimated
LC< sub>50</ sub> were 0.723, 0.978 and 1.092%, respectively. In field experiments,
the percentage of recovered date palm trees reached 90.91% within 15 days when A.
maritima extract was applied. The injection of Calotropis procera and Curcuma longa
extracts into the tunnels of infested trees resulted in 86.36 and 85.00% of tree recovery,
Mohammed (2009) found that two natural insecticides, rotenone and limonine caused
antifeedant and growth inhibition of the red palm weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus
larvae and adults. Rotenone was extracted from the root of Lanchocarpus sp. or Derris
sp. And limonene extracted from citrus fruit oil. The concentrations of 1.5, 3, 6, 9, 12
and 15% of both insecticides were used for treatment of the sugar cane pieces. Adult
stage was more tolerant than the larvae. Also, the rotenone insecticide was more
effective than limonene insecticide. Moreover, increasing of rotenone and limonene
concentrations were reduced the food consumption and increased the larval and adult
mortality. The chemical analysis was suggested the structure of retention is flavonoid
compound and its chemical formula is C23H22O6. While the chemical nature of
limonene is alkaloid with the chemical formula of C10H13O4.Abbas (2009) .The
present work was carried out to evaluate different methods and techniques of injection
of date palm infected with red palm weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus. The
experiments revealed that the regular method of injection is very safe to the tree with
less mortality to the hidden insects. Low pressure pump can increases the efficacy of
the injection by increasing the spread out in wider range of tissues. High pressure pump
gave more spread out in the tissues but damaged the trees ranged 3-7 years old.
28
Metwaly (2010). Studied that the amended Italian Tree Vital Machine, tree vital
endoplasm proved its efficiency as a very effective injection machine for palm trees, to
control the red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus), in Italy, Saudi Arabia and
Egypt. Such a patented machine has been used to inject 6 groups of 30 R. ferrugineus-
infested palm trees (5 trees per group) by 6 insecticides (one/group). The insecticides
were as follows: abamictin, oxydemethion, fipronil, imidacloprid, mitomyl and
azdrachtin. This method of application was found highly economical with less
environmental hazards, and safe for the users.
Survey of mites associated with red palm weevil, Rhynochophorus
Ferrugineus Olivier (Coleoptera:Curculionidae)

Sharshir et al. (2006) in Egypt, determined the red palm weevil (RPW) in date
palm has been Managed with an integrated pest management (IPM) approach
comprising several Tactics including the bio pesticides based on insects, mites
(Acarina: Uropodidae, Uropodidina phoritic) nematodes and microorganisms to
control the RPW. In this Study, the susceptibility of different date palm cultivars to
the RPW infestation was Determined and a survey of the natural enemies of the
RPW was conducted.

Gomaa (2006) in Egypt, surveyed the mites associated with Rhynochophorus

ferrugineus at Sharqiya and Ismailia Governorates, Egypt, during 2005, revealed
The presence of 3 species of mites, i.e. Hypoaspis queenslandicus, Urobovella
krantzi And Eutogenes punctate. The first species was the most abundant
especially on pupa And on

29
EL-Bishlawy and Allam (2007) in Egypt, found that a new mite Aegyptus
Rhynchophorus, collected from cocoons, pupae and adults of Rhynochophorus
ferrugineus, Infesting palm trees cultivated in a palm orchard in El-Salhia District,
El-Sharkia governorate and Ismailia governorate, Egypt, during the year 2001 is
described and illustrated using light and scanning electron microscope. Specimens
of the new Uropodid mites species were found associated with pupae and adults of
the red palm Weevil R. ferrugineus inside the palm tree are described here. Since
this species could not be assigned to any of the named genera in the family
Trachyuropodidae to which It is assigned, a new genus is proposed.

Allam and El-Bishlawi (2010) in Egypt, found that great numbers of Agyptus
Rhynchophorus (Uropodina: Trachuropodidae) were collected from cocoons,
pupae And adults of Rhynochophorus ferrugineus, infesting palm trees in El-
Sharkia and Ismailia, Egypt. Immature stages are described and illustrated.

EL-Sharabasy (2010) in Ismailia governorates, Egypt, studied a survey of the

mite species associated With the red palm weevil; Rhynochophorus ferrugineus
revealed the collection of 545 mite Individuals. Six mite species belong to six
families were documented associated with The pest. These species were :
Trichouropoda patavina (Family Uropodidae ), Iphidosoma sp. (Family
Eviphididae), Hypoaspis sardoa ( Family Laelapidae ), Parasites zaheri Hafez
and Nasr (Family Parasitidae ), Scutacarus sp. (Family Scutacaridae) and
Histiostoma sp. (Family Histiostomidae). Relationships between mite species and
the red palm weevil were discussed.

Hassan et al. (2011) in Egypt, mentioned that Ten mite families belong to 2
suborders were collected from the red palm weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus
(Oliver) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and their habitats from Ismailia Governorate,

30
Egypt. Suborder Gamasida included 8 families (Trachyuropodidae Trematuridae,
Uropodidae, Macrochilidae, Ascidae, Lealapidae, Sejidae and Digamasellidae).
Thirteen mite species were isolated from adults, cocoon and core of palm tree.
Trachyuropodidae was the most abundant family. Suborder Oribatida included 2
families (Oppiidae and Gluminidae). Most of the surveyed families were found to
be biological control agents against the red

Allam et al. (2013) in Egypt, were identified the Uropodid mite deutonymphs
which was attached by anal pedicels to different places of adult red palm weevil.
They were observed the behavior of hyperphorsey of phoretic dutonymph and
studied the synchronization between dutonymph of Agyptus rhyncophorus and the
life cycle of (RPW). The structure of dutonymph and factors affecting attaching
were determined.

Taha et al. (2014) in Egypt, mentioned that Thirteen predaceous and parasitic
mites belonged to sub-order Gamasida were recorded associated with the red palm
weevil, (RPW), Rhynochophus ferrugineus Olivier (Coleoptera: Curculiodae) in
Ismailia Governorate. These mite species; Fascuoropod marginata, Leiodinychus
armeri (Uropodidae), Aegyptus rhynchophorus, A. zaheri (Trachyuropodidae),
Oodinychus sp. (Trimaturidae), Machrocheles merdarius, Macrocheles sp.,
(Macrochelidae), Protogamasellus denticus, Proctolaelaps striatus(Ascidae),
Sejius paloghi (Sejidae), Cosmolaelaps feeni (Laelapidae), Dendrolaelaps sp.,
Digamasellus sp. (Digamasellidae) were isolated from adults ,pupae (cocoons) and
cores around tunnel boarded and larvae inside the palm trees. The Uropodid and
Trachyuropodid mites were parasitic on adults and pupae of (RPW), while the
other mite species were predators.

31
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