CHAPTER 19

DAIRY PRODUCTS
Milk Production and Processing .................................................................................................. 19.1
Butter Manufacture ...................................................................................................................... 19.6
Cheese Manufacture ..................................................................................................................... 19.9
Frozen Dairy Desserts ............................................................................................................... 19.13
Ultrahigh-Temperature (UHT) Sterilization and Aseptic Packaging ........................................ 19.19
Evaporated, Sweetened Condensed, and Dry Milk .................................................................... 19.21

R AW milk is either processed for beverage milks, creams, and

related milk products for marketing, or is used for the manu-
facture of dairy products. Milk is defined in the United States Code
When operated with a condensing unit of the minimum capacity
given on the nameplate, a tank must have sufficient refrigerated sur-
face at the first milking to cool 50% of its capacity in an everyday
of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Section 131.110. This definition pickup tank, or 25% of its capacity in a tank for every-other-day
includes goat’s milk as defined in the Grade A Pasteurized Milk pickup, from 32.2 to 10°C within the first hour, and from 10 to 4.4°C
Ordinance, Part I, Section 1, A.1 of the 1991 revision. Milk products within the next hour. During the second and subsequent milking,
are defined in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Parts 131 there must be sufficient refrigerating capacity to prevent the temper-
through 135. Public Law 519 defines butter. Note that there are ature of the blended milk from rising above 7.2°C. The nameplate
many nonstandard dairy-based products that may be processed and must state the maximum rate at which the milk may be added and
manufactured by the equipment described in this chapter. Dairy still meet the cooling requirements of the 3-A Sanitary Standards.
plant operations include receiving of raw milk; purchase of equip- Automatic controls maintain the desired temperature within a
ment, supplies, and services; processing of milk and milk products; preset range in conjunction with the agitation. Some dairies contin-
manufacture of frozen dairy desserts, butter, cheeses, and cultured uously record the milk temperature in the tank, which is required in
products; packaging; maintenance of equipment and other facilities; some states. Since the milk is picked up from the farm tank daily or
quality control; sales and distribution; engineering; and research. every other day, the milk from the additional milkings generally
Farm cooling tanks and most dairy processing equipment manu- flows into the reservoir cooled from the previous one. Some large
factured in the United States meet the requirements of the 3-A dairy farms may use a plate or tubular heat exchanger to rapidly cool
Sanitary Standards (IAMFES). These standards set forth the mini- the milk. Cooled milk may be stored in an insulated silo tank (a ver-
mum design criteria acceptable for composition and surface finishes tical cylinder 3 m or more in height).
of materials in contact with the product, construction features such Milk in the farm tank is pumped into a stainless steel tank on a
as minimum inside radii, accessibility for inspection and manual truck for delivery to the dairy plant or receiving station. The tanks
cleaning, criteria for mechanical cleaning in place (CIP), insulation are well insulated to alleviate the need for refrigeration of the milk
of nonrefrigerated holding and transport tanks, and other factors during transportation. Temperature rise when testing the tank full of
which may adversely affect the quality and safety of the product or water should not be more than 1.1 K in 18 h, when the average tem-
the ease of cleaning and sanitizing the equipment. Also available are perature difference between the water and the atmosphere surround-
3-A Accepted Practices, which deal with construction, installation, ing the tank is 16.7 K.
operation, and testing of certain systems rather than individual The most common grades of raw milk are Grade A and Manufac-
items of equipment. turing Grade. The former is that used for market milk and related prod-
The 3-A Sanitary Standards and Accepted Practices are devel- ucts such as cream. Surplus Grade A milk is used for ice cream and/or
oped by the 3-A Standards Committees, which are composed of manufactured products. To produce Grade A milk, the dairy farmer
conferees representing state and local sanitarians, the U.S. Public must meet state and federal standards. In addition to the state require-
Health Service, dairy processors, and equipment manufacturers. ments, a few municipal governments also have raw milk regulations.
Compliance with the 3-A Sanitary Standards is voluntary, but a For raw milk produced under the provisions of the Grade A Pas-
manufacturer who complies and has authorization from the 3-A teurized Milk Ordinance (PMO) recommended by the U.S. Public
Symbol Council may affix to his equipment a plate bearing the 3-A Health Service, the dairy farmer must have healthy cows, adequate
Symbol, which indicates to regulatory inspectors and purchasers facilities (barn, milkhouse, and equipment), maintain satisfactory
that the equipment meets the pertinent sanitary standards. sanitation of these facilities, and have milk with a bacteria count of
less than 100 000 per mL for individual producers. Commingled
MILK PRODUCTION raw milk can not have more than 300 000 counts per mL. The milk
AND PROCESSING should not contain pesticides, antibiotics, sanitizers, and so forth.
However, current methods detect even minute traces, and total
Handling Milk at the Dairy purity is difficult. Current regulators require no positive results on
drug residue. Milk should be free of objectionable flavors and
Most dairy farms have bulk milk tanks to receive, cool, and hold odors.
the milk. Tank capacity ranges from 0.8 to 19 m3, with a few larger
tanks. As the cows are mechanically milked, the milk flows through Receiving and Storage of Milk
sanitary pipelines to an insulated stainless steel bulk tank. An elec- A milk plant receives, standardizes, processes, packages, and
tric agitator stirs the milk, and mechanical refrigeration begins to
merchandises milk products that are safe and nutritious for human
cool it even during milking. consumption. Most dairy plants either receive raw milk in bulk from
a producer organization or arrange for pickup directly from dairy
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 10.9, Refrigeration Appli- farms. The milk level in a farm tank is measured with a dipstick or
cation for Foods and Beverages. a direct-reading gage, and the volume is converted to mass. Fat test
19.2 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

and mass are common measures used to base payment to the farmer. can be adjusted to remove 0.1 to 2.0% of the fat in milk. To increase
A few organizations and the state of California include the percent the nonfat solids, condensed skim milk or low-heat nonfat dry milk
of nonfat solids and protein content. may be added.
Some plants determine the amount of milk received by weighing Milk separators are enclosed and fed with a pump. Separators
the tanker, metering the milk as it is pumped from the tanker to a designed to separate cold milk, usually not below 4.4°C, have
storage tank, and using load cells on the storage tank or other meth- increased capacity and efficiency as the milk temperature is
ods associated with the amount in the storage tank. increased. Capacity of a separator is doubled as milk temperature is
Milk is generally received more rapidly than it is processed, so raised from 4.4 to 32.2°C. The efficiency of fat removal with a cold
ample storage capacity is needed. A holdover supply of raw milk at milk separator decreases as temperature decreases below 4.4°C. The
the plant may be needed for start-up before arrival of the first tankers maximum efficiency for fat removal is attained at approximately 7
in the morning. Storage may be required for nonprocessing days and to 10°C or above. Milk is usually separated at 20 to 33°C, but not
emergencies. Storage tanks vary in size from 4 to 230 m3. The tanks above 38°C in warm milk separators. If raw, warmed milk or cream
have a stainless steel lining and are well insulated. is to be held for more than 20 min before pasteurizing, it should be
The 3-A Sanitary Standards for silo-type storage tanks specify immediately recooled to 4.4°C or below after separation. The pump
that the insulating material should be of a nature and an amount suf- supplying milk to the separator should be adjusted to pump the milk
ficient to prevent freezing, or an average 18-h temperature change at the desired rate without causing a partial churning action.
of no more than 1.6 K in the tank filled with water when the average At an early stage between receiving and before pasteurizing, the
temperature differential between the water and the surrounding air milk or the resulting skim milk and cream should be filtered or clar-
is 16.7 K. Inside tanks should have a minimum insulation R-value of ified. An optimum time to effectively filter is during the transfer
1.76 whereas partially or wholly outside tanks have minimum from the pickup tanker into the plant equipment. A clarifier removes
R-value of 2.64. R-value units are m2 ·K/W. For horizontal storage extraneous matter and leucocytes, thus improving the appearance of
tanks, the allowable temperature change under the same conditions homogenized milks.
is 1 K.
Agitation is essential to maintain uniform milk fat distribution. Pasteurization and Homogenization
Milk held in such large tanks as the silo type is continuously agitated There are two systems of pasteurization—batch and continuous.
with a slow-speed propeller driven by a gearhead electric motor or The minimum feasible continuous operation is about 250 g/s.
with filtered compressed air. The tank may or may not have refrig- Therefore, batch pasteurization is used for relatively small quanti-
eration, depending on the temperature of the milk flowing into it and ties of liquid milk products. The product is heated in a stainless
the maximum holding time. Some plants pass the milk through a steel-lined vat to not less than 62.8°C and held at that temperature or
plate cooler to maintain 4.4°C or less on all milk directed into the above for not less than 30 min. The Grade A PMO requires that
storage tanks. means be provided and used in batch or vat pasteurizers to keep the
If cooling is provided for milk in a storage tank, it may be by atmosphere above the product at a temperature not less than 2.8 K
refrigeration of the surface around the lining. This cooling surface higher than the minimum required temperature of pasteurization
may be an annular space from a plate welded to the outside of the during the holding period. Whole milk, low-fat milk, half-and-half,
lining for direct refrigerant cooling or circulation of chilled water or and coffee cream are cooled, usually in the vat, to 54°C and then
propylene glycol solution. Another system provides a distributing homogenized. Cooling is continued in a heat exchanger (e.g., a plate
pipe at the top for the chilled liquid to flow down the lining and or tubular unit) to 4.4°C or lower and then packaged.
drain from the bottom. Direct refrigerant cooling must be carefully Plate coolers may have two sections, one using plant water and
applied to prevent milk from freezing on the lining. This limits the the second using chilled water or propylene glycol. The temperature
evaporator temperature to approximately -4 to -2°C. of the product leaving the cooler depends on the flow rates and tem-
perature of the cooling medium. Pasteurizing vats are heated with
Separation and Clarification hot water or with steam vapor in contact with the outer surface of the
Before pasteurizing, milk and cream are standardized and lining. One heating method consists of spraying the heated water
blended to control the milk fat content with legal and practical limits. around the top of the lining. It flows to the bottom where it drains
Nonfat solids may also need to be adjusted for some products; some into a sump, is reheated by steam injection, and again is pumped
states require added nonfat solids, especially for low-fat milk such through the spray distributor. Steam-regulating valves control the
as 2% (fat) milk. Table 1 shows the approximate legal milk fat and temperature of the hot water.
nonfat solids requirements for milks and creams in the United States. Most pasteurizing vats are constructed and installed so that the
One means of obtaining the desired fat standard is by separating plant’s cold water is used for initial cooling of the product after pas-
a portion of the milk. The required amount of cream or skim milk is teurization. For final vat cooling, refrigerated water or propylene
returned to the milk. Milk with an excessive fat content may be pro- glycol is recirculated through the jacket of the vat to attain a product
cessed through a standardizer-clarifier that removes fat to a prede- temperature of 4.4°C or less. Cooling time to 4.4°C should be less
termined percentage and clarifies it at the same time. This machine than 1 h.

Table 1 U.S. Requirements for Milk Fat and Nonfat Solids in Milks and Creams
Legal Minimum Milk Fat, % Legal Minimum Nonfat Solids, %
Product Federal Range Most Often Federal Range Most Often
Whole milk 3.25 3.0 to 3.8 3.25 8.25 8.0 to 8.7 8.25
Low-fat milk 0.5 0.5 to 1.9 2.0 8.25 8.25 to 10.0 8.25
Skim milk 0.5a 0.1 to 0.5 0.5a — 8.25 to 9.0 8.25
Flavored milk — 2.8 to 3.8 3.25 — 7.5 to 10.0 8.25
Half-and-half 10.5 10.0 to 18.0a 10.5 — — —
Light (coffee) cream 18.0 16.0 to 30.0a 18.0 — — —
Light whipping cream 30.0 30.0 to 36.0a 30.0 — — —
Heavy cream 36.0 36.0 to 40.0 36.0 — — —
Sour cream 18.0 16.0 to 20.0 18.0 — — —
aMaximum
Dairy Products 19.3

High temperature, short time (HTST) pasteurization is a contin- 14 kPa above the raw. The flow rate of both products is the same,
uous process in which the milk is heated to a temperature of not less and the temperature change is about the same.
than 71.7°C and held at this temperature for at least 15 s. The com- Most HTST heat exchangers have 80 to 90% regeneration. The
plete pasteurizing system usually consists of a series of heat cost of additional equipment to achieve more than 90% regeneration
exchange plates contained in a press, a milk balance tank, one or should be compared with savings in the increased regeneration to
more milk pumps, a holder tube, flow diversion valve, automatic determine feasibility. The percentage of regeneration may be calcu-
controls, and sources of hot and chilled water or propylene glycol lated as follows:
for heating and cooling the milk. Homogenizers are used in many
HTST systems as timing pumps used to process Grade A products. 59°C (regeneration) – 4°C (raw product)- 55
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ = ------ = 81%
The heat exchanger plates are arranged so that milk to be heated or 72°C (pasteurization) – 4°C (raw product) 68
cooled flows between two plates, and the heat exchange medium
flows in the opposite direction between alternate pairs of plates. The temperature of a product going into the cooling section can
Ports in the plates are arranged to direct the flow where desired, be calculated if the percent regeneration is known and the raw prod-
and gaskets are arranged so that any leakage will be to the outside of uct and pasteurizing temperatures are determined. If they are 80%,
the press. Terminal plates are inserted to divide the press into three 7°C, and 72°C, respectively,
sections (heating, regenerating, and cooling) and arranged with
ports for inlet and outlet of milk, hot water, or steam for heating, and ( 72 – 7 ) × 0.80 = 52 K
chilled water or propylene glycol for cooling. To provide a suffi- 72 – 52 = 20°C
cient heat-exchange surface for the temperature change desired in a
section, the milk flow is arranged for several passes through each The product should be cooled to at least 4.4°C, preferably even
section. The capacity of the pasteurizer can be increased by arrang- lower, to compensate for the increase while in the sanitary pipelines
ing several streams for each pass made by the milk. The capacity or package (including filling, sealing, casing, and transfer into cold
range of a complete HTST pasteurizer is 13 g/s to about 13 kg/s. A storage). The average temperature increase of milk between the
few shell-and-tube and triple-tube HTST units are in use, but the time of discharge from the cooling section of the HTST unit and
plate type is by far the most prevalent. arrival at the cold storage in various containers is as follows: glass
Figure 1 shows one example of a flow diagram for an HTST plate bottles, 4.4 K; preformed paperboard cartons, 3.3 K; formed paper-
pasteurizing system. Raw product is first introduced into a constant board, 2.8 K; and semirigid plastic, 2.2 K.
level (or balance) tank from a storage tank or receiving line by either Many plate-type pasteurizing systems are equipped with a cool-
gravity or a pump. A uniform level is maintained in this tank by ing section containing propylene glycol solution to cool the milk or
means of a float-operated valve or similar device. A booster pump milk product to temperatures lower than are practical by circulating
is often used to direct the flow through the regeneration section. The only chilled water. This requires an additional section in the plate
product may be clarified and/or homogenized or simply directly heat exchanger, a glycol chiller, a pump for circulating the glycol
pumped to the heating section by means of a timing pump. From the solution, and a product temperature actuated control to regulate the
heating section, the product continues through a holding tube to the flow of glycol solution and prevent freezing of the product. Also,
flow diversion valve. If the product is at or above the preset temper- some plants use propylene glycol exclusively to cool the milk prod-
ature, it passes back through the opposite sides of the plates in the ucts, thus avoiding the use of chilled water and the requirement for
regeneration section and then through the final cooling section. The two separate cooling sections. Milk is usually cooled with propylene
flow diversion valve is set at 72°C or above; if the product is below glycol to approximately 1°C, then packaged. The lower temperature
this minimum temperature, it is diverted back into the balance tank allows the milk to absorb heat from the containers and still maintain
for repasteurization. The exchange of heat in the regeneration sec- a low enough temperature for excellent shelf life. Milk should not be
tion causes the cold raw milk to be heated by the heated pasteurized cooled to temperatures between 0.8°C and freezing because of the
milk going downstream from the heater section. According to the tendency toward increased foaming in this range. The propylene
PMO, the pasteurized milk pressure must be maintained at least glycol is usually chilled to approximately -2 to -1°C for circula-
tion through the milk cooling section.
The product flow rate through the pasteurizer may be more or
less than the filling rate of the packaging equipment. Pasteurized
product storage tanks are generally used to hold the product until it
is packaged.
The number of plates in the pasteurizing unit is determined by
the volume of product needed per unit of time, the desired percent-
age of regeneration, and the temperature differentials between the
product and the heating and cooling media. The heating section will
usually have ample surface so that the temperature of the hot water
entering the section will be no more than 1 to 3 K higher than the
pasteurizing, or outlet, temperature of the product. On larger units,
steam may be used for the heater section instead of hot water. The
cooling section is usually sized so that the temperature of the pas-
teurized product leaving the section is about 2 to 3 K higher than the
entering temperature of the chilled water or propylene glycol.
The holder tube size and length is selected so that not less than
15 s will elapse for the product to flow from one end of the tube to
the other. An automatic, power-actuated, flow diversion valve, con-
trolled by a temperature recorder-controller, is located at the outlet
end of the holder tube and diverts the flow back to the raw product
constant level tank as long as the product is below the minimum set
Fig. 1 Flow Diagram of Plate HTST Pasteurizer pasteurizing temperature. The product timing pump is a variable
with Vacuum Chamber speed, positive displacement, rotary type that can be sealed by the
19.4 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

local government milk plant inspector at a maximum speed and 250 units/min, but vary with container size. Some fillers handle only
volume. This assures a product hold of not less than 15 s in the one size, while others may be adjusted to automatically fill and seal
holder tube. several size containers. Paperboard cartons are usually formed
As a means of reducing undesirable flavors and odors in milk ahead of filling, but may be preformed prior to delivery to the plant.
(usually caused by specific types of dairy cattle feed), some plants Semirigid plastic containers may be blow-molded in-plant ahead of
use a vacuum process in addition to the usual pasteurization. In this the filler or preformed. Plastic pouches (called bags) arrive at the
process, milk from the flow diversion valve passes through a direct plant ready for filling and sealing. The filling of dispenser cans and
steam injector or steam infusion chamber where the milk is heated bags is a semimanual operation.
with culinary steam to a temperature of 82 to 93°C. The milk is then The paperboard carton for milk consists of a 0.41-mm thick kraft
immediately sprayed into a vacuum chamber, where it is cooled by paperboard from virgin paper with a 0.025-mm polyethylene film
evaporation to the pasteurizing temperature and promptly pumped laminated onto the inside and a 0.019-mm film onto the outside. Gas
to the regeneration section of the pasteurizing unit. The vacuum in or electric heaters supply heat for sealing while pressure is applied.
the evaporating chamber is automatically controlled so that the Blow-molded plastic milk containers are fabricated from high
same amount of moisture will be removed as was added by steam density polyethylene resin. The resin temperature for blow-forming
condensate. Noncondensable gases are removed by the vacuum varies from 170 to 218°C. The molded 4 L has a mass of approxi-
pump, and vapor from the vacuum chamber is condensed in a heat mately 60 to 70 g, and the 2 L, about 45 g. Most equipment uses
exchanger which is cooled by the plant water. direct expansion water chillers or another cooling medium to cool
The vacuum chamber can be installed with any type of HTST the mold head and clutch. The refrigeration demand is sufficiently
pasteurizer. In some plants, after preheating in the HTST system, large to require the cooling load to be included in planning a plastic
the product is further heated by direct steam infusion or injection. It blow-molded operation. The blow-molded equipment manufacturer
then is deaerated in the vacuum chamber. The product is pumped should be contacted for the refrigeration requirements of a specific
from the chamber by a timing pump through final heating, holder, machine. Some plants combine the blow-molding refrigeration with
flow diversion valve, and regenerative and cooling sections. the central refrigeration system to achieve better overall efficiency
Homogenization may occur either immediately after preheating for and utilization.
pasteurization or after the product passes through the flow diversion Packages containing the product may be placed into cases
valve. If the product is heated by direct steam injection and deaer- mechanically. Stackers place the cases 5 or 6 high, and conveyors
ated, the preferred practice is to homogenize after deaeration. transfer the stacks into the cold storage area.
Where volatile weed and feed taints in the milk are mild, some Most milk processing activities from receiving to storage can be
processors use only a vacuum treatment for reduction of the off-fla- automated. This necessitates the installation and operation of con-
vor. The main objection to vacuum treatment alone is that, to be trol panels and associated computers. Automation uses a meter-
effective, the vacuum must be low enough to cause some evapora- based system that controls the separation, fat and/or nonfat solids
tion, and the moisture so removed constitutes a loss of product. With content, and ingredient addition for a variety of common products.
this type of treatment, the vacuum chamber may be installed imme- If the initial fat tests fed into the computer are correct, the accuracy
diately after preheating, where it effectively deaerates the milk prior of the fat content of the standardized product is ±0.01%. Added
to heating or immediately after the flow diversion valve where it is ingredients (e.g., flavoring and sweetening products) must be in liq-
more effective in removing the volatile taints. uid form for a computerized operation.
Nearly all milk processed in the United States is homogenized to
improve stability of the milk fat emulsion, thus preventing creaming Equipment Cleaning
(concentration of the buoyant milk fat in the upper portion of the
containerized milk) during normal shelf life. The homogenizer is a Several systems for automatic CIP are used in milk processing
high-pressure, reciprocating pump with 3 to 7 pistons, fitted with a plants. These may involve the holding and reuse of the detergent
special homogenizing valve. There are several types of homogeniz- solution or the preparation of a fresh solution (single-use) each
ing valves in use, all of which cause the melted fat globules in the day. The means of programming the automatic control of each
stream of milk to be subjected to enough shear to be divided into cleaning and sanitizing step also varies. Tanks, vats, and other
several smaller globules. Homogenizing valves may either be single large equipment can be cleaned by using spray balls and similar
or two in series. devices that assure complete coverage of soiled surfaces. Tubing,
For effective homogenization of whole milk, the fat globules HTST units, and equipment with relatively low volume may be
should be 2 mm or less in diameter. The usual temperature range is cleaned by the full-flood system. The solutions should have a
from 54 to 82°C, and the higher the temperature within this range, velocity of not less than 1.5 m/s and must be in contact with all
the lower the pressure required for satisfactory homogenization. soiled surfaces. Surfaces used for heating milk products, such as in
The homogenizing pressure for a single-stage homogenizing valve batch or HTST pasteurization, are more difficult to clean than the
ranges from about 8 to 17 MPa for milk; for a two-stage valve, from other equipment surfaces. Other surfaces difficult to clean are
8 to 14 MPa on the first stage plus 2 to 5 MPa on the second, depend- those in contact with high-fat products, products containing added
ing on the design of the valve and the product temperature and com- solids and/or sweeteners, and highly viscous products. The usual
position. To conserve energy, use the lowest homogenizing pressure cleaning steps for this equipment are a warm water rinse, hot acid
consistent with satisfactory homogenization; the higher the pres- solution wash, rinse, hot alkali solution wash, and rinse. The vari-
sure, the greater the power requirements. ables of time, temperature, concentration, and velocity may need
to be adjusted for effective cleaning. Just before use, the product
Packaging of Milk Products surfaces should be sanitized with chemical solution, hot water, or
steam.
Cold product from the pasteurizer cooling section flows to the
packaging machine and/or a surge tank 4 to 38 m 3 or larger. These
tanks are stainless steel, well insulated, and have agitation and usu-
Milk Storage and Distribution
ally refrigeration. Cases containing packaged products are conveyed into a cold
Milk and related products are packaged for distribution in paper- storage room or directly to delivery trucks for wholesale or retail
board, plastic, or glass containers in various sizes. Fillers vary in distribution. The temperature of the storage area should be 0.6 to
design. Gravity flow is used, but positive piston displacement is 4.4°C, and for improved keeping quality, the product temperature in
used on paper machines. Filling speeds range from roughly 16 to the container on arrival in storage should be 4.4°C or less.
Dairy Products 19.5

The refrigeration load for cold storage areas includes trans- added and the mixture incubated until firmly coagulated by the cor-
mission through insulation; product and packaging materials tem- rect lactic acid production (pH 4.5). The product is cooled to 4.4°C
perature reduction; internally generated loads (lights, motors, or less with gentle agitation to inhibit serum separation subsequent
personnel); infiltration air load; and refrigeration equipment-related to packaging and distribution. Salt and/or milk fat (0.5 to 1.0%) in
load. See Chapter 12 for refrigeration load calculation. the form of cream or small fat granules may be added. Package
The moisture load in these storage areas is generally high, which equipment and containers are the same as for milk. Pasteurizing,
can lead to high humidity or wet conditions if the evaporators are setting, incubating, and cooling are usually accomplished in the
not selected properly. These applications usually require higher same vat. Rapid cooling is necessary, so chilled water is used. If a 2
temperature differences between refrigerant and return air to m3 vat is used, as much as 90 to 110 kW of refrigeration may be
achieve lower humidity. In addition, supply air temperatures should needed. Some plants have been able to cool buttermilk with a plate
be controlled to prevent product freezing. The use of reheat coils to heat exchanger without causing a serum separation problem (whey-
provide humidity control is not recommended, as bacteriological ing off).
growth on these surfaces could be rapid. Evaporators for these Cultured half-and-half and cultured sour cream are manufac-
applications should be equipped with automatic coil defrost to tured similarly to the method for cultured buttermilk. Rennet may
remove the rapidly forming frost periodically as required. Defrost be added at a rate of 1.3 mL (diluted in water) per 100 L cream. Care
cycles add to the refrigeration load and should be considered in the must be exercised to use an active lactic culture and to prevent post-
design. pasteurization contamination by bacteriophage, bacteria, yeast, or
A proprietary system used in some plants sprays coils continu- molds. An alternate method consists of packaging the inoculated
ously with glycol to prevent frost from forming on the coil. These cream, incubating, and then cooling by placing packages in a refrig-
fan-coil units eliminate defrosting, can control humidity to an erated room.
acceptable level with less danger of product freezing, and reduce Skim milk may be used, or milk fat standardized to within the
bacteriological contamination. The glycol absorbs the water, which range of 1 to 5%, and a 0.1 to 0.2% stabilizer may be added to
is continuously reconcentrated in a separate apparatus. A separate yogurt. Either vat pasteurization at 66 to 93°C for 0.5 to 1 h or HTST
load calculation and analysis is required for these systems. at 85 to 140°C for 15 to 30 s can be used. For yogurt to have opti-
The floor space required for cold storage depends on product vol- mum body, the milk homogenization is at 54 to 66°C and 3.5 to 14
ume, height of stacked cases, kind of package (glass requires more MPa. After cooling to between 38 to 43°C, the product is inoculated
space than paperboard), whether mechanized or manual handling, with a yogurt culture. Incubation for 1.5 to 2.0 h is necessary; the
and the number of processing days per week. A 5-day processing product is then cooled to about 32°C, packaged, incubated 2 to 3 h
week requires a capacity for holding product supply for 2 days. A (acidity 0.80 to 0.85%), and chilled to 4.4°C or below in the pack-
very general estimate is that 490 kg of milk product in paperboard age. Varying yogurt cultures and yogurt manufacturing procedures
cartons can be stored per square metre of area. Approximately one- should be selected on the basis of consumer preferences. Numerous
third more area should be allowed for aisles. Some automated, flavorings are used (fruit is quite common), and sugar is usually
racked storages are used for milk products. They can be more eco- added. The flavoring material may be added at the same time as the
nomical than manually operated storages. culture, after incubation, or ahead of packaging. In some dairy
Milk product may be transferred by conveyor from storage room plants, a fruit (or sauce) is placed into the package before filling
to dock for loading onto delivery trucks. In-floor drag-chain con- with yogurt.
veyors are commonly used, especially for retail trucks. Refrigera-
Refrigeration
tion losses are reduced if the load-out doorway has the protrusion of
cushioning material to contact the doorway frame of the truck as it The choice of refrigerant for product plants is primarily ammo-
is backed to the dock. nia (R-717). Some small plants may use halocarbons, and some
Distribution trucks need refrigeration to protect quality and large plants may use halocarbons for special, small applications.
extend the keeping quality of milk products. Refrigeration capacity Product plants use single-stage compression, and new applica-
must be sufficient to maintain Grade A products at 7.2°C or less. tions are equipped with rotary screw compressors with micropro-
Many plants use insulated truck bodies with integral refrigerating cessors and automatic control. Older plants may be equipped with
systems powered by the truck engine or one that can be plugged into reciprocating compressors, but added capacity is generally with
a remote electric power source when it is parked. In some facilities, rotary screw compressors.
cold plates in the truck body are connected to a coolant source in the Most refrigerant condensing is accomplished with evaporative
parking space. These refrigerated trucks can also be loaded when condensers. Freeze protection is required in cold climates, and
convenient and held over at the connecting station until the next materials of construction are an important consideration in sub-
morning. tropical climates. Water treatment is usually required.
The selection of a system requires an analysis of each application
Half-and-Half and Cream to determine the overall best economics as well as quality factors.
Some plants use 0.5 to 1°C chilled water for cooling milk products
Half-and-half is standardized to 10.5 to 12% milk fat and, in in the various processes as well as blow molding if part of the cen-
most states, to about the same percent nonfat milk solids. Coffee tral plant. Where chilled water is used, it is often in combination
cream should be standardized to 18 to 20% milk fat. Both are pas- with falling film water chillers and ice builder chillers. Ice builder
teurized, homogenized, cooled, and packaged similarly to milk. chilling should be evaluated versus falling film chilling for each
Milk fat content of whipping cream is adjusted to 30 to 35%. Care application, considering both initial capital and operating costs. By
must be taken during processing to preserve the whipping proper- building ice on evaporator surfaces during periods when chilled
ties; this includes the omission of homogenization. water is not required, the ice builder system permits the use of a
refrigeration system with considerably less capacity than is required
Buttermilk, Sour Cream, and Yogurt for the peak cooling load. When chilled water is required, the melt-
Retail buttermilk is not from the butter churn but is rather a cul- ing ice adds cooling capacity to that supplied by the refrigeration
tured product. To reduce the microorganisms to a low level and system. Additional information on ice storage is found in Chapter
improve the body of the resulting buttermilk, skim milk is pasteur- 33 of the 1999 ASHRAE Handbook—Applications.
ized at 82°C or higher for 0.5 to 1 h and cooled to 21 to 22°C. One Other plants use propylene glycol at -2 to -1°C for process
percent of a lactic acid culture (starter) specifically for buttermilk is cooling requirements. With this system, the propylene glycol is
19.6 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

cooled in a welded plate heat exchanger or a shell-and-tube heat reduce the temperature to the desired level. The cream may be
exchanger. The ammonia feed system is either gravity flooded or liq- cooled by passing the cooling medium through a revolving coil in
uid overfeed. Advantages to this system are a lower ammonia charge the vat or through the vat jacket, or by using a plate or tubular cooler.
(especially with a plate heat exchanger) and a lower fluid tempera- If the temperature of 500 kg of cream is to be reduced by refrig-
ture to achieve lower milk product temperatures. This system may erated water from 40 to 4°C, and the specific heat is 3.559
have a higher operating cost as there is no stored refrigeration. kJ/(kg·K), the heat to be removed would be
In addition, there are combination systems whereby chilled
water is used for most of the process requirements and a separate, 500 ( 40 – 4 )3.559 = 64 062 kJ
smaller propylene glycol system is used in final cooling sections to
provide lower milk product temperatures. This heat can be removed by 64 062/335 = 191 kg of ice at 0°C
The evaporators or cooling units for milk storage areas are either plus 10% for mechanical loss.
direct ammonia evaporators (flooded or liquid overfeed) or propyl- The temperature of the refrigerated water commonly used for
ene glycol. In choosing new systems, an evaluation is recommended cooling cream is 0.6 to 1.1°C. The ice builder system is efficient for
that involves capital requirements, operating costs, ammonia this purpose. Brine is not currently used. About 1000 L of cream can
charges, and plant safety. be cooled from 37.7 to 4.4°C in a vat using refrigerated water in an
Some plants also refrigerate chilled water and/or propylene gly- hour.
col for plant air conditioning with the central ammonia refrigeration
After a vat of cream has been cooled to the desired temperature,
system. The choice between chilled water and propylene glycol
the temperature increases during the following 3 h. It may increase
depends on the plant winter climate conditions.
several degrees depending on the rapidity with which the cream was
Most new or expanded plants rely on automated operation and cooled, the temperature to which it was cooled, the richness of the
computer controls for operating and monitoring the refrigeration cream, and the properties of the fat. The rise in temperature is due to
systems. There also is a trend to use welded plate heat exchangers liberation of heat when fat is changed from a liquid to a crystal form.
for water and propylene glycol cooling in milk product plants and to
Rishoi (1951) presented data in Figure 2 that show the thermal
reduce or eliminate direct ammonia refrigeration in the plant pro-
behavior of cream heated to 75°C followed by rapid cooling to
cess areas. This approach may add somewhat to the capital and
30°C and to 10.4°C, as compared with cream heated to 50°C and
operating costs, but it substantially reduces the ammonia charge in
cooled rapidly to 31.4°C and to 12°C. The curves indicate that when
the system and confines the ammonia to the refrigeration machine
cream is cooled to a temperature at which the fat remains liquid, the
room area.

BUTTER MANUFACTURE
Much of the butter production is in combination butter-powder
plants. These plants get the excess milk production after current
market needs for milk products, frozen dairy desserts, and, to some
extent, cheeses are met. Consequently, seasonal variation in the vol-
ume of butter manufactured is large; spring is the period of highest
volume, fall the lowest.

Separation and Pasteurization

After separation of the milk, the cream with 30 to 40% fat is
either pumped to the pasteurizer or cooled to 7°C and held for later
pasteurization. Cream from cold milk separation does not need to be
recooled except for extended storage. Cream is received, weighed,
sampled, and, in some plants, graded according to flavor and acid-
ity. It is pumped to a refrigerated storage vat and cooled to 7.2°C if
held for a short period or overnight. Cream with developed acidity
is warmed to 27 to 32°C, and neutralized to 0.12 to 0.15% titratable
acidity just prior to pasteurization. If the acidity is above 0.40%, it
is neutralized with a soda-type compound in aqueous solution to
about 0.30% and then to the final acidity with aqueous lime solu-
tion. Sodium neutralizers include NaHCO3, Na2CO3, and NaOH.
Limes are Ca(OH)2, MgO, and CaO.
Batch pasteurization is usually at 68 to 79°C for 0.5 h, depending
on intended storage temperature and time. HTST continuous pas-
teurization is at 85 to 121°C for at least 15 s. HTST systems may be
plate or tubular. After pasteurization, the cream is immediately
cooled. The temperature depends on the time that the cream will be
held before churning, whether or not it is ripened, the season (higher
in winter due to fat composition), and the churning method. The
range is 4 to 13°C. The ripening process consists of adding a flavor-
producing lactic starter to tempered cream and holding until acidity
has developed to 0.25 to 0.30%. The cream is cooled to prevent fur-
ther acid development and warmed to the churning temperature just
before churning. Ripening cream is not a common practice in the
United States, but is customary in some European countries such as Fig. 2 Thermal Behavior of Cream Heated to 75°C Followed
Denmark. First, tap water is used to reduce the temperature to by Rapid Cooling to 30°C and to 10.4°C; Comparison with
between 25 to 35°C. Refrigerated water or brine is then used to Cream Heated to 50°C, then Rapid Cooling to 31.4°C and to 12°C
Dairy Products 19.7

cooling rate is normal, but when the cream is cooled to a tempera- shape. The inside surface of metal churns is sandblasted during fab-
ture at which some fractions of the fat have crystallized, a sponta- rication to reduce or prevent butter from sticking to the surface.
neous temperature rise takes place after cooling. Metal churns may have accessories to draw a partial vacuum or
Rishoi also determined the amount of heat liberated by the part of introduce an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen) under pressure. Working the
the milk fat that crystallizes in the temperature range of 29 to 0.6°C. butter under a partial vacuum reduces the air in the butter. Churns
The results are shown in Figure 3 and Table 2. have two or more speeds, with the faster rate for churning. The
Table 2 shows that, at a temperature below 10°C, about one-half speed should provide maximum agitation of the cream, usually
of the liberated heat evolved in less than 15 s. The heat liberated dur- within 0.25 to 0.5 rev/s.
ing fat crystallization constitutes a considerable portion of the When churning, temperature is adjusted and the churn is filled 40
refrigeration load required to cool fat-rich cream. Rishoi states: to 48% of capacity. The churn is revolved until the granules break
out and attain a diameter of 5 mm or slightly larger. The buttermilk
“If we assume an operation of cooling cream containing 40% fat
is drained and should have no more than 1% milk fat. The butter
from about 65 to 4°C, heat of crystallization evolved represents
may or may not be washed. The purpose of washing is to remove
about 14% of the total heat to be removed. In plastic cream contain-
buttermilk and temper the butter granules if they are too soft for ade-
ing 80% fat it represents about 30% and in pure milk fat oil about
quate working. Wash water temperature is adjusted to 0 to 6 K
40%.”
below churning temperature. The preferred procedure is to spray
Churning wash water over granules until it appears clear from the churn drain
vent. The vent is then closed, and water is added to the churn until
To maintain the yellow color of butter from cream that came the volume of butter and water is approximately equal to the former
from cows on green pasture in spring and early summer, yellow col- amount of the cream. The churn is revolved slowly 12 to 15 times
oring is added to the cream in the amount needed to produce the and drained or held for an additional 5 to 15 min for tempering so
color that is obtained naturally during other periods of the year. granules will work into a mass of butter without becoming greasy.
After cooling, pasteurized cream should be held a minimum of 2 h The butter is worked at a slow speed until free moisture is no
and preferably overnight. It is tempered to the desired batch churn- longer extruded. The free water is drained, and the butter is analyzed
ing temperature, which varies with the season and feed of the cows for moisture content. The amount of water needed to obtain the
but ranges from 7°C in early summer to 13°C in winter, to maintain desired content (usually 16.0 to 18.0%) is calculated and added. Salt
a churning time 0.5 to 0.75 h. Lower churning time results in soft may be added to the butter. The percent is standardized between 1.0
butter that is more difficult (or impossible) to work into a uniform and 2.5% according to customer demand.
composition. Salt may be added in dry form either to a trench formed in the
Today most butter is churned by continuous churns, but batch butter or spread over the top of the butter. It also may be added in
units remain in use, especially in smaller butter factories. Batch moistened form using the water required for standardizing the com-
churns are usually made of stainless steel, although a few aluminum position to not less than 80.0% fat. Working continues until the
ones are still in use. They are cylinder, cube, cone, or double cone in granules are completely compacted and the salt and moisture drop-
lets are uniformly incorporated. The moisture droplets should
become invisible by normal vision with adequate working. Most
churns have ribs or vanes which cause tumbling and folding of the
butter as the churn revolves. The butter passes between the narrow
slit of shelves attached to the shell and the roll. A leaky butter is
inadequately worked, possibly leading to economic losses due to

Table 2 Heat Liberated from Fat in Cream Cooled Rapidly

from about 30°C to Various Temperatures
Calculated temperature
for zero time, °C: 0.8 4.2 11.7 14.4 17.4 26.9 29.8a
First observed
temperature: 2.3 6.5 12.5 14.8 17.7 26.9 29.8
Final equilibrium
temperature: 4.1 7.8 14.4 15.9 18.5 28.1 29.8
Lapsed time, min Heat Liberated, kJ/kg
0.25 42.6 38.8 18.0 6.7 5.3 0 0
15 54.9 46.5 29.8 16.7 12.1 0.8 0
30 59.3 55.6 41.9 28.4 20.9 4.9 0
60 70.7 64.0 49.8 32.6 23.7 6.3 0
120 75.4 68.2 58.2 34.2 24.7 6.7 0
180 76.5 70.2 61.9 37.2 24.7 10.0 0
240 79.1 71.9 63.3 40.7 24.7 11.4
300 78.2 74.0 64.9 42.8 11.6
360 78.2 75.6 63.3 43.7 11.6
Percent heat liberated at zero time compared with that at equilibrium: 54.5, 51.3, 27.7,
20.7, 21.7.
Percent total heat liberated compared with that liberated at about 0°C: 100.0, 95.7,
82.0, 55.0, 31.0, 12.5, 0.
Fig. 3 Heat Liberated from Fat in Cream Cooled Rapidly Iodine values of three samples of butter produced while these tests were in progress
from Approximately 30°C to Various Temperatures were: 28.00, 28.55, and 28.24.
(Rishoi 1951) aCooled in an ice water bath.
19.8 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

reduction of mass and shorter keeping quality. The average compo- Packaging Butter
sition of U.S. butter on the market has these ranges:
“Printing” refers to the process of forming (or cutting) butter into
Fat 80.0 to 81.2% Moisture 16.0 to 18.0% retail sizes. Each print is then wrapped with parchment or parch-
ment-coated foil. The wrapped prints may be inserted in paperboard
Salt 1.0 to 2.5% Curd, etc. 0.5 to 1.5%
cartons or overwrapped in cellophane, glassine, and so forth, and
Cultured skim milk is added to unsalted butter as part of the heat-sealed. For institutional uses, butter may be extruded into
moisture and thoroughly mixed in during working. Cultured skim slabs. These are cut into patties, embossed, and each slab of patties
milk increases acid flavor and the diacetyl content associated with wrapped in parchment paper. Most common numbers of patties are
butter flavor. 105 to 158 per kg.
Butter may be removed manually from small churns, but it is Butter keeps better if stored in bulk. If the butter is intended to
usually emptied by a mechanized procedure. One method is to be stored for several months, the temperature should not be above
dump the butter from the churn directly into a stainless steel boat on -18°C, and preferably below –30°C. For short periods, 0 to 4°C
casters or a tray that has been pushed under the churn with the door is satisfactory for bulk or printed butter. Butter should be well
removed. Butter in boats may be augered to the hopper for printing protected to prevent absorption of off-odors during storage and
(forming the butter into retail sizes) or pumping into cartons 27 to loss of mass due to evaporation, and to minimize surface oxida-
30 kg in size. The bulk cartons are held cold before printing or ship- tion of the fat.
ment. Butter may be stored in the boats or trays and tempered until The specific heat of butter and other dairy products at tempera-
printing. A hydraulic lift may be used for hoisting the trays and tures varying from 0 to 60°C is given in Table 3. The temperature of
dumping the butter into the hopper. Cone-shaped churns with a spe- the butter when removed from the churn ranges from 13 to 16°C.
cial pump can be emptied by pumping butter from churn to hopper. Assuming a temperature of 15°C of the packed butter, the heat that
must be removed from 500 kg to reduce the temperature to 0°C is
Continuous Churning
The basic steps in two of the continuous buttermaking processes 500 ( 15 – 0 )2.18 ⁄ 1000 = 16.4 MJ
developed in the United States are (1) fat emulsion in the cream is
destabilized and the serum separated from the milk fat; (2) the butter It is assumed that the average specific heat at the given range of
mix is prepared by thoroughly mixing together the correct amount temperatures is 2.18 kJ/(kg·K). Heat to be removed from the butter
of milk fat, water, salt, and cultured skim milk; (3) this mixture is containers and packaging material should be added.
worked and chilled at the same time; and (4) butter is extruded at 3
to 10°C with a smooth body and texture. Deterioration of Butter in Storage
Several European continuous churns consist of a single machine The development of an undesirable flavor in butter during stor-
that directly converts the cream to butter granules, drains off the age may be caused by (1) growth of microorganisms (proteolytic
buttermilk, and washes and works the butter, incorporating the salt organisms causing putrid and bitter off-flavors); (2) absorption of
in continuous flow. Each brand of continuous churn may vary in odors from the atmosphere; (3) fat oxidation; (4) catalytic action by
equipment design and specific operation details for obtaining the metallic salts; (5) activity of enzymes, principally from microorgan-
optimum composition and quality control of the finished product. isms; and (6) low pH (high acid) of salted butter.
Figure 4 shows a flow diagram of a continuous churn.
Normally, microorganisms do not grow below 0°C; if salt-toler-
In one system, milk is heated to 43.3°C and separated to cream
ant bacteria are present, their growth will be slow below 0°C.
with 35 to 50% fat and skim milk. The cream is pasteurized at 95°C
Growth of microorganisms does not take place at -18°C or below,
for 16 s, cooled to a churning temperature of 8 to 14°C, and held for
but some may survive in the butter held at this temperature. It is
6 h. The cream enters the balance tank and is pumped to the churn-
important to store butter in a room where the atmosphere is free of
ing cylinder where it is converted to granules and serum in less than
odors. Butter readily absorbs odors from the atmosphere or from
2 s by vigorous agitation. Buttermilk is drained off and the granules
odoriferous materials with which it comes into contact.
are sprayed with tempered wash water while being agitated.
Next, salt, in the form of 50% brine prepared from microcrystal- Oxidation causes a stale, tallowy flavor. Chemical changes take
line sodium chloride, is fed into the product cylinder by a propor- place slowly in butter held in cold storage, but are hastened by the
tioning pump. If needed, yellow coloring may be added to the brine. presence of metals or metallic oxides.
The high-speed agitators work the salt and moisture into the butter With almost 100% replacement of tinned copper equipment with
in the texturizer section and then extrude it to the hopper for pack- stainless steel equipment, a tallowy flavor is not as common as in
aging into bulk cartons or retail packages. The cylinders on some the past. Factors that favor oxidation are light, high acid, high pH,
designs have a cooling system to maintain the desired temperature and metal.
of the butter from churning to extrusion. The butterfat content is
adjusted by fat test of the cream, churning temperature of the cream, Table 3 Specific Heats of Milk and Milk Derivatives, kJ/(kg·K)
and flow rate of product. 0°C 15°C 40°C 60°C
Continuous churns are designed for CIP. The system may be auto- Whey 4.095 4.086 4.078 4.070
mated or a cream tank may be used to prepare the detergent solution
Skim milk 3.936 3.948 3.986 4.932
prior to circulation through the churn after the initial rinsing.
Whole milk 3.852 3.927 3.984 3.844
15% Cream 3.140 3.864 3.764 3.768
20% Cream 3.027 3.936 3.684 3.710
30% Cream 2.818 4.116 3.567 3.601
45% Cream 2.537 4.254 3.295 3.320
60% Cream 2.345 4.409 3.019 3.086
Butter (2.114)a (2.207)a 2.328 2.438
Milk fat (1.863)a (1.955)a 2.093 2.219
aForbutter and milk fat, values in parentheses were obtained by extrapolation, assum-
Fig. 4 Flow Diagram of Continuous Butter Manufacture ing that the specific heat is about the same in the solid and liquid states.
Dairy Products 19.9

Enzymes present in raw cream are inactivated by current pasteur- 2250(17 – 4)2.30 = 67.3 MJ
ization temperatures and holding times. The only enzymes that may 135 kg (metal container)
cause deterioration of butter are those produced by microorganisms ™ (24 – 4)0.50 = 1.4 MJ
that gain entrance to the pasteurized cream and butter or survive pas- Total/24 h 68.7 MJ
teurization. The chemical changes caused by enzymes present in
butter are retarded by a lowering of the storage temperature. E. After 24 h or longer, the butter is removed from the cooler to be
A fishy flavor may develop in salted butter during cold storage. cut and wrapped in 450 g or smaller units. During this process, the but-
The development of the defect is favored by high acidity (low pH) ter temperature will rise to approximately 13°C, which constitutes
another product load in the cooler when it goes back for storage.
of the cream at the time of churning and by metallic salts. With the
use of stainless steel equipment and the proper control of the but- 2250(13 – 4)2.30 = 46.6 MJ
ter’s pH, this defect now occurs very rarely. For salted butter to be
stored for several months, even at –23°C, it is advisable to use good- 90 kg (paper container)
™ (24 – 4)1.38 = 2.5 MJ
quality cream; avoid exposing the milk or cream to strong light,
copper, or iron; and adjust any acidity developed in the cream so that Total/24 h 49.1 MJ
the butter serum has a pH of 6.8 to 7.0.
Total of Steps D and E, Product Load in Cooler:
Total Refrigeration Load
1000 ( 68.7 + 49.1 )
-------------------------------------------- = 2.05 kW
Some dairy plants that manufacture butter also process and man- 16 h × 3600
ufacture other products such as ice cream, fluid milk, and cottage
cheese. A common refrigeration system is used. The method of Whipped Butter
determining the refrigeration load is illustrated by the following
To whip butter by the batch method, the butter is tempered to
example:
17 to 21°C, depending on such factors as the season, type of whip-
per, and so forth. The butter is cut into slabs for placing into the
Example 1. Determine the product refrigeration load for a plant manufac-
turing butter from 6000 kg of 30% cream per day in three churnings.
whipping bowl. The whipping mechanism is activated, and air is
incorporated until the desired overrun is obtained, usually between
Solution: The refrigeration requirement is obtained in the following 50 and 100%. The whipped butter is packaged mechanically or
steps. Assume that refrigeration is accomplished with chilled water manually into semirigid plastic containers.
from an ice builder. With one continuous system, butter directly from cooler storage
The cream would be cooled in steps A and B. The butter would then is cut into pieces and augered until soft. However, it can be tem-
have to be cooled through steps C, D, and E. Refrigerated water is nor- pered and the augering step omitted. The butter is then pumped
mally used as a cooling medium in steps A, B, and C. The ice builder
system is used to produce 2°C water, and the load should be expressed
into a cylindrical continuous whipper that uses the same principles
in kilograms of ice that would have to be melted to handle steps A, B, as those for incorporating air in ice cream. Air or nitrogen is incor-
and C. This load would be added to the refrigerated water load from the porated until the desired overrun is obtained. Another continuous
various other products such as milk, cottage cheese, and so forth, in siz- method (used less commercially) is to melt butter or standardize
ing the ice builder. butter oil to the composition of butter with moisture and salt. The
fluid product is pumped through a chiller-whipper. Metered air or
A. If the cream is separated in the plant rather than on the farm, it
would have to be cooled from 32°C separating temperature to 4°C for
nitrogen provides overrun control. Whipped butter is pumped in a
holding until it is processed. soft state to the hopper of the filler and packaged in rigid or semi-
rigid containers, such as plastic. It is chilled and held in storage at
6000 ( 32 – 4 )3.56
0 to 4.4°C.
------------------------------------------
- = 1790 kg ice/day
335
CHEESE MANUFACTURE
B. After pasteurization, the temperature of the cream is reduced to Approximately 800 cheeses have been named, but there are only
approximately 38°C with city water, then down to 4°C with refrigeration. 18 distinctly different types. A few of the more popular types in the
United States are cheddar, cottage, Roquefort or blue, cream,
6000 ( 38 – 4 )3.56 ricotta, mozzarella, Swiss, Edam, and Provolone. Such details of
------------------------------------------- = 2170 kg ice/day
335 manufacture as setting (starter organisms, enzyme, milk or milk
product, temperature, and time), cutting, heating (cooking), stirring,
C. After churning, the 15°C butter wash water (city water) is usu- draining, pressing, salting, and curing (including temperature and
ally cooled to 7°C, then used to wash the butter granules. A mass of humidity control) are varied to produce a characteristic variety and
water equal to the mass of cream churned may be used.
its optimum quality.
The production of cheddar cheese in the United States far
6000 ( 15 – 7 )4.187
---------------------------------------------- = 600 kg ice/day exceeds the other cured varieties; cottage cheese production is much
335
greater than that of the other uncured types. Another trend in the
Total ice load 4560 kg ice/day cheese industry is large factories. These plants may have sufficient
curing facilities for the total production. If not, the cheese is shipped
Plus 10% mechanical loss 460 kg ice/day
to central curing plants.
Total ice required 5020 kg ice/day
The physical shape of cured cheese varies considerably. Barrel
cheese is common; it is cured in a metal barrel or similar impervious
D. Approximately 2250 kg of butter would be obtained. (6000 kg container in units of approximately 225 kg. Cheese may also be
cream ™ 30% fat = 1800 kg of fat. If butter contains approximately cured in rectangular metal containers holding 900 kg.
80% fat, 1800 kg divided by 80% equals approximately 2250 kg of but-
ter.) The butter temperature going into the refrigerated storage room is The microbiological flora of cured cheese are important in the
usually about 17°C and must be cooled down to 4°C during the follow- development of flavor and body. Heating the milk for cheese is
ing 16 h. (For long-term storage, the butter is held at -23 to -17°C.) general practice. The milk may be pasteurized at the minimum
The average specific heat for butter over this range is 2.30 kJ/(kg·K). HTST conditions or be given a subpasteurization treatment that
19.10 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

results in a positive phosphatase test. This is possible when the milk adjusted to remove wrinkles, and then the cheese is pressed over-
quality is good (low level of spoilage microorganisms and patho- night at 170 to 210 kPa or higher. Cheese may or may not be sub-
gens). Such treatments of milk give the cheese some of the charac- jected to a vacuum treatment to improve body by reducing or
teristics of raw-milk cheese in curing, such as production of higher eliminating air pockets. After the surface is dried, the cheese is
flavors, in a shorter time. Pasteurization to produce phosphatase- coated by dipping into melted paraffin or wrapped with one of sev-
negative milk is practiced in the making of soft, unripened varieties eral plastic films, or oil with a plastic film, and sealed. Yield is
of cheese and some of the more perishable of the ripened types such about 10 kg per 100 kg of milk.
as Camembert, Limburger, and Munster. As cheese factories have grown larger, a change toward faster
The standards and definitions of the Federal Food and Drug and more mechanized methods of making cheddar cheese has
Administration and of most state regulatory agencies require that evolved. The stirred curd method (whereby the cheddaring step is
cheese that is not made from phosphatase-negative milk must be omitted) is being used by more cheese makers. Deep circular or
cured for not less than 60 days at not less than 1.7°C. Raw-milk oblong cheese vats with special, reversible agitators and means for
cheese contains not only lactic acid producing organisms such as cutting the curd are becoming popular. The curd is pumped from
Streptococcus lactis, which are added to the milk during the cheese these vats to draining and matting tables with sloped bottoms and
making process, but also the heterogeneous mixture of microorgan- low sides, then milled, slated, and hooped. In one method, the curd
isms present in the raw milk, many of which may produce gas and (except for Odenburg cheddar) is carried and drained by a draining-
off-flavors in the cheese. With milk pasteurization, some control of matting conveyor with a porous plastic belt to a second belt for
the bacterial flora of the cheese is possible. cheddaring. The second belt carries the cheddared curd to the mill.
Freshly manufactured cheese of the cured types is rubbery in tex- The milled curd is then carried to a finishing table where it is salted,
ture and has little flavor; perhaps the more characteristic flavor is stirred, and moved out for hooping.
slightly acid. The presence of definite flavor(s) in freshly made Another system, imported from Australia, is used in a number of
cheese indicates poor quality, probably resulting from off-flavored cheddar cheese factories. This system requires a short method of
milk. On curing under proper conditions, however, the body of the setting. After the curd is cut and cooked, it is transferred to a series
cheese breaks down, and the nut-like, full-bodied flavor character- of perforated stainless steel troughs traveling on a conveyor where
istic of aged cheese develops. These changes are accompanied by draining and partial fusion take place. The slabs are then transferred
certain chemical and physical changes during the curing process. into buckets of a forming conveyor, transferred again to transfer
The calcium paracaseinate of cheese gradually changes into prote- buckets, and finally to compression buckets where cheddaring takes
oses, amino acids, and ammonia. These changes are a part of the rip- place. Cheddared slabs are discharged to a slatted conveyor which
ening process and may be controlled by time and temperature of carries them to the mill and then to a final machine where the milled
storage. As cheese cures, varying degrees of lipolytic activity also curd is salted, weighed, and hooped.
occur. In the case of blue or Roquefort cheese, this partial fat break- Curing. Curing temperature and time vary widely among ched-
down contributes substantially to the characteristic flavor. dar plants. A temperature of 10°C cures the cheddar more rapidly
During curing, the microbiological development produces than lower temperatures. The higher the temperature above 10°C to
changes according to the species and strains present. It is possible to about 27°C, the more rapid the curing and the more likely that off-
predict from the microorganism data some of the usual defects in flavors will develop. At 10°C, 3 to 4 months are required for a mild
cheddar. In some cheeses (e.g., Swiss), gas production accompanies to medium cheddar flavor. Six months or more are necessary for an
the desirable flavor development. aged (sharp) cheddar cheese. Relative humidity should be roughly
Cheese quality is evaluated on the basis of a score card. Flavor 70%. Cheddar intended for processed cheese is cured in many
and odor, body and texture, and color and finish are principal fac- plants at 21°C because of the economy of time. Some experts sug-
tors. They are influenced by milk quality, the skill of manufacturing gest that the cheddar, after its coating or wrapping, should be held in
(including starter preparation), and the control effectiveness of cold storage at approximately 4.4°C for about 30 days, then trans-
maintaining optimum curing conditions. ferred to the 10°C curing room. During cold storage, the curd parti-
cles knit together, forming a close-bodied cheese. The small amount
Cheddar Cheese of residual lactose is slowly converted to lactic acid, along with
Manufacture. Raw or pasteurized whole milk is tempered to 30 other changes in optimum curing.
to 31°C and pumped to a cheese vat which is typically 10.7 m by The maximum legal moisture content of cheddar is 39% and the
1.2 m by 1.2 m and holds approximately 18 Mg of milk. It is set by fat must be not less than 50% of total solids. The amount of moisture
adding 0.75 to 1.25% active cheese starter and annatto yellow color, directly affects the curing rate to some extent within the normal
which depends on the market demand. After 15 to 30 min, 218 mL range of 34 to 39%. Cheese having a loose or crumbly body and a
of single-strength rennet per 1000 kg milk is diluted in water 1:40 high acidity is less likely to cure properly. For best curing, the
and slowly added with agitation of milk in the vat. After a quiescent cheese should have a sodium chloride content of 1.5 to 2.0%. A
period of 25 to 30 min, the curd should have developed proper firm- lower percentage encourages off-flavors to develop, and higher
ness. The curd is cut into 6- to 10-mm cubes. After 15 to 30 min of amounts retard flavor development.
gentle agitation, the cooking is initiated by heating water in the vat Moisture Losses. The loss in mass of cheese during curing is
jacket by means of steam for 30 to 40 min. The curd and whey largely attributed to moisture loss. Paraffined cheddar cheese going
should increase 1°C per 5 min. Then a temperature of 38 to 39°C is into cure averages approximately 37% moisture. After a 12-month
maintained for approximately 45 min. cure at 4.4°C, paraffined cheese averages approximately 33% mois-
The whey is drained and the curd trenched along both sides of ture. This loss is a real loss to the cheese manufacturer unless the
the vat, allowing a narrow area free of curd the length of the mid- cheese is sold on the basis of total solids. Control of humidity can
section of the vat. Slabs about 250-mm long are cut and inverted at have an important role in moisture loss. Figure 5 shows the loss
15-min periods during the cheddaring process. When acidity of the from paraffined longhorns in boxes held at 3.3°C and 70% rh over
small whey drainage is at a pH of 5.3 to 5.2, the slabs are milled 12 months. The conditions were well controlled but the average loss
(cut into small pieces) and returned to the vat for salting and stir- was 7%. The high loss shown on the graph was influenced by the
ring, or the curd goes to a machine for the automatic addition of salt larger surface area in 5.5-kg longhorns, as compared to 31.8-kg
and its uniform incorporation into the curd. Weighed curd goes into cheddars. Curing the cheese within a good-quality sealed wrapper
hoops, which are placed into a press, and 140 kPa is applied. After having a low moisture transmission (but some oxygen and carbon
0.5 to 1 h, the hoops are taken out of the press, the bandage dioxide) largely eliminates loss of moisture.
Dairy Products 19.11

Table 4 Swiss Cheese Manufacturing Conditions

Temperature, Relative
Processing Step °C Humidity, % Time
Setting 35 — 0.4 to 0.5 h
Cooking 50 to 54.4 — 1.0 to 1.5 h
Pressing 26.7 to 29.4 — 12 to 15 h
Salting (brine) 10 to 11.1 — 2 to 3 days
Cool room hold 10 to 15.6 90 10 to 14 days
Warm room hold 21.1 to 23.9 80 to 85 3 to 6 weeks
Cool room hold 4.4 to 7.2 80 to 85 4 to 10 mos

hoops (73 kg) and pressed lightly for 6 h, redressing and turning the
hoops every 2 h. Pressing is continued overnight. The next step
consists of soaking the cheese in brine until it has about 1.5% salt.
Table 4 shows temperature and time at which curing occurs.

Roquefort and Blue Cheese

Fig. 5 Shrinkage of Cheese in Storage Roquefort and blue cheese require a mold (Penicillium roque-
forti) to develop the typical flavor. Roquefort is made from ewes’
milk in France. Blue cheese in the United States is made from cow’s
Provolone and Mozzarella (Pasta Filata Types) milk. The equipment used for the manufacture and curing of blue
Provolone is an Italian plastic-curd-type cheese which represents cheese is the same as that used for cheddar with a few exceptions.
a large group of pasta-filata-type cheeses. While these cheeses vary The hoops are 190 mm in diameter and 150 mm high. They have no
widely in size and composition, they are all manufactured by a sim- top or bottom covers and are thoroughly perforated with small
ilar method. After the curd has been matted, like cheddar, it is cut holes. A manually or pneumatically operated device with 50
into slabs which are worked and stretched in hot water at 65 to 82°C. needles, which are 150 mm long and 3 mm in diameter, is used to
The curd is kneaded and stretched in the hot water until it reaches a punch holes in the blue curd wheels. An apparatus is also needed to
temperature of about 57°C. The maker then takes the amount nec- feed moisture into the curing room to maintain at least 95% rh with-
essary for one cheese and folds, rolls, and kneads it by hand to give out causing a drip onto the cheese.
the cheese its characteristic shape and smooth, closed surface. Mold- The milk may be raw or pasteurized and separated. The cream is
ing machines have been developed for large-scale operations to bleached and may be homogenized at low pressure. Skim milk is
eliminate this hand labor. The warm curd of some varieties of pasta added to the cream, and the milk is set with 2 to 3% active lactic
filata is placed in molds and submerged in or sprayed with 2°C cold starter. After 30 min, 90 to 120 mL of rennet per 500 kg is diluted
water to harden into the desired shape. The hardened cheese is then with water (1:35) and thoroughly mixed into the milk. When the
salted in batch or continuous brine tanks for final cooling and salting curd is firm (after 30 min), it is cut into 16-mm cubes. Agitation is
depending on the size and variety. Some pasta filata cheese, such as begun 5 min later. After whey acidity is 0.14% (1 h), the tempera-
mozzarella for pizza, is packaged for shipment with wrappers to pro- ture is raised to 33°C and held for 20 min. The whey is drained and
tect it for the period it is held before use. This cheese may be sealed trenched. Approximately 2 kg of coarse salt and 62 g of P. roqueforti
under vacuum in plastic bags for prolonged holding. powder are mixed into each 100 kg of curd.
Provolone is salted by submersion in 24% sodium chloride solu- The curd is transferred to stainless steel perforated cylinders
tion at 7°C for 1 to 3 days, depending on the size. It is hung on a light (hoops). These hoops are inverted each 15 min for 2 h on a drain
rope to dry and then transferred to the smokehouse and exposed to cloth, and curd matting is continued overnight. The hoops are
hickory or other hardwood smoke for 1 to 3 days. The cheese is removed and surfaces of the wheels covered with salt. The cheese is
hung in a curing room for 3 weeks at 13°C and then for 2 to 10 placed in a controlled room at 15°C and 85% rh and resalted daily
months at 4.4°C. The size varies as well as the shape, but the most for 4 more days (total 5 days). Small holes are punched through the
common in the United States is 6.4 kg and pear-shaped. The mois- wheels of cheese from top to bottom of the flat surfaces. The cheese
ture content ranges from 37 to 45% and the salt from 2 to 4%. Milk is placed in racks on its curved edge in the curing room and held at
fat usually comprises 46 to 47% of the total solids. The yield is 10 to 13°C and not less than 95% humidity. At the end of the month,
roughly 9.5 kg per 100 kg of milk. the cheese surfaces are cleaned; the cheese is wrapped in foil and
placed in a 2 to 4°C cold room for 2 to 4 months (Table 5). The sur-
Swiss Cheese faces are again scraped clean, and the wheels are wrapped in new
foil for distribution.
One of the distinguishing characteristics of Swiss cheese is the
eye formation during curing. These eyes result from the develop- Table 5 Typical Blue Cheese Manufacturing Conditions
ment of CO2. Raw or heat-treated milk is tempered to 35°C and
pumped to a large kettle or vat. One starter unit, consisting of 27 mL Temperature, Relative
of Propioni bacterium shermanii, 165 mL of Streptococcus thermo- Processing Step °C Humidity, % Time
philus, and 165 mL of Lactobacillus bulgaricus, is added per 500 kg Setting 29 to 30 — 1h
of milk. After mixing, 77 mL of rennet per 500 kg is diluted 1:40 with Acid development 29 to 30 — 1h
water and slowly added with agitation of the milk. Curd is cut when (after cutting) 33 — 120 s
firm (after 25 to 30 min) into very small granules. After 5 min, curd
and whey are agitated for 40 min, and then the steam is released into Curd matting 21 to 24 80 to 90 18 to 24 h
the jacket without water. Curd is heated slowly to 50 to 54°C in 30 Dry salting 16 85 5 days
to 45 min. Without additional steam, the cooking is continued until
Curing 10 to 13 >95 30 days
curd is firm and has no tendency to stick when a group of particles
is squeezed together (0.5 to 1 h and whey pH 6.3). Curd is dipped into Additional curing 2 to 4 80 60 to 120 days
19.12 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

Originally, Roquefort and blue cheese were cured in caves with has a piston in a cylinder which discharges a definite volume. Cot-
high humidity and constant cool temperature. The refrigeration of tage cheese is perishable and must be stored at 4.4°C or lower for
insulated blue cheese curing rooms to the optimum temperature is prolonging the keeping quality to 2 or 3 weeks. A good yield is
not difficult. However, maintaining a uniform relative humidity of 15.5 kg of curd per 100 kg of skim milk with 9% total solids.
not less than 95% without excessive expense seems to be an engi-
neering challenge, at least in some plants. Other Cheeses
Table 6 presents data on a few additional common varieties of
Cottage Cheese
cheese in the United States. With the exception of the soft ripened
Cottage cheese is made from skim milk. It is a soft, unripened cheeses such as Camembert and Liederkranz, freezing of cheese
curd and generally has a cream dressing added to it. There are small results in undesirable texture changes. This can be serious, as in the
and large curd types, and they may or may not have added fruits or case of cream cheese, where a mealy, pebbly texture results. Other
vegetables. The cheese plant equipment may consist of receiving types, such as brick and Limburger, undergo a slight roughening of
apparatus, storage tanks, clarifier-separator, pasteurizer, cheese vats texture which is undesirable but which still might be acceptable to
with mechanical agitation, curd pumps, drain drum, blender, filler, certain consumers. As a general rule, cheese should not be subjected
conveyors, and such accessory items as refrigerated trucks, labora- to temperatures below -1.7°C.
tory testing facilities, and whey disposal equipment. The largest When cured cheese is held above the melting point of milk fat, it
vats have a 20-Mg capacity. The basic steps are separation, pasteur- becomes greasy because of the oiling off. The oiling-off point of all
ization, setting, cutting, cooking, draining and washing, creaming, types of cheese except process cheese begins at 20 to 21°C. Conse-
packaging, and distribution. quently, storage should be substantially below the melting point
Skim milk is pasteurized at the minimum temperature and time (Table 7). Uncured cheese (i.e., cottage, cream) is highly perishable
of 71.7°C for 15 s to avoid adversely affecting the curd properties. and thus should not be stored above 7°C and preferably at 1.7°C.
If substantially higher heat treatment is practiced, the cottage cheese Processing protects cheese from oiling off. By heating the bulk
manufacturing procedure must be altered to obtain good body and cheese to temperatures of 60 to 82°C, and through the incorporation
texture quality and reduce curd loss in the whey. Skim milk is of emulsifying salts, a more stable emulsion is formed than in nat-
cooled to the setting temperature, which is 30 to 32°C for the short ural or nonprocessed cheese. Process cheese will not oil off even at
set (5 to 6 h) and 21 to 22°C for the overnight set (12 to 15 h). A melting temperatures. Because of the temperatures used in process-
medium set is used in a few plants. For the short set, 5 to 8% of a ing, process cheese is essentially a pasteurized product. Microor-
good cultured skim milk (starter) and 2.2 to 3.3 mL of rennet diluted ganisms causing changes in the body and flavor of the cheese during
in water are added per 1000 kg of skim milk. For the long set, 0.25 cure are largely destroyed; hence there will be practically no further
to 1% starter and 1 to 2 mL of diluted rennet per 1000 kg are thor- flavor development. Consequently, the maximum permissible tem-
oughly mixed into the skim milk. The use of rennet is optional. The perature for the storage of process cheese is considerably higher
setting temperature is maintained until the curd is ready to cut. The than any of the other types. Table 7 shows the maximum tempera-
acidity of whey at cutting time depends on the total solids content of tures of storage for cheese of various types.
the skim milk (0.55% for 8.7% and 0.62% for 10.5%). The pH is
typically 4.80, but it may be necessary to adjust for specific make Table 6 Curing Temperature, Humidity, and
procedures. Time of Some Cheese Varieties
The curd is cut into 12-mm cubes for large curd and 6 mm for
small curd cottage cheese. After the cut curd sets for 10 to 15 min, Curing Relative
heat is applied to water in the vat jacket to maintain a temperature Variety Temperature, °C Humidity, % Curing Time
rise in the curd and whey of 1 K each 5 min. In very large vats, jacket Brick 15 to 18 90 60 days
heating is not practical, and superheated culinary steam in small jet Romano 10 to 15 85 5 to 12 mos
streams is used directly in the vat; 20 to 30 min after cutting, very Mozzarella 21 85 24 to 72 h
gentle agitation is applied. Heating rate may be increased to 1.5 to
Edam 10 to 15 85 3 to 4 mos
2 K per 5 min as the curd firms enough to resist shattering. Cooking
Parmesan 13 to 15 85 to 90 14 mos
is completed when the cubes contain no whey pockets and have the
desired firmness. The final temperature of curd and whey is usually Limburger 10 to 15 90 2 to 3 mos
49 to 54°C, but some cheesemakers heat to 63°C when making the
small type curd. Table 7 Temperature Range of Storage, Common
After cooking is completed, the hot water in both the jacket and Types of Cheese
the whey is drained. Wash water temperature is adjusted to about
Ideal Maximum
21°C for the first washing and added gently to the vat to reduce curd Cheese Temperature, °C Temperature, °C
temperature to 27 to 29°C. After gentle stirring and a brief hold, the
water-whey mixture is drained. The temperature of the second wash Brick −1 to 1 10
is adjusted to reduce the temperature of curd to 10 to 13°C and to Camembert −1 to 1 10
4.4°C with a third wash. Water for the last wash may have 3 to 5 Cheddar −1 to 1 15
mg/kg of added chlorine. The curd is trenched for adequate drain- Cottage −1 to 1 7
age. The dressing is made from low-fat cream, salt, and usually 0.1 Cream 0 to 1 7
to 0.4% stabilizer based on cream mass. Salt averages 1%, and milk Limburger −1 to 1 10
fat must be 4% or more in creamed cottage cheese or 2% in low-fat Neufchatel 0 to 1 7
cottage cheese. The dressing is cooled to 4.4°C and blended into the Process American 4 to 7 24
curd. Process brick 4 to 7 24
A cheese vat can be reused sooner if the cheese pumps quickly
Process Limburger 4 to 7 24
convey the curd and whey at the completion of cooking to a special
tank for drainage of the whey, washing, and blending of the dressing Process Swiss 4 to 7 24
with the curd. Creamed cottage cheese is transferred mechanically Roquefort −1 to 1 10
to an automatic packaging machine. One type of filler employs an Swiss −1 to 1 15
oscillating cylinder which holds a specific volume. Another type Cheese foods 4 to 7 13
Dairy Products 19.13

Refrigeration of Cheese Rooms temperature, using 2.72 kJ/(kg·K) as the specific heat of cheese. For
most varieties, the heat given off during curing is negligible.
Cheeses that are to be dried prior to wrapping or waxing enter the
cooler at approximately room temperature. Sufficient refrigerating While the fermentation of lactose to lactic acid which occurs in
cheese is an exothermic reaction, this process is substantially com-
capacity must be provided to reduce the cheeses to drying room
pleted in the first week after cheese is made; hence further heat
temperature. The product load may be taken as 1 kW for each 1500
to 1900 kg per day. Product load in a cheese-drying room is usually given off during curing is of no significance. Assuming that average
conditions for American cheese curing are approximately 7°C and
small compared to total room load. Extreme accuracy in calculating
70% rh, if -1 to 1.7°C refrigerant is used in the cooling system, a
product load is not warranted.
humidity of about 70% will be maintained.
When determining the peak refrigerating load in a cheese drying
room, the factor to be remembered is that peak cheese production
may coincide with periods of high ambient temperature. In addition, FROZEN DAIRY DESSERTS
these rooms normally open directly into the cheese-making room, Ice cream is the most common frozen dairy dessert. Legal guide-
where both temperature and humidity are quite high. Also, traffic in lines for the composition of frozen dairy desserts generally follow
and out of the drying room may be heavy; therefore, ample allow- federal standards. The amount of air incorporated during freezing is
ance for door losses should be made. Two to three air changes per controlled for the prepackaged products by the standard specifying
hour are quite possible during the flush season. See Chapter 12 for the minimum density and/or a minimum density of food solids.
information on load calculations. The basic dairy components of frozen dairy dessert are milk,
To maintain the desired humidity, refrigerating units for the cream, and condensed or nonfat dry milk. Some plants also use but-
cheese-drying room should be sized to handle the peak summer ter, butter oil, buttermilk (liquid or dry), and dry or concentrated
load with not more than a 10 K difference between the return air whey of the sweet type. The acid-type whey (e.g., from cottage
temperature and evaporator temperature. Units operated from a cheese) can be used for sherbets.
central refrigerating system should be equipped with suction pres-
sure regulators. Ice Cream
Temperature control may be obtained through a room thermostat Milk fat content (called butterfat by some standards) is one of the
controlling a solenoid valve in the liquid supply to the unit or units. principal factors in the legal standards for ice cream. The fat in other
Fans should be allowed to run continuously. A modulating suction ingredients such as eggs, nuts, cocoa, or chocolate do not satisfy the
pressure regulator is not a satisfactory temperature control for a legal minimum. Federal standards set the minimum milk fat content
cheese-drying room because it causes undesirable variations in at 8% for bulky flavored ice cream mixes (e.g., chocolate) and 10%
humidity. or above for the other flavors (e.g., vanilla). Manufacturers, how-
Air circulation should only be sufficient to assure uniform tem- ever, usually make two or more grades of ice cream, one being com-
perature and humidity throughout the room. Strong drafts or air cur- petitively priced with the minimum legal fat content, and the others
rents should be avoided because they cause uneven drying and richer in fat, higher in total solids, and lower in overrun for a special
cracking of the cheeses. The most satisfactory refrigerating units are trade. Such ice cream may be made with a fat content of 16 or 18%,
the ceiling-suspended between-the-rails type or the penthouse type. although most ice cream is made with a fat content ranging from 10
One unit for each 37 to 46 m2 of floor area usually assures uniform to 12%.
conditions. One unit should be placed near the door to the room to Serum solids content designates the nonfat solids from milk.
cool the warm moist air before it has a chance to spread over the The chief components of milk serum are lactose, milk proteins
ceiling. Otherwise, condensation dripping from the ceiling or mold (casein, albumin, and globulin), and milk salts (sodium, potassium,
growth will result. calcium, and magnesium as chlorides, citrates, and phosphates).
Humidity control during winter may present problems in cold The following average composition for serum solids is useful for
climates. Since most of the refrigeration load (during the peak sea- general calculations: lactose, 54.5%; milk proteins, 37.0%; and
son) is due to insulation losses and warm air entering through the milk salts, 8.5%.
door, refrigerating units may not operate enough during cold The serum solids in ice cream produce a smoother texture, better
weather to take up the moisture given up by the cheese, resulting in body, and better melting characteristics. Because serum solids are
excess humidity and improper drying of the cheese. Within certain relatively inexpensive compared with fat, they are used liberally.
limits, this can be overcome by reducing the speed of the unit fans, The total solids content usually is kept below 40%.
lowering the suction pressure, and increasing the number of The lower limit in the serum solids content, 6 to 7%, is found in
defrosts. If there are several units in the room, the refrigeration may a homemade type of ice cream, where the only dairy ingredients are
be turned off on some. Fans should be left running to assure uniform milk and cream. Ice creams with an unusually high fat content are
conditions throughout the room. If these adjustments are not suffi- also kept near this serum solids content so that the total solids con-
cient, or if automatic control of humidity is desired, it is necessary tent will not be excessive. Most ice cream, however, is made with
to use reheat coils in the airstream leaving the units. These may be condensed or nonfat dry milk added to bring the serum solids con-
electric heaters, steam or hot water coils, or hot gas from the refrig- tent within the range of 10 to 11.5%. The upper extreme of 12 to
erating system. A heating capacity of 15 to 20% of the refrigerating 14% serum solids can be used only where rapid product sales turn-
capacity of the units is usually sufficient. over or other special means avoid sandiness.
A humidistat may be used to operate the heaters when the humid- The sugar content of ice cream is of special interest because of its
ity rises above the desired level. The heater should be wired in effect on the freezing point of the mix and its hardening behavior.
series, with a second room thermostat set to shut it off if the room The extreme range of sugar content encountered in ice cream is
temperature becomes excessive. Because of variation in size and from 12 to 18%, with 16% being most representative of the industry.
shape of drying rooms, it is impossible to generalize about air veloc- The chief sugar used is sucrose (cane or beet sugar), either in gran-
ities and capacities. Airflow should be regulated so that the cheese ulated or liquid form. Many manufacturers use dextrose and corn
feels moist for the first 24 h and then becomes progressively drier syrup solids to replace part of the sucrose. Some manufacturers pre-
and firmer. fer sucrose in liquid form, or in a mixture with syrup, because of
Calculation of the product refrigeration load for a cheese curing lower cost and easier handling in tank car lots. In some instances,
room involves a simple computation of heat to be removed from the 50% of the sucrose content has been replaced by other sweetening
cheese at the incoming temperature in order to bring it to curing agents. A more common practice is to replace one-fourth to
19.14 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

one-third of the sucrose with dextrose or corn syrup solids, or a between 1 and 2% milk fat and not more than 5% by mass of total
combination of the two. milk solids. While the milk solids can be supplied by milk, the gen-
Practically all ice cream is made with a stabilizer to help main- eral practice is to supply them by using ice cream mix. Typically, a
tain a smooth texture, especially under the conditions that prevail in solution of sugars and stabilizer in water is prepared as a base for
retail cabinets. Manufacturers who do not use stabilizers offset this sherbets of various flavors. To 70 kg of sherbet base, 20 kg of fla-
omission by a combination of factors such as a high fat and solids voring and 10 kg of ice cream mix are added. The sugar content of
content, the use of superheated condensed milk to aid in smoothing sherbets ranges from 25 to 35%, with 28 to 30% being most com-
the texture and imparting body, and a sales program designed to pro- mon. One example of a sherbet formula is: milk solids, 5%, of
vide rapid turnover. The stabilizing substances most commonly which 1.5 is milk fat; sugar, 13%; corn syrup solids, 22%; sherbet
added are carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and sodium alginate, a stabilizer, 0.3%; and flavoring, acid, and water, 59.7%.
product made from giant kelp gathered off the coast of California. In sherbets, and even more so in ices, a high overrun is not desir-
Gelatin is used for some ice cream mixes that are to be batch pas- able because the resulting product will appear foamy or spongy
teurized. Other stabilizers are locust or carob bean gum, gum arabic under serving conditions. The overrun should be kept within 25 to
or acacia, gum tragacanth, gum Karaya, psyllium seed gum, and 40%. This fact and the problem of preventing bleeding (the leakage
pectin. The amount of stabilizer commonly used in ice cream ranges of syrup from the frozen product) emphasize the importance of the
from 0.20 to 0.35% of the mass of the mix. choice of stabilizers. If gelatin is selected as the stabilizer in sher-
Many plants now combine an emulsifier with the stabilizer to bets, the freezing conditions must be managed to avoid an excessive
produce a smoother and richer product. The emulsifier reduces the overrun. The gums added to ice cream are commonly used as the
surface tension between the water and fat phase to produce a drier- stabilizer in sherbets and ices.
appearing product.
Egg solids in the form of fresh whole eggs, frozen eggs, or pow- Ices
dered whole eggs or egg yolks are used by some manufacturers. Ices contain no milk solids, but closely resemble sherbets in
While flavor and color may motivate this choice, the most common other respects. To offset the lack of solids from milk, the sugar con-
reason for selecting them is to aid the whipping qualities of the mix. tent of ices is usually slightly higher than in sherbets; it is usually 30
The amount required is about 0.25% egg solids, with 0.50% being to 32%. A combination of sugars should be used in order to prevent
about the maximum content for this purpose. To obtain the desired crusty sugar crystallization, just as in the case of sherbets. The usual
result, the egg yolk should be in the mix at the time it is being procedure is to make an ice-base solution of the sugars and stabi-
homogenized. lizer, from which different flavored ices may be prepared by adding
In frozen custards or parfait ice cream, the presence of eggs in the flavoring material in the same general manner as mentioned for
liberal amounts and the resulting yellow color are identifying char- sherbets.
acteristics. Federal standards specify a minimum 1.4% egg yolk Ices contain few ingredients with lubricating qualities and often
content for these products. cause extensive wear on scraper blades in the freezer. Frequent
resharpening of the blades is necessary. Where a number of freezers
Ice Milk are available, and the main production is ice cream, it is desirable to
Ice milk commonly contains 3 to 4% fat and 13 to 15% serum confine the freezing of ices and sherbets to a specific freezer or freez-
solids; formulations with respect to sugar and stabilizers are similar ers, which should then receive special attention to resharpening.
to those for ice cream. The sugar content in ice milk is somewhat
higher in order to build up the total solids content. The stabilizer Making Ice Cream Mix
content is also higher in proportion to the higher water content of ice The chosen composition for a typical ice cream would be
milk. The overrun is approximately 70%.
Fat 12.5% Sugar 15.0%
Soft Ice Milk or Ice Cream Serum solids 10.5% Stabilizer 0.3%
Machines that serve freshly frozen ice cream are common in
Mixing and Pasteurizing. Generally, the liquid dairy ingredi-
roadside stands, retail ice cream stores, and restaurants. These
ents are placed in a vat equipped with suitable means of agitation,
establishments must meet sanitation requirements and have facili-
especially to keep the sugar in suspension until it is dissolved. The
ties for proper cleaning of the equipment, but very few blend and
dry ingredients are then added, with suitable precautions to prevent
process the ice cream mix used. The mix is usually supplied either
lump formation of such products as stabilizers, nonfat dry milk sol-
from a plant specializing in producing ice cream mix only or from
ids, powdered eggs, and cocoa. Gelatin should be added while the
an established ice cream plant. The mix should be cooled to about
temperature is still low to allow time for the gelatin to imbibe water
1.7°C at the time of delivery, and the ice cream outlet should have
before its dissolving is promoted by heat. Dry ingredients that tend
ample refrigerated space to store the mix until it is frozen. To be
to form lumps may be successfully added by first mixing them with
served in a soft condition, this ice cream mix is usually frozen stiffer
some of the dry sugar so that moisture may penetrate freely. Where
than would be customary for a regular plant operation with a 30 to
vat agitation is not fully adequate, sugar may be withheld until the
50% overrun. Some mixes are prepared only for soft serve. They are
liquid portion of the mix is partly heated so that promptness of solu-
1 to 2% greater in serum solids and have 0.5% stabilizer-emulsifier
tion avoids settling out.
to aid in producing a smooth texture. The overrun is limited to 30 to
The mix is pasteurized to destroy any pathogenic organisms, to
40% during freezing to the soft-serve condition.
lower the bacterial count so as to enhance the keeping quality of the
Frozen Yogurt mix and comply with bacterial count standards, to dissolve the dry
ingredients, and to provide a temperature suitable for efficient
Hard- or soft-serve frozen yogurt is similar to low-fat ice cream homogenization. A pasteurizing treatment of 68.3°C maintained for
in composition and processing. The significant exception is the 0.5 h is the minimum allowed. The mix should be homogenized at
presence of a live culture in the yogurt. the pasteurizing temperature. Vat batches should be homogenized in
1 h and preferably less.
Sherbets Many ice cream plants use continuous pasteurization methods
Sherbets are fruit (and mint) flavored frozen desserts character- that use plate-type heat exchange equipment for heating and cooling
ized by their high sugar content and tart flavor. They must contain the mix. If some solid ingredients are selected, such as skim milk
Dairy Products 19.15

powder and granulated sugar, a batch is made up in a mixing tank at gelatin to develop. Mixes made with sodium alginate or other veg-
a temperature of 38 to 60°C. This preheated mix is then pumped etable-type stabilizers develop maximum viscosity on being cooled,
through a heating section of the plate unit where it is heated to a tem- and can be used in the freezer immediately.
perature of 79.4°C or higher, and held for 25 s while passing through
a holding tube. The mix is then homogenized and pumped to the Freezing Process
precooling plate section using city, well, or cooling tower water as The ice cream freezer freezes the mix to the desired consistency
the cooling medium. Final cooling of the mix may be done in an and whips in the desired amount of air in a finely divided condition.
additional plate section, using chilled water as the cooling medium, The aim is to conduct the freezing and later hardening to obtain the
or the mix may be cooled through a separate mix cooler. A propyl- smoothest possible texture.
ene glycol medium is sometimes used for cooling to temperatures Freezing an ice cream mix means, of course, freezing a mixed
just above the freezing point. solution. The solutes that determine the freezing point are the lac-
Large plants generally use all liquid ingredients, especially if the tose and soluble salts contained in the serum solids and the sugars
production is automated and computerized. The ingredients are added as sweetening agents. The other constituents of the mix affect
blended at 4.4 to 15°C. The mix passes through the product-to-prod- the freezing point only indirectly, by displacing water and affecting
uct regeneration section of a plate-type heat exchanger with about the in-water concentration of the solutes mentioned. Leighton
70% regeneration during preheating. The mix is HTST heated to not (1927) developed a reliable method for computing the freezing
less than 79.4°C, homogenized, and held for 25 s. Greater heat treat- points of ice cream mixes from their known composition. He added
ment is common, and 104.4°C for 40 s is not unusual. The final heat- the lactose and sucrose content of the mix, expressed their concen-
ing may be accomplished with plate equipment, a swept-surface tration in terms of parts of sugar per 100 parts of water, and deter-
heat exchanger, or a direct steam injector or infusor. mined the freezing-point depression due to the sugars by reference
Steam injection and infusion equipment may be followed by vac- to published data for sucrose. This computation is justified because
uum chamber treatment, whereby the mix is flash cooled to 82 to lactose and sucrose have the same molecular mass.
88°C by a partial vacuum. It is further cooled through a regenerative
plate section and additionally cooled indirectly to 4.4°C or less with % lactose in mix = 0.545(% serum solids)
chilled water. The chief advantage of the vacuum treatment is the
( % lactose + % sucrose )100
flavor improvement of the mix if prepared from raw materials of -------------------------------------------------------------------- = parts lactose + sucrose
questionable quality. % water in mix per 100 parts water
Homogenizing the Mix. Homogenization disperses the fat in a
very finely divided condition so it will not churn out during freez- To the freezing point depression caused by these sugars, he
ing. Most of the fat in milk and cream is in globules 3 to 7 mm in added the depression that will be caused by the soluble milk salts.
diameter. Some of the globules are as large as 12 mm or larger in The depression caused by the salts is computed as follows:
diameter, especially if there has been some churning incidental to
Freezing-point depression caused by salt solids in °C
handling. In a properly homogenized mix, globules are seldom over
2 mm in diameter. 2.37 ( % serum solids )
= ----------------------------------------------------
Cooling and Holding Mix. Methods of final cooling of ice % water in mix
cream mix after pasteurization depend on the equipment used and
the final mix temperature desired. The mix should be as cold as pos- Table 8 presents the freezing points of various ice creams and a
sible, to about -1°C minimum for greater capacity and less refrig- typical sherbet and an ice, as computed by Leighton’s method. The
eration load on the ice cream freezers. Smaller plants generally use freezing point represents the temperature at which freezing com-
the vat holding system of pasteurization with either a Baudelot-type mences. As in the case of all solutions, the unfrozen portion
surface cooler or a plate-type heat exchanger, both with precooling becomes more concentrated as the freezing progresses, and the
and final cooling sections. The precooling may be done with city, freezing temperature therefore decreases as the freezing progresses.
well, or cooling tower water, and mix leaving the precooling section In a simple solution, containing only one solute, this trend will
is about 6 K warmer than the entering water temperature. The Bau- progress until the unfrozen portion represents a saturated solution of
delot-type cooler may be arranged for final cooling with chilled the solute, and thereafter the temperature will remain constant until
water, propylene glycol, or direct expansion refrigerant. A final mix the freezing has been completed. This temperature is known as the
temperature of -1 to 0.5°C can be obtained over the surface cooler cryohydric point of the solute. In a mixed solution such as ice
using propylene glycol or refrigerant. Final mix temperature when cream, which contains several sugars and a number of salts, no such
using chilled water will be about 4.4°C. point can be recognized.
For larger ice cream plants, where low mix temperature is
desired and where plate-type pasteurizing equipment is installed, it Table 8 Freezing Points of Typical Ice Creams, Sherbet, and Ice
may be desirable to use separate equipment for the final cooling. Composition of the Mix, %
Where the mix is preheated to about 60°C, it will be precooled to Serum Freezing
about 6 K warmer than the entering precooling water temperature; Fat Solids Sugar Stabilizer Water Point, °C
final cooling can be done in a remote cooler. An ammonia jacketed,
Ice 8.5 11.5 15 0.4 64.6 −2.45
scraped surface chiller is often selected. Where cold liquid mix is
cream 10.5 11.0 15 0.35 63.15 −2.46
used through a continuous pasteurizing, high-heat vacuum system 12.5 10.5 15 0.30 61.7 −2.47
with regeneration at about 70%, the temperature of the mix to the 14.0 9.5 15 0.28 61.22 −2.40
final cooling unit will be 29°C, assuming 4.4°C original mix tem- 16.0 8.5 15 0.25 60.25 −2.33
perature and 88°C temperature of mix returning through the regen-
erating section. 10.5 8.4 { SD124 } 0.40 64.7 −2.56
Where plants have ample ice cream mix holding tank capacity
(enabling the mix to be held overnight), part of the final mix cooling
may be accomplished by means of a refrigerated surface built into
Sherbet 1.2 1.0 { SD228 } 0.50 67.3 −3.35

the tanks. Using refrigerated mix holding tanks, the average rate of
cooling may be estimated at 0.6 K/h. Mixes made up with gelatin as
Ice 0 0 { SD239 } 0.50 67.5 −3.51
a stabilizer should be aged 24 h to allow time for the full set of the S = Sucrose D = Dextrose
19.16 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

Table 9 Freezing Behavior of Typical Ice Creama Table 9) how much water will be converted to ice. The heat to be
Water Freezing Point Water Freezing Point
removed is the product of the heat of fusion of ice and the mass
Frozen of Unfrozen Frozen of Unfrozen of water frozen.
to Ice, % Portion, °C to Ice, % Portion, °C 2. Compute the sensible heat that must be removed in the desired
0 −2.47 40 −4.22 temperature change, by treating the product as a mix; that is, use
5 −2.58 45 −4.65 the specific heat for ice cream mix. The temperature change
10 −2.75 50 −5.21 times the mass of product times 3.35 = sensible heat to be
15 −2.90 55 −5.88 removed.
20 −3.11 60 −6.78 In such a calculation, the water present is treated as though it all
25 −3.31 70 −9.45 remained in a liquid form until the desired temperature had been
30 −3.50 80 −14.92 reached, although ice was forming progressively. Because ice has a
35 −3.87 90 −30.16 specific heat of 2.060 kJ/(kg·K) instead of 4.187 kJ/(kg·K) as for
a Composition, %: fat, 12.5; serum solids, 10.5; sugar, 15; stabilizer, 0.30; water, 61.7.
water, this calculation will err in the direction of generous refriger-
On the contrary, the sugars remain in solution in a supersaturated ation. To offset this, the freezer agitation develops friction heat.
state in the unfrozen portion of the product. This is due to the fact Approximately 80% of the energy input in the motor of the freezer
is converted to heat in the product. Where the product is frozen to a
that by the time the saturation point has been reached, the tempera-
ture is so low and the viscosity so high that essentially a glass state stiff consistency, power requirements increase, and should be added
exists. In a mixed solution, however, the temperature required for to the load calculation.
complete freezing must be somewhat below the cryohydric point of A litre of ice cream mix has a mass of from 1.08 kg for mixes
that solute with the lowest cryohydric point. In ice cream, that solute with a high fat content, to 1.11 kg for mixes with a low fat content
is calcium chloride, contained as a component of serum solids. The and a high content of serum solids and sugar. The mass of a unit vol-
cryohydric point of calcium chloride is –51°C. Therefore, the ice ume of ice cream varies with the mix and overrun according to the
cream ranges from 0 to 100% frozen within the approximate range following relationship:
of -2.5 to -55°C.
Therefore, the temperature to which the ice cream has been fro-
Percentage 100 ( density of mix – density of ice cream -)
overrun = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
density of ice cream
zen becomes a measure of the degree to which it has been frozen, as
illustrated by Table 9. In the table, the freezing points of the unfro-
zen portions of the third ice cream listed in Table 8 have been com- Freezing Ice Cream. Both batch and continuous ice cream
puted when 0 to 90% of the original water has been frozen out as ice. freezers are in general use. Both are arranged with a freezer cylinder
Refrigeration Requirements. Exact calculation of refrigeration having either an annular space or coils around the cylinder, where
requirements is complicated by the number of factors involved. The cooling is accomplished by direct refrigerant cooling, either in a
specific heat of the mix varies with its composition. According to flooded arrangement with an accumulator or controlled by a ther-
Zhadan (1940), the specific heat of food products may be computed mostatic expansion valve. The freezer cylinder has a dasher, which
by assuming the following specific heats in kJ/(kg·K) for the chief revolves within the cylinder. Sharp metal blades on the dasher
components: carbohydrates, 1.42; proteins, 1.55; fats, 1.67; and scrape the inner surface of the cylinder to remove the frozen film of
water, 4.18. Salts are normally not included. Where they are present ice cream as it forms. Some batch freezers use plastic dashers and
in significant amounts, as in ice cream (8.5% of the serum solids), blades.
a specific heat of 0.84 is accurate. The value given by Zhadan for Batch freezers range in size from 2 to 40 L of ice cream per batch,
fats is apparently for solid fats. For milk fat in a liquid condition, the smaller sizes being used for retail or soft ice cream operations,
Hammer and Johnson (1913) found the specific heat to be 2.18. In and the 40-L size used in small commercial ice cream plants or in
addition, their data clearly show that the latent heat of fusion of fats large plants for running small special-order quantities. Batch freez-
becomes involved. From their data, the latent heat of fusion of milk ers larger than the 40-L size have not been used extensively since
fat is about 81.4 kJ/kg. the development of the continuous freezer.
The change from liquid to solid fat occurs over a wide tempera- In operation, a measured quantity of mix is placed in the freezer
ture range, approximately 27 to 5°C; in changing from solid to liq- cylinder and the required flavor, fruit, or nuts are added as freezing
uid fat, the range is approximately 10 to 40°C. This wide of the mix progresses. Freezing is continued until the desired con-
discrepancy between solidifying and melting behavior is apparently sistency is obtained in the judgment of the operator or by the indi-
because milk fat is a mixture of glycerides, and mutual solubility of cation of a meter showing an increase in the current drawn by the
the glycerides is involved. In any case, the latent heat of fusion of motor as the partly frozen mix becomes stiffer. At the desired point
the fat is involved in cooling the mix from the pasteurizing and of freezing, the refrigeration is cut off from the freezer cylinder, usu-
homogenizing temperature down to the aging temperature of 3.3 to ally by closing the refrigerant suction valve. The dasher continues
4.4°C. Instead of making detailed calculations, a specific heat of operating until enough air has been taken into the mix by the whip-
3.35 kJ/(kg·K) is assumed for ice cream mix, which is high for ping action to produce the desired overrun. The overrun is checked
mixes ranging from 36 to 40% total solids. by taking and weighing a sample from the freezer. When the desired
In calculating the refrigeration required for freezing and harden- overrun is obtained, the entire batch is discharged from the freezer
ing, a single value of a specific heat for frozen ice cream cannot be cylinder into cans or cartons, and the machine is then ready for a
chosen. As shown in Table 9, any change in temperature in freezing new batch of mix.
and hardening involves some latent heat of fusion of the water, as The output of a batch-type freezer varies with the sharpness of
well as the sensible heat of the unfrozen mix and the ice. Near the the blades, the refrigeration supplied, and the overrun desired. The
initial freezing point, much more latent heat of fusion is involved average maximum output for commercial batch freezers is 8 batches
per degree temperature change than in well-hardened ice cream, per hour. This schedule allows 3 to 4 min to freeze, 2 to 3 min to
e.g., at -23 to -24°C. For this reason, instead of using an overall whip, and about 1 min to empty the ice cream and refill with mix.
value of specific heat, freezing load may be computed as follows: For this time schedule, it is assumed the ice cream is drawn from the
freezer at not over 100% overrun, at a temperature of about -4°C
1. First determine the temperature to which the freezing is to occur; and at a refrigerant temperature around the freezer cylinder of about
then determine (by calculations such as those used to develop –26°C.
Dairy Products 19.17

Continuous ice cream freezers range in size from 40 to 2800 For the ice cream being considered, the mass of mix required for 1
mL/s at 100% overrun, and they are used almost exclusively in m3 (1000 L) would be
commercial ice cream plants. Where large capacities are required,
multiple units are installed with the ice cream discharge from sev- 100
------------------------ × 1 × 1099 = 550 kg
eral machines connected together to supply the requirements of 100 + 100
automatic or semiautomatic packaging or filling machines. In
operation, the ice cream mix is continuously pumped to the Calculations of capacity required to freeze 1000 L/h (or 0.153 kg/s)
of ice cream are as follows:
freezer cylinder by a positive displacement rotary pump. Air pres-
sure within the cylinder is maintained from 140 kPa to more than
690 kPa (gage), supplied by either a separate air compressor or Sensible heat of mix: 0.153[4.4 - (-3)]3.35 = 3.79 kW
drawn in with the mix through the mix pump. The mix entering Latent heat: 0.153 ™ 0.61 ™ 0.48 ™ 335 = 15.01 kW
the rear of the freezer cylinder becomes partly frozen and takes on
Sensible heat of slush: 0.153[(-3) - (-5.5)]2.72 = 1.04 kW
the overrun because of air pressure and the agitation of the dasher
and freezer blades as it moves to the front of the cylinder and is Heat from motors: Assume 10 kW = 10 kW
discharged. Total = 29.8 kW
The output capacity of most continuous freezers can be varied 5% losses from freezer and piping (estimated) = 1.5 kW
from 50 to 100% rated capacity by regulating the variable speed
Total refrigeration = 31.3 kW
control supplied for the mix pump. Continuous freezers can be used
for nearly every flavor of ice cream, ice milk, sherbets, and ices.
Where flavors requiring nuts, whole fruits, or candy pellets are run, In continuous freezer operations, the heat gain from motors and
the base or unflavored mix is run through the continuous freezer losses from freezer and piping would remain about the same at all
and then passed through a fruit feeder which automatically feeds levels of overrun, but the necessary refrigerating effect would vary
and mixes the flavor particles into the ice cream. Ice cream can be with the mass of mix required to produce a litre of ice cream, as
discharged from continuous freezers at temperatures of -4°C, as shown in Table 10.
required for ice cream bar (novelty) operations, up to a very stiff
consistency at -6.7°C, as required for automatic filling of small Table 10 Continuous Freezing Loads for Typical Ice Cream Mix
packages. Ammonia Refrigeration at 21 kPa (gage)
Special low-temperature ice cream freezers are available to pro- Overrun, % Suction Pressure, kJ/L
duce very stiff ice cream for extruded shapes, stickless bars, and 60 135
sandwiches. Ice cream temperatures as low as -9°C can be drawn 70 130
with some mixes. When ample refrigerating effect is supplied, a
80 125
variation of ice cream discharge temperature can be obtained by
regulating the evaporator temperature around the freezer cylinder 90 121
by a suction pressure regulating valve. For filling cans and cartons, 100 117
the average discharge temperature from the continuous freezer is 110 113
about -5.6°C, when operating with ammonia in a flooded system at 120 110
about –32°C.
To calculate accurately the refrigeration requirement for freezing
the ice cream mix in the freezer, the density of the mix and the Hardening Ice Cream. After leaving the freezer, the ice cream
amount of water should be known. This can be checked by weigh- is in a semisolid state and must be further refrigerated to become
ing, knowing the percentage of water, or by calculating the mass solid enough for storage and distribution. The ideal serving tem-
from the mix formula, as in Example 2. perature for ice cream is about -13°C; it is considered hard at -
18°C. To retain a smooth texture in hardened ice cream, the
Example 2. Find the density of mix for the following composition (by per- remaining water content must be frozen rapidly, so that the ice
cent): milk fat, 12.0; serum solids, 10.5; sugar, 16.0; stabilizer, 0.25; crystals formed will be small. For this reason, most hardening
egg solids, 0.25; and water, 61.0. rooms are maintained at –29°C and some as low as –35°C. Most
modern hardening rooms have forced-air circulation, usually from
Solution: The density of the mix is
fan-coil evaporators. With the ice cream containers arranged so
that air will circulate around them, the hardening time is about
100
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- one-half that of rooms having overhead coils or coil shelves and
 ------------------------- + --------------------------------------
% milk fat % solids, not fat- %
+ -------------------
water gravity circulation. With forced-air circulation in the hardening
 930 1580 1000  room and average plant conditions, ice cream in 10- or 20-L con-
tainers (or smaller packages in wire basket containers), all spaced
100 3
= ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ = 1099 kg/m to allow air circulation, will harden in about 10 h. Hardening
( 12 ⁄ 930 ) + ( 27 ⁄ 1580 ) + ( 61 ⁄ 1000 )
rooms are usually sized to allow space for a minimum of three
times the daily peak production and for a stock of all flavors, with
The overrun in ice cream varies from 60 to 100%, which affects the the sizing based on 400 L/m2 of floor area in a 2.7-m high room
required refrigeration. For a continuous freezer, the required refrigera- when stacked loose, which includes aisles.
tion may be calculated as in Example 3.
Some larger plants use ice cream hardening carton (carrier)
Example 3. Assume a typical ice cream mix as listed in Example 2 with freezers, which discharge into a low-temperature storage room.
100% overrun. The mix contains 61% water and goes to the freezer at a Because of the various size packages to be hardened, most tunnels
temperature of 4.4°C. Freezing would start in this mix at about -3°C, are the air-blast type, operating at temperatures of -34 to -40°C
and 48% of the water would be frozen at -5.5°C. and, in some cases, as low as -46°C. Containers under 2 L are usu-
The mass of mix required to produce 1000 L of ice cream is ally hardened in these blast tunnels in about 4 h.
Contact-plate hardening machines are also used. They must con-
100 tinuously and automatically load and unload to introduce the pack-
- × 1000 L × Mix density
---------------------------------------
100 + % overrun ages from the filler without delay. Compared to carton (carrier)
19.18 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

freezers, contact-plate hardeners save space and power and elimi- Other products, such as sherbets, ices, ice milk, and novelties,
nate package bulging. They are limited to packages of uniform usually represent a small percentage of the total output of the plant,
thickness having parallel flat sides. These freezers are described in but should be included in the total requirement of the hardening
Chapter 15. room.
Temperature in the storage room is held at about –30°C. Space in
storage rooms can be estimated at 1000 L/m2 when palletized and Ice Cream Bars and Other Novelties
stacked solid 1.8 m high, including space for aisles. Many storage Ice cream plants may manufacture and merchandise a limited
rooms today use pallet storage and racking systems. Such rooms number of the many novelties. The most common are chocolate-
may be 10 m tall or more, some using stacker-crane automation. coated ice cream bars, popsicles, fudgesicles, drumsticks, ice cream
Freezer storages are described in Chapter 13. sundae cups, ice cream sandwiches, and so forth. Small plants
Refrigeration required to harden ice cream varies with the tem- freeze most of these products, especially those with sticks, in metal
perature from the freezer and the overrun. The following example trays each containing 24 molds, which are submerged in a special
calculates the refrigeration required to harden a typical ice cream brine tank with a built-in evaporator surface and brine agitation. The
mix. product mix is prepared in a tank and cooled to 1.5 to 4.5°C. A con-
trolled quantity of mix is poured into the tray molds or measured in
Example 4. Assume ice cream with 100% overrun enters the hardening with a dispenser. The tray molds are placed in the brine tank for
room at a temperature of -4°C. At this temperature, approximately complete freezing. Brine temperature is -34 to -38°C. The freez-
30% of the water would be frozen in the ice cream freezer with the ing rate should be rapid to result in small ice crystals, but it varies
remainder to be frozen in the hardening room. The mass of 1 L of ice with the product and generally is 15 to 20 min. The frozen product
cream at 100% overrun, from a mix with a density of 1099 kg/m3, is is loosened from the molds by momentary melting of the outer lay-
0.55 kg. The mix is assumed to contain 61% water, and the hardening
ers of the product in a water bath. It is immediately removed from
room is at –29°C. Calculate the refrigeration required to harden the ice
cream in kJ/L. the molds; each is separately wrapped or put in a novelty bag and
promptly placed in frozen storage for distribution.
Solution:
Example 6. Calculate the refrigeration required to freeze 1200 popsicles
Latent heat of hardening: 0.55 ™ 0.61 ™ 0.70 ™ 335 = 78.7 kJ/L
per hour based on a mix containing 85% water. Each popsicle has a
Sensible heat: 0.55 ™ 2.09[-4 - (-29)] = 28.7 kJ/L
mass of 0.085 kg and a density of 1060 kg/m3.
Total = 107.4 kJ/L
Loss due to heat of container and Solution:
exposure to outside air, assumed 10% = 10.7 kJ/L
Estimate mass flow of mix: 1200 ™ 0.085/3600 = 0.0283 kg/s
Total to harden = 118.1 kJ/L Cool mix from 5°C to freezing at -3°C:
Percent overrun, when calculated on the basis of the quantity of ice 0.0283[5 - (-3)]3.64 = 0.83 kW
cream delivered by the freezer or the quantity placed in the hardening Freezing load: 0.0283 ™ 0.85 ™ 335 = 8.07 kW
room, would affect the refrigeration required, as shown in Table 11. Subcool to -35°C: 0.0283[-3 - (-35°C)]2.09 = 2.25 kW
Cooling trays (50/h or 0.138/s at 15°C):
Table 11 Hardening Loads for Typical Ice Cream Mix 0.0138 ™ 3.6 kg/tray ™ [15 - (-35)]0.50 = 1.25 kW
Overrun, % Hardening Load, kJ/L Heat from agitator (750 W) = 0.75 kW
60 148 Leakage through 1 m by 4 m by 1 m tank = 0.22 kW
70 139 Loss, top of tank and piping (assumed) = 2.19 kW
80 130 Total refrigeration load = 15.6 kW
90 125
100 118 In making ice cream, ice milk, and similar kinds of bars, the mix
110 113 is processed through the freezer and is extruded in a viscous form at
120 108 about -6°C. Using similar calculations, the estimated refrigeration
load to freeze 100 dozen would be 7.7 kW for 85-g ice cream bars
Example 5. Calculate the refrigeration load in an ice cream hardening
with 100% overrun.
room, assuming 4000 L of ice cream at 100% overrun are to be hard- The equipment to make and package novelties in large plants is
ened in 10 h in a forced-air circulation room at a temperature of –29°C. available in several designs and capacities. Some are limited to the
The hardening room, for three times this daily output, should have manufacture of one or a few kinds of similar novelties. Other
30 m2 of floor area measuring approximately 5 m by 6 m by 3 m high. machines have more versatility; for example, they can be used to
The total insulated surface of 126 m2 requires 100 to 150 mm of ure- make novelties with or without sticks, coated or uncoated, and of
thane or equivalent. For this example, the heat conductance through the numerous sizes, shapes, and flavor combinations. Some of these
insulated surface is selected at 0.227 W/(m2 ·K). The average ambient machines include packaging in a bag or wrap, plus placement and
temperature is assumed to be 32°C. sealing in a carton in units of 6, 8, 12, 14, 18, 24, or 48. In other
Solution: plants, a separate packaging unit may be required. Some units
harden the product by air at a temperature within the range of -
Heat leakage: 126 ™ 0.227 [32 - (-29)] = 1.74 kW 37 to -43°C. Brine, usually calcium chloride, with a density of
Heat from fan motor (assumed) = 1.5 kW 1275 kg/m3 or more and a temperature of -33 to -39°C may be
Heat from lights (600 W assumed) = 0.6 kW the hardening medium. The capacity of novelty makers varies with
Air infiltration and persons in room the shape and size of the specific product. Common production of
(approximately 20% leakage) = 0.35 kW a novelty machine is generally within the range of 3500 to 35 000
Hardening 4000 L ice cream in or more per hour. Novelty equipment in plants may be semiauto-
10 h (0.111 L/s) at 118.1 kJ/L = 13.12 kW matic or automatic in performance of the necessary functions.
Total = 17.31 kW An example of a simple novelty machine is one that has two
parallel conveyor chains on which the mold strips are fastened. The
Additional refrigeration load calculation information is located molds are conveyed through filling, stick inserting, freezing, and
in Chapter 12. defrosting stages. The extractor conveyor removes the frozen
Dairy Products 19.19

product from the mold cups and carries it to packaging or through Rooms and storage areas should be well maintained to preserve
the dipping operation; it is then discharged at packaging. In the the integrity of the insulation. This includes doors and passageways,
meantime, the molds go through a wash and rinse and back to be which may be a major source of air infiltration load.
filled. The novelty is either bagged or wrapped by machine, grouped New and updated ice cream plants should be equipped with
and placed into cartons, and conveyed to cold storage. microprocessor compressor controls and an overall computerized
control system for operations and monitoring. When properly used,
Refrigeration Compressor Equipment Selection these controls help to provide safe, efficient operation of the refrig-
and Operation eration system.
Counter-type freezers are usually designed for use with halocar-
bon refrigerants and may be arranged in a self-contained cabinet ULTRAHIGH-TEMPERATURE (UHT)
with the condensing unit mounted under the freezer. Nearly all com- STERILIZATION AND ASEPTIC PACKAGING
mercial ice cream plants, particularly the larger plants, use ammo- Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) sterilization of liquid dairy
nia. Some smaller plants operate continuous ice cream freezers and products destroys viability of microorganisms with a minimum
refrigerate hardening rooms to acceptable temperatures with single- adverse effect on sensory and nutritional properties. Aseptic pack-
stage refrigerant compressors. In most cases, these plants operate aging (AP) containerizes the sterilized product without recontami-
reciprocating compressors at conditions above the maximum com- nation. Sterilization, in the true sense, is the destruction or
pression ratio recommended by the manufacturer. elimination of all viable microorganisms. In industry, however, the
For economy of operation, within reasonable limits of compres- term sterilized may refer to a product that does not deteriorate
sion ratio, ice cream plants normally use multistage compression. microbiologically, but in which viable organisms may have sur-
For freezing ice cream, producing frozen novelties, and refrigerat- vived the sterilization process. In other words, heat treatment ren-
ing an ice cream hardening room to –30°C, one or more booster ders the product safe for consumption and imparts an acceptable
compressors may be used at the same suction pressure, discharging shelf life microbiologically.
into second-stage compressors, which also handle the mix cooling
and ingredient cold storage room loads. If a carton freezer is used Sterilization Methods and Equipment
at a temperature of –40°C or below for ice cream hardening, two Retort sterilization of milk products has been a commercial
low suction pressure systems should be used, the lower one for the practice for many years. It consists of sterilizing the product after
carton freezer and the higher one for the ice cream freezers and hermetically sealing it in a metal or glass container. The heat treat-
storage room. Both low suction pressure systems discharge into the ment is sufficiently severe to cause a definite cooked off-flavor in
second-stage compressor system. For plants with carton freezers milk and to decrease the heat-labile nutritional constituents of milk
arranged for large volumes, an analysis of operating costs may products. UHT-AP has the advantage of causing less cooked flavor,
indicate savings in using three-stage compression with the low- color change, and loss of vitamins while producing the same steril-
temperature booster compressors used for the tunnel, discharging ization effect as the retort method.
into the second-stage booster compressor system used for freezers UHT-AP has been applied to common fluid milk products
and storage, and then the second-stage booster compressor system (whole milk, 2% milk, skim milk, and half-and-half), various
discharging into the third or high stage compressor system. creams, flavored milks, evaporated milk, and such frozen dessert
High-temperature loads in an ice cream plant usually consist of mixes as ice cream, ice milk, milk shakes, soft-serve, and sherbets.
refrigeration for cooling and holding cream, cooling ice cream mix UHT-sterilized dairy foods include eggnog, salad dressings, sauces,
after pasteurization, cooling for mix holding tanks, and refrigeration infant preparations, puddings, custards, and nondairy coffee whit-
for the ingredient cold storage room. If direct refrigerant cooling is eners and toppings.
used for the high-temperature loads, then compressor selections for UHT sterilization is accomplished by rapid heating of the prod-
the high stage can be made at about -7°C saturated suction temper- uct to the sterilizing temperature, holding the temperature for a def-
ature and combined with the compressor capacity required to handle inite number of seconds, and then rapid cooling. The methods have
the booster discharge load. Approximately the same high suction been classified as direct steam or indirect heating. The following are
temperature can be estimated if ice cream mix and mix holding some of the advantages of the direct methods: (1) heating is faster,
tanks are cooled by chilled water from a falling film water chilling (2) processing intervals between equipment cleanings are longer,
system. If an ice builder supplies chilled water for cooling pasteur- and (3) the flow rate is easier to change. Among the indirect meth-
ized ice cream mix, it may be desirable to provide a separate com- ods, advantages are the following: (1) regeneration potential is
pressor system to handle this refrigerating load. greater, (2) potable steam is not necessary, and (3) viscous products
Refrigeration is a significant and important cost in an ice cream and those with small pieces of solids can be processed with the
plant because of the relatively large refrigeration capacity required scraped-surface unit.
at low suction pressure (temperature). It is imperative to use effi- The direct steam method is subdivided into injection or infusion.
cient two-stage or three-stage compression systems at the highest In direct injection, steam is forced into the product, preferably in
suction pressures and lowest discharge pressures practical to small streamlets, with sufficient turbulence to minimize localized
achieve the desired product temperatures. overheating of the milk surfaces that the steam initially contacts. In
The effectiveness of the heat transfer surfaces is reduced by oil the infusion system, the product is sprayed into a steam chamber.
films, excessive ice and frost, scale, noncondensable gases, abnor- Advantages of infusion over injection are (1) slightly less steam
mal temperature differentials, clogged sprays, improper liquid cir- pressure required (there are exceptions), (2) less localized overheat-
culation, poor airflow, and foreign materials in the system. ing of a portion of the product, and (3) more flexibility for change
Adequate operations and maintenance procedures for all compo- of the product flow rate.
nents and systems should be in force to assure maximum perfor- The three important indirect systems are tubular, plate, and cyl-
mance and safety. inder with mechanical agitation. In the tubular type, the tube diam-
Process operation performance is also critical to the effective- eter must be small and the velocity of flow high to maximize heat
ness of the refrigeration system. Items that adversely affect ice transfer into the product.
cream freezing rates include dull scraper blades, mix viscosity, high The essential components for direct steam injection are storage
mix inlet temperatures, low ice cream discharge temperatures, over- or balance tank, timing pump, preheater (tubular or plate), steam
run below specifications, and incorrect mix composition. injector or infuser unit, holding unit, flow-diversion valve, vacuum
19.20 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

chamber, aseptic pump, aseptic homogenizer, plate or tubular sterilization and precooling. Homogenization may follow preheat-
cooler, and control instruments. The minimum items of equipment ing or precooling, but usually follows preheating in the indirect
for steam infusion are the same, except that the infuser is used to method. Efficient homogenization is very important in delaying the
heat the product from the preheat to the sterilization temperature. formation of a cream layer during storage.
The necessary equipment for the indirect systems is similar: stor- Sterilized plain milks (such as whole, 2%, and skim milk) are
age or balance tank, timing pump, preheater (tubular or plate type, most vulnerable to having a cooked off-flavor. Consequently, the
and preferably regenerative), homogenizer, final plate or tubular aim is to have low sterilization temperature and time consistent with
heater, holding tube or plate, flow-diversion valve, cooler (1 to 3 satisfactory keeping quality. The total cumulative heat treatment is
stages), and control instruments. The mechanically agitated heat directly related to the intensity of the cooked off-flavor. The total
exchanger replaces the tubes or plates in the final heating stage. processing time from preheating to cooling varies widely among
Otherwise, the same items of equipment are used for this system of systems. Most operations in the United States range from 30 to
sterilization. 200 s; in European UHT processes, it may be much longer.
In addition to the basic equipment, many combinations of essen- Several factors influence the minimum sterilization temperature
tial and supplemental items of UHT equipment are available. For and time needed to control adverse effects on flavor and physical,
example, one deviation in the indirect system is to use the pump por- chemical, and nutritional changes. The type of product, initial num-
tion of the homogenizer as a timing pump when it is installed after ber of spores and their heat resistance, total solids of the product,
the balance tank. The first stage of homogenization may occur after and pH are the most important factors. Obviously, the relationship is
preheating, and the second stage may occur after precooling. A direct for the number and the heat resistance of the spores. Total sol-
vacuum chamber may be placed in the line after preheating, for pre- ids also have a direct relationship, but for an acid pH, it is inverse.
cooling after sterilization, or installed in both locations. A con- Several terms are used in the designation of the influence of the
denser in the vacuum chamber allows the advantages of deaeration UHT on the microbiological population. Decimal reduction refers
without moisture losses that otherwise would occur in the indirect to a reduction of 90% (e.g., 100 to 10, or one log cycle). An example
system. In Europe, some indirect systems have a hold of several of a three-decimal reduction is 10 000 to 10. Decimal reduction
minutes, after preheating, to reduce the rate of solids accumulation time, or D value, is the time required to obtain a 90% decrease.
on the final heating surfaces of the tubes or plates. A bactofuge may Sterilizing effect, or bactericidal effect, is the number of decimal
be included in the line after preheating to reduce a high microbio- reductions obtained and expressed as a logarithmic reduction (log10
logical content, especially of the bacterial spores. initial count minus log10 final count). A sterilizing effect of six
Self-acting controls and other instrumentation are available to means one organism remaining from a million per mL (10 6), and
assure automatic operation in nearly every respect. Particularly seven would be one remaining in 10 mL (a final count of 10–1).
important is automatic control of the temperatures for preheating, The Z value is the temperature increase required to reduce the
sterilizing, and precooling in the vacuum chamber, and to some D value by one log cycle (90% reduction of microorganisms with
extent, of the final temperature before packaging. This may include the time held constant). The F value (thermal death time) is the
temperature-sensing elements to control heating and cooling and time required to reduce the number of microorganisms by a stated
pressure-sensing elements for operating pneumatic valves. The amount or to a specific number. For example, assuming D value of
cleaning cycle may be automated, beginning with a predetermined 36 s for Bacillus substilis spores at 120°C and a need to reduce the
solids accumulation on specific heating surfaces. Timers regulate spores from 106 per mL to < 1 per mL, the thermal treatment time
the various cleaning and rinsing steps. would be 6 ™ 36 s = 216 s (F value).
In some systems, one or more aseptic surge tanks are installed
between the UHT sterilizer and the AP equipment. Surge tanks per- Aseptic Packaging
mit continuation of the sterilizer should the operation of the AP Aseptic fillers are available for coated metal cans, glass bottles,
equipment be interrupted, or the continuation of the AP equipment plastic-paperboard-foil cartons, thermoformed plastic containers,
should sterilization be interrupted. It also makes the use of two or blow-molded plastic containers, and plastic pouches. The aseptic
more AP units easier than direct flow from the UHT sterilizer to the can equipment includes a can conveyor and sterilizing compart-
AP machines. ment, filling chamber, lid sterilizing compartment, sealing unit, and
When aseptic surge tanks are used, they must be constructed to instrument controls. The procedure sterilizes the cans with steam at
withstand the steam pressure required for equipment sterilization 290°C as they are conveyed, fills the cans by continuous flow,
and be provided with a sterile air venting system. Aseptic surge simultaneously sterilizes the lids, places the lids on the cans, and
tanks may be unloaded by applying sterile air to force product out to seals the lids onto the cans. Pressure control apparatus is not used
the AP equipment. The pressure for air unloading can be controlled for entry or exit of cans.
at a constant value, making uniform filling possible even when one A similar system is used for glass bottles or jars. The jars are con-
of several AP machines is removed from service. veyed into a turret chamber; air is removed by vacuum; the jars are
Aseptic surge tanks make it possible to hold bulk product, even then sterilized for 2 s with wet steam at 400 kPa (gage) and moved
for several days, until it is convenient to package it. into the filler. The temperature of the glass equalizes to 50°C and the
Basic Steps. After the formula is prepared and the product stan- filling takes place. Next, the transfer is to the capper for placement
dardized, the processing steps are (1) preheat to 65 to 75°C by a of sterile caps, which are screwed onto the jars. The filling and cap-
plate or tubular heat exchanger; (2) heat to a sterilization tempera- ping space is maintained at 260°C.
ture of 140 to 150°C; (3) hold for 1 to 20 s at sterilizing temperature; Several aseptic blowmold forming and filling systems have been
and (4) cool to 4.4 to 38°C, depending on product keeping quality developed. Each system is different, but the basic steps using mol-
needs. Cooling may be by one to three stages; generally two are ten plastic are (1) extruded into a parison, (2) extended to the bottom
used. The direct steam method requires at least two cooling stages. of the mold, (3) mold closed, (4) preblown with compressed air that
The first is flash cooling in a vacuum chamber to 65 to 75°C to inflates the plastic film into a bottle shape, (5) parison cut and the
remove moisture equal to the steam injected during sterilization. neck pinched, (6) final air application, (7) bottle filled and foam
The second stage reduces the temperature to within 10 to 38°C. A removed, (8) top sealed, and (9) mold opened and filled bottle
third stage is required in most plants if the temperature is lowered ejected.
additionally to 2 to 10°C. The basic steps in the manufacture of aseptic, thermoformed
The products with fat are homogenized to increase stability of plastic containers are as follows: (1) a sheet of plastic (e.g., polysty-
the fat emulsion. The direct method requires homogenization after rene) is drawn from a roll through the heating compartment and then
Dairy Products 19.21

multistamped into units, which constitute the containers; (2) these A good quality sterilized product has a pleasing, characteristic
units are conveyed to the filler, which is located in a sterile atmo- flavor and color that are similar to the pasteurized samples. The
sphere, and are filled; (3) a sheet of sterilized foil is heat sealed to cooked flavor should be slight, or negligible, with no unpleasant
the container tops; and (4) each container is separated by scoring aftertaste. The product should be free of microorganisms and
and cutting. adulterants such as insecticides, herbicides, and peroxide or other
One of the two aseptic systems for the plastic-paperboard-foil container residues. It should have good physical, sensory, and keep-
cartons draws the material from a roll through a concentrated hydro- ing quality.
gen peroxide bath to destroy the microorganisms. The peroxide is Deterioration in storage may be evaluated by holding samples at
removed by drawing the sheet between twin rolls, by exposure to 21, 32, 37 or 45°C for 1 or 2 weeks. The number of samples for stor-
ultraviolet light and hot air, or by superheated, sterilized air forced age testing should be selected statistically and should include sam-
through small slits at high velocity. The packaging material is drawn plings of the first and last of each product packaged during the
downward in a vertical, sterile compartment for forming, filling by processing day. In order to identify the source of microbiological
continuous flow, sealing, separation, and ejection. spoilage, continuous aseptic sampling into standard size containers
In the other plastic-paperboard-foil aseptic system, the prepared, after sterilization and/or just ahead of packaging may be practiced.
flat blanks are formed and the bottoms are heat sealed. In the next Sampling rate should be set to change containers each hour.
step, the inside surfaces are fogged with hydrogen peroxide. Steril- The rate of change in storage of sterilized milk products is
ized hot air dissipates the peroxide. The cartons are conveyed into directly related to the temperature. Commercial practice varies with
the aseptic filling and then into top-sealing compartments. The air storage ranging from 1.7°C to room temperature, which may go as
forced into these two areas is rendered devoid of microorganisms by high as 35°C or more. In plain milks, the cooked flavor may
high efficiency filters. decrease the first few days, and then remain at its optimum for 2 to
Operational Problems. Aseptic operational problems are 3 weeks at 21°C before gradually declining. When the milk is held
reduced by careful installation of satisfactory equipment. The at 21°C, a slight cream layer becomes noticeable in approximately
equipment should comply with 3-A Sanitary Standards. Milk and 2 weeks and slowly continues until much of the fat has risen to the
milk products that are processed to be commercially sterile and top. Thereafter, the cream layer becomes increasingly difficult to
aseptically packaged must also meet the Grade A Pasteurized Milk reincorporate or reemulsify.
Ordinance and be processed in accordance with 21 CFR Part 113, Viscosity increases slightly the first few weeks at 21°C and then
“Thermally processed low-acid foods packaged in hermetically remains fairly stable for 4 to 5 months. Thereafter, gelation gradu-
sealed containers.” Generally, the simplest system, with a minimum ally occurs. However, milks vary in stability to gelation depending
of equipment for product contact surfaces and processing time, is on such factors as feeds, stage of lactation, preheat treatment, and
desirable. It is specifically important to have as few pumps and non- homogenization pressure. The addition of sodium tetraphosphate to
welded unions as possible, particularly those with gaskets. The gas- some milks causes gelatin to develop more slowly.
kets and O-rings in unions, pumps, and valves are much more Occasionally, some sterilized milk products develop a sediment
difficult to clean and sterilize than are the smooth surfaces of cham- on the bottom of the container because of crystallization of complex
bers and tubing. Automatic controls, rather than manual attention, is salt compounds or sugars. Browning can also occur during storage.
generally more satisfactory. Usually, the off-flavors develop more rapidly and render the product
Complete cleaning and sterilizing of the processing and packag- unsalable before the off-color becomes objectionable.
ing equipment are essential. Milk solids accumulate rapidly on
heated surfaces; therefore, cleaning is necessary after 0.5 h of pro- Heat-Labile Nutrients
cessing for the tubular or plate UHT heat exchangers, although
cleaning after 3 to 4 h is more common. The cleaning practice for the The results reported by researchers on the effects of UHT ster-
sterilizer, filler, and accessory equipment usually involves the CIP ilization on the heat-sensitive constituents of milk products lack
method for the rinse and alkali cleaning cycle, rinse, acid cleaning consistency. The variability may be attributed to the analytical
cycle, and rinse. Some plants only periodically acid clean the storage methods and to the difference in total heat treatment among various
tanks and packaging equipment, e.g., once or twice a week. Steam UHT systems, especially in Europe. In a review, Van Eekelen and
sterilization just before processing is customary. At 160 to 170 kPa Heijne (1965) summarized the effect of UHT sterilization on milk
(absolute) of wet steam, 1.5 to 2.0 h (or a shorter time at higher steam as follows: slight or none for vitamins A, B2, and D, carotene, pan-
pressure) may be required. Water sterilized by steam injection or the tothenic acid, nicotinic acid, biotin, and calcium; and no decrease
indirect method can be used for rinsing and for the cleaning solution. in biological value of the proteins. The decreases were: 3 to 10%,
Survival of spores during UHT processing, or subsequent recon- thiamine; 0 to 30%, B6; 10 to 20%, B12; 25 to 40%, C; 10%, folic
tamination of the product before the container is sealed, is a constant acid; 2.4 to 66.7%, lysine; 34%, linoleic acid; and 13%, linolenic
threat. Inadequate sealing of the container also may be troublesome acid. Protein digestibility was decreased slightly. A substantial loss
with certain types of containers. Another source of poststerilization of vitamins C, B6, and B12 occurred during a 90-day storage.
contamination is airborne microorganisms. These may contact the Brookes (1968) reported that Puschel found that babies fed steril-
product through inadequate sterilization of air that enters the storage ized milk averaged a gain of 27 g per day, compared to 20 g for the
vat for the processed product or through air leaks into the product control group.
upstream of the sterilized product pumps or homogenizer, if a
reduced pressure is created. During packaging, air may contaminate EVAPORATED, SWEETENED
the inside of the container or the product itself during filling and CONDENSED, AND DRY MILK
sealing.
Evaporated Milk
Quality Control Raw milk intended for processing into evaporated milk should
Poor quality of raw materials must be avoided. The higher the have a heat stability quality with little and preferably no developed
spore count of the product before sterilization, the larger the spore acidity. As the milk is received it should be filtered and held cold in
survival number at a constant sterilization temperature and time. a storage tank. The milk fat is standardized to nonfat solids at the
Poor quality can also contribute to other product defects (off-flavor, ratio of 1:2.2785. The milk is preheated to 93 to 96°C for 10 to 20
short keeping quality) because of sensory, physical, or chemical min or 115 to 127°C for 60 to 360 s to reduce product denaturation
changes. Heat stability of the raw product must be considered. during the sterilizaton process. Moisture is removed by batch or
19.22 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

Table 12 Inversion Times for Cases of Evaporated Milk Table 13 Typical Steam Requirements for Evaporating
in Storage Water from Milk
Storage Temperature, °C Time No. of Steam Required,
Evaporating Effects MJ/kg water
32 1 month initially and each 15 days
27 1 to 2 months Single 2.9 to 2.3
21 2 to 3 months Double 1.4 to 1.1
Triple 0.90 to 0.80
15 3 to 6 months
Quadruple 0.68 to 0.56

(usually) continuous evaporation until the total solids have been

concentrated to 2.25 times the original content. temperature differentials, resulting in low steam requirements per
mass of water evaporated per area of heating surface. This type
The condensed product is pumped from the evaporator and, with
(falling film) has a rapid start-up and shutdown. Thermocompress-
or without additional heating, is homogenized at 14 to 21 MPa and
ing and mechanical compressing evaporators have the advantage
49 to 60°C. It is cooled to 7°C and held in storage tanks for restan-
of operating efficiently at lower temperatures, thus reducing the
dardization to not less than 7.9% milk fat and 25.9% total solids.
adverse effect on heat-sensitive constituents. Vapors removed from
The product is pumped to the packaging unit for filling the cans
the product are compressed and used as a source of heat for addi-
made from tin-coated sheet steel. The filled cans are conveyed con-
tional evaporation.
tinuously through a retort, whereby the product is rapidly heated
Plate-type evaporators are also in common use. They are similar
with hot water and steam to 118°C and held for 15 min to complete
to plate heat exchangers used for pasteurization in that they have a
the sterilization. Rapid cooling with water to 27 to 32°C follows.
frame and a number of plates gasketed to carry the product in a pas-
The evaporated milk is agitated while in the retort by the can move-
sage between two plates and the heating medium in adjacent pas-
ment. Application of labels and placement of cans in shipping car-
sages. They differ in that, in addition to ports for product, they have
tons are done automatically.
large ports to carry vapor to a vapor separator. Vapors flow from the
Storage at room temperature is common, but deterioration of fla- separator chamber to a condenser similar to those used for other
vor, body, and color is decreased by lowering the storage tempera- types of evaporators. Plate evaporators require less head space for
ture to 10 to 15°C. Relative humidity should be less than 50% to installation than other types, may be enlarged or decreased in capac-
reduce can and label deterioration. The recommended inversion of ity by a change in the number of plates, and offer a very efficient
cases during storage to reduce fat separation is shown in Table 12. heat exchange surface.
Equipment Operation. Positive pumps of the reciprocating
Sweetened Condensed Milk type are often used to obtain 20 kPa (absolute) in the chamber.
Sweetened condensed milk is manufactured similarly to evapo- Steam jet ejectors may be used for 17 kPa (absolute), for one stage;
rated milk in several aspects. One important difference, however, is two stages permit 6.5 kPa (absolute); and three stages, 0.4 kPa
that added sugar replaces heat sterilization to extend storage life. Fil- (absolute). Condensers between stages remove the heat and may
tered cold milk is held in tanks and standardized to 1:2.2942 (fat to reduce the amount of vapor for the following stage. Either a centrif-
nonfat solids). The milk is preheated to 63 to 71°C, homogenized at ugal or reciprocating pump may be used to remove water from the
17 MPa, and heating is continued to 82 to 93°C for 5 to 15 min or condenser. A barometric leg may also be placed at the bottom of a
to 116 to 149°C for 30 s to 5 min. The milk is condensed in a vacuum 10.3 m or longer condenser to remove the water by gravity.
pan to slightly higher than a 2:1 ratio. Liquid sugar (pasteurized) is
added at the rate of 18 to 20 kg/100 kg of condensed milk. Dry Milk and Nonfat Dry Milk
As the mixture is pumped from the vacuum pan, it is cooled There are two important methods of drying milk—spray and
through a heat exchanger to 30°C and held in a vat with an agitator. drum. Each has modifications, such as the foam spray and the vac-
Nuclei for proper lactose crystallization are provided by adding uum drum drying methods. Spray drying exceeds by far the other
finely powdered lactose (200-mesh). The product is cooled slowly, methods for drying milk, and the largest volume of dried dairy prod-
taking an hour to reach 24°C with agitation. Then cooling is contin- uct is skim milk.
ued more rapidly to 15°C. Improper crystallization forms large crys- In the manufacture of spray-dried nonfat dry milk (NDM), cold
tals, which cause sandiness (gritty texture). The sweetened milk is preheated to 32°C and separated, and the skim milk for low-
condensed milk is pumped to a packaging unit for filling into retail heat NDM is pasteurized at 71.7°C for 15 s or slightly higher and/or
cans and sealing. Labeling of cans and placement in cases is mech- longer. It is condensed with caution to restrict total heat denatur-
anized, similar to the process used for evaporated milk. The product ation of the serum protein to less than 10%. This requires using a
is usually stored at room temperature, but the keeping quality is low-temperature evaporator or operating the first effect of a regular
improved if the storage temperature is below 21°C. double effect evaporator at a reduced temperature. After increasing
Condensing Equipment. Both batch and continuous equipment the total solids to 40 to 45%, the condensed skim milk is continu-
are used to reduce the moisture content of fluid milk products. The ously pumped from the evaporator through a heat exchanger to
continuous types have single, double, triple, or more evaporating increase the temperature to 63°C. The concentrated skim milk is fil-
effects. The improvement in efficiency with multiple effects is tered and enters a positive pump operating at 21 to 28 MPa, which
shown in Table 13 by the reduction in steam required to evaporate forces the product through a nozzle with a very small orifice, pro-
1 kg of water. ducing a mist-like spray in the drying chamber. Hot air of 143 to
A simple evaporator is the horizontal tube. In this design, the 204°C or higher dries the milk spray rapidly. Nonfat dry milk with
tubes are in the lower section of a vertical chamber. During opera- 2.5 to 4.0% moisture is conveyed from the drier by pneumatic or
tion, water vapor is removed from the top and the product, from mechanical means, then cooled, sifted, and packaged. Packages for
the bottom of the unit. For the vertical short-tube evaporator, the industrial users are 22.7- or 45.5-kg bags.
chamber design may be similar to the horizontal tube. The long- High-heat nonfat dry milk is used principally for bread and other
tube vertical unit may be designed to operate with a rising or fall- bakery products. The manufacturing procedure is the same as for
ing film in the tubes. The latter is common. For the falling film, the low-heat NDM except that (1) the pasteurization temperature is well
product Reynolds number should be greater than 2000 for good above the minimum (e.g., 79.4°C for 20 s or higher); (2) after pas-
heat transfer. Falling-film units may have a high k-factor at low teurization, the skim milk is heated to 85 to 91°C for 15 to 20 min,
Dairy Products 19.23

condensed; and (3) the concentrate is heated to 71 to 74°C ahead of temperature. Roughly 5.0 to 7.2 MJ of steam are needed to evapo-
filtering and then is spray dried, similar to the process for low-heat rate 1 kg of moisture in the drier.
NDM. Storage of low- or high-heat NDM is usually at room tem-
perature. ( 1 – R ⁄ 100 ) ( t 1 – t2 )
Dry Whole Milk. The raw whole milk in storage tanks is stan- Thermal efficiency = --------------------------------------------------
t1 – t0
dardized at a ratio of fat to nonfat solids of 1:2.769. The milk is pre-
heated to 71°C, filtered or clarified, and homogenized at 71°C and
21 MPa on the first stage and 5 MPa on the second stage. The heat- where
ing continues to 93°C with a 180-s hold. The milk is drawn into the R = radiation loss, percentage of temperature decrease in drier
evaporator and the total solids are condensed to 45%. The product t1 = inlet air temperature, °C
is continuously pumped from the evaporator, reheated in a heat t2 = outlet air temperature, °C
exchanger to 71°C, and spray dried to 1.5 to 2.5% moisture. Dry t0 = ambient air temperature, °C
whole milk (DWM) is cooled (not below dew point) and sifted
through a 12-mesh screen. For industrial use within 2 or 3 months, Most of the dried particles are separated from the drying air by
the dry whole milk is packaged in 22.7-kg bags and held at room gravity and fall to the bottom of the drier or the collectors. The fine
temperature or, preferably, well below 21°C. particles are removed by directing the air-powder mixture through
In order to retard oxidation, the dry whole milk may be contain- bag filters or a series of cyclone collectors. Air movement in the
cyclone is designed to provide a centrifugal force for separation of
erized in large metal drums or in customer-size cans unsealed and
the product particles. In general, several small-diameter cyclones
subjected to 6.5 kPa (absolute). Less than 2% oxygen in the head
space of the package after a week of storage is a common aim. The with a fixed pressure drop will be more efficient for removal of the
fines than two large units.
oxygen desorption from the entrapped content in lactose is slow,
and two vacuum treatments may be necessary with a 7- to 10-day The drier has sensing elements to continuously record the hot air
interval between them. Warm DWM directly from the drier has a (inlet) temperature and the moist air (outlet) temperature. Adjust-
faster oxygen desorption rate than after it has cooled. Nitrogen is ments of either of these temperatures during drying is done with a
used to restore atmospheric pressure after each vacuum treatment. steam valve or gas inlet valve.
After the hold period for the first vacuum treatment, the DWM in
the drums is dumped into a hopper, mechanically packaged into Drum Drying
retail size metal cans, and given the second vacuum treatment. Relatively little skim milk or whole milk has been drum dried in
Foam spray drying permits the total solids to be increased to the last few years. Drum-dried products, when reconstituted, have a
50 to 60% in the evaporator prior to drying. Gas, compressed air, cooked or scorched flavor compared with the spray-dried products.
or nitrogen is distributed, by means of a small mixing device, into The heat treatment during drying denatures the protein and results in
the condensed product between the high-pressure pump and the a high insolubility index. In preparation for drying, the skim milk is
spray nozzle. A regulator and needle valve are used to adjust the separated or the whole milk is standardized to 1:2.769 (e.g., 3.2 fat
gas flow into the product. Gas usage is approximately 3.7 L/L of and 8.86 SNF). The product is filtered or clarified, homogenized
concentrated product. Otherwise, the procedure is the same as for after preheating, and pasteurized. If the resulting dry product is
regular drying. Foam spray-dried NDM has poor sinkability but intended for bakery purposes, the milk is heated to approximately
good reconstitutability in water. The density is roughly half that of 85°C for 10 min. The fluid product may or may not be concentrated
regular spray-dried NDM. The additional equipment for foam by moisture evaporation to not more than 2 to 1. The product is then
spray drying is limited to a compressor, storage drum, pressure dried on the drum(s)—skim milk to not more than 4.0% and whole
regulator, and a few accessory items. The cost is relatively small, milk to not more than 2.5% moisture. A blade pressed against the
especially if compressed air is used. drum scrapes off the sheet of dried product. An auger conveys the
Spray driers are made in various shapes and sizes with one or dry material to the hammer mill, where it is pulverized and sifted
many spray nozzles. The horizontal spray driers may be box shaped through an 8-mesh screen. Drum dried milks are usually packaged
or a teardrop design. The vertical spray driers are usually cone or at the sifter into 23- to 45-kg kraft bags with a plastic liner.
silo shaped. A double-drum drier is more common than a single drum for dry-
Heat Transfer Calculations. The typical atomization in U.S. ing milk. Cast iron is used more often in drum construction than
spray-drying plants is produced by a high-pressure pump that stainless steel or alloy steel and chrome plate steel. The knife metal
forces the liquid through a small orifice in a nozzle designed to must be softer than the drum. In the double drum unit, the drums are
give a spreading effect as it emerges from the nozzle. Single-noz- spaced from 0.5 to 1.1 mm apart. End plates on the drums create a
zle driers have an orifice opening diameter of 2.7 to 4.5 mm. The reservoir into which the product, at 85°C, is sprayed the length of
diameter for multinozzle driers is 0.64 to 1.32 mm. In Europe, the the drums. The steam-heated drums boil the product continuously
spinning disk is the most common means of atomizing in milk dry- as a thin film adheres to the revolving drums. After about 0.875 of
ing plants. Droplet sizes of 50 to 250 mm in diameter are usual. one revolution, the film of product is dry and is scraped off. Drums
Droplet size has an inverse relationship to the rate of drying at a normally revolve between 0.2 to 0.32 r/s. The steam pressure inside
uniform hot air temperature. Larger droplets require a higher air the drums is approximately 500 to 600 kPa, as indicated by the pres-
drying temperature and/or longer exposure than the smaller ones. sure gage at the inlet of the condensate trap.
Other essential steps in spray drying are (1) moving, filtering, The steam pressure is adjusted for drying the product to the
and heating the air; (2) incorporating the hot air with the product desired moisture content. Superheated steam will cause scorching
droplets; and (3) removing the moisture vapors and separating the of the product. Condensate inside the drums must be continuously
moist air from the product particles. After passing through a rough removed, while the exterior vapors from the product are exhausted
or intermediate filter, the air is heated indirectly by steam coils or from the building with a hood and fan system. Capacity, dried prod-
directly with a gas flame to 120 to 260°C. During the short drying uct quality, and moisture content depend on many factors. Some
exposure time, the air temperature drops to 70 to 93°C. important ones are: steam pressure in drums, rotation speed of
Thermal efficiency is the percentage of the total heat used to drums, total solids of product, smoothness of drum surface and
evaporate the water during the drying process. The efficiency is sharpness of the knives, properly adjusted gap between the two
improved by recovery of heat from the exhaust air, decreased radi- drums, liquid level in drum reservoir, and product temperature as it
ation loss, and high drying air temperature versus a low outlet air enters the reservoir.
19.24 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

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