CHAPTER 17

POULTRY PRODUCTS
Poultry Processing .................................................................. 17.1 Poultry Plant Sanitation .......................................................... 17.7
Chilling ................................................................................... 17.1 Tenderness Control ................................................................. 17.8
Decontamination of Broiler Carcasses ................................... 17.3
Distribution and Retail Holding Refrigeration ....................... 17.8
Further Processing of Poultry ................................................ 17.3
Freezing .................................................................................. 17.4 Preserving Quality in Storage and Marketing ........................ 17.8
Packaging ............................................................................... 17.7 Thawing and Use .................................................................... 17.9

P OULTRY and broilers in particular are the most widely grown

farm animal on earth. Two major challenges currently face the
poultry industry: (1) keeping food safe from human pathogens car-
ried by poultry in small numbers that could multiply sometimes to
dangerous levels during processing, handling, and meal prepara-
tion; and (2) developing environmentally sound, economical waste
management facilities. Innovative engineering and refrigeration are
a part of the solutions for these issues.

POULTRY PROCESSING
Poultry processing is composed of three major segments:
• Dressing, where the birds are placed on moving line, killed, and
defeathered.
• Eviscerating, where the viscera are removed, the carcass is
chilled, and the birds are inspected and graded.
• Further processing, where the largest portion of the carcasses
are cut up, deboned, and processed into various products. The
products are packaged and stored chilled or frozen.
A schematic poultry processing flowsheet is described in Figure
1. Today’s highly automated poultry processing plant processes 1 to
3 million birds per week. Mountney (1976) shows a schematic of a
plant that was standard in the United States in the 1970s and now is
in operation around the globe. It processes 120,000 birds per week
(1500 birds per hour, 2 shifts, 5 days). Brant et al. (1982),
USDA/UC Davis (1975) (turkeys), and USDA/ Univ. of Georgia
(1970) (broilers) provide guidelines for design and operation of
poultry processing plants.

CHILLING
Poultry products in the United States may be chilled to −3.5°C
or frozen to lower than −3.5°C. Means of refrigeration include ice,
mechanically cooled water or air, dry ice (carbon dioxide sprays), Fig. 1 Processing Sequence of Fresh Poultry
and liquid nitrogen sprays. Continuous chilling and freezing sys-
tems, with various means for conveying the product, are common. waste water in an environmentally sound manner have encouraged
According to USDA regulations (1990), poultry carcasses with a some operators to consider a return to air chillers.
mass of less than 1.8 kg should be chilled to 4.5°C or below in less Continuous immersion slush ice chillers, which are fed auto-
than 4 h, carcasses of 1.8 to 3.6 kg in less than 6 h, and carcasses of matically from the end of the evisceration conveyer line, have
more than 3.6 kg in less than 8 h. replaced slush ice tank chilling, a batch process. In general, tanks
Slow air chilling was considered adequate for semiscalded, are only used to hold chilled carcasses in an iced condition prior to
uneviscerated poultry in the past. But with the transformation to cutting up, or to age prior to freezing.
eviscerated, ready-to-cook poultry, sometimes subscalded, air chill- The following types of continuous chillers are used:
ing was replaced by chilling in tanks of slush ice. Immersion chill-
• Continuous drag chillers. Suspended carcasses are pulled
ing is more rapid than air chilling, it prevents dehydration, and it through troughs containing agitated cool water and ice slush.
affects a net absorption of water of from 4% up to 12%. Objections • Slush ice chillers. Carcasses are pushed by a continuous series of
to this mass gain from external water, a concern that water chillers
power-driven rakes.
can be recontamination points, and the high cost of disposing of the • Concurrent tumble systems. Free-floating carcasses pass
through horizontally rotating drums suspended in tanks of succes-
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 10.9, Refrigeration Appli- sively cool water and ice slush. The movement of the carcasses is
cation for Foods and Beverages. regulated by the flow rate of recirculated water in each tank.
17.2 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

• Counterflow tumble chillers. Carcasses are carried through

tanks of cool water and ice slush by horizontally rotating drums
with helical flights on the inner surface of the drums
• Rocker vat systems. Carcasses are conveyed by the recirculating
water flow and agitation is accomplished by an oscillating, longi-
tudinally oriented paddle. Carcasses are removed automatically
from the tanks by continuous elevators.
These chillers are capable of reducing the internal temperature of
broilers from 32 to 4.5°C in 20 to 40 min, at processing speeds of
5000 to 10 000 birds/h. USDA regulations require a minimum over-
flow of 1.9 L of water per broiler from continuous immersion chill-
ers and 3.8 L per turkey. Chilling water must not be higher than
18°C in the warmest part of the chilling system.
Adjuncts and replacements for continuous immersion chilling
should be used, if available, because immersion chilling is believed
to be a major cause of bacterial contamination. Water spray chilling,
air blast chilling, carbon dioxide snow, or liquid nitrogen spray are
alternatives, but with the following limitations:
• Liquid water has a much higher heat transfer coefficient than any
gas at the same temperature of cooling medium, so water immer-
sion chilling is more rapid and efficient than gas chilling.
• Water spray chilling, without recirculation, requires much greater
amounts of water than immersion chilling.
Fig. 2 Broiler and Coolant Temperatures in a
• Product appearance should be equivalent for water immersion or
Countercurrent Immersion Chiller
spray chilling, but inferior for air blast, carbon dioxide, or nitro-
gen chilling, due to surface dehydration.
• Gas chilling without packaging could cause a 1 to 2% loss of Air or gas chilling is commonly used in Europe. In air-blast
moisture, while water immersion chilling permits from 4 to 15% chilling and evaporative chilling, heat is conducted partly by the air-
moisture uptake, and water spray chilling up to 4% moisture to-carcass contact and partly by evaporation of moisture from the
uptake. (Carpenter et al. (1979) reported on the effect of salt brine carcass surface. The amount of water removed by evaporation
chilling on dripless ice-packed broiler carcasses.) depends on the carcass temperature, but even at −10°C it is about
1%. The apparent heat transfer coefficient ranges from 50 to 200
The temperature of the coolant and the degree of contact between W/(m2 ·K). Major disadvantages of air chilling are slow cooling,
the coolant and the product are most important in transferring heat dripping from one bird to another in multitiered chillers, and loss of
from the poultry carcass surface to the cooling water. The heat trans- mass during chilling.
fer coefficient between the carcass and the water can be as high as
Cryogenic gases are generally used in long insulated tunnels
2000 W/(m2 ·K). Mechanical agitation, injection of air, or both can
through which the product is conveyed on an endless belt. Some
improve the heat transfer rate (VeerKamp 1995). VeerKamp and
freezing of the outer layer (crust freezing) usually occurs, and the
Hofmans (1974) expressed heat removed from poultry carcasses by
temperature is allowed to equilibrate to the final, intended chill tem-
the following empirical relationship.
perature. Some plants use a combination of continuous water
∆Q immersion chilling to reach 2 to 5°C and a cryogenic gas tunnel to
--------- = ( – 0.009 log h + 0.73 ) log θ reach −2°C. The water-chilled poultry, either whole or cut up, is
∆Q i
generally packaged before gas chilling to prevent dehydration.
– ( 0.194 log h – 0.187 ) log m + 0.564 log h – 2.219 (1) Water absorption by the carcass in water immersion or spray
chilling, and possible loss of water during gas chilling, are impor-
where tant economic and quality factors. USDA regulations set maximum
h = apparent heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2 ·K) levels of water absorption and retention varying with mass and type
m = mass of the carcass, kg of product and specify testing procedures and bases for rejection or
θ = cooling time, s retention of product. The set values range from 4.3% mass increase
∆Qi = maximum heat removal, J for 12 kg and over consumer-packaged whole turkeys to 12% for
Figure 2 shows time-temperature curves in a commercial counter- ice-packed poultry at the end of the drip line. Of the water absorbed,
flow chiller and compares calculated and measured values. very little appears in the muscle; most is held in the connective tis-
With adequately washed carcasses and adequate chiller overflow sue in the skin and between skin and flesh. For example, increases
in a direction counterflow to the carcasses, the bacterial count on in percentage of moisture due to water immersion chilling were
carcasses should be reduced by continuous water immersion chill- reported from 0.5 to 2% for muscle and 10 to 12% for skin.
ing. However, incidence of a particular low level contaminant, such Kotula et al. (1960) compared moisture uptake and drainage
as Salmonella, may increase during continuous water immersion loss for air-agitated slush ice tank chilling and for four mechanical
chilling. Such transfer of microbes can be controlled by chlorinating continuous immersion slush ice chillers. Immediately after chill-
the chill water. ing, the total moisture uptake including 2 to 3% by prechill wash-
Spray chilling without recirculation has reduced bacterial sur- ing ranged from 7% for 2 to 4 h of tank chilling to 17% for a
face counts 85 to 90% (Peric et al. 1971). Microbe transfer by spray counterflow tumble continuous immersion water-ice chiller. After
chilling is unlikely. Chilling with air, carbon dioxide, or nitrogen draining, shipping, and a final 30-min drain, all uptakes ranged
presents no obvious microbiological hazards, although good sani- from 5 to 7%. Initial uptakes were much greater in a counterflow
tary practices are essential. If the surface of the carcass freezes as a tumble system for carcasses with thigh skin area cut compared to
part of the chilling process, bacterial load may be reduced as much uncut, i.e., 18 versus 12%. After shipping and draining, the resid-
as 90%. ual uptakes were 7 and 5%.
Poultry Products 17.3

Although soluble solids are lost from the carcass to the chill FURTHER PROCESSING OF POULTRY
water in immersion chilling, no evidence exists that, under accepted
Most chickens and turkeys, for both chilled and frozen distribu-
chilling practices, any appreciable loss of flavor or other desirable
tion, are cut up in the processing plant. More than 90% of the broil-
qualities occurs.
ers in the United States are sold as cut-up products produced at the
A major disadvantage of water chilling is extensive dripping in processing plant. The cutting procedure is almost fully automatic as
storage. Frozen carcasses, in particular, drip significantly during the carcass is reduced to the various parts. Assembly of the parts
thawing. Also, water chilled poultry looses more moisture during into a final product is still largely manual as employees place the
cooking and has poorer eating quality than evaporatively cooled appropriate parts into a foam plastic tray.
poultry. The European Union requires that water uptake in broilers A popular cut for broilers is a nine-piece cut, usually two drum-
not to exceed 6% and dripping loss not to exceed 5.2%. In the sticks, two thighs, two wings, two breast halves, and back. How-
United States, USDA allows up to 8% uptake of water. ever, there are at least eight different cutting patterns, involving
Ice requirements per bird for continuous immersion chilling greater subdivision of breast and leg portion. Backs and necks are
depend on entering carcass temperatures and mass, entering water often mechanically deboned, giving a comminuted slurry that is fro-
temperature, and exit water and carcass temperature. For a counter- zen in rectangular flat cartons containing about 27 kg. Turkey
flow system, 15°C entering water and 18°C exit water, 0.25 kg of breasts, legs, and drumsticks are available as separate film-pack-
ice per kilogram of carcass is a reasonable estimate. This may be aged parts, and turkey thigh meat is marketed as a ground product
compared to a requirement of 0.5 to 1 kg of ice per kilogram of poul- resembling hamburger. Partial cooking and breading and battering
try for static ice slush chilling in tanks. For continuous counterflow of broiler parts is done in poultry processing plants.
water immersion chillers, if the plant water temperature is consid-
erably above 18°C, it may be economical to use a heat exchanger Unit Operations
between incoming plant water and exiting (overflow) chill water.
The following types of equipment used for further processing of
Ice production for chilling is usually a complete in-plant opera-
poultry products are also used in red meat facilities.
tion, with large piping and pumps to convey the small crystalline ice
Size Reduction and Mixing Machines. Several types of size-
or ice slush to the point of use. To reduce the use of ice, some
reduction and mixing equipment are available.
immersion chillers are double-walled and depend on circulating
refrigerant to chill the water in the chiller. The chiller has an ammo- • Grinding. Meat is conveyed by an auger and forced through a
nia or refrigerant lubricant between the outer and inner jacket with grinding plate.
the inner jacket serving as the heat transfer medium. Agitation or a • Flaking is done by cutting blades locked at a specific angle on a
defrost cycle must be provided during periods of slack production to rotating drum. Flaking does not extensively break muscle cells as
prevent the chiller from freezing up. in grinding and moisture loss and dripping are limited. Product
Chilling and holding to about −2°C, the point of incipient freez- texture resembles muscle texture.
ing, gives the product a much longer shelf life compared with a • Chopping is generally conducted in a silent cutter equipment.
product held at ice-pack temperatures (Stadelman 1970). The meat is placed in a rotating bowl with ice, which is used to
keep the temperature low. Vertical rotating blades keep chopping
DECONTAMINATION OF BROILER CARCASSES the moving meat. The length of the chopping time determines the
particle size. The end product is used in hot dogs and sausages.
The contamination of poultry meat by foodborne pathogens dur- • Mixing and tumbling and injecting machines produce a uni-
ing processing can be potentially dangerous if microbes are allowed form product out of the various meats and non-meat ingredients
to multiply and reach critical numbers and/or produce poisonous such as salt, sugar, dairy or egg proteins, spices, and flavorings.
toxins (Zeidler 1996, 1997). The Hazard Analysis of Critical Con- Together with salt, mixing also helps extract myosin, which acts
trol Points (HACCP) system (described in Chapter 11) was specif- likes a glue in holding the product together.
ically developed for each food to eliminate or keep pathogen levels • Injection machines are used to insert an accurate and repeatable
very low so food-related illnesses cannot break out. Appropriate volume of liquid that contain salt and flavorings to large chunks
refrigeration and strict temperature control throughout the food of muscle meats such as turkey breasts or whole turkey carcasses.
channel is vital to suppress microbial growth in high moisture per- The procedure disperses these ingredients better and faster than
ishable foods and meats in particular. soaking in brine and marinade. It also protects the meat from dry-
Decontamination steps are now being added at the end of the pro- ing during cooking, especially at home.
cessing line just before packaging and/or after packaging. Numer- • Tumblers shaped like concrete mixers tumble injected large meat
ous methods have developed and some are implemented (Bolder chunks mostly under vacuum. The tumbling helps distribute
1997 and Mulder 1995), among them lactic acid (1%), hydrogen injected brine and spices throughout the meat.
peroxide (0.5%), and trisodium phosphate (TSP) sprays. Ozone
(O3) is a strong oxidizer and can be used to decontaminate chiller Shaping Forms and Dimension. These machines establish the
and scalding water; however, it is very corrosive. form, size, and desired mass of the size-reduced poultry meats.
Gamma irradiation of poultry is approved in many countries, • Stuffing machines are used to make hot dogs and sausages by
including the United States; and products are available for sale in stuffing meat emulsion into the casing. Modern stuffing machines
few outlets. The public’s fear of this technique limit sales. However, operate under vacuum to eliminate bubbles and other textural
the threat of food poisoning is reducing objections to irradiated defects. In recent years, dough products or muscle meats are
foods because irradiation is a very effective method that can kill stuffed with other meats, fruit or vegetable pieces, etc. These
95.5% of non-spore forming pathogens (Stone 1995). A dose of 25 products are produced by equipment that was originally designed
kGy is the most suitable for poultry. to stuff doughnuts with jelly.
Steam under vacuum effectively kills 99% of the surface bacte- • Forming machines are used to make hamburgers and nuggets.
ria on beef and pork carcasses and has started to be used commer- They are basically presses that force the meat through a plate with
cially. In this continuous system, the carcass is carried on a rail to a holes of various sizes and shapes.
chamber. A vacuum is pulled and steam at 143°C is applied for 25 • Metal molds. Many products such as turkey rolls and luncheon
ms. Upon breaking of the vacuum, the carcass surface is cooled to meats are made from many meat chunks which are placed into
prevent the surface from cooking. USDA engineers developed metal molds and cooked to produce a restructured log. The meat
steam equipment for poultry in 1996. is chilled in the molds before being released.
17.4 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

• Coating. Batter and breading give the product a uniform shape as darker frozen appearance than those chilled in ice slush before pack-
well as higher palatability and mass. The coating is conducted by aging and blast freezing. However, this procedure has the serious
carrying the product on belts through ingredients that coat the disadvantage that the duration of holding above freezing tempera-
products. The products are fried immediately after. tures may be reduced to an amount inadequate for optimum tender-
ization. This concern is eliminated using the MTPS described in the
Cooking Techniques. Many meat products are produced as
Tenderness Control section. The factor of finish, or amount of fat in
ready-to-eat meals that need warming only or are eaten cold. These
the skin layer, can exert a much greater beneficial effect on frozen
products are fully cooked in the plant by various methods. Other
appearance than any possible changes in processing or freezing
products are produced as ready-to-cook and skip the cooking step.
practices.
• Smoking/cooking is the most popular method of meat cooking. USDA regulations now define frozen poultry as cooled to −
Here, smoke from slow-burning wood outside the cooking cham- 3.5°C or lower. This rule prevents the practice of cooling meat to
ber flows over the hanging product. To eliminate some smoke above −20°C, thawing it in destination, and selling it as fresh. Poul-
carcinogenic compounds and to accelerate the process, liquid try that is frozen to less than −20°C is now called deep frozen.
smoke is used to treat the product before cooking (Lazar 1997). The freezing rate of diced cooked chicken meat does affect the
Smoking is done best on a dry, uncooked surface, which better quality of the frozen meat. Hamre and Stadelman (1967a) reported
absorbs the smoke ingredients. Smokehouses are generally the that cryogenic freezing procedures were desirable as the resulting
bottleneck of the process and their high capital cost and large size color was lighter, but too rapid a freezing rate resulted in a shattering
limits the number of units in the plant. Every product is cooked to of the meat cubes. The freeze-drying rates for rapidly frozen mate-
a specific internal temperature, commonly ranged between 63 rial were slower than for products frozen by slower methods. Hamre
and 80°C, followed by immediate chilling by water showers from and Stadelman (1967b) indicated that tenderness of freeze-dried
sprinklers located in the cooking chamber. chicken after rehydration was affected by freezing rate prior to dry-
• Continuous hot air ovens are used to cook hamburgers and ing. Liquid nitrogen spray or carbon dioxide snow freezing were
chicken breast products. These ovens accelerate cooking and selected as preferred methods for overall quality of diced cooked
reduce labor compared to batch-type equipment. Wireless, solid- chicken meat to be freeze-dried.
state temperature monitoring devices that travel with the product
optimize the cooking process and provide cooking records. Freezing Methods
• Cooking in water bath is a fast and low-cost way to cook meats Poultry may be frozen between refrigerated double-walled
due to better heat transfer than in air cooking. The product is pro- plates, in a blast of refrigerated air, by immersion in a refrigerated
tected from the water by waterproof plastic packaging. Most liquid, or by a shower of liquefied gas such as nitrogen. IQF (indi-
operations are batch-type. vidual quick frozen) freezing with CO2 is also used, particularly in
• Frying provides higher palatability at the cost of increasing fat preparing for freeze drying. Rectangularly packaged, cut-up poultry
content. Frying provides crispiness as the hot oil above 100°C can be frozen in multiplate freezers within several hours. Chapter 15
replaces the water in the skin, batter, and breading. Frying is a fast describes commercial freezing equipment.
method of cooking as the heat transfer of hot oil is higher than that Air Blast Tunnel Freezers. Most whole, ready-to-cook birds are
of water frozen in air blast tunnel freezers, with air temperatures ranging
• Microwave heating is used in poultry plants to thaw incoming from −25 to −40°C and air velocities of 1.5 to 5 m/s and up. It is
frozen products rapidly. Cooking by microwave is limited despite desirable to have air temperatures at −35°C or below during opera-
the advantage of short cooking times due to the inability of the tion and air velocities over the product surfaces of at least 3 m/s. To
microwave oven to crisp and brown meats. obtain high air velocity over the product, the blast tunnel should be
• Rotisserie is a fast growing cooking technique because it does not completely loaded across its cross section, with proper spacing of
add fat and provides superior taste. Its main disadvantages are the units of the product to assure airflow around all sides and no
moisture loss, slow cooking, and flavor deterioration a short time large openings to permit bypassing of the airstream. In some cases,
after cooking. the whole bird may be packed into cartons or boxes, and the cartons
stacked on pallets in the blast tunnel, with spacing between layers
FREEZING and between cartons in the same layer to permit adequate airflow
and freezing rate.
Effect on Product Quality However, as mentioned, freezing rates required to give a suffi-
Rapid freezing is essential to obtain satisfactorily light appear- ciently light frozen appearance are so high for birds scalded at ele-
ance in certain types of frozen poultry (van den Berg and Lentz vated temperatures and immature turkeys that modified freezing
1958). Birds scalded at 60°C and above completely lose their outer methods are necessary. Boxes may be left open during freezing, or
layer of skin during normal machine picking and become particu- they may be constructed with holes or cutouts on the ends, or, best
larly susceptible to the development of a dark frozen appearance if of all, the individual, bagged birds may be frozen on open racks or
not frozen rapidly. Also, immature fryer-roaster turkeys, which shelves to provide maximum airflow and freezing rate. If freezing
have a thin, practically fat-free skin, are naturally dark and require rates in excess of those possible in air blast tunnels are required,
a rapid rate of freezing to assure a light, pleasing frozen appearance. immersion freezing may be considered.
Air blast tunnels operating at air temperatures ranging from −30 Freezing by Direct Contact. Low-temperature brine or other
to −40°C and at air velocities of 2.5 m/s or more provide rapid freez- liquids such as glycols are frequently used to freeze poultry by
ing. In an evaluation of various factors contributing to freezing rate direct contact. Esselen et al. (1954) found that the freezing time per
and frozen appearance, Klose and Pool (1956) compared freezing 0.5 kg of packaged ready-to-cook birds immersed in −29°C brine
on open shelves versus freezing in boxes and found that lower air was in the range of 20 to 30 min. In −29°C calcium chloride brine,
blast temperature and higher air blast velocity were important, in times for the interior to reach −9°C for warm eviscerated, packaged
that order. At an air blast temperature of −30°C or below, increasing broilers, 5.5 kg turkeys, and 11.4 kg turkeys were approximately
air blast velocity beyond 3 m/s had little beneficial effect. Also at 1.5, 5, and 7 h, respectively. Lentz and van den Berg (1957) have
6.5 m/s, decreasing air-blast temperature from −30 to −35°C pro- evaluated factors affecting freezing time and frozen appearance of
duced almost no additional improvements in frozen appearance. poultry. Immersion freezing at −29 °C produced a lightness of
Birds placed in the blast freezer immediately after evisceration and appearance that could be matched by air blast freezing only at a
packaging and while still warm did not develop an appreciably temperature of −75°C. Combinations of immersion freezing and air
Poultry Products 17.5

blast freezing were tested. A minimum immersion time at −29°C of

20 min for chickens and 40 min for turkeys was necessary to obtain
a white appearance, typical of immersion freezing, in birds subse-
quently frozen on open shelves in a −29°C, 1.5 to 2.5 m/s air blast.
The light-colored chalk-like appearance of immersion frozen poul-
try was maintained indefinitely in −29°C storage, but darkened
after 6 weeks at −18°C or 2 weeks at −6.7°C.
Comparison of various liquids (methanol, salt brines, and gly-
cols) that might be used in immersion freezing revealed that freez-
ing times depended mainly on viscosity of the liquids and were
maximum in glycerol and minimum in calcium chloride brine.
Increased agitation decreased freezing times in the surface layers by
as much as 50%. Spraying the liquid was as effective in reducing
freezing times as the highest rate of agitation used. Advantages of
immersion freezing are lighter, more pleasing appearance; high rate
of heat transfer that makes a line operation feasible; lower initial and
upkeep costs than air blast; and possible use in combination with
subsequent air freezing. Possible disadvantages include lack of uni-
formity of frozen appearance, development of leaks due to pinpoint
holes or cracks in packaging film, the question of acceptance of the
chalk-white birds, and lack of versatility for freezing all types of
material.
Typical freezing rate curves are shown in Figures 3 to 7, which
illustrate the effect of bird size and depth below skin surface, tem-
perature and velocity of the cooling medium, and type of medium
(air versus liquid). Pflug (1957) reviews the relative efficiencies and
requirements for air and liquid immersion freezing and the critical
importance of the conductance of the coolant-product interfacial
film, citing a film heat transfer coefficient of 17 W/(m2 ·K) for air at
−30°C and 2.5 m/s, compared to 170 W/(m2 ·K) for sodium chloride
Fig. 4 Relation Between Freezing Time and Air Velocity
brine at −20°C and a velocity of 0.025 m/s. Tables 1 and 2 list phys- (van den Berg and Lentz 1958)
ical properties of poultry related to refrigeration.

Note: For 9.5 kg, bronze tom turkeys on shelves in air blast.

Fig. 3 Relation Between Poultry Freezing Time Fig. 5 Temperature During Freezing of Packaged,
and Air Temperature Ready-to-Cook Turkeys
(van den Berg and Lentz 1958) (Klose and Pool 1956)
17.6 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

Table 1 Thermal Properties of Ready-to-Cook Poultry

Property Value Reference
Specific heat, above freezing 2.94 kJ/(kg·K) Pflug (1957)
Specific heat, below freezing 1.55 kJ/(kg·K) Pflug (1957)
Latent heat of fusion 247 kJ/kg Pflug (1957)
Freezing point −2.8°C Pflug (1957)
Average density
Poultry muscle 1070 kg/m3
Poultry skin 1030 kg/m3
Thermal conductivity, W/(m·K)
Broiler breast muscle = 0.42 at 27°C Walters and May (1963)
Broiler breast muscle ⊥ 0.50 at 20°C Sweat et al. (1973)
Broiler breast muscle ⊥ 1.380 at –20°C Sweat et al. (1973)
Broiler breast muscle ⊥ 1.51 at –40°C Sweat et al. (1973)
Broiler dark muscle ⊥ 1.56 at –40°C Sweat et al. (1973)
Turkey breast muscle ⊥ 1.26 at –20°C Sweat et al. (1973)
Turkey breast muscle = 1.61 at –20°C Sweat et al. (1973)
Turkey leg muscle ⊥ 1.44 at –20°C Lentz (1961)
⊥ indicates heat flow perpendicular to the muscle fibers.
= indicates heat flow parallel to the muscle fibers.

Table 2 Thermal Conductivity of Broiler Carcasses

With and Without Cardboard Box Packaging
Thermal Conductivity, W/(m·K)
Temperature, °C Unpackaged Carcass Packaged Carcass
Note: For 3.2kg, bronze tom turkeys on shelves in air blast.
−30 1.89 0.93
Fig. 6 Temperature During Freezing of Packaged, −20 1.78 0.88
Ready-to-Cook Turkeys −10 1.64 0.81
(Klose and Pool 1956) −5 1.49 0.73
0 0.47 0.26
5 0.47 0.26
10 0.48 0.26
From Veerkamp (1995)

of chicken. Altering the fat content of thighs does not reduce the
severity of this problem.
Predicting Freezing or Thawing Times. The following equa-
tion can be used to predict freezing and thawing time with an accu-
racy of about 10% (Calvelo 1981; and Cleland et al. 1982, 1984).
2
∆H d
θ f = ρ --------  ------ + ---------
d
(2)
∆t  6h 24k
where
θf =
freezing time, s
ρ product density, kg/m3
=
d =
equivalent diameter of product, m
∆H =
enthalpy difference, kJ/kg
Fig. 7 Temperatures at Various Depths in Breast of ∆t =
temperature difference between air and mean freezing tempera-
6.8 kg Turkeys During Immersion Freezing at −30°C ture, K
h = heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2 ·K)
(Lentz and van den Berg 1957)
k = thermal conductivity at mean freezing temperature, W/(m2 ·K)
Liquid Nitrogen. A liquid nitrogen shower system has been Individual Quick Frozen (IQF) Products. This method of
used to freeze the outer shell of products to −75°C or below, after freezing creates a crust on the bottom of the product, which moves
which the entire product may be equilibrated in a holding room to a on thin, disposable plastic sheets. IQF works well for marinated
temperature around −25°C. Temperature in the freezer box where bones, chicken breast, and chicken tenders because they are moist
the liquid nitrogen is released in a shower may be as low as −160°C. and softer than other parts and tend to stick to the freezer belts. The
The freezing rate of precooked chicken affects the quality of plastic sheet keeps the product from sticking.
product. Breaded precooked drumsticks frozen with liquid nitrogen Freezer Conveyors. Automated units may be designed to han-
are susceptible to cracking and separation of the meat from the dle packages, cartons of birds, or unwrapped pieces of chicken or
bone. Precooked chicken that is lightly breaded (7 to 10% breading) turkey. Product may be transported through the freezing chamber on
and frozen by cryogenic procedures is susceptible to developing belts or trays. One such system is adaptable to all sizes of whole
small white freezer burn areas next to the surface. These areas may birds, packages, or cartons. The system automates the freezing
or may not show up immediately after freezing, but will show up operation from the point birds are placed in cartons until they are
almost immediately after reconstituting with hot oil. In some frozen and ready for a carton top to be put on. A typical design han-
instances, the white areas will cover the entire surface of the piece dles nearly 1 bird per second with about 70 Mg total capacity.
Poultry Products 17.7

Refrigeration coils and fans are located at the side of the machine to Clearly written procedures, constant training of employees, and
give a high-velocity two-pass airflow that applies the coldest air to adequate numbers of employees are essential for successful imple-
the warmest product. Frost or ice buildup is minimized because the mentation of the program. Also, constant management commitment
shelves never come outside the freezer. is vital.
A tray system is available that automatically loads trays from a
moving belt, conveys them through the air blast freezing chamber, HACCP Systems in Poultry Processing
empties the trays into a holding bin in the freezing chamber, and HACCP is a logical process of preventative measures that can
conveys the product onto a belt, which carries it from the freezer to control food safety problems. HACCP is a process control system
a packaging station. This system is particularly useful for cut-up designed to identify and prevent and microbial and other hazards in
chicken parts. Belt systems, using refrigerated air blast or cryogenic food production. It is designed to prevent problems before they
gases, are used for small parts, packages, and particle size poultry occur and to correct deviations as soon as they are detected. This
such as precooked diced chicken. method of control emphasizes a preventative approach rather than a
reactive approach, which can reduce the dependence on final prod-
PACKAGING uct testing. The fundamentals of HACCP is described in Chapter 11.
HACCP systems are being designed and implemented in the
Most packaged poultry is now tray packed, either for frozen or poultry meat processing industry to improve the safety of fresh
chilled distribution. All-plastic packages and automated packaging meats and their products. HACCP programs are required by the
lines using plastic film have been engineered. Changes in packaging USDA in all large plants (establishments with 500 or more employ-
methods and materials are so rapid that the best sources of informa- ees) as of January 1998. Medium and small plants will be required
tion on this subject are the companies that fabricate films and pack- to comply over the next two years.
ages and distribute the materials. They are listed in the most recent Poultry is associated with numerous microbial pathogens that
Encyclopedia Issue of Modern Packaging. occur naturally in wild birds, rats, mice, and cockroaches. Poultry is
Packages for frozen, whole, and ready-to-cook poultry consist contaminated by feed containing feces of these pests. They are also
principally of plastic film bags that are tough and reasonably imper- transferred to the meat during processing from unclean equipment,
meable to moisture vapor and air. The commonly used polyvinyli- processing water, air, and from human hands, hair or clothing. Strict
dene chloride, polyethylene, and polyester films are sufficient temperature control throughout the system will strongly suppress
barriers to water vapor and air to give adequate protection for nor- microbial growth, keeping pathogen levels too low to generate food
mal commercial times and temperatures. Turkeys, ducks, and geese poisoning outbreaks. In most outbreaks, temperature control
are packaged mostly in the whole, ready-to-cook form, while frozen breakdown or temperature abuse is involved (Zeidler 1996).
chickens appear whole and in packaged, cut-up form. The major pathogens associated with poultry are various types of
Large fiberboard cartons or containers for holding and shipping Salmonella and Campylobacter jejuni, which recently became the
from 2 to 12 individually packaged birds should be rectangular in leading pathogen in poultry meat. HACCP programs cover produc-
shape to facilitate palletizing and should be strong enough to sup- tion farms, processing plant, and shipping trucks. In the processing
port 5 m high stacked loads common in refrigerated warehouses. If plant, critical control points (CCP) are placed in the receiving and
freezing is to be accomplished for material such as fryer turkeys that killing, scalding and defeathering, evisceration, inspection, and
need to be frozen rapidly, holes or cutaway sections in the sides and chilling areas. Water baths as in chilling and scalding could easily
ends are needed to permit a rapid airflow across the poultry surfaces spread pathogens and the circulating water must be treated. The
in the air blast freezer. aerosol, places where condensation may accumulate, back-up of
sewage, and used processing water are also CCPs. Reducing human
POULTRY PLANT SANITATION touch, bird-to-bird contact, and dripping from bird to bird during air
chilling, as well as increased automation help reduce contamina-
Poultry meat is highly perishable as it composed of nutrients that tion. Appropriate temperature control throughout the system is vital
are ideal for microbial growth. During processing, excessive as food-borne disease outbreaks always involve temperature abuse.
amounts of meat and drippings soil equipment and floors. If not Therefore all measured temperatures are CCPs.
spotlessly cleaned and sanitized, it becomes a source of bacterial An example HACCP program approach to receiving of chilled
growth that can recontaminate incoming new meats. Therefore, spe- poultry meat is illustrated in Figure 8.
cific cleaning teams clean the plant at the end of the working day
using steam, soap and sanitizing agents. In many instances work is
stopped and certain equipment is cleaned every few hours.
In January 1997, the rules for meat inspection changed dramati-
cally (USDA 1996). The processing plants are required to (1)
inspect their own processes by writing their own Sanitation Stan-
dard Operation Procedures (SSOP) and implementing them into
their operations, (2) monitor the processes, and (3) take corrective
action when necessary. Precise records should be kept in a format
ready for instant review by purchasers.
Proper sanitation should be addressed when the structure, pro-
cessing equipment, and refrigeration systems are designed. The
plant structure should be designed to prevent pests such as mice,
rats, cockroaches, and birds from entering the facility and finding
places to hide that cannot be reached. This includes drainage, sew-
age, windows, vents, etc. Equipment should be designed for easy
cleaning and easy assembly and disassembly. It should not have any
areas on which product particles can accumulate. Refrigeration sys-
tems should be designed to restrict airflow from raw to cooked meat
areas and to eliminate possible condensation and dripping into the Fig. 8 HACCP Approach to Receiving Chilled Poultry
product or into drip pans that cannot be reached for easy cleaning. (Guelph Food Technology Center 1997)
17.8 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

TENDERNESS CONTROL DISTRIBUTION AND RETAIL HOLDING

REFRIGERATION
Tenderness in cooked poultry meat is a prerequisite to accept-
ability. Relative tenderness decreases as birds mature, and this Chilled poultry handled under proper conditions is an excellent
toughness has always been considered in the recommendations for product. However, there are limitations in its marketability because
cooking birds of various ages. However, another type of toughness of the relatively short shelf life caused by bacterial deterioration.
depends primarily on the length of time that the carcass is held in an Bacterial growth on poultry flesh, as on other meats, has a high tem-
unfrozen state before cooking. Birds cooked before they have time perature coefficient. Studies based on total bacterial counts have
to pass through rigor are very tough. Normal tenderization after shown that birds held at 2°C for 14 days are equivalent to those held
slaughter is arrested by freezing. For birds held at 5°C, complete at 10°C for 5 days or 24°C for 1 day. Spencer and Stadelman (1955)
tenderization occurs for all muscles within 24 h and for many mus- found that birds at −0.6°C had 8 days additional shelf life over those
cles in a much shorter time. at 3.3°C.
Other factors that interfere with normal tenderization are immer- The generation time of psychrophilic organisms isolated from
sion in 60°C water and cutting into the muscle. Formerly, birds were chickens was 10 to 35 h at 0°C, depending on the species studied
held unfrozen for sufficient time in the normal channels of process- (Ingraham 1958). Raising the temperature to 2°C reduced genera-
ing and use to permit adequate tenderization. Shorter chilling peri- tion time to 8 to 14 h, again depending on the species.
ods, more rapid freezing, and cooking without a preliminary Frequent cleaning of processing equipment, as well as thorough
thawing period have shortened the period during which tenderiza- washing of the eviscerated carcasses, is essential. Goresline et al.
tion can occur to such an extent that toughness has become a poten- (1951) reported a substantial decrease in bacterial contamination
tial consumer complaint. and an increase in shelf life by the use of 20 ppm of chlorine in pro-
Hanson et al. (1942) observed a rapid increase in tenderness cessing and chilling water. Water is routinely chlorinated in the
within the first 3 h of holding and a gradual increase thereafter. United States, but chlorine is not allowed to touch poultry meat in
Shannon et al. (1957), working with hand-picked stewing hens, some European countries.
demonstrated an increased toughness because of increased scalding Because shelf life is limited considerably by bacterial growth
temperature or increased scalding time in the ranges of 50 to 90°C (slime formation) on the skin layer, it is reasonable to assume that
and 5 to 160 s. However, the differences in toughness that occurred drastic changes in the skin surface, such as the removal of the epi-
within the limits of temperature and time, necessary or practical in dermal layer by high temperature scalding, might appreciably affect
commercial plants, were quite small. shelf life. Ziegler and Stadelman (1955) reported approximately 1
In addition to the beneficial effect of increasing holding time day more chilled shelf life for 53°C scalded birds than for 60°C
above freezing, tenderness is increased by lower scalding tempera- scalded ones.
tures, by reducing the scalding time, and particularly by reducing Chickens, principally broilers, are sold as whole, ready-to-cook
the extent of beating received by the birds during picking opera- or cut-up, ready-to-cook. Poultry is shipped in wax-coated corru-
tions. Additionally, turkey fryers should be held at least 12 h above gated containers. A number of precooked poultry meat products are
freezing to develop optimum tenderness. Holding fryers at −18°C being sold in wholesale and retail markets as refrigerated, nonfro-
for 6 months and longer has no tenderizing effect, but holding in a zen products. Such items are usually vacuum packaged or packaged
thawed state (2°C) after frozen storage has as much tenderizing in either a carbon dioxide or nitrogen gas atmosphere. The desired
effect as an equal period of chilling before freezing. Turkeys frozen temperature for such products is also −2 to −1°C.
1 h after slaughter are adequately tenderized by holding for 3 days
at −2°C, a temperature at which the carcass is firm and no important PRESERVING QUALITY IN
quality loss occurs for the period involved. Behnke et al. (1973) STORAGE AND MARKETING
confirmed this effect for Leghorn hens. Important qualities of frozen poultry include appearance, flavor,
Overall processing efficiency is improved by cutting up the car- and tenderness. Optimum quality requires care in every phase of the
cass directly from the end of the eviscerating line, packaging the marketing sequence, from the frozen storage warehouse, through
parts, and then chilling the still-warm packaged product in a low- transportation facilities, wholesaler, retailer, and finally to the fro-
temperature air blast or cryogenic gas tunnel. Webb and Brunson zen food case or refrigerator in the home.
(1972) reported that cutting the breast muscle and removing a wing Tissue Darkening. Darkening of the bones is a condition that
at the shoulder joint before chilling significantly decreased tender- occurs in immature chickens and has become more prevalent as
ness of treated muscles, though cut carcasses were aged in ice slush broilers are marketed at younger and younger ages. During chilled
before cooking. Klose et al. (1972) found that under commercial storage or during freezing and defrosting, some of the pigment nor-
plant conditions, making an eight-piece hot-cut before chilling and mally contained inside the bones of particularly young chickens
aging significantly reduced tenderness of breast and thigh muscles, leaches out and discolors adjacent tissues. This discoloration does
compared to cutting after chilling. Smith et al. (1966) indicated that not affect the palatability of the product. Brant and Stewart (1950)
too-rapid chilling of poultry might have a toughening effect, similar found that development of dark bones was greatly reduced by a
to cold shortening observed in red meats. combination of freezing and storage at −35°C and immediate cook-
Electrical Stimulation. Electrical stimulation is used routinely ing after rapid thawing. Aside from this combination, freezing rate,
to tenderize beef and pork, but not yet for poultry. Cladfelter and temperature and length of storage, and temperature fluctuations dur-
Webb (1987) describe successful electrical stimulation of broiler ing storage were not found to have a significant effect.
chickens shortly after slaughter in order to tenderize the meat. To Further research suggested that freezing and thawing not only
meet the goals described by Ingling (1978), Webb et al. (1989) mod- liberated hemoglobin from the bone marrow cells but modified the
ified the system using electrical stunning in a minimum time pro- bone structure to permit penetration by the released pigment. Roast-
cess system (MTPS). An evaluation of breast muscle tenderness ing pieces of chicken 0.5 h prior to freezing reduced discoloration of
from the MTPS indicates that tenderness levels achieved in 40 min the bone. Ellis and Woodroof (1959) found that heating legs and
post mortem are equivalent to those achieved in about 6 h of normal thighs to 82°C before freezing effectively controlled meat darken-
processing. The MTPS not only shortens meat aging time, but it ing. Methods of preheating, in order of preference, include micro-
allows straight-through processing by eliminating the need for chill- wave oven, steam, radiant heat oven, and deep fat frying.
ers. MTPS broilers can be processed, cut up, cooked, packaged, and Dehydration. During storage, poultry may become dehydrated,
frozen as a continuous line operation. causing a condition known as freezer burn. Dehydration can be
Poultry Products 17.9

controlled by humidification, lowering of storage temperatures, or the skin from precooked broilers, the TBA values were lower, but
by packaging the product adequately. Aside from adversely affect- yield and tenderness were reduced. No difference was detected in
ing the appearance of the product, dehydration, unless severe, does the TBA values of the thighs frozen in liquid refrigerant with or
not impair quality. When freezer burn is extensive, quality is without skin. Chicken parts that were blast frozen without skin were
decreased because of toughening and development of oxidative ran- less rancid than those frozen with skin. Precooked frozen chicken
cidity of the affected area. If a storage temperature of −20°C or parts browned for 120 s at 200°C were less rancid than those parts
lower is maintained, freezer burn is usually the factor limiting the browned at 150°C (Love and Goodwin 1974).
length of time that poultry can be held in storage without adequate In contrast to a loosely packed product such as frozen fried
packaging. chicken, Hanson and Fletcher (1958) reported that a solid-pack
Willis et al. (1948) found that the appearance of poultry suffered product such as chicken and turkey pot pies, in which the cooked
greatly when stored at −7°C. The most serious defects were micro- poultry is surrounded by sauce or gravy, with consequent exclusion
biological changes, desiccation, and development of a stale, rancid of air, had a storage life at −18°C of at least 1 year. As is the case
or storage odor. Serious changes in flavor and juiciness occurred in with raw poultry, turkey products have less fat stability than chicken
poultry that had been frozen 3 to 9 months at −12°C. products, but the stability can be increased by substituting more sta-
Storage Temperature Variations. Klose et al. (1955) evalu- ble fats in the sauces or by using antioxidants. A quality defect
ated moisture losses, chemical changes, and palatability after 6-, found in precooked frozen products containing a sauce or gravy is a
12-, and 18-month storage times. Under average commercial con- liquid separation and curdled appearance of the sauce or gravy when
ditions of frozen storage (moisture impermeable package and tem- thawed for use. This separation is extremely sensitive to storage
perature range of −23 to −12°C), the only factor for which a temperature. Sauces can be stored at least five times as long at −
periodic temperature fluctuation is inferior to the mean tempera- 18°C as at −12°C before separation takes place. Hanson et al. (1951)
ture is the accumulation of frost in the package. Frost formation, established that the flour in the sauce was the cause of the separa-
which influences appearance but not eating quality, increased with tion, and found among a large number of alternative thickening
storage temperature, and for the −23 to −12°C fluctuation was con- agents that waxy rice flour produced superior stability. Sauces and
siderably greater than for the highest (−12°C) constant tempera- gravies prepared with waxy rice flour are completely stable for
ture. Results after 12-month storage indicated a definite superiority about a year at −20°C.
to −23°C storage over −12 and −18°C but no detectable taste supe- Since precooked frozen foods are not apt to be sterilized in the
riority of −35 to −23°C. reheating process in the home, the processor has an added respon-
Rancidity. Poultry fat becomes rancid during very long storage sibility to keep bacterial counts in the product well below hazardous
periods or at extremely high storage temperatures. Rancidity in fro- levels. Extra precautions should be taken in general plant sanitation,
zen, eviscerated whole poultry stored for 12 months is not a serious in rapid chilling and freezing of the cooked products, and in seeing
problem if the bird is packaged in essentially impermeable film and that the products do not reach a temperature that will permit bacte-
held at −20°C or below. Danger of rancidification is greatly rial growth at any time during storage or distribution.
increased when poultry is cut up before freezing and storage,
because of the increased surface exposed to atmospheric oxygen. THAWING AND USE
Length of Storage. Klose et al. (1959) studied quality losses in
frozen, packaged, and cut-up frying chickens over temperatures of Under ordinary conditions, poultry should be kept frozen until
−35 to −7°C and storage periods from 1 month to 2 years. All com- shortly before its consumption. The general procedure is to defrost
mercial-type samples examined were acceptable after a storage in air or in water. No significant difference has been found in palat-
period at −18°C of at least 6 months, and some were stable for more ability between thawing in oven, refrigerator, room, or water.
than a year. In a comparison of a superior (moisture-vapor-proof) For turkeys that have been scalded at high temperatures and fast
commercial package with a fair commercial package, increased frozen to give a light appearance, the temperature in retail storage
adequacy of packaging resulted in as much extension in storage life and display must be kept as low as possible (−20°C is reasonable) to
as a decrease in storage temperature of about −7°C. The results indi- prevent darkening. Thawing in the package minimizes darkening.
cate that no statement on storage life can have general value unless The safest procedure for thawing turkeys is to hold the turkey in
the packaging condition is accurately specified. the refrigerator (2 to 5°C) for 2 to 4 days depending on the size of the
Frozen storage tests by Klose et al. (1960) on commercial packs bird. Other methods are immersion in cool water in the bag for 4 to
of ready-to-cook ducklings and ready-to-cook geese established 6 h or holding in a paper bag or styrofoam chest for 12 to 36 h at room
that these products have frozen storage lives similar to other com- temperature. When using these nonrefrigerated thawing techniques,
mercial forms of poultry. Ducks and geese should be stored at − care must be taken to keep the bird’s surface cool to inhibit micro-
20°C or below to maintain their high quality for 8 to 12 months. biological growth.
Incorporation of polyphosphates into poultry meat by adding it Some retail stores allow frozen poultry to start thawing in the
to the chilling water has been shown to increase shelf life in frozen chilled (1 to 3°C) section of the meat display case where poultry is
or refrigerated storage and to control loss of moisture in refrigerated for sale on the particular day. This is an advantage to the consumer
storage and during thawing and cooking. who wants to cook the poultry that night. However, this is a safe
Storage of Precooked Poultry. Studies on frozen fried chicken practice only if careful, constant control is maintained over the
indicated that precooking produces a product much less stable than chilled inventory so that the product is not held beyond its overall
a raw product. Rancidity development is the limiting factor and it is shelf life in store and home. Freezing and thawing in itself does not
detected in the meat slightly sooner than in the skin and fatty coating reduce the refrigerated shelf life of the product. Elliott and Straka
of the fried product. The marked beneficial effect of oxygen (air)- (1964) found that frozen-thawed chicken had a shelf life at 2°C
free packaging was demonstrated in tests in which detectable off- about equal to unfrozen counterparts at 2°C, as measured by total
flavors were observed at −18°C in air-packed samples after 2 counts of psychrophilic bacteria and by odor tests.
months, while nitrogen-packed samples developed no off-flavors Ready-to-cook turkeys in a frozen, prestuffed raw form have
for periods exceeding 12 months. been marketed. Extreme care should be exercised in producing and
Cooling the precooked parts in ice water prior to breading was consuming this type of product to assure that the original bacterial
found to reduce the TBA (thiobarbituric acid) values of precooked count in the birds and stuffing is at a minimum and that, in roasting,
parts (Webb and Goodwin 1970). In this study, no difference in ran- the internal temperature reaches a value high enough to provide a
cidity was noted for chicken stored 6, 8, or 10 months. By removing safe product.
17.10 1998 ASHRAE Refrigeration Handbook (SI)

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