Database Management System

(DBMS)

LABORATORY WORKBOOK

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 CONTENTS

S. No Object of Experiments Remarks Date Signature

The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the File

1 System & File Handling

The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the

2 Relational DBMS Architecture & its Concepts

The Purpose of this Lab is to introduce Entity

3 Relationship Diagram & its Notations

The Purpose of this Lab is to make Entity Relationship

4 Diagram by using Case Studies

The Purpose of this Lab is to Introduce the DDL (Data

5 Definition Language) which includes Create, Drop, Alter
& Truncate Statements
The Purpose of this Lab is to Introduce the DML (Data
6 Manipulation Language) Which includes Insert, Update
& Delete Statements
The Purpose of this Lab is to Introduce the DCL (Data
7 Control Language) Which includes Grant & Revoke
Statements
The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with basic
8 Select Queries which includes Selection & Projection
Queries & Some Built-in Functions
The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar the Tables
9 Joins Which Includes Inner, Outer & Natural Joins

The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar that how to use

10 Groups & Having Clauses with Aggregates Functions

The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the

11 Analytical Queries Which includes Rollup, Cube & Top-
N (Limits) Queries
The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the
12 concept of Normalization

The Purpose of this Lab is to make Normalized ERD –

13 by using Case Studies

The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the SQL

14 Execution Plan and Performance Tuning

The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the

15 Database Administration that how we Install, Configure,
Import & Export Databases
 LAB # 01
The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the File System & File
Handling

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File System & File Handling Experiment

 01
Objective

The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the File System & File Handling

Theory
File System

A file system is the methods and data structures that an operating system uses to keep track of files on a
disk or partition; that is, the way the files are organized on the disk. The word is also used to refer to a
partition or disk that is used to store the files or the type of the file system. Thus, one might say ``I have
two file systems'' meaning one has two partitions on which one stores files, or that one is using the
``extended file system'', meaning the type of the file system.

The difference between a disk or partition and the file system it contains is important. A few programs
(including, reasonably enough, programs that create file systems) operate directly on the raw sectors of a
disk or partition; if there is an existing file system there it will be destroyed or seriously corrupted. Most
programs operate on a file system, and therefore won't work on a partition that doesn't contain one (or that
contains one of the wrong type).

Before a partition or disk can be used as a file system, it needs to be initialized, and the bookkeeping data
structures need to be written to the disk. This process is called making a file system.

Block Size

The block size specifies size that the file system will use to read and write data. Larger block sizes will
help improve disk I/O performance when using large files, such as databases. This happens because the
disk can read or write data for a longer period of time before having to search for the next block.

On the downside, if you are going to have a lot of smaller files on that file system, like the /etc, there the
potential for a lot of wasted disk space.

For example, if you set your block size to 4096, or 4K, and you create a file that is 256 bytes in size, it
will still consume 4K of space on your hard drive. For one file that may seem trivial, but when your file
system contains hundreds or thousands of files, this can add up.

Block size can also effect the maximum supported file size on some file systems. This is because many
modern file system are limited not by block size or file size, but by the number of blocks. Therefore you
would be using a "block size * max # of blocks = max block size" formula.

File System comparison

How we can check which the file system in MS Windows?
Go to > Computer, right-click on the drive you wish to examine, and select > Properties from the menu.
The > General tab shows the > File system.

Feedback
 LAB # 02
The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the Relational DBMS
Architecture & its Concepts

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Relational DBMS Architecture Experiment

 02
Objective

The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the Relational DBMS Architecture & its Concepts

Theory
RDBMS: Overview

• A relational database management system (RDBMS):

• Manages data according to the relational model
• Organizes and stores data in the form of tables
• Example: A bank database has tables for currency data, customer information,
account information, and so on.
• A database is a collection of data placed in tables.
• Synonymous with “schema”
• The relational model
• Data logically organized as tables and relations
• An improvement over the hierarchical database model, which has the following
problems:
– Requires additional steps to coordinate the data and programs
– Difficult to develop applications and perform required operations
• In the relational model, the fundamental structure to organize data is the “relation,” which is
where it gets its name. For most purposes, the term “table” is interchangeable with the more
abstract term “relation.” The term “table” is used in the remainder of this course.
• “Database” is MySQL terminology. Other RDBMSs use the term “schema.”
• For example, a database for a bank might contain a table to store currency data, a table to
store customer data, and a table for its accounts. These tables are obviously related: a
customer can have one or more accounts, and an account can express its balance in a
particular currency. However, the existence of these relationships is not a defining
characteristic of a relational database. The only reason for a DBMS to be called relational is
that it stores its data in tables, regardless of whether or not these tables are related to one
another.
 • Continuing with the bank example, a hierarchical representation would require a list of
customers and, within each customer entry, a list of bank accounts, which contain a currency.
To list all used currencies, you must first examine all the customers and then, for each
customer, you must look at all accounts. This shows a case for using the relational model
over the hierarchical model, which requires many additional steps to coordinate the data and
programs that work with a database. The hierarchical model makes it incredibly time
consuming to develop applications and to perform many required operations.
Spreadsheet versus Database

• Spreadsheets are flexible and provide more user interface features:

– Allow any data to be entered into a cell
– Convert data into graphs
– Format directly into printable reports with header and footer
• Databases are much more powerful than spreadsheets due to data query and manipulation
capabilities:
– Retrieve all records that match certain criteria
– Cross-reference records between tables
– Update records in bulk
– Perform complex aggregate calculations
Entities and Relationships

• Entities: Things in the real world that you store information about in a database.
• Tables typically store data representing one type of entity.
• Example:
– A bank database has a customer table specifically for customer information.
– The customer table can contain entities/columns such as the customer name,
account number, and contact information.
• Relationships: Links between entities that have something to do with each other.
• Example:
– The bank customer name has a relationship to the customer account number and
contact information.
There can also be relationships between separate tables (for example, customer to accounts).

You cannot literally store things in a database, nor any relationships they might have. What you can store
in a database is data. Storing information about things such as customers, bank accounts and currencies in
our database, means that you store data in your database that represents these real-world things.
In relational databases, one table is typically used to store data that represents entities of one particular
kind. As in the bank example, the customers table is used to store items of data, each of which represents
exactly one entity of the "customer" kind.

Relationship Categories

Relationship categories and examples:

Relationships can be categorized according to how many entities can possibly be involved at either end of
the relationship.

In the slide example of a one-to-one relationship, a car has one engine, and the engine can belong to only
one car. There is a one-to-one relationship between the car and the engine. Often these types of
relationships are put in the same table, but not always.

In the slide example of a one-to-many relationship, an individual customer of a bank can have more than
one account. Note that this allows for customers to have zero, one, or more bank accounts. The word
many refer to the maximum number of possible bank accounts for each customer. Alternatively, a bank
account is tied to a single customer only. That is why this is a one-to-many relationship.

There is a many-to-many relationship between students and courses. A student can attend more than one
course and a course can be attended by many students.

RDBMS Database Structure

• Two-dimensional tables, columns, and rows:

• An ordered set of columns (1 or more)
 • An unordered set of rows (0 or more)
• Each table row has exactly one value for each column.

Row-Column Relationship

• Rows are a collection of values that describe an entity (such as a bank account).
• Columns are a collection of similar data among rows (such as customer surnames). Each column
has a name and a data type.
• The intersection of row and column contains individual data items called values. Values are
always atomic, that is, each position in a table may contain only one datum (piece of data). If you
have ever used a spreadsheet, you have used a table of data.
It is common to present data in a simple two-dimensional table form. The relational model stipulates that
a relation must have unique tuples—no two entities can be identical or you would not be able to
distinguish one from the other. There must be some combination of columns (possibly, all columns)
called a key, whose values uniquely identify each tuple. Most RDBMSs are less strict. Virtually all of
them allow a table to contain duplicate rows, and allow a table to exist without a key.

Note: In SQL, tables are not required to have primary keys. In other words, the requirement of the
relational model is not enforced in SQL. However, it is enforced as soon as a primary key is added to the
table. A detailed discussion of primary keys, and how to create them, is provided later in the course.

Exercise

Question 1
Modern School of higher education has around 2000 students and three departments. The students belong
to various departments in the school. Every department has a Head of Department along with teachers.
The head of department manages his departmental teachers and the students belonging to his department.
The head of department also teaches the students. All the head of departments report to the Principal of
the school. The Principal manages the departments and also teaches the students. Handling the
administrative staff of the school is also the responsibility of the Principal. Every individual, except the
students, are the employees of the school

Problem

 Identify the entity

 Identify the entity’s attribute
 Identify the primary and foreign Keys
 Identify relationship between Entities
 Identify the Cardinality constraints

Question 2

1. a professor teaches zero, one or many classes and a class is taught by one professor
2. a course may generate zero, one or many classes and a class comes from one course
3. a class is held in one room but a room has many classes

Feedback
 LAB # 03
The Purpose of this Lab is to introduce Entity Relationship Diagram & its
Notations

Name
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Entity Relationship Diagram – Introduction Experiment

 03
Objective

The Purpose of this Lab is to introduce Entity Relationship Diagram & its Notations

Theory

Notations

Entities Notation

Symbol Shape Name Description

An entity is represented by a
Entity rectangle which contains the
entity’s name.

An entity that cannot be uniquely

identified by its attributes alone.
The existence of a weak entity is
dependent upon another entity
Weak Entity called the owner entity. The
weak entity’s identifier is a
combination of the identifier of
the owner entity and the partial
key of the weak entity.

An entity used in a many-to-

many relationship (represents an
Associative Entity extra table). All relationships for
the associative entity should be
many
Attributes Notation

Symbol Shape Name Description

Each attribute is represented by

Attribute an oval containing attribute’s
name

An attribute that uniquely

identifies a particular entity. The
Key attribute
name of a key attribute is
underscored.

An attribute that can have many

values (there are many distinct
values entered for it in the same
Multivalued attribute
column of the table). Multivalued
attribute is depicted by a dual
oval.

An attribute whose value is

calculated (derived) from other
attributes. The derived attribute
Derived attribute may or may not be physically
stored in the database. In the
Chen notation, this attribute is
represented by dashed oval.

Relationship Notation

Symbol Shape Name Description

A relationship where entity is

existence-independent of other
entities, and PK of Child
Strong relationship doesn’t contain PK component
of Parent Entity. A strong
relationship is represented by a
single rhombus
 A relationship where Child
entity is existence-dependent on
parent, and PK of Child Entity
Weak (identifying) relationship contains PK component of
Parent Entity. This relationship
is represented by a double
rhombus.

ER Model is represented by means of an ER diagram. Any object, for example, entities, attributes of an
entity, relationship sets, and attributes of relationship sets, can be represented with the help of an ER
diagram.

Entity
Entities are represented by means of rectangles. Rectangles are named with the entity set they represent.

Attributes
Attributes are the properties of entities. Attributes are represented by means of ellipses. Every ellipse
represents one attribute and is directly connected to its entity (rectangle).

If the attributes are composite, they are further divided in a tree like structure. Every node is then
connected to its attribute. That is, composite attributes are represented by ellipses that are connected with
an ellipse.
Multivalued attributes are depicted by double ellipse.
Derived attributes are depicted by dashed ellipse.

Relationship
Relationships are represented by diamond-shaped box. Name of the relationship is written inside the
diamond-box. All the entities (rectangles) participating in a relationship, are connected to it by a line.

Binary Relationship and Cardinality

A relationship where two entities are participating is called a binary relationship. Cardinality is the
number of instance of an entity from a relation that can be associated with the relation.

 One-to-one − when only one instance of an entity is associated with the relationship, it is marked
as '1:1'. The following image reflects that only one instance of each entity should be associated
with the relationship. It depicts one-to-one relationship.

 One-to-many − When more than one instance of an entity is associated with a relationship, it is
marked as '1:N'. The following image reflects that only one instance of entity on the left and
more than one instance of an entity on the right can be associated with the relationship. It depicts
one-to-many relationship.
  Many-to-one − when more than one instance of entity is associated with the relationship, it is
marked as 'N:1'. The following image reflects that more than one instance of an entity on the left
and only one instance of an entity on the right can be associated with the relationship. It depicts
many-to-one relationship.

 Many-to-many − The following image reflects that more than one instance of an entity on the
left and more than one instance of an entity on the right can be associated with the relationship.
It depicts many-to-many relationship.

Participation Constraints
 Total Participation − Each entity is involved in the relationship. Total participation is
represented by double lines.

 Partial participation − Not all entities are involved in the relationship. Partial participation is
represented by single lines.
 Exercise

Question 1

Modern School of higher education has around 2000 students and three departments. The students belong
to various departments in the school. Every department has a Head of Department along with teachers.
The head of department manages his departmental teachers and the students belonging to his department.
The head of department also teaches the students. All the head of departments report to the Principal of
the school. The Principal manages the departments and also teaches the students. Handling the
administrative staff of the school is also the responsibility of the Principal. Every individual, except the
students, are the employees of the school

 Identify the entity

 Identify the entity’s attribute
 Identify the primary and foreign Keys
 Identify relationship between Entities
 Identify the Cardinality constraints
 Draw ERD

Question 2

1. an invoice is written by one sales rep but a sales rep writes many invoices
2. a vendor sells many products but a product is bought from one vendor
3. an invoice has one or many products and a product is found on zero, one or many invoices
 Identify the entity
 Identify the entity’s attribute
 Identify the primary and foreign Keys
 Identify relationship between Entities
 Identify the Cardinality constraints
 Draw ERD
Feedback
 LAB # 04
The Purpose of this Lab is to make Entity Relationship Diagram by using
Case Studies

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Entity Relationship Diagram – Case Study Experiment

04
Objective

The Purpose of this Lab is to make Entity Relationship Diagram by using Case Studies

Theory

CASE - STUDY

Consider the following information about a university database:

 Professors have an SSN, a name, an age, a rank, and a research specialty.
 Projects have a project number, a sponsor name (e.g., NSF), a starting date, an ending date, and a
budget.
 Graduate students have an SSN, a name, an age, and a degree program (e.g., M.S. or Ph.D.).
 Each project is managed by one professor (known as the project’s principal investigator).
 Each project is worked on by one or more professors (known as the project’s co-investigators).
 Professors can manage and/or work on multiple projects.
 Each project is worked on by one or more graduate students (known as the project’s research
assistants).
 When graduate students work on a project, a professor must supervise their work on the project.
Graduate students can work on multiple projects, in which case they will have a (potentially
different) supervisor for each one.
 Departments have a department number, a department name, and a main office.
 Departments have a professor (known as the chairman) who runs the department.
 Professor’s work in one or more departments and for each department that they work in, a time
percentage is associated with their job.
 Graduate students have one major department in which they are working on their degree.
 Each graduate student has another, more senior graduate student (known as a student advisor)
who advises him or her on what courses to take.

Design and draw an ER diagram that captures the information about the university.
Use only the basic ER model here; that is, entities, relationships, and attributes. Be
Sure to indicate any key and participation constraints.
 Exercise

CASE - STUDY -II

The Prescriptions-R-X chain of pharmacies has offered to give you a free lifetime supply of medicine if
you design its database. Given the rising cost of health care, you agree. Here’s the information that you
gather:

 Patients are identified by an SSN, and their names, addresses, and ages must be recorded.
 Doctors are identified by an SSN. For each doctor, the name, specialty, and years of experience
must be recorded.
 Each pharmaceutical company is identified by name and has a phone number.
 For each drug, the trade name and formula must be recorded. Each drug is sold by a given
pharmaceutical company, and the trade name identifies a drug uniquely from among the products
of that company. If a pharmaceutical company is deleted, you need not keep track of its products
any longer.
 Each pharmacy has a name, address, and phone number.
 Every patient has a primary physician. Every doctor has at least one patient.
 Each pharmacy sells several drugs and has a price for each. A drug could be sold at several
pharmacies, and the price could vary from one pharmacy to another.
  Doctors prescribe drugs for patients. A doctor could prescribe one or more drugs for several
patients, and a patient could obtain prescriptions from several doctors.
 Each prescription has a date and a quantity associated with it. You can assume that, if a doctor
prescribes the same drug for the same patient more than once, only the last such prescription
needs to be stored.
 Pharmaceutical companies have long-term contracts with pharmacies. A pharmaceutical company
can contract with several pharmacies, and a pharmacy can contract with several pharmaceutical
companies. For each contract, you have to store a start date, an end date, and the text of the
contract.
 Pharmacies appoint a supervisor for each contract. There must always be a supervisor for each
contract, but the contract supervisor can change over the lifetime of the contract.

Draw an ER diagram that captures the preceding information. Identify any constraints not captured by the
ER diagram.

How would your design change if each drug must be sold at a fixed price by all pharmacies?

How would your design change if the design requirements change as follows: If a doctor prescribes the
same drug for the same patient more than once, several such prescriptions may have to be stored?

Feedback
 LAB # 05
The Purpose of this Lab is to introduce the DDL (Data Definition Language)
which includes Create, Drop, and Alter & Truncate Statements

Name
Date
Registration No
Department
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Assignment

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Lab Instructor Signature
Introduction to DDL Experiment

05
Objective

The Purpose of this Lab is to introduce the DDL (Data Definition Language) which includes Create,
Drop, and Alter & Truncate Statements

Theory
Data Definition Language: SQL Statements

The DDL SQL statements are used to define database and table data. The statements shown in the slide
are followed by options to specify data operations.

Creating a Database

• General syntax for creating a database:

• CREATE SCHEMA is a synonym for CREATE DATABASE.

• Example:

When your database design is complete, create the actual database by using the MySQL statement
CREATE DATABASE. It is important for you to name the database according to its purpose. After the
database is created, you can add the tables.

You can add the IF NOT EXISTS option statement. An error occurs if the database exists and you did
not specify IF NOT EXISTS.

For more information about creating a database, see the MySQL Reference Manual at
http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.5/en/create-database.html.
MySQL Naming Conventions

• Database and table names are generally not

case-sensitive, but this depends on the file system.
• You cannot use certain characters, including ASCII(0), ASCII(255), /, \, and .
• Names cannot have more than 64 characters.
• You can use reserved words and special characters in quotation marks.
MySQL in general does not consider names (databases and tables) to be case-sensitive. However, it does
treat them as case-sensitive if the file system on which the database resides is itself case-sensitive.

Table names can be (or contain) reserved words as long as the name is quoted (such as a table named
'my_table' or '$'), but this practice is discouraged.

Creating a Table

• General syntax for creating a table:

• Example:

After the database structure is designed and the database has been created, you can add the individual
tables. You must use accurate assignment of data types and options, then you can add the tables from the
design plan to the database. Table and column options are covered later in this lesson.

Creating tables is a complex topic due to the process of choosing how to create the table and the syntax,
which consists of many elements. The statement syntax shown in the slide includes the column and table
options.

A line-by-line description of the CREATE TABLE example:

1. Creates a table called CountryLanguage"(" is the beginning of the table structure definition that
ends with ")".
 2. The column named CountryCode is assigned the data type of CHAR and maximum length of 3
characters that cannot accept NULL. The comma at the end of the line indicates that you are
continuing to define columns, or set a primary key.
3. The column named Language is assigned the CHAR data type and a length of 30, also with no
NULLs.
4. The column named IsOffical is assigned the ENUM data type (with the value 'True' or 'False').
The addition of NOT NULL means that each row must contain one of the specified values (as
indicated in single quotation marks). If the field is not provided, it is set to 'False' by the phrase
DEFAULT 'False'.
5. The column named Percentage is assigned the FLOAT data type. It contains three digits,
including one to the right of the decimal point. This column cannot accept NULL.
6. Defines the PRIMARY KEY, the type of key, and to what columns it applies. In this case, a
combination of both CountryCode and Language columns define a unique identifier for each
row.
7. ")" is the closing of the table structure definition. “;” means execute this statement (using the
MySQL command-line client) and create the CountryLanguage table.
Note: You can also use the CREATE TABLE statement to create temporary tables. Temporary tables
are covered in detail later in the course.

For more information about creating a table, see the MySQL Reference Manual at
http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.5/en/create-table.html.

Showing How a Table Was Created

• View the exact statement used to create a table.

• Example:

The SHOW CREATE TABLE statement produces a statement that can create a table with the same
properties as the table specified. This can help you to understand the structure of a table. You can also use
it as a basis for the syntax to create a new table. For example, to show the CREATE TABLE statement
used to create the City table, execute the statement shown in the example in the slide.

Column Options

• Each table must have at least one column.

• You can add options to the CREATE TABLE statement, such as:
• NULL– DEFAULT
• NOT NULL– AUTO_INCREMENT
• Example:

The CREATE TABLE column options modify how MySQL handles the associated column. Some
common column options:

• NULL:Is the default option that allows storing of NULL values

• NOT NULL
• Disallows NULL
• Saves response time and, in some cases, disk space
• Is a necessity for a PRIMARY KEY
• NULL and NOT NULL are mutually exclusive.
• DEFAULT <value>:If no value is supplied by the user, this specified value is stored.
• AUTO_INCREMENT
• A "running number" option for indexed columns
• Used for INTEGER data type columns only
• Using NULL, or not specifying a value for the column, causes an automatic insert of the
next available number in sequence
• Must be indexed
• Only one permitted per table
Note: Indexes are covered later in this lesson.
Table Options

• You can add options to the CREATE TABLE statement, such as:
• ENGINE
• COMMENT
• DEFAULT CHARACTER SET
• Example:

The CREATE TABLEtable options modify how MySQL handles the entire table. Some common table
options:

• ENGINE = <storage_engine_name>: Indicates the storage engine to be used for the table
• COMMENT: Up to 60 characters of free form text
• DEFAULT CHARACTER SET <character set>: Specifies the default character set for the
table
Table Indexing

• Original table data is not put in any specific order or location.

• Server must scan all data to find relevant rows.
• Indexes assist in finding rows quickly and easily.
• Only contain column information for locating rows
• Indexes are assigned when creating a table, or you can add them later.
• Composite indexes are created on multiple columns.
• “Key” is normally a synonym for “index.”
When you insert a row into a table, the database server does not attempt to put the data in any particular
location within the table. Instead, the server simply places the data in any available location within the
table. Tables can be very large, and as a table gets bigger, retrievals from it become slower. This is due to
the fact that the location of the data is unknown, so the server must look at all the data to find the relevant
rows.
An index (or key) in MySQL serves to assist in finding rows quickly, like an index at the back of a
technical manual. Database indexes are used to locate rows in a table. Instead of containing all of the row
data, an index contains only the columns used to locate the rows. It also contains information describing
where the rows are physically located. Usually, you create all the indexes you need when you are creating
tables.

You can create indexes on single columns or multiple columns (composite indexes). For example, the
phone number for an individual in a phone book can be used as a single column index, whereas the last
name and first name can be used to create a composite index.

MySQL Indexing

• Commonly used indexes:

• PRIMARY KEY: Only one allowed
• UNIQUE: Multiple allowed
• Indexes are optional and must be created by the user.
• Example:

The following are the commonly used indexes:

• PRIMARY KEY
• Only one PRIMARY KEY is allowed per table.
• It uniquely identifies a single row in the table.
• No NULL values are permitted.
• No duplicate values are permitted.
• If a duplicate value is INSERT or UPDATE MySQL returns an error and the attempted
operation is not performed.
• UNIQUE
• The same rules as the PRIMARY KEY, with two exceptions:
Can have values stored as NULL

Can have multiple UNIQUE indexes in a table

 - Each non-NULL value uniquely identifies a single row in a table.
For more information about how MySQL uses indexes, see the MySQL Reference Manual at
http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.5/en/mysql-indexes.html.

Showing the Table Indexes

• General syntax for displaying table indexes:

• Example:

The result of the SHOW INDEX statement example in the slide shows that there is a PRIMARY index
on the Code column of the Country table, and an index type of BTREE table. The Cardinality column
shows the number of distinct values that exist in the table: 239 in this case.

Note: Most indexes are stored in B-trees. Exceptions are indexes on spatial data types use R-trees, and
MEMORY tables also support hash indexes.

For more information about the SHOW INDEX statement, see the MySQL Reference Manual at
http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.5/en/show-index.html.

Table Constraints

• A constraint is a restriction placed on one or more column values of a table to actively enforce
integrity rules.
• Constraints are implemented using indexes.
• Types of constraints:
• PRIMARY KEY
• FOREIGN KEY
• UNIQUE
 • MySQL generates indexes to enforce the above constraints.

A constraint is a restriction placed on one or more column values of a table to actively enforce integrity
rules.

Constraints are implemented using the following indexes:

• PRIMARY KEY: Defines the columns that guarantee uniqueness within a table
• FOREIGN KEY: Restricts the columns to contain only values that match those in another
table’s PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE columns
• UNIQUE: The same as PRIMARY KEY except that the columns are allowed to be null-able,
and there may be multiple UNIQUE constraints in one table
For example, if the MySQL server allowed you to modify the world_innodb database by changing the
CountryCode value in the CountryLanguage table without changing the corresponding CountryCode
value in the City table, then you end up with rows that no longer point to valid country records (known as
orphaned rows). With constraints in place (FOREIGN KEY, in this case), the server raises an error if
an attempt is made to modify or delete data that is referenced by other tables, or it propagates the changes
to other tables for you.

Note: Only the InnoDB storage engine supports FOREIGN KEY constraints. Other storage engines
ignore these constraints in table definitions.

DROP DATABASE Statement

• Removes a database when it is no longer needed

• The database can be empty or contain tables and data.
• Returns a row count, which is the number of tables deleted
• Must be used with extreme caution, because it does not have the “undo” feature
• Examples:

– Returns an error if the database does not exist

– Returns a warning if the database does not exist

Use DROP DATABASE when you are sure that the database is no longer needed.

You must have the DROP privilege for each database.

DROP DATABASE does not require the database to be empty. Before dropping the database, MySQL
removes any objects that it contains, such as tables, stored routines, and triggers.

A successful DROP DATABASE returns a row count that indicates the number of tables dropped. (This
actually is the number of .frmfiles removed, which amounts to the same thing.) You can check your
current databases to make sure that the database is removed by using the SHOW DATABASES
statement.

A database is represented by a directory under the data directory. The server deletes only files and
directories that it can identify as having been created by itself (such as .frm files). It does not delete other
files and directories. If you have put nontable files in that directory, those files are not deleted by the
DROP DATABASE statement. This results in a failure to remove the database directory. In that case, the
database continues to be listed by SHOW DATABASES. To correct this problem, you can manually
remove the database directory and any files that it contains.

Any warning generated by DROP DATABASE can be displayed with the SHOW WARNINGS
statement.

Adding a Table Column

• Use the ALTER TABLE statement with ADD COLUMN.

• Example:

– Changes the structure as follows:

– ID is added as the last column.

To add a new column (or remove a column), use the ALTER TABLE statement with the appropriate
clause that specifies the column’s definition. A column definition uses the same syntax for ALTER
TABLE as for CREATE TABLE. You can use ALTER TABLE to:

• Add or remove a column

 • Add or remove an index
• Change the specification of a current column
Column names within a table must be unique, so you cannot add a column with the same name as one that
already exists in the table. Also, column names are not case-sensitive, so if the table already contains a
column named ID, you cannot add a new column using any of these names: ID, id, Id, or iD. They are all
considered to be the same.

Adding a Table Column

• Adding a column to a table populates the rows with NULL, the default value as specified, or the
data type implicit default.
• In a query, the column appears as empty or zero:

Note: The statement for populating a table with data is covered in detail later in the course.

Removing a Table Column

• Use the ALTER TABLE statement with DROP COLUMN.

• Example:

– Changes the structure as follows:

 – The ID column has been removed.
If a table contains only one column, you cannot drop the column. If you intend to remove the table, use
DROP TABLE instead.

You should not remove a column from a table if it is a primary key. You cannot remove a column that is a
foreign key from another table.

For more information about using ALTER TABLE, see the MySQL Reference Manual at:
http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.5/en/alter-table.html.

Modifying a Table Column

• Use the ALTER TABLE statement with MODIFY COLUMN.

• Example:

– Changes the structure as follows:

– NewPopulation has been changed to the INT data type.

The example in the slide shows how you can change the NewPopulation column’s data type from
DECIMAL to INT, to restrict the column value to whole numbers. You can also make the UNSIGNED
column to disallow negative values.
If you also want to disallow NULL in the column, you must include the NOT NULL attribute in the
column definition for MODIFYCOLUMN, even if you originally defined the column with NOT NULL.
This is true for other column attributes as well. If you do not specify them explicitly, the new definition
does not carry them over from the old definition.

You cannot modify a column from a table if it is a primary key and if a foreign key from another table
references the column.

Modifying a Table Column: Row Changes

The previous ALTER TABLE...MODIFY COLUMN statement example changes the row contents of
the table as follows:

Note: The statement for populating a table with data is covered in detail later in the course.

Anything that can be added using CREATE TABLE can be changed using ALTER TABLE.

For more information about using ALTER TABLE, see the MySQL Reference Manual at:
http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.5/en/alter-table.html.
Truncate a Table

The SQL TRUNCATE TABLE command is used to delete complete data from an existing table.

You can also use DROP TABLE command to delete complete table but it would remove complete table
structure form the database and you would need to re-create this table once again if you wish you store
some data.

TRUNCATE TABLE EU_Countries;

truncate command is different from delete command. delete command will delete all the rows from a
table whereas truncate command re-initializes a table(like a newly created table).
For e.g. If you have a table with 10 rows and an auto_increment primary key, if you use delete command
to delete all the rows, it will delete all the rows, but will not initialize the primary key, hence if you will
insert any row after using delete command, the auto_increment primary key will start from 11. But in case
of truncate command, primary key is re-initialized.

Exercise

Consider the following schema:

1. Customer (cust_id, cust_name).

2. Product (prod_code ,prod_name, unit_price)
3. Customer_Order (order_code, order_date, cust_id)
4. Order_Item (order_code, prod_code, num_of_units)

I. Develop DDL of in SQL

II. Add Column contact in Customer Table
III. Add Column company_name in Product Table
Feedback
 LAB # 06
The Purpose of this Lab is to introduce the DML (Data Manipulation
Language) which includes Insert, Update & Delete Statements

Name
Date
Registration No
Department
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___________________
Lab Instructor Signature
Introduction to DML Experiment

06
Objective

The Purpose of this Lab is to introduce the DML (Data Manipulation Language) which includes
Insert, Update & Delete Statements

Theory

Data Manipulation Language: SQL Statements

The DML SQL statements are used to manipulate database and table data. The statements shown in the
slide are followed by options to specify data operations (such as table name).

Manipulation of Table Row Data

• It is common for databases to require modification:

• This is due to changes in data usage situations.
• Row data can be inserted, updated, replaced, or deleted.
Data manipulation can be unsafe. Take the following precautions with your data:

• Do not grant users (including yourself) more permissions than required. For example, if
you are running some ad hoc queries on a database for the finance department, do not use
the MySQL root account. Instead, create a user who has permission to run only the
needed SELECT queries and then log in as the user.
• Keep daily backups of the data stored in MySQL.
• Always make a backup before you make any major changes, or when using unfamiliar
features.
• For beginners, a useful startup option is the safe updates option. It can be turned on with
the command-line client option --safe-updates, or by issuing SET
SQL_SAFE_UPDATES=1. It is helpful for cases when you might have issued a
DELETE FROM tbl_name statement but forgotten the WHERE clause. Normally,
such a statement deletes all rows from the table. With this option, you can delete rows
only by specifying the key values that identify them. This helps prevent accidents.
• Test queries and updates on a test table before running them on the real table.
 • Execute a SELECT statement with the same WHERE clause to verify that the right
results are returned, before running a DELETE or an UPDATE statement.
INSERT Statement

• After creating a table, you can populate it with row data.

• General syntax includes the INTO clause:

• Example of inserting a singlerow:

– The content of the new row:

The syntax for INSERT uses separate column and value lists following the name of the table into which
you add the single record. The number of columns and values must be the same.

In the INSERT example in the slide, you add Chinese as a language for Albania, with a percentage of
20, and the default F (false) for the IsOfficial column is acceptable because it is not the official language
of the country.

In the result for the example in the slide, the false (F) value for the IsOfficial column is the default value,
which is used in the absence of a specific assignment.

Using INSERT for Multiple Rows

• Create multiple new rows in a table.

• Example:
 – The content of the new row:

In the INSERT example in the slide, you add MySQL as a language for Greenland, Fiji, and Belgium.
However, you do not want to give it a percentage, and the default F (false) for the IsOfficial column is
acceptable. The row data for each of the three rows is enclosed in parentheses.

The result for the example in the slide is achieved with the following query:

SELECT * FROM CountryLanguage

WHERE CountryCode IN ('GRL', 'FJI', 'BEL')

AND LANGUAGE = 'MYSQL';

In the example result in the slide, the F (false) value for the IsOfficial column is the default value, which
is used in the absence of a specific assignment.

Note: You must enclose all column values in single quotation marks (for string and temporal data types)
in the INSERT statement.

NULL condition with INSERT

If values are not specified and columns have no default value:

• Sets to NULL if column accepts NULL values

• Sets to implicit default for the column data type if it does not accept NULL
• AUTO_INCREMENT columns automatically generate the next sequence number
UPDATE Statement

• Modifies contents of existing rows

• Is used with the SET clause for column assignments
• General syntax:
 • Example:

The example in the slide demonstrates how you can update the Country database by changing the
Population column calculation and the Region to Dolphin Country for the country Sweden (code
'SWE'). The results show one row affected, one row matched (selected by the WHERE clause), and one
row changed.

UPDATE Statement Ordering

• There is no guarantee about the order in which rows are updated, which can result in errors:

• Use ORDER BY to control the order:

– The content of the new row:

To solve the problem of the first UPDATE in the slide that causes an error, add an ORDERBY clause to
cause the row updates to occur in a particular order, as shown in the second UPDATE.
The results shown in the slide are a result of the following query:

mysql> SELECT * FROM City ORDER BY ID;

+------+----------------+-------------+---------------+------------+

| ID | Name | CountryCode | District | Population |

+------+----------------+-------------+---------------+------------+

| 2 | Kabul | AFG | Kabol | 1780000 |

| 3 | Qandahar | AFG | Qandahar | 237500 |

| 4 | Herat | AFG | Herat | 186800 |

| 5 | Mazar-e-Sharif | AFG | Balkh | 127800 |

| 6 | Amsterdam | NLD | Noord-Holland | 731200 |

...

| 4079 | Nablus | PSE | Nablus | 100231 |

| 4080 | Rafah | PSE | Rafah | 92020 |

+------+----------------+-------------+---------------+------------+

4079 rows in set (0.02 sec)

Note: The IDs start at the number 2, due to the update.

DELETE Statement

• Use DELETE to remove whole, specified table rows instead of individual columns
• General syntax:

– Use WHERE to indicate which rows to remove.

• Indicate table name only to remove all table rows:

 • Use DELETE with extreme caution, because it does not have the “undo” feature.
The DELETE result indicates the number of rows affected, which can be zero (0) if the statement did not
cause a change to be made.

Exercise

Question 1

Insert the following data into the following table

Movie (id, title, year, director)

Id Title Year Director

1 Ben hur 2016 Thomas
2 Get Smart 2012 Richard Bell
3 Spider Man 2009 Tam Morry
4 Batman V/S Super Man 2015 Gerald Hond
Feedback
 LAB # 07
The Purpose of this Lab is to introduce the DCL (Data Control Language)
which includes Grant & Revoke Statements

Name
Date
Registration No
Department
Quiz
Assignment

___________________
Lab Instructor Signature
Introduction to DCL Experiment

07
Objective
The Purpose of this Lab is to introduce the DCL (Data Control Language) which includes Grant &
Revoke Statements

Theory

Data Control Language (DCL) is used to control privilege in Database. To perform any operation in the
database, such as for creating tables, sequences or views we need privileges. Privileges are of two types,

 System: creating session, table etc are all types of system privilege.

 Object: any command or query to work on tables comes under object privilege.

DCL defines two commands,

 Grant: Gives user access privileges to database.

 Revoke: Take back permissions from user.

To Allow a User to create Session

grant create session to username;

To Allow a User to create Table

grant create table to username;

To provide User with some Space on Table space to store Table

alter user username quota unlimited on system;

To Grant all privilege to a User

grantsysdba to username
To Grant permission to Create any Table
grantcreate any table to username

To Grant permission to Drop any Table

grantdrop any table to username

To take back Permissions

revoke create table from username

Exercise

Question 1

Grant all privilege to user which name Ali.

Question 2

Grant only creates permission to user which name Fahad.

Feedback
 LAB # 08
The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with basic Select Queries which
includes Selection & Projection Queries & Some Built-in Functions

Name
Date
Registration No
Department
Quiz
Assignment

___________________
Lab Instructor Signature
Select Queries (Selection, Projection, Functions) Experiment

08
Objective
The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with basic Select Queries which includes Selection &
Projection Queries & Some Built-in Functions

Theory
SELECT Statement

• SELECT is the most commonly used DML command for queries:

• Retrieves rows from tables in a database
• Returns rows as a “result set” in the form of a table
• General syntax:

• column_list is a list of column names that make up the result set.

• Separate the items in the list with a comma separator (,).

SELECT is the most commonly used data manipulation language (DML) statement. The SELECT
statement forms a description of the data that is to be retrieved from the database. It does not specify
exactly how the data is to be retrieved. The result returned by the database server in response to a
SELECT statement takes the form of a table, which is a collection of rows.

An expression that does not contain any column name is allowed in <column_list>.
We have a database name boat_reservation:

 sailor have id, name , age & rating.

 boat have id & color.
 Sailor can reserves multiple boats.
 Boat can be reserve by multiple sailors.
 So, There is a many-to-many relationship between sailor&boat.
 We Resolve this by Introducing new Relation name reserves.

SELECT example:

mysql> SELECT sname, rating FROM sailor

Projection : Deletes unwanted columns from relation.

Projection, which retrieves all the rows in the Name and Rating columns from the Sailor table. Queries
can be performed on one, multiple, or all columns, on one or more tables.

For example, you can retrieve all the column data from the Sailortable, using (*):

mysql> SELECT * FROM sailor

Note: The word “query” is most commonly used to describe a SELECT statement.
Using SELECT Clauses

Optional clauses can be used alone (or in combination) to generate specific query results.

• Types of clauses:
• DISTINCT: Eliminates duplicate rows from the result set
• FROM: Specifies what tables to retrieve data from
• WHERE: Filters for specific rows
• ORDER BY: Sorts rows by specified order
• Syntax example (with the order of the clauses fixed):

The syntax example in the slide shows the correct order and usage of each of the listed optional clauses.
This statement performs the following:

• Specifically selecting DISTINCT rows

• FROM a named table
• WHERE some condition defines which rows to return
• Given a specific sorting order (ORDER BY)
The order of the clauses is fixed. Therefore, if you do not keep them in their proper order, you get a
syntax error. No result set is returned.

Using SELECT with DISTINCT

• Removes duplicate rows, so every result set row is unique

• Example of difference between SELECT without and with DISTINCT:

Without DISTINCT

mysql>SELECT rating FROM sailor

With DISTINCT

mysql>SELECT DISTINCT rating FROM sailor

SELECT with WHERE

Selection: Selects a subset of rows from relation.

Subset of Relation can be obtained using Some Condition (or Using Where Clause)

Expressions in a WHERE clause can use the following types of operators:

• Arithmetic:+, -, *, /, DIV, %
• Comparison:<, <=, =, <=>, <> or !=, >=, >, BETWEEN
• Logical:AND, OR, XOR, NOT
• Additional options:IN, IS NULL, LIKE, ()
Arithmetic Operators

Perform mathematical operations on column value expressions:

• + Addition
• - Subtraction
• * Multiplication
 • / Division
• DIV Integer division
• % Modulo (remainder after division)
Comparison Operators

Compare column value expressions

• + Addition
• < Less than
• <= Less than or equal to
• = Equal to
• <=> Equal to (works even for NULL values)
• <> or != Not equal to
• >= Greater than or equal to
• > Greater than
• BETWEEN <value1> AND <value2>Indicate a range of values (inclusive)

Logical Operators

Combine Boolean expressions

• AND: Logical AND

• OR: Logical OR
• XOR: Logical exclusive-OR
• NOT: Logical negation
Additional options in a WHERE condition:

• IN is equivalent to a list of comparisons with OR, but more readable and efficient.
• You can use IS NULL to check whether a value is null (such as ... <column_name> IS NULL).
• The LIKE operator can be used for pattern matching (such as WHERE <value>LIKE
'<pattern>').
• You can also use parentheses (<expression>) to group parts of an expression.
• Operators can be applied to almost all types of value expressions such as literals, columns,
function calls, and so on.
• You can also combine several criteria with logical operators.
SELECT with WHERE

Example of WHERE with IN:

mysql> SELECT sid, sname, age

FROM sailor
WHERE age IN (26,45,35)

SELECT with WHERE

Example of WHERE with AND andOR:

mysql> SELECT sid, sname, rating

FROM sailor

WHERE age>30 AND (rating = 3 OR rating = 8)

SELECT with ORDER BY

• Returns output rows in a specific order

• Example of ORDER BY:

mysql> SELECT sname

FROM sailor
ORDER BY sname
By default, the server returns the rows in the SELECT statement to the client in no particular order.
When you issue a query, the server is free to return the rows in any convenient order. This order can be
affected by factors such as the order in which the rows are actually stored in the table, or which indexes
are used to process the query. If you require output rows to be returned in a specific order, include an
ORDER BY clause that indicates how to sort the results.
The example in the slide sorts the names of the countries in alphabetical order by sname, from the
sailortable.
Previous Example With ORDER By Clause:
mysql> SELECT sid, sname, rating
FROM sailor
WHERE age>30 AND (rating = 3 OR rating = 8)
ORDER BY sname

SELECT with ORDER BY with ASC and DESC

 Specify order with ASC and DESC

– ASC: Ascending order (default)
– DESC: Descending order

 Example of ORDER BY with DESC:

mysql> SELECT sname
FROM sailor
ORDER BY sname DESC
Ascending order is the default sort order in an ORDER BY clause. You can specify explicitly whether to
sort a column in ascending or descending order by using the ASC or DESC keywords after the column
names. Ascending means that the lowest value comes first.

Functions

MySQL Expressions

• Functions can be invoked within expressions.

• An expression returns a value that is used in place of the function call when evaluated.
• General syntax:

• The parentheses following the function name are required.

• Examples:
• SELECT NOW(): The NOW function returns the current date and time.
• SELECT VERSION(): The VERSION function returns the MySQL server version
currently being used on the host.
In the general syntax, a function call includes the function name followed by parentheses (which may
contain arguments used to perform the function).

String Functions

String Function: Numeric Category Examples

• Returns the number of characters in the string:

 • Returns the position in the string where substring occurs:

String Function: String Category Examples (CONCAT, REVERSE, LEFT, RIGHT)

• Concatenates the given arguments into one string:

• Returns string with the characters in reverse order:

• Returns the left-most length characters of string:

• Returns the right-most length characters of string:

 • Returns the part of the string starting at the specified position through the end of string:

• Returns the part of the string starting at the specified position, and the number of characters
indicated:

Temporal Functions: Date/Time Formats

The Date/Time formats chart in the slide gives a list of all date and time formats permitted to be used
within temporal functions.

See the Data Types lesson for specific information about the values and ranges for these format types.
Functions that expect date values usually accept DATETIME values and ignore the time part. Functions
that expect time values usually accept DATETIME values and ignore the date part.

Temporal Functions: Function Types

Temporal Functions: Extracting Temporal Data Examples

• Extracting current temporal data (date, time, and day of week):

• Addition of a specified interval of days from the current date and time:
Temporal Functions: Extracting Temporal Data Examples

• Customizing the output format of temporal data:

Syntax and additional information for the temporal functions:

• DATE_FORMAT (<date>, <format>)

• The %symbol is required before any predefined date/time format specifiers.
Numeric Functions

Perform mathematical operations such as:

• Rounding
• Truncation
• Trigonometric calculations
• Generating random numbers

ROUND (<number>):

• Rounds up on DECIMAL data types

• Defaults to zero, if not specified
• For exact-value numbers, a value with a fractional part less than .5 is rounded down to the next
integer if positive, or up to the next integer if negative.
• For approximate-value numbers, the result depends on the C library. On many systems, this
means that a value with any fractional part is rounded to the nearest even integer.
Numeric Functions: Examples

• Returns the absolute value of the negative and positive values:

• Returns results of sign determination (–1=negative, 0=zero, 1=positive):

Numeric Functions: Additional Functions

• Geometric functions:
• DEGREES(), PI(), RADIANS()
• Trigonometric functions:
• COS(), SIN(), COT()
• ACOS(), ASIN(), ATAN(), ATAN2()
• Other functions:
• EXP(), LN(), LOG(), LOG2(), LOG10()
• POWER(), SQRT()
• MOD()
 Exercise
Emp_num Emp_Name Emp_Job Emp_Sal
E101 Salman Analyst 6000
E102 Bushra Programmer 5000
E103 Madiha Web Designer 6000
E104 Batool ERD designer 4000
E105 Hameed Web Designer 3000
E106 Nini Analyst 2500
E107 Imtiaz Web Designer 6500
E108 Rashid Programmer 4000
E109 Muzzamil ERD designer 2000

1. List all employees’ number, employee’s name and jobs from emp.

2. List all employees’ number, employee’s name and jobs from emp whose salaries greater than 5,000.

3. List all employees’ number, employee’s name and jobs from emp whose salaries less than 5,000.

4. List all employees’ number, employee’s name and jobs from emp whose salaries between 1,000 to
5,000.

5. List all employees’ number, employee’s name, jobs and salaries from emp.

Feedback
 LAB # 09
The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar the Tables Joins Which Includes
Inner, Outer & Natural Joins

Name
Date
Registration No
Department
Quiz
Assignment

___________________
Lab Instructor Signature

Select Queries (Join Types: Inner, Outer, Natural) Experiment

 09
Objective

The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar the Tables Joins Which Includes Inner, Outer & Natural
Joins

Theory
Combining Multiple Tables

• Some questions cannot be answered using just one table.

• Some queries require SELECT statements that include a combination of multiple tables.
• A join operation is used to combine the data from one table with the data of another table.
The SELECT queries shown so far in this course retrieve data from a single table at a time. This lesson
addresses the performance of multiple table queries.

If you want to find the details of records referenced in a foreign key, you combine data from two or more
tables by performing a table join.

Joining Tables with SELECT

• Example of two separate tables that can be joined:

• Joined tables:
 – This join results in a Cartesian product.
– The result includes all combinations of rows from table1 and table2.
When you cross-join two tables (as in the example in the slide), each row from one table is combined
with each row from every other table, yielding all possible combinations of rows. This result is also
known as the Cartesian product. Joining tables this way has the potential to produce a very large
number of rows because the row count is the product of the number of rows in each table.

A cross-join between two tables each containing 1000 rows will return 1000 × 1000 = 1 million rows.
That is a lot of rows, even though the individual tables are small. Such a join is also called an unqualified
join.

Categories of Joins

• Unqualified join: Retains all row pairs

• Qualified join: Retains only specific row pairs according to a particular join condition
The large majority of joins are qualified. Most qualified joins serve to combine related tables.

INNER JOIN Keywords

 • INNER JOIN replaces the comma separator.
• Can be used with the ON or USING clause
• Examples:

Find the names of those sailor who reserved the boat.

mysql> SELECT s.sname

FROM sailor s INNER JOIN
reserves r
ON s.sid = r.sid

mysql> SELECT s.sname

FROM sailor s INNER JOIN
reserves r
USING(sid)

The syntax discussed earlier uses the comma separator in the FROM clause to name (and separate) the
joined tables. Another inner join syntax uses the INNER JOIN keywords. With this syntax, those
keywords replace the comma separator between table names. Also with INNER JOIN, the conditions
that indicate how to perform row matching for the tables move from the WHERE clause to become part
of the FROM clause.

The ON or USING clause conditions indicate how to perform the join.

Note: ON and USING are not exactly identical. USING treats the columns from the two tables as the
same, whereas ON treats them as two different columns.

JOIN Keywords

• JOIN is equivalent to INNER JOIN.

• Can be used with the ON and WHERE clauses
• Example:Find the names of those sailor who reserved boat no. 103.
mysql> SELECT s.sname
FROM sailor s JOIN reserves r
ON s.sid = r.sid
WHERE r.bid=103
Note: The INNER JOIN keywords are equivalent to the JOIN keyword, and they can be used
interchangeably.

Outer Joins

• Identify combinations of matching and mismatching rows from two tables

• Can use two different types of SELECT query syntax:
• LEFT JOIN: Uses the table to the left of the keywords to base the join comparison on
• RIGHT JOIN: Uses the table to the right of the keywords to base the join comparison on

You do not get mismatches as you would with a cross-join.

The LEFT JOIN and RIGHT JOIN answer the same kinds of questions, but differ slightly in their
syntax. A LEFT JOIN can always be rewritten into an equivalent RIGHT JOIN.

LEFT JOIN Keywords

mysql> SELECT s.sname, r.bid

FROM sailor s LEFT JOIN reserves r
ON s.sid = r.sid
In the above example, the LEFT JOIN results in a list that shows where there were NULLs for those
sailor who were not reserved any boat:

RIGHT JOIN Keywords

mysql> SELECT s.sname, r.bid

FROM reserves r RIGHT JOIN sailor s
ON r.sid = s.sid

In the above example, the RIGHT JOIN results in a list that shows where there were NULLs for those
sailor who were not reserved any boat:

Natural Join

 The associated tables have one or more pairs of identically named columns.
 The columns must be the same data type.
 Don’t use ON clause in a NATURAL JOIN.
 Example
mysql> SELECT s.sname
FROM sailor s NATURAL JOIN reserves r
 Exercise
Question No. 1
We have the following tables which creates statement are
1. create table supplier(S_NO int identity(1,1), SUP_ID varchar(50) primary key,SUP_NAME
varchar (50), SUP_ADD varchar (50), SUP_NIC int, rank int)
2. create table Product(Prod_ID varchar(50) primary key,Prod_Name varchar(50),[Price/Unit] float)
3. create table Orders(Ord_ID varchar(50) primary key,Prod_ID varchar(50),Qty int,Totalrate
int,SUP_ID varchar (50))

Write the Queries using Joins on above tables

1. List of all supplier that palced order
2. List of all Product that are supplied by supplier whose id is 101
3. Find all order(s) of product named Rice

Feedback
 LAB # 10
The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar that how to use Groups & Having
Clauses with Aggregates Functions

Name
Date
Registration No
Department
Quiz
Assignment

___________________
Lab Instructor Signature
Select Queries (Aggregates, Groups, Having) Experiment

10
Objective
The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar that how to use Groups & Having Clauses with
Aggregates Functions

Theory

Aggregate Functions

• Perform summary operations on a set of values, such as:

• Counting
• Averaging
• Finding minimum or maximum values
• Calculate a single value based on a group of values from different rows.
• Result value is based only on non-NULL values from the selected rows.
Aggregate functions are also known as group functions. A SELECT statement can produce a list of rows
that match a given set of conditions. This list provides the details about the selected rows. However, if
you want to know about the overall characteristics of the rows, you are more interested in getting a
summary instead. The resulting value is based only on non-NULL values from the selected rows (with
the exception that COUNT(*) counts all rows).

Some of the aggregate function types:

All the functions can use the DISTINCT keyword, although it is not useful for the MAX() and MIN()
functions.

DISTINCT examples:

SUM(DISTINCT <column_name>)

AVG(DISTINCT <column_name>)

COUNT(DISTINCT <column_name>)

Aggregate Functions: COUNT Function Examples

mysql>SELECT COUNT(*) FROM reserves

mysql>SELECT COUNT(sid) FROM reserves

mysql> SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT sid) FROM reserves

Aggregate Functions: SUM Function Example

mysql> SELECT SUM(sid) FROM reserves

Aggregate Functions: AVG Function Example

mysql>SELECT AVG(sid) FROM reserves

mysql> SELECT AVG(rating) FROM sailor

Aggregate Functions: MIN Function Example
mysql> SELECT MIN(rating) FROM sailor

Aggregate Functions: MAX Function Example

mysql> SELECT MAX(rating) FROM sailor

GROUP BY
• The GROUP BY clause places rows into groups.
• Each group consists of rows having the same value in one or more columns.
• Calculates a summary value for each group
• General Syntax:
SELECT [DISTINCT] target-list
FROM relation-list
WHERE qualification
GROUP BY grouping-list
• Example:
mysql> SELECT rating, COUNT(sid)
FROM sailor
GROUP BY rating
In above Example, group is make on rating column and count the no. of sailor for each rating.
Find no. of sailor for each rating in which sailor age must be greater than 25
mysql> SELECT rating, COUNT(sid)
FROM sailor
WHERE age>25
GROUP BY rating

HAVING
• Use the HAVING clause to eliminate rows based on aggregate values.
• Evaluated after the grouping implied by GROUP BY
• General Syntax:
SELECT [DISTINCT] target-list
FROM relation-list
WHERE qualification
GROUP BY grouping-list
HAVING group-qualification
• Example
mysql> SELECT rating, COUNT(sid)
FROM sailor
GROUP BY rating
HAVING COUNT(sid)>1

In above Example, group is make on rating column and count the no. of sailor for each rating which
rating have minimum sailor count is 2.
You can use the HAVING modifier to require that the groups produced by a GROUP BY clause satisfy
particular criteria.

As such, it resembles the WHERE clause. The difference is that the HAVING clause is evaluated after
the grouping implied by the GROUP BY clause. This means that the HAVING condition can refer to
aggregate functions. However, any part of a condition that can also appear in the WHERE clause should
not be in the HAVING clause. A good HAVING clause is always based on aggregate functions (because
these are not allowed in the WHERE clause).

Exercise

Question No. 1
1. List average salary of each job.
2. Find average and sum of all the salaries of each job excluding clerks.
3. Find average and sum of the salaries of each job excluding salesmen', clerk' and 'manager'.
4. Find count, sum and average salaries of each job excluding salesmen', clerk' and 'manager'.
5. List average salary of each department.

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 LAB # 11
The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the Analytical Queries Which
includes Rollup, Cube & Top- N (Limits) Queries

Name
Date
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Analytical Queries (Rollup, Cube) Experiment

11
Objective
The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the Analytical Queries Which includes Rollup, Cube
& Top- N (Limits) Queries

Theory

The ROLLUP operator is useful in generating reports that contain subtotals and totals. The ROLLUP
operator generates a result set that is similar to the result sets generated by the CUBE operator.
ROLLUP

 ROLLUP generates a result set that shows aggregates for a hierarchy of values in the selected
columns.
 General Syntax:
SELECT [DISTINCT] target-list
FROM relation-list
WHERE qualification
GROUP BY grouping-list
WITH ROLLUP

 Example:
mysql> SELECT rating, age, COUNT(sid)

FROM sailor

WHERE age>25

GROUP BY rating, age

WITH ROLLUP
CUBE

 CUBE generates a result set that shows aggregates for all combinations of values in the selected
columns.

LIMIT
• Specifies the number of rows to output in result set
• Example withoutLIMIT:
mysql> SELECT bid,COUNT(sid)
FROM reserves
GROUP BY bid
ORDER BY bid DESC
  Example with LIMIT
mysql> SELECT bid, COUNT(sid)
FROM reserves
GROUP BY bid
ORDER BY bid DESC
LIMIT 1

Exercise

Question No. 1
1. Find the names of Top 10 employees which salaries are highest.

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 LAB # 12
The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the concept of Normalization

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Normalization - Introduction Experiment

12
Objective
The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the concept of Normalization

Theory

Normalization

Normalization is the process of refining a relational database design to ensure that each independent piece
of information is in only one place.

• Eliminates redundant data

• Eliminates modifications that make the data inconsistent
• “Decomposes” database into a set of smaller tables
• Removes multi-valued attributes and repeating groups
• Facilitates good database design

Advantages of Normalization

• ERDs:
• Enables you to develop diagrams effortlessly when tables, columns, and relationships are
predetermined
• Updates:
• Avoid anomalies such as insertion, deletion, and modification problems, which cause
inconsistencies with updates
• Compact:
• Modifies a single object property easily

• Data access:
• Enables you to access all logically required data
 • Joins:
• Identify the join columns
Minimize the amount of data having to be searched

Disadvantages of Normalization

Despite the numerous advantages of normalization, there are some disadvantages to be considered:

• Several tables:
• Must be accessed for user reports and other user data
• Maintenance:
• Can be in some conflict with the business processes. For example, youmay have to
duplicate information or create summary tables to gain more speed, due to the
maintenance costs of keeping multiple copies of data.
• Resource usage:
• Can be an expensive process in time and resources
• Takes many join statements to get the required data

Eliminating Data Inconsistencies

Eliminating insertion, deletion, and modification anomalies is a key advantage to normalization.

• Poorly designed table structures result in duplicate data, redundant data, and difficulties in using
the data.
• To avoid anomalies, ensure that each table column meets the following criteria:
• Represents a characteristic of the table subject
• Contains only a single value
• Is not deconstructed into smaller components
• Does not contain a calculated or concatenated value
• Is unique within the entire database structure
• Multi-table columns (in relationship) are identical
Normal Forms

• Many successive levels (called normal forms) of normalization guarantee consistency.

• Each consecutive normal form depends on the previous.
• The first three levels are the most common (from 1NF to 2NF to 3NF)

Normalization Process: Example

The normalization process is demonstrated by using a very simple example:

Assume a video library maintains a database of movies rented out. Without any normalization all
information is stored in one table as shown below.

 You want to turn spreadsheet into a database, so you can:

– Execute intelligent searches
– Make modifications
– Prepare for future growth of your business

Original spreadsheet
1NF Example

2NF Example
3NF Example
 Exercise

HEALTH HISTORY REPORT

PET ID PET NAME PET TYPE PET AGE OWNER VISIT DATE PROCEDURE

246 ROVER DOG 12 SAM COOK JAN 13/2002 01 - RABIES VACCINATION

MAR 27/2002 10 - EXAMINE and TREAT WOUND

APR 02/2002 05 - HEART WORM TEST

298 SPOT DOG 2 TERRY KIM JAN 21/2002 08 - TETANUS VACCINATION

MAR 10/2002 05 - HEART WORM TEST

341 MORRIS CAT 4 SAM COOK JAN 23/2001 01 - RABIES VACCINATION

JAN 13/2002 01 - RABIES VACCINATION

519 TWEEDY BIRD 2 TERRY KIM APR 30/2002 20 - ANNUAL CHECK UP

APR 30/2002 12 - EYE WASH

I. Normalize above health report to 1-NF

II. Also Normalize From 1-NF to 2-NF
III. Also Normalize From 2-NF to 3-NF
Feedback
 LAB # 13
The Purpose of this Lab is to make Normalized ERD – by using Case Studies

Name
Date
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Normalization – Case Study Experiment

13
Objective

The Purpose of this Lab is to make Normalized ERD – by using Case Studies

Theory
CASE - STUDY

The normalization process is demonstrated by using a very simple example:

• Furniture store
• You want to turn your inventory spreadsheet into a database, so you can:
– Execute intelligent searches
– Make modifications
– Prepare for future growth of your business
Original inventory spreadsheet
First Normal Form: 1NF

Second Normal Form: 2NF

Third Normal Form: 3NF

Third Normal Form: 3NF

Normalized “Furniture Store” Database

Exercise

CASE - STUDY

We have an Un-Normalized data of Project Management System. Transform this into the Normalized
Forms.

1. 1NF - No Repeating Groups Within the Row

2. 2NF - Every non-key column value is dependent on the Primary Key
3. 3NF - Dependent Solely on the primary key and no other non-key (supporting) column value
Feedback
 LAB # 15
The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the Database Administration
that how we Install, Configure, Import & Export Databases

Name
Date
Registration No
Department
Quiz
Assignment

___________________
Lab Instructor Signature
Database Administration Experiment

15
Objective

The Purpose of this Lab is to get familiar with the Database Administration that how we Install,
Configure, Import & Export Databases

Theory

Installation

MySQL Client/Server Model

Communication Protocols

• Protocols are implemented in the client libraries and drivers.

• The speed of a connection protocol varies with the local settings.
LAMP Stack

• MySQL is the database component in the LAMP stack, which has become the preferred stack for
web applications:
• Linux: Operating system
• Apache: Web server
• MySQL: Relational Database Management System
• PHP/Perl/Python: Programming languages
• The LAMP stack offers many degrees of freedom.
• You can go from LAMP to WAMP (Windows).
Installing MySQL

• You can download MySQL products from:

• Community: http://dev.mysql.com/downloads
• Enterprise: https://edelivery.oracle.com/
• The Windows operating system is used for this course.
• The MySQL installer for Windows is recommended:
• http://dev.mysql.com/downloads/installer/
• Installs several MySQL products
• Example databases for testing MySQL features:
 • The world_innodb database is used for examples and practices in this course.
• This and other sample databases are available (free) online.
Configuration
Starting the MySQL Command-Line Client

Start the mysql client with the following command:

Startup Command-Line Options

Get a full list of options by using –-help:

• Some primary options:

• -h: Host name or IP address
• -u: Username
• -p: Password
• <database>: Database name
• <: Input script
• >: Output file name
• -b: Beeps
• Syntax example:
 Keyboard Editing

mysql client command-line editing methods:

• Keyboard directional arrows

• Command history preserved during session
• Interrupt a query
• Full readline capabilities under Linux
• Close quotes
• Copy and paste into window
tee File

• The tee file is a text file that logs all mysql client statements and their output.
• Everything you see displayed on the screen is appended into a given file.
• You can enable this feature interactively within the mysql client with the tee command:
mysql> tee session_tee_log.txt

• The tee file can be disabled with the notee command.

• Executing tee again re-enables logging.
• View the text file from the file location by using the command-line text editor or Windows
Explorer.
Exporting Data

• Backups are important!

• Backup principles:
• Perform regularly.
• Provide consistent and meaningful naming scheme.
• Expire backup files.
• Include with regular system backups.
• Reasons for exporting data:
• Copying databases from one server to another:
 – From within the same host
– To another host
• Testing a new MySQL release with real data
• Transferring data from one RDBMS to another
Exporting with a Query

• Write query results directly into a file by using SELECT with the INTO OUTFILE clause.
• Example:

• The name of the file indicates the location of the write.

• Default file format:
• Values are delimited by tab characters.
• Lines are terminated with newlines.
• The file format can be changed by using specific INTO OUTFILE options.
Exporting with a Query: INTO OUTFILE

INTO OUTFILE changes the standard SELECT operation:

• A file is written to the server host rather than to the executing client.
• Data is written to a new file only; there are no overwrites.
• The file contains one line per row selected by the statement.
• The user that executes the statement must have the FILE privilege.
• The file is created with file system access permissions.
Exporting with a Query: CSV Format

• Create a text file that contains information in

comma-separated values (CSV) format:
• Values are enclosed in double quotation marks.
• Lines are terminated by carriage returns.
• Example:
Importing Data

New data can be imported into a database by using a MySQL (.sql) statement file, which contains all the
information needed to create tables.

• Example: Import the world_innodb database from file by using the mysql command.

• Use the input operator (<) to indicate the SQL file name.
• Example: Import the data file within the mysql client.

Caution: Do not import over an existing database file with the same name.

Shell-level client commands do not require a semicolon (;) at the end of the statement.

A text file (.txt) can also be used to import data.

Importing from a Data File

You should know the following characteristics of the data file:

• The column value separator

• The order of the columns
• The row separator
• The file system where the file resides
• What are the values enclosed within? (example: double quotation marks)
• Are the column names specified in the file?
• Is there a header indicating rows of the table to skip before importing?
• Are privileges required to access the file?
Importing with the LOAD DATA INFILE Statement

• LOAD DATA INFILE is the reverse operation of SELECT with INTO OUTFILE.
• However, it uses similar clauses and format specifiers.
• It reads row values from a file into a table.
• Files can be in tab-delimited or comma-separated format.
• Example:

• MySQL assumes that the file is located on the server host in the database data directory.
The simplest form of the LOAD DATA INFILE statement specifies only the name of the data file and
the table into which to load the file, as shown in the example in the slide.

The syntax for LOAD DATA INFILE is as follows, where optional parts of the statement are indicated
by square brackets:

LOAD DATA [LOCAL] INFILE 'file_name'

[IGNORE | REPLACE]

INTO TABLE table_name

format_specifiers

[IGNORE n LINES]

[(column_list)]

[SET (assignment_list)]

Importing with LOAD DATA INFILE: CSV Format

• Import a text file that contains information in

comma-separated values format.
• Example:
The file name is given as a quoted string. On Windows, the pathname separator character is “\”, but
MySQL treats the backslash as the escape character in strings. To deal with this issue, write separators in
Windows pathnames either as “/” or as “\\”. To load a file named D:\mydata\data.txt, specify the file
name as shown in either of the following statements:

LOAD DATA INFILE 'D:\\mydata\\data.txt' INTO TABLE t

The example in the slide shows how to use a LOAD DATA INFILE statement to import a file named
/tmp/data.txt that contains information in comma-separated values (CSV) format, with values enclosed
within double quotation marks and lines terminated by carriage returns into a table named table1.

Exercise
Question No. 1

Using SELECT statement find the version of the server you are running and print the name of the current
database?

Question No. 2

Write the statement to export tables from MySQL DBMS?

Question No. 3

Write the statement to log all SQL statements and their results in a text file.

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