.. 2.

Real numbers comprise of all rational and irrational numbers as follows:

.. Real Numbers
2
E.g. -6, -3.6, 0, 17 ,..Js, 2.4, TT, 8

I
Rational Numbers Irrational Numbers
2
E.g. -6, -3.6, 0, 17, 2.4, 8 E.g. -{s, n

I I
Non-integers Integers
E.g. -3.6, 17, 2.4 E.g. -6, 0, 8
I
Whole Numbers
E.g. 0, 8
I
I I
Negative Integers Zero Positive Integers
E.g.-6 0 E.g. 8
I
I I I
One Prime Numbers Composite Numbers
I E.g. 2, 3, 5, 7 E.g. 4, 6, 8, 9

'
Worked Example 1
;

State whether each of the following numbers is a rational number. ,,

J·
2 :·
(a) -5
'

'

(b)
'

'
(c) 4.875
\..
Solution
'
2 :
a
() - 5 1s
· a rat10na
. 1 number.

I
'

(b) ]3 is not a rational number.

'
(c) 4.875 is a rational number as it can be expressed in the form 4 � .
'

. .
·. ·
.· · ·
.... • • • · • · !..46..!
...
 Chapter 3: Rational Numbers and Estimations
··················································�
.
.
� FOUR OPERATIONS ON RATIONAL AND REAL NUMBERS

Addition and Subtraction of Fractions

1. The steps in addition and subtraction of fractions are as follows:

Step 1: Convert all mixed numbers to improper fractions.

Step 2: Change the denominators to their L.C.M.
Step 3: Add or subtract the fractions.
Step 4: Convert the final answer to a mixed number.

Worked Example 2

Without using a calculator, evaluate the following.

1 5
la) 33 + 6
1 2
76-43
8 2 5
l9-l3 +
6

Solution

1 5 10 5
(a) 33 +
6
=
3 +
6
20 5
= +
6 6
_ 25 .. Convert the final answer back to a
I mixed number.
- 6

=4 1
6

.....
 1 2 43 14
(b) 7 ----r; -43= 6 - 3
43 28
=r;-r;
15
=r;
=2 3
----r;
1 Reduce the mixed number to its
=22 simplest form.

8 2 5 26 5 5
(c) 29 - l 3 + 6 = 9 - 3 + 6
52 30 15
=18-18 + 18
37
-18
1
= 21s

Multiplication and Division of Fractions

2. The steps in multiplication and division of fractions are as follows:

Step 1: Convert all mixed numbers to improper fractions.

Step 2: Invert the second fraction (only for division).

Step 3: Cross out common factors.

Step 4: Multiply the numerators, then multiply the denominators.

Step 5: Express the final answer in its simplest form .

.· ...·.
··········!. .
.....
48:
 ....... ........................................ ..
..
Chapter 3: Rational Numbers and Estimations · .
·.
.
.
Worked Example 3 .
.
Without using a calculator, evaluate the following.
1 6
.
(a) 3 3 X 25
4 12
(b) 15 ..;- 25 ..
(c)
8 3 11 ..
9 X 5 7 27
.
..
Solution .
..
( a) 33
1 6 j..0'2

25 = ,2-;
,fr'2
.
..
X X )8'5
4
=s

4 12 9 12
(b) l 5 ..:.. 25 = 5...,.. 25
,>.Y3 2-5' 5
= ..%.I xR4
15
=4
3
= 34

8 3 11 8 _,3'I 11 Recall the rules of order of

(c) 9 X 5 7
27 = JY.3 X 5 7
27 +-- operations and work out the
answer from left to right.
= - 8 2:19
J,8'5
X TI

- 72
- 55
17
= l 55

..
·-
...................................................
Order of Operations on Fractions

3. The order of operations on fractions is similar to the order of operations on

integers.

Step 1: Evaluate the expressions within the brackets.

Step 2: Multiply and divide (from left to right).
Step 3: Add and subtract (from left to right).

Worked Example 4
Without using a calculator, evaluate the following.
4 1 1
(a) 3-l2 X 2
5 11 1)
(b) 16 7 (
13 +
3
3 8 3
(c) 9-:- 2 - l5 X 5

Solution
4 1 1 4 3 1
(a) 3-l2x2 = 3-2x2 � Do multiplication before
addition.
4 3
= 3-4
16 9
- 12-n

= 12

(b) 1 � ..,.. ( !; + -} ) = 1 � ..,.. ( !; + /5) ��-------� Evaluate expression within

the brackets first.
5 16
=l6-:- 13
11 }5' 5
= ,,6'.: xl6
= 55
32
23
= l 32

..... · · · · · .·...·.
· � 50 :
.....
 Chapter 3: Rational Numbers and Estimations
··················································�
.
(c)
3 8 3 2 8
5 =/13 X XI - J.-5'.5
,,3' 1
.
.
9 -:- 2 - T5 X X 5
8
= 6- 25 ...
25 8 ..
= S 25 - 25 .
17 ..
= S 25
.
..
..
..
.
Conversion Between Fractions and Decimals

4. A fraction can be converted into a decimal by dividing the numerator with its
denominator.
For example,

;=972
= 4.5

Alternatively, the fraction can be expressed as its equivalent fraction with a

denominator of 10, 100 or 1000.
For example,

9 _ 45
2 - 10

= 4.5
.. ··················································
:

.. Worked Example S )
.. Convert the following fractions into decimals.
'

. 5
,1

!
(a) 8 ,,,,

(b) 1

Solution

Alternative method
5 5 625
(a) 8 =5-:-8 8 = 1000
= 0.625 = 0.625 l

3 7 3 3
(b) l4 = 4 14 = 1 + 4
75
=7-:-4 =l + 100
= 1.75 = 1 + 0.75 '

= 1.75
,,
;,

s'

6. A decimal can be converted into a fraction by expressing the decimal as a fraction

with a denominator of 10, 100 or 1000.
For example,

denominator of 10: denominator of 100: denominator of 1000:

4 16 875
0.4 = To 0.16 = 100 0.875 = 1000
4
=5 = 25 =g

.. .......
.....
•
• •••••I•
I! 52 :
 ...
Chapter 3: Rational Numbers and Estimations
··················································

Worked Example 6
Convert the following decimals into fractions. ..
(a) 0.6
.
(b) 3.85 ...
.
Solution .
..
6 ..
(a)
..
Express your answer in its
0.6 = T6 .- simplest form.
3
=s
.
..
85 ..
(b) 3.85=3100
17
= 320
..

Addition and Subtraction of Decimals

7. The steps in addition and subtraction of decimals are as follows:

I Step 1: In the working, align the decimal points.

Step 2: Ensure that all numbers have the same number of decimal
places.

Step 3: Add or subtract the decimals.

-· . ..
 .
...··
.. Worked Example 7 )
..
. Without using a calculator, evaluate the following .
.. (a) 6.30 + 2.04 :,
(b) 4.2 - 3.57
.. (c) 8.03 - 1.7 + 0.39
'

.. \. r '
. Solution
·"@

(a) 6.30
+ 2:04 I
8.34·

(b) .4".zo
3 I I
Insert 'O'
- 3.57 4.2---4.20
0.63 4.20 and 3.57
� I
Both numbers have 2 decimal
places.
(c) .8'.03
7

- 1.70
6.133
+ 0.39
6.72

Multiplication and Division of Decimals

8. The steps in multiplication of decimals are as follows:

Decimal x decimal or decimal x whole number

Step 1: Ensure that the number of decimal places in the final answer
and the total number of decimal places in the question is the
same.

Decimal x multiple of ten (e.g. 10, 50, 100, 1000, etc)

Step 1: Multiply the non-zero digits.
Step 2: For each zero, move the decimal point one place to the right.
.....·.
.... · · · · · · �
.......:
54
 Chapter 3: Rational Numbers and Estimations
..
···················································
..
Worked Example 8 ..
Without using a calculator, evaluate the following.
. .
..
(a) 0.35 X 5
.•·..
....
(b) 52.3 x 42 .
(c) 0.058 X 100
..
Solution
...
..
I 2 .

0\ )"
(a) 0.35 ..
..
Question Answer
X 5
1.75 .
Both numbers have 2 decimal
..
(b ) 52.3 places. ..
42 ..
.
X

1 046
20 920-
..
-
2196.6

Since 100 has two zeros, shift the decimal

(c) 0.058 X 100 = 5.8-.- point two places to the right to multiply.

O JUt8 X JOO: 5.8

9. The steps in division of decimals are as follows:

Decimal+ decimal
Step 1: When the divisor is a decimal, ensure that the divisor is a
whole number by moving the same number of decimal points
in both the dividend and the divisor.

X ..:..
y
d.
lVl"dend .J 4
d1v1sor
..

Step 2: Divide the new dividend by the new divisor (whole number).
Decimal+ multiple of ten (e.g. 10, 50, 100, 1000, etc)
Step 1: Divide the non-zero digits.
Step 2: For each zero, move the decimal point one place to the left
.
 .�··················································
..
. r
. Worked Example 9
. Without using a calculator, evaluate the following.
.. (a) 1.75 7 5 l

. (b) 3.2 7 0.8

. (c) 83.54 7 1000

..
. Solution
. (a) 0.35
. 5 )1.7�
.. -1 5 · .
25
-25
3.3txl0=32 0 .J,.xl0=8

\ I
0

Both move one decimal place to

(b) 3.2 7 0.8 = 32 7 8 -�---- the right.
=4

(c) 83.54..:... 1000 = 0.083 54 Since 1000 has three zeros, shift the decimal
._
point three places to the left to divide.

� 5 4 -;- l000 = 0.083 54

Order of Operations on Decimals

10. The order of operations on decimals is similar to the order of operations on

integers and fractions.

Step 1: Evaluate the expressions within the brackets.

Step 2: Multiply and divide (from left to right).

Step 3: Add and subtract (from left to right).

.·.. ··.
.......
.... · . . · ·
-� 56 :
 ...................................................
Chapter 3: Rational Numbers and Estimations

Worked Example 1 0
Evaluate the following.
(a) 3.2+(-12.9) + ( 1-.5)
b) 6.2 x ( 0.25)-(-8.1)
-
(c) 12.5 X (-6.3)+ 4.4-:- 1.6

Solution
Do division before
(a) 3.2 + (-12.9) + (-1.5)= 3.2+8.6 I addition.
.
4

= 11.8

(b)' 6.2x(-0.25)-(-8.l)=-1.55+8. l,.

Do multiplication before
I addition. .
= 6.55
.
.
}2.5 X (-6.3)+4.4 ..:... 1.6 = -78.75 + 2.75 Do multiplication and
(c) 4 I division from left to right
=-76
.
before addition.

RECURRING DECIMALS

Recurring decimals are decimals that have one or a sequence of digits that repeat
continuously as follows:

Recurring decimal . Example

2
3·= 0.666.
One digit recurs
=0.6
TT = 0.090 909
Two digits recur
=0.09
2
> Two digits recur 7 = 0.285 714 285 714
= 0.285 714

They are also said to be non-terminating decimals. Decimals that have a finite
number of digits are said to be terminating decimals.
For example,
6
8 = 0.75
 .. ·· ............................................- ..
.. AP
.. Worked Example 11
Express the following decimals as recurring decimals.
. (a) 0.999...
(b) 0.818 181...
. (c) 0.123 123 1...
. (d) 0.652 165 21...

.. Solution

. (a) 0.999... = 0.9

.. (b) 0.818 181... = 0.81
..
. (c) 0.123 123 1... = 0.123

. (d) 0.652 165 21... = 0.6521

.
.
. Worked Example 12
.
Express the following fractions as recurring decimals.
1
(a) 3
5
(b) 9
(c) 0.8 + 3

Solution
1
(a) 3 = 0.3333...
= 0.3

5
(b) 9 = 0.5555...
= 0.5

(c) 0.8 + 3 = 0.2666 ...

= 0.26
·.· .....·.
·········! .58 ;
....
 Chapter 3: Rational Numbers and Estimations
.
···················································

� APPROXIMATION .

1. We use approximation to round off a number to a specified place value, decimal

.
place or significant figure.
.
Round off Numbers to a Specified Place Value
.
2. The method to round off a number to a specified place value is as follows:
.
.
Specified place value
Rounding digit
Digit to the right of Digit to the right of .
to round off rounding digit ;;i. s rounding digit < S
nearest 10 digit in the tens place round up round down
digit in the
nearest 100 round up round down
hundreds place
digit in the
nearest I 000 round up round down
thousands place

Worked Example 13
Round off the following decimals.
a) 79.8 to the nearest whole number
b) 629 to the nearest ten
c) 4586 to the nearest (i) ten, (ii) hundred and (iii) thousand

Solution
(a) 79.8 = 80 (correct to the nearest whole number).

(b) 629 = 630 (correct to the nearest ten)

(c) (i) 4586 = 4590 (correct to the nearest ten)

(ii) 4586 = 4600 (correct to the nearest hundred)

(iii) 4586 = 5000 (correct to the nearest thousand)

 .�··················································
.. Round off Numbers to a Specified Number of Decimal Places
. 3 The method to round off a number to a specified number of decimal pla ce is as
follows: f<

Specified decimal Digit to the right of Digit to the right of 0

Rounding digit
place to round off rounding digit ;;.. 5 rounding digit < 5
.. 1 decimal place
digit in the tenths
round up round down
place
digit in the
2 decimal place round up round down
. 3 decimal place
hundredths place
digit in the
round up round down
.. thousandths place

Worked Example 14
Round off the following decimals.
(a) 0.45 to 1 decimal place
(b) 1.0273 to 2 decimal places I
(c) 0.9996 to 3 decimal places

\..�-•'---=-Solution
g
--=---------
(a) 0.45 = 0.5 (correct to 1 d.p.) •---1 RoundofftoI decimalplace:

rounding
digit.__,
0.45
L+ digit= 5
soround i
up4 to5.

. (b) 1.0273 = 1.03 (correct to 2 d.p.) .,_ Roundoffto2decimalplaces:

i

rounding
digit�
!:'
1.0273

. 4digit > 5
soround
)
:!
up 2 to3.
!i
i[
.. (c) 0.9996 = 1.000 (correct to 3 d.p.) ._ Roundoffto3decimal pa
l ces: "'
roundingdigit._-,
. 0.9996 i

.
l+digit> 5

.
soround
up9tol0.
I'
.. .......
.....
··········� 60 :
 ................................................ ·•.
Chapter 3: Rational Numbers and Estimations

Worked Example 1 S
Evaluate the following to I decimal place.
(a) 3.2 X } .54
Digit to the right of (b) 1.66 + 0.4
rounding digit < 5

Solution
(a) 3.2 X 1.54 = 4.928
= 4.9 (correct to 1 d.p.)

(b) 1.66 + 0.4 = 4.15

= 4.2 (correct to 1 d.p.)

Round off Numbers to a Specified Number of Significant Figures

4. The rules to determine the siginificant figures of a number are as follows:

Significant Not significant

• All non-zero digits • Zeros not preceeded by non-zero digits
E.g. 1.23 (3 sig. fig.) E.g. 0.0042 (2 sig. fig.)

• Zeros between non-zeros digits

E.g. _6.01 (3 sig. fig.)

• Zeros that come after non-zero digits

E.g. 0.60 (2 sig. fig.)
4.00 (3 sig. fig.)
_6.70 (3 sig. fig.)

• Zeros that come after non-zero digits in a whole number may or may not be significant,
depending on the estimations made.
E.g. 1009 = 1000 (correct to 1 sig. fig.)
1009 = lQ.00 (correct to 2 sig. fig.)
;, 1009 = lQl0 (correct to 3 sig. fig.)

The method to round off to a specified number of significant figures is as follows:

Step 1: Start counting from the first significant figure. ..

Step 2: Round up the number of the specified significant
figure if the number to the right of the rounding digit is
.
greater or equal to 5, or
round down the number of the specified significant figure ...
if the number to the right of the rounding digit is smaller
than 5. ..
.,•· . . ·.
 Worked Example 16
Round off the following decimals.
(a) 0.9638 to 3 significant figures
(b) 20.066 to 4 significant figures

Solution
(a) 0.9638 = 0.964 (correct to 3 sig. fig.) � Round off to 3 significant
figures:
r+- rounding digit
0.9638
l+- digit > 5 so round up
3 to 4.

(b) 20.066 = 20.07 (correct to 4 sig. fig.) � Round off to 4 significant

figures:
r+- rounding digit
20.066
l+- digit > 5 so round up
6 to 7.

. � ESTIMATION
.
. Estimation is the process of finding an approximation to a numerical problem.
.
1.

.
2. When estimating a value to a required number of significant figures, we need
to approximate the figures to one more than the required number of significant
. figures before calculating the answer.
.
..
.
.
.
•. . ... .
.... · · · · • • ! .62· :
..... I
 Chapter 3: Rational Numbers and Estimations
··················································�

Worked Example 17
Estimate each of the following correct to 1 significant figure.
(a) 5.52 X 2.03
(b) 60.2 x 12.09

Solution
Correct all the values to 2
(a) 5.52 X 2.03 � 5.5 X 2.0 • significant figures first.
= 11
= 10 (correct to 1 sig. fig.)

Correct all the values to

(b) 60.2 x 12.09 � 60 x 12 -------I 2 significant figure first.
= 720
= 700 (correct to 1 sig. fig.)

Worked Example 18
Estimate each of the following.

(a) 12.03 X 1.497

v'35.26
v'400l X 56.01
(b)
8.992

Solution
12.03 X 1.497 _ 12 X 1.5
(a) We round off 35.26 to the nearest
v'35.26 - Vo ol I perfect square for easy calculation.
=3
v'4ITo.T X 56.01 � v'4QO X 56
(b) 92
8.992
= 20 X 56
81
1
,20 X 56
�
J>64

= 14
 �··················································
..
.. � ROUNDING AND TRUNCATION ERRORS

. Rounding Errors
..
.
. 1. A rounding off error is obtained when the numbers are rounded off in the steps

.. before the final answer.

. It results in a difference between the calculated approximation of a number and

. 2.

. its exact-mathematical value.

..
For example, evaluate VS x 3.96.
..
. Method 1: Taking VS= 2.24 (correct to 3 sig. fig.),
VS X 3.96 = 2.24 X 3.96
= 8.8704
= 8.87 (correct to 3 sig. fig.)

Method 2: Taking VS= 2.236 (correct to 4 sig. fig.), Due to the rounding off
•
VS X 3.96 = 2.236 X 3.96 error, the answer obtained
in method 1 is not as
= 8.854 56 accurate as in method 2
and method 3.
= 8.85 (correct to 3 sig. fig.)

Method 3: Taking VS= 2.2361 (correct to 5 sig. fig.),

VS X 3.96 = 2.2361 X 3.96
= 8.854 956
= 8.85 (correct to 3 sig. fig.)

3. In order to minimise such rounding off errors, we can either store the
intermediate values in our calculators or round off to a larger number of
significant figures in the intermediate steps as shown in method 2 and method 3.

·. .·... ·.
... • • • • • • • !. 64 .!
.....
 ··················································

..
Chapter 3: Rational Numbers and Estimations

.
Truncation Errors
..
.
4. A truncation error is obtained when a calculator cuts off the digits after the last ..
.
..•
digit instead of rounding up.

..
USE OF CALCULATOR
.

me key functions of a scientific calculator used to calculate expressions are shown in

•he table below.

I Exp�ion Key Display

162 1600 256

2l 3 2100 9261

31 3(2][2]0 2187

I v'434 281 Ir 1434 281 659

·1 3v'T2167 12nd Fl 0 12 167 23

:I 9-(-50)+58 9[J[DE]so[u858 117

;1
,,
2 9 I 2
12 38 + TI - ( 2 ) 12 la /cl 2 la /cl 38+9 la /cl 11[J
b b b

12.620 813 4
w 1E:ZJ 200

,
 ..
.. .
SJIMMARYI

I Rational NIIIIIIJen and Estimations I

l
Fractioas I I
l
Decimals I
l
Approximation
l
F.stimation
,.

It is to round off a It is to calculate an

approximate value

·1
number to a
specified place to a problem by
value, decimal rounding off each
Order of Operations place or significant number in the
�gure. problem to a
Step 1: ( )
required number of
Step 2: x,-;- (from
places.
left to right)
Step 3: +, -(from
left to right)

Converting fractions to Converting decimals to Rounding and

decimals fractions Truncation Errors
• Proper fractions: • Express a decimal as Due to the rounding L....

Numerator-;- a fraction with and truncation errors,

denominator denominator 10, 100 there is a difference
or 1000. between the sum and
• Mixed number: its exact value.
- Convert to
improper fractions
- Numerator -;- Recurring decimals
denominator
They contain one or a
sequence of digits
repeating continuously.

. . . .....
.....
.... • • • .. • � 66 !