Pipe flow

Pipe flow

vr vr v vr v vr p  2vr 1 vr vr 1  vr 2 v  v

2 2 2

( + vr + − + vz ) = Fr − +  ( 2 + − 2+ 2 − 2 + 2)
t r r  r z r r r r r r  2
r  z

v v v v vr v− v

1 p  2v 1 v v 1  2v 2 vr  v
2

( + vr + + + vz ) = F − + ( 2 + − 2+ 2 − 2 + 2)
t r r  r z r  r r r r r  2
r  z

vz vz v vz vz p  2 vz 1 vz 1  vz  2vz

2

( + vr + + vz ) = Fz − + ( 2 + + 2 + 2 )
t r r  z z r r r r  2
z

• NS equation in cylindrical form r, , z denote radial azimuthal and axial

directions.
 Velocity components in r and  are zero hence

Vz = Vz (r, z, t ),V = 0,Vr = 0

𝜕𝑣𝑟 𝑣𝑟 1 𝜕𝑣𝜑 𝜕𝑣𝑧

( + + + )=0
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝑣𝜑 𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝜕𝑝 𝜕 2 𝑣𝑧 1 𝜕𝑣𝑧 1 𝜕 2 𝑣𝑧 𝜕 2 𝑣𝑧

𝜌( + 𝑣𝑟 + + 𝑣𝑧 ) = 𝐹𝑧 − + 𝜇( 2 + + + )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜑2 𝜕𝑧 2
 p 1  vz
p  vz 1 vz
2
( )= [(r )]
( ) = ( 2 + ) z r r r
z r r r
vz 1 dp r 2
r p  vz [(r )= + c1
( )= [(r )] r  dz 2
 z r r

vz 1 dp r 1 dp r 2
( )= + c1 / r (vz ) = + c1ln r + c 2
r  dz 2  dz 4
r=o Vz=Vzmax and needs to be finite hence C1=0

1 dp r 2 1 dp R 2
(v z ) = + c2 At r=R, Vz=0 C2 = −
 dz 4  dz 4
1 dp 2
(vz ) = − (R − r 2 )
4 dz Parabolic profile
 1 dp 2
(vz max) = (− )R
4 dz
1 dp 2
(vz mean) = (− )R
8 dz

 dp 4
Q = R (vz mean) =
2
(− )R
8 dz

dp
(− ) = 32Vmea n / D 2
dz

Valid for laminar flow

• A viscous fluid ( density=1180 kg/m3, viscosity=0.0045 N.s/m2) flows at a rate
of 12 ml/s through a horizontal 4 mm diameter tube. Find pressure drop per
unit length of the tube.
A typical boundary layer

Irrotational flow (no effect of viscosity)

Turbulent boundary
layer

Boundary
layer in
Laminar Boundary layer transition

Viscous sub layer

• Laminar boundary layer:
• Fluid particles with in a laminar boundary layer have laminar flow characteristics.
Particles move in parallel layers and there is little mixing of particles between
different layers. Viscous effects are very important in laminar boundary layer flows.

• Laminar boundary layers have a small resistance against the adverse pressure
gradient and tend to separate from the body. On a flat plate boundary layer
remains laminar till about a value of Reynolds number 3.2x 105.

• This value of Reynolds number is not fixed and depending up on roughness of the
surface and the upstream condition it may be possible to have laminar boundary at
a Reynolds number value of even 106.
• Boundary layer in transition:
• This is the boundary layer formed when a laminar boundary layer converts in to
a turbulent boundary layer. The flow characteristics in such boundary layers are
difficult to model as both laminar and turbulent effects can be seen in such
boundary layers.

• Intermittency factor ( l ): Time for which flow is turbulent/ Total time

• 0< l<1
 Transition analysis

• In many situation it is off vital importance to know whether a

boundary layer is changing its character. In bluff body flow we may try
to convert a laminar boundary layer to a turbulent boundary layer at
earliest available opportunity where as for stream lined body flow we
may wish to maintain boundary layer to be laminar.

• Now we will examine whether we can predict the conditions when a

boundary layer will change its nature.
 How the change takes place?

• Any flow has few inherent instabilities. If the conditions are such that these
instabilities are damped out then flow will remain laminar if how ever these
instabilities grow that indicates onset of turbulence.
• The nature of instabilities in the flow are unknown (may be present in the
flow or emanate from solid boundary). The question us how do we work it
out?
Transition in boundary layer flow over flat
plate

12
Transition in boundary layer flow over flat plate
(1) Initial instability.

(2) Unstable 2-dimensional Tollmien-Schlichting (T-S) waves aligned across, and

propagating in the direction of, the free stream.

(3) 3-dimensional secondary instability of the T-S waves themselves (“ vortices”)

(4) Cascading vortex breakdown (loss of the T-S natural frequency).

(5) Formation and growth of wedge-shaped “turbulent spots”.

(6) The coalescence of turbulent spots to form a fully-turbulent boundary layer.

Transition in boundary layer flow over flat plate
Mean flow is denoted by U,V,W and P
The flow is mean steady, incompressible, Newtonian and small viscosity (Re
sufficiently large)

• The real flow may become unstable if the disturbances grow out. If flow has
inherent damping characteristics that may damp disturbances then flow will be
stable.
• The unstable flow gives rise to transition and then full turbulence flow.
Unfortunately we know very little about disturbances.
• We can mimic the real flow by introducing u’,v’,w’ and p’.
Transition in boundary layer flow over flat plate
• Both mean flow and actual flow satisfy the continuity and momentum
equations.

• If we can obtain u’,v’,w’ and p’ as a function of space and time then we can
predict whether flow will change from laminar to turbulent and at what mean
flow velocity.

• This however is almost impossible to obtain for general case. Hence two
methods are used.

• Energy Method
• Method of small perturbation
 Factors affecting transitions

• 1) Pressure gradient (Pressure decrease stable)

• 2) Suction (stable)
• 3) Heat transfer (Temp flow to wall stable)
• 4) Compressibility (less stable)
• 5) Roughness (makes it less stable)
• Turbulent boundary layer :
• In turbulent boundary layers, the flow becomes turbulent and vigorous
mixing of particles between different layers takes place. The shear stress in
such boundary is mostly generated because of the fluctuating components
of the velocity and the contribution of the shear stress due to the fluid
viscosity becomes very small
• . As mentioned previously a laminar boundary layer converts in to a
turbulent boundary layer when Reynolds number reaches a value equal to in
between 3.2x 105 and 106 depending on flow conditions.
 Main differences

• 1) layer flow to highly chaotic flow

• 2)steady or slow unsteady to high frequency fluctuation
• 3) Molecular viscosity to effective viscosity
 Turbulence: high Reynolds numbers

Turbulent flows always occur at high Reynolds numbers. They are caused by the complex interaction
between the viscous terms and the inertia terms in the momentum equations.
Turbulent, high Reynolds
number jet

19
Laminar, low Reynolds number
free stream flow
 Turbulent flows are chaotic

20
One characteristic of turbulent flows is their irregularity or randomness. A full deterministic approach is very difficult.
Turbulent flows are usually described statistically. Turbulent flows are always chaotic. But not all chaotic flows are
turbulent.
• Viscous sub-layer:
• With in a turbulent boundary layer, very close to the solid
boundary the viscous stresses become predominant as
compared to turbulent stresses. This region is known as
viscous sub-layer and in this layer equations used in turbulent
boundary layer cannot be used.
 Turbulent flow
• Flow has become turbulent.
• Governing equations remain same.
• But all the variables become function of x,y,z and time.
• We notice high frequency fluctuations with respect to time.
• It is almost impossible to solve all governing equation as a function of space and
time.
• Can we simplify governing equations of motion?
 Turbulent flow

• We can think of total turbulent motion as made up of two motions.

• That is combination of mean flow and high frequency fluctuations.
• But this is artificial separation and because of this we have a closure problem.
• Important properties
• High frequency fluctuations (Browninan motion vs turbulent motion)
• Dissipation
• Capacity to with stand large pressure gradients
• Some average properties can be obtained
 What is turbulence?
Turbulence is characterised by random fluctuations of velocity components
and other properties as shown in the figure below. If these fluctuations are
similar in all directions it is called isotropic turbulence.

Mean Flow
Flow close to the wall
(boundary layers)
 Representation of flow field
The fluid flow conservation equations for turbulent flow are obtained by
considering these fluctuations and taking an average. We put
u (t ) = U (t ) + u ' (t )
v(t ) = V (t ) + v' (t )
----- (1)
w(t ) = W (t ) + w' (t )
 (t ) = (t ) +  ' (t )
The primed quantities on the RHS in the above equations (1), are the random
part of the quantities involved. ϕ denotes an scalar quantity
 How to Quantify?
The turbulence kinetic energy per unit mass is defined by

k = 1 2 (u '2 + v'2 + w'2 ) J/kg ----- (2)

Turbulent intensity is defined by:

2
k
TI = 3 .100 percent
( )
----- (3)
U 2 +V 2 +W 2
 u u'
Turbulence example
u'2 v v' v'2 u'v'
1 7.93 2.523 6.365529 0.18 -0.0455 0.00207 -0.1148
2 3.69 -1.717 2.948089 0.74 0.5145 0.26471 -0.8834
3 4.21 -1.197 1.432809 -2.05 -2.2755 5.1779 2.723774
4 4.3 -1.107 1.225449 0.55 0.3245 0.1053 -0.35922
5 5.37 -0.037 0.001369 -0.9 -1.1255 1.26675 0.041643
6 2.62 -2.787 7.767369 -0.08 -0.3055 0.09333 0.851429
7 4.85 -0.557 0.310249 1.49 1.2645 1.59896 -0.70433
8 4.97 -0.437 0.190969 0.16 -0.0655 0.00429 0.028624
9 8.54 3.133 9.815689 0.52 0.2945 0.08673 0.922669
10 7.5 2.093 4.380649 0.52 0.2945 0.08673 0.616389
11 7.62 2.213 4.897369 -1.23 -1.4555 2.11848 -3.22102
12 2.87 -2.537 6.436369 0.98 0.7545 0.56927 -1.91417
13 8.75 3.343 11.17565 2.23 2.0045 4.01802 6.701044
14 4.15 -1.257 1.580049 1.38 1.1545 1.33287 -1.45121
15 6.43 1.023 1.046529 -0.57 -0.7955 0.63282 -0.8138
16 5.18 -0.227 0.051529 -1.28 -1.5055 2.26653 0.341749
17 3.96 -1.447 2.093809 0.76 0.5345 0.28569 -0.77342
18 4.65 -0.757 0.573049 0.48 0.2545 0.06477 -0.19266
19 7.56 2.153 4.635409 0.25 0.0245 0.0006 0.052749
20 2.99 -2.417 5.841889 0.38 0.1545 0.02387 -0.37343
Average 5.407 -2.2E-16 3.638491 0.2255 0 0.999985 0.073932
 Stress caused by turbulence
Consider mass and momentum fluxes in the y direction across surface A. for simplicity, assume
constant density.
1. Continuity
Mass flux :  vA
_
Average mass flux : vA
The only change is that the instantaneous velocity is replaced by the mean velocity.
The mean velocity satisfy the same continuity equation as the instantaneous velocity.
2. Momentum
x - momentum flux : (  vA) =  (uv ) A

Average x - momentum flux : ( vA) =  ( u v + u ' v ' ) A

The average momentum flux has the same form as the instantaneous momentum flux except for
additional fluxes 𝜌𝑢′ 𝑣′𝐴 due to the net effect of turbulent fluctuations. These additional terms
arise because of the averaging of a product of fluctuating quantities.
A net rate of transport of momentum 𝜌𝑢′ 𝑣′𝐴 from lower to upper side of an interface ...
• is equivalent to a net rate of transport of momentum - 𝜌𝑢′ 𝑣′𝐴 from upper to lower;
• has the same dynamic effect (i.e. same rate of transfer of momentum) as a stress (i.e. force
per unit area) of - 𝜌𝑢′ 𝑣′.

This apparent stress is called Reynolds stress. In a fully-turbulent flow it is usually much larger
than the viscous stress.
 Turbulent flow
After considerable algebraic manipulations the time averaged conservation equations may be
expressed as follows:-

Note that the conservation equations contain the mean velocities and properties and
also contain certain time averages of the fluctuating quantities. The latter are shown by
a ‘bar’ , denoting time average.