Pasig Catholic College

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

School Year 2021-2022
PCC@109: Missio et Evangelizatio

Module no. 1: BASIC CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH

RESEARCH is a method of acquiring knowledge based on the method of inquiry to enrich the system of
objective knowledge in the fields of natural and social science.

Some authors defined research as:

• a systematic inquiry that uses disciplines, methods to answer question or solve problems. The
goals of research are to develop, refine, and expand a body of knowledge (Polit & Beck, 2001).
• research is carried out for a specific purpose to answer specific questions to solve a particular
problem or issue. It seeks new knowledge and provides useful information in the form of
verifiable data (Palispis, 2001).
• research is to search or examine again and again carefully. Research is diligent, systematic
inquiry or investigation to validate a
refine existing knowledge and
generate new knowledge (Burns &
Grove, 2001).
• both critical and self-critical inquiry
aimed at contributing towards the
advancement of knowledge or
learning.

PURPOSES OF RESEARCH

• Exploratory or Formulative Research. The researcher’s goal is to formulate more precise

questions that future research can answer. Exploratory research helps ensure that a more
rigorous, more conclusive study will not begin with an inadequate understanding of the nature
of the problem.
• Descriptive Research. The research presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social
setting or relationship. The major purpose of descriptive research is to describe characteristics
of a population or phenomenon. It seeks to determine the answer to who, what, where and
how questions.
• Explanatory Research. The desire to know “why” to explain, is the purpose of explanatory
research. It builds an exploratory and descriptive research and goes on to identify the research
for something that occurs. Explanatory research looks for causes and reasons.

GOALS OF RESEARCH

The goals of research are:

 • to produce evidence;
• to establish credibility on the profession;
• to observe accountability for the profession; and
• to promote cost-effectiveness through documentation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

• Controlled. It implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables, the study is set up
in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. It is usually done
in physical sciences as most of it is done in laboratory. However, in social sciences, it is difficult
as research is carried out on issues relating to human beings living in society where such
controls are impossible.
• Systematic. The procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain logical
sequence.
• Empirical. Any conclusion drawn is based upon hard evidence gathered from information
collected from real life experience
• Rigorous. This characteristic ensures that procedures followed to find answer to questions are
relevant, appropriate and justified.
• Verifiable. This implies that whatever one can conclude on the basis of the findings is correct
and can be verified by others too.
• Critical. The process of investigation must be free from any drawbacks. The process and the
procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF RESEARCH:

• Qualitative Research. It deals with understanding human behavior in a natural setting. It is

naturalistic in nature because it studies human behavior and the reasons that govern it
(Sanchez, 2003). The emphasis is on the complexity of humans and their ability to shape and
create their own experience.

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

- Phenomenological research is a study that attempts to understand people’s perceptions,
perspectives and understandings of a particular situation. In this approach, the focus of
inquiry is what people experience in regard to some phenomenon or other and how they
interpret those experience (Manen, 1990).
- Ethnographic research comes largely from the field of anthropology. The emphasis is on
studying an entire culture. The most common approach is participant observation as part of
field research. The ethnographer becomes immersed in the culture as an active participant
and records extensive field notes.
- Historical research describes and examines events of the past to understand the present
and anticipate future effects. It is employed by researchers who are interested in reporting
events and/or conditions that occurred in the past. An attempt is made to establish facts in
order to arrive at conclusions concerning past events or predicts future events.
 - Case study is an intensive study of a specific individual or specific context. For instance,
Freud developed case studies of several individuals as the basis for the theories of
psychoanalysis. There is no single way to conduct a case study and combination of method
can be used. It describes deeply the experience of one person, family, group, community or
institution.
- Grounded theory is a research tool which enables you to seek out and conceptualize the
latent social patterns and structures of your interest through the process of comparison.
Initially, you will use an inductive approach to generate substantive codes from your data,
later, your developing theory will suggest you where to go next to collect data and which,
more focused, question to ask. It is simply the discovery the discovery of emerging patterns
in data.
• Quantitative research. It is a traditional, positivist, scientific method refers to a general set order
by disciplined procedures to acquire information (de Belen, 2015). According to Cristobal &
Cristobal (2013), it utilizes a deductive reasoning to generate predictions that are tested in the
real world.

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

- Survey research uses interviews, questionnaires, and sampling to get a sense of behavior
with intense precision. It allows researchers to judge behavior and then present findings in
an accurate way. It can be conducted around one group specifically or used to compare
several groups.
- Correlational research tests for relationship between two variables. Performing correlational
research is done to establish what the effect of one on the other might be and how that
affects the relationship. The purpose is to use two or more variables to better understand
the conditions of events that we encounter, to predict future conditions and events and
correlation does not always mean causation.
- Causal-comparative research looks to uncover a cause-and-effect relationship. This research
is not conducted between the groups on each other. They look for a statistical relationship
between the two variable it tries to identify, specifically, how the different groups are
affected by the same circumstances. It involves comparison.
- Experimental research is guided specifically by a hypothesis. Sometimes it can have several
hypotheses. A hypothesis is a statement to be proven or disproved.

ETHICAL GUIDELINES AND CONSIDERATIONS

The professional integrity of the researcher becomes at stake when research is carried out without
considering moral issues on what ought to be done and what ought not to be done. According to
Denscombe (2002), the notions of ethics is closely linked to the idea of morality, and that ethics
concerns the system of moral principles by which individuals can judge their actions as right or wrong,
good or bad. Ethics in research calls for moral perspective rather than practical and logical perspective
related to the research methodology.

• Four Basic Principles of Ethical Theory (Flick, 2011)

 1. Non-maleficence. Researchers should avoid harming participants.
2. Beneficence. Researcher on human subject should produce some positive and identifiable
benefit rather than simply carried out for its own sake.
3. Autonomy. Research participants’ values and decisions should be respected.
4. Justice. All people should be treated equally.
• Data Privacy (RA no. 10173)
1. Right to be informed
2. Right to access
3. Right to object
4. Right to erasure or blocking
5. Right to damage
6. Right to file a complaints
7. Right to rectify
8. Right to portability
• Some ethical principles according to Shamoo & Resnik (2015)
1. Honesty. Do not fabricate, falsify or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, research
sponsors or the public.
2. Objectivity. Avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer
review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research
where objectivity is expected or required.
3. Integrity. Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of
thought and action.
4. Carefulness. Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own
work and the work of your peers.
5. Openness. Share data, result, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
6. Respect for Intellectual Property. Do not use unpublished data, methods or results without
permission. Cite properly. Never plagiarize.
7. Confidentiality. Protect confidential communications.
8. Responsible publication. Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to
advance just your own career.
9. Responsible Mentoring. Help to educate, mentor, and advise students.
10. Respect for Colleagues. Fairly treat others.
11. Social Responsibility. Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms.
12. Non-discrimination. Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex,
race, ethnicity, or other factors not related to scientific competence and integrity.
13. Competence. Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise
through lifelong education and learning.
14. Legality. Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
15. Animal Care. Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research.
16. Human Subjects Protection. When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms
and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity; Read Article 3 Section 1 of the
Philippine Constitution.
BASIC PROCESS OF RESEARCH

• STEP ONE: Identify the Question or Problem. The first step in the research process is to be
develop a research problem. This can be a problem that needs to be solved or some piece of
information that is missing about a particular topic. Answering this question will be the focus of
the research study (Offord Centre for Child Studies, 2017).
• STEP TWO: Review the Existing Literature. The researchers must now learn more about the topic
they are investigating. This not only provides important background information about the issue
they are researching but it also tells them what other studies have already been conducted, how
they were designed, and what those studies found. In research, you often do not want to repeat
old studies, but rather add something new to the field (Cornell University Library, 2016).
• STEP THREE: Clarify the Problem. Many times, the original research question may be too broad
to examine. In this step, the researcher can use the knowledge they gained from their literature
review to narrow the focus of their study something more manageable. This involves more
clearly defining the concepts being studied (Offord Centre for Child Studies, 2017). Hence, in this
step, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the study.
• STEP FOUR: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts. Research projects can focus on a specific group
of people, facilities, employee evaluations, programs, financial status, or marketing efforts. In
research terms, the group to involve in the study is always called population. Defining the
population assists the researcher in the several ways:
First, it narrows the scope of the study from a very large population to one that is manageable.
Second, the population identifies the group that the researcher’s efforts will be focused on
within the study. This helps ensure that the researcher stays on the right path during the study.
Finally, by defining the population, the researcher identifies the group that the result will apply
to at the conclusion of the study.
• STEP FIVE: Select Methods of Data Collection. Specific data collection methods need to be
selected on the basis of critically analyzing advantages and disadvantages associated with
several alternative data collection methods (Dudovsky, 2016). This involves planning the
specifics of a study protocol, such as who will participate; exactly what type of data will be
collected; and how, when, and where the data will be gathered.
• STEP SEVEN: Develop the Instrumentation Plan. The plan for the study is referred to as the
instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan serves as the road map for the entire study,
specifying who will participate in the study; how, when and where data will be collected; and
the content of the program (Blankenship, 2010).
• STEP EIGHT: Collect Data. Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins
with the collection of data. The collection data is a critical step in providing the information
needed to answer the research question. Every study includes the collection some type of data –
whether it is from the literature or from subjects – to answer the research question. Depending
on the plan of the research, data can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with a
questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature (Human Kinetics, 2017).
• STEP NINE: Analyze Data. Analysis of data plays an important role in the achievement research
aim and objectives. Once the data has been collected, it must be analyzed in order to answer
 the original research question. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the
data will be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of
this analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly to the research question.
• STEP TEN: Write your paper. Begin by organizing all information you have collected. The next
step is the rough draft, wherein you get your ideas on paper in an unfinished fashion. This step
will help you organize your ideas and determine the form your final paper will take. After this,
you will revise the draft as many times as you think necessary to create a final product to turn in
to your teacher or adviser.
• STEP ELEVEN: Cite your Sources Properly. Give credit where credit is due, cite your sources.
• STEP TWELVE: Conclude your Research. Conclusion relate to the level of achievement of
research aims and objectives. In this final part, you will have to justify why you think that
research aims and objectives have been achieved.
• STEP THIRTEEN: Proofread. Read through the text and check for any errors in spelling, grammar,
and punctuation. Make sure the sources you used are cited properly. Make sure the message
that you want to get across to the reader has been clearly thoroughly stated.
• STEP FOURTEEN: Share Results. There are different ways to share the results of your research,
among them is by publication either in print or on the internet. Another is by sending or
submitting the research report to those persons concerned or stakeholders such as policy
makers, government officials, company or business executive, etc. Another way to share the
result of your research is through a colloquium, where the researcher presents orally the
research report to an audience or to the public.
 Pasig Catholic College

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

School Year 2021-2022
PCC@109: Missio et Evangelizatio

Module no. 2: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH AND ITS VARIABLES

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH. It is a traditional, positivist, scientific method refers to a general set order by
disciplined procedures to acquire information (de Belen, 2015). According to Cristobal & Cristobal
(2013), it utilizes a deductive reasoning to generate predictions that are tested in the real world.

The main goals of quantitative research are to test hypothesis, explore causal relationship, make
predictions and generalized findings within a population through the use of statistical methods, and
primarily utilizes probability sampling.

STRENGTHS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

• It can be replicated or repeated in other contexts;

• It provides findings that are generalizable to a large population; It can establish causality more
conclusively;
• It can make predictions based on numerical, quantifiable data;
• Data analysis using statistical software is faster;
• Data-gathering techniques are typically less demanding compared with those in qualitative
research;
• It has a low degree of subjectivity; and
• Its validity and reliability can be measured.

WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

• It cannot adequately provide in-depth information necessary for describing and explaining a
complex phenomenon;
• It lacks the ability to provide a comprehensive textual description of human experiences;
• Numerical data may be insufficient in analyzing intangible factors, such as gender roles, socio-
economic status, and social norms of a given population;
• It has less flexibility in terms of study design;
• Responses of participants are strictly limited to what has been asked. These responses may not
be extensive in some cases; and
• Self-reported data may not be very accurate as respondents may have tendency to
underestimate or overestimate their skills and behavior during self-assessment tasks.

KINDS OF VARIABLES AND THEIR USES

A variable is any element or entity which can be measured for quantity or quality. When conducting a
quantitative study, you are expected to measure or figure out the relationship between your variables.
You may also manipulate or control these variables, depending on the kind of research are conducting.

VARIABLES ACCORDING TO THEIR NATURE

• Quantitative variables. It can be measured numerically. They are the variables used primarily in
quantitative research.
o Discrete variables. Variables that can be counted. They can only be denoted by positive
whole numbers and are not described in ranges. Some examples of discrete variables
are frequency of behavior and group sizes.
o Continuous variables (internal variables). Variables that can be measured in ranges and
can be denoted by non-whole numbers. Continuous variables can have positive or
negative values. They can also be expressed as fractions.
o Ratio variables are special type of continuous variable. This type of variable cannot have
a negative value. When the value of a ratio variable is zero, it means that there is none
of that variable.
• Qualitative variables. It is also referred to as categorical variables. Despite lacking numerical
value, these variables can still be used in quantitative research. They involve assigning values to
specific categories or groups (e.g., blood type, color).
o Dichotomous variables. Variables that have only two distinct categories or values.
o Nominal variables. Variables that have more than two categories or values.
• Ordinal variables. Variables that exhibit the characteristics of both quantitative and qualitative
types. Ordinal variables have values that can be ranked or ordered. These values can be
numerical like quantitative variables. However, they can also be arranged into specific non-
numerical classes like qualitative variables.

VARIABLES ACCORDING TO THEIR PURPOSE OR ROLE

• Dependent variable. Variable that examined for changes. It is also considered to be presumed
effect in experimental research.
• Independent variable. Variable that affects the dependent variable. It is the presumed cause in
experimental research.
• Extraneous variable. Variable that is not categorized as a dependent or independent variable. It
is an undesired variable that can influence the results of an experiment. By knowing the
extraneous variable, you will be able to lessen their adverse effect on your study.
o Confounding variable. A type of extraneous variable that a researcher fails to control
and threatens the validity of an experiment’s procedure.
 Pasig Catholic College

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

School Year 2021-2022
PCC@109: Missio et Evangelizatio

ACTIVITY NO. 1: DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

Instruction: Identify the dependent and independent variable in the following given situations.

1. Mr. Fletcher, the debate team coach, is organizing a debate tournament at his school. The
number of volunteers he will need to judge at the tournament is determined by how many
rounds will take place.
Dependent Variable: _____________________________________________________
Independent Variable: _____________________________________________________

2. In the Philippine House of Representatives, the number of representatives from each legislative
districts based on its population.
Dependent Variable: _____________________________________________________
Independent Variable: _____________________________________________________

3. Emma is planning a picnic for her co-workers and plans to serve veggie burgers. The number of
veggie burgers she prepares will depend on the number of her co-workers who attend the
picnic.
Dependent Variable: _____________________________________________________
Independent Variable: _____________________________________________________

4. Liam is purchasing watermelons for a watermelon-eating contest at his company picnic. The
number of watermelons he will purchase depends on how many people have entered the
contest.
Dependent Variable: _____________________________________________________
Independent Variable: _____________________________________________________

5. Donald is making goodie bags for his child’s birthday party, and he is buying bottles of bubbles
for the bags. The quantity of bubbles Donald purchases will be determined by how many guests
attend the party.
Dependent Variable: _____________________________________________________
Independent Variable: _____________________________________________________

6. While on vacation, Peter plans to write some postcards to his friends. The number of postcards
he can send depends on how many stamps he has.
 Dependent Variable: ____________________________________________________
Independent Variable: ____________________________________________________

7. Roxanne works as a server at a restaurant. The amount of money she earns during a shift
depends on the number of tables she serves.
Dependent Variable: ___________________________________________________
Independent Variable: ___________________________________________________

8. Mabel is going backpacking in a couple of days and is buying trail mix for the trip. The amount of
trail mix she will bring depends on how long she plans to backpack.
Dependent Variable: ___________________________________________________
Independent Variable: ___________________________________________________

9. Valeria and Russell are going hiking and are trying to figure how much water they should bring
with them on the hike. The longer they plan to hike, the more water they should bring.
Dependent Variable: ___________________________________________________
Independent Variable: ___________________________________________________

10. In order to earn extra money on the weekends, Jackie’s string quartet performs at the wedding
receptions. The amount of money they earn depends on the length of the reception.
Dependent Variable: ___________________________________________________
Independent Variable: ___________________________________________________
 Pasig Catholic College

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

School Year 2021-2022
PCC@109: Missio et Evangelizatio

Module 3: Research Topic and Working Title

DEVELOPING A TOPIC

Before conducting research, you should have a topic to pursue. A topic is the subject or subject matter
of a proposed research study. It is then important to know the guidelines for choosing a research topic.

For a beginning researcher, it is important to choose a topic that interests him or her. The topic or
subject must be worth investigating. Below are some preliminary questions to ask in choosing a topic for
research:

1. What topic/s for research interests me?

2. What is it about the topic that I chose that is interesting to me?
3. What do I know about the topic that interests me?

-Neuman (2007), pp.86-87

Collaborative Task: Individually, think of a topic that interests you using a concept map. Synthesize the
concept maps of the group and present it using a Venn Diagram.

DELIMITING THE TOPIC

Once you have decided on a topic, you have to limit its scope or coverage. Here are some important
things that you must consider in developing a suitable topic for research:

1. Person or categories of people to be studied (Who are the persons that I want to study?)
2. Place of the study (Where is the specific geographical location of study?)
3. Time period of the research (How long will my study take?)
4. Spheres of human interest (What human activity or interest do I want to study?)
5. Social artifacts (What particular social artifact or interaction will I focus on?)

SOME GUIDELINE FOR DEVELOPING A RESEARCH TOPIC

The following guidelines can help you determine the viability of a topic that you want to pursue and
develop in research:

1. Check resources that are related to your topic in the library or any online resources.
 If the topic you chose has been extensively written on or it is so broad or vague that there is no
literature on it, then you need to reduce its scope.
2. Sometimes, your topic can be so specific that it becomes difficult for you to research it. You may
want to expand the topic. Expanding the scope of the subject gives you a specific access to mor
available resources for your topic. A very limited or specialized topic entail limited resources
that you can use.
3. Avoid topics that you do not have any knowledge at all. For instance, a highly specialized or a
very technical subject can be very difficult for you to study if you have no background
knowledge of it.
4. Researchers must consider the availability of sources. For instance, in historical studies, one
should not choose a topic in which sources are inaccessible, inexistent, restricted or hard to
acquire, costly to access or privately-owned. In social research, you must also consider the
participants. Ensure that the participants are willing to participate in the research.
5. Choose a topic, that is not vague, intangible, or debatable or is not easily answerable.
Conducting research on the topic should be necessary to produce new knowledge about it or to
contribute to the existing literature on it.
6. Choose a topic that is not yet overly written on by other researchers in a field. Always check the
library and the internet to determine if there is plenty of research already done on your desired
topic.
7. Ensure that you have the necessary funds or resources to collect data over a period of time.
8. Consider the resources or budget needed to analyze data or information gathered.

DEVELOPING A WORKING TITLE BASED ON THE RESEARCH TOPIC

Once you have decided on the topic of the research, it is necessary to develop a tentative or a working
title of the research. Here are some tips according to the American Psychological Association (2001):

1. The title should encapsulate the main idea of the research.

2. The title should be in the form of a concise statement that explains the essence of the topic.
3. The title should identify the actual variables or theoretical issues being studied in the research.
4. The title should be self-explanatory.
5. A good research title must be clearly phrased. It must not be vague or wordy.
6. Avoid titles that do not provide any useful purpose.
7. Do not develop a very long title it can mislead the readers.
8. Do not begin the title with phrases like “A Study of” or “An Experimental Investigation of”.
9. Do not use abbreviations in the title. Spell out all the words and acronyms used.
10. The recommended length of a research title is 10 to 12 words.
 Pasig Catholic College

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

School Year 2021-2022
PCC@109: Missio et Evangelizatio

Module 4: CHAPTER I: Problem and Its Background

In this module, you will learn how to write the introduction of the research paper. At the end of this
module, you will be able to identify and state the research problem, outline the background of the
study, develop a theoretical or conceptual framework, formulate a hypothesis, define terms, assess
significance of the study, and define the scope and limitation of the study.

THE RESEARCH INTRODUCTION

The parts of the introduction of a research paper are the following:

1. Background of the study

2. Statement of the problem
3. Theoretical or conceptual framework
4. Research hypothesis
5. Definition of terms
6. Significance of the study
7. Scope and limitation

DEVELOPING THE RESEARCHC PROBLEM

A research problem is the “issue or problem that leads to the need for study” (Cresswell, 2009, 233). It is
the central idea of the study. It serves as the main reason why research is being undertaken. Without a
clearly identified problem, research is futile. According to Ardales (2001, pp. 14-15), there are 5
conditions that make problem researchable. These include the following:

1. A problem is researchable if there are gaps in literature explaining the answer or solution to the
problem.
2. A problem is researchable if the solutions developed to address the problem are ineffective,
untested, or still unknown.
3. A problem is researchable if the answer or solutions to the problem provided are wrong or
contradictory.
4. A problem is researchable if there are several possible solutions or explanations for an
objectionable condition.
5. A problem is researchable if there are no explanations yet to an existing phenomenon.
In developing a research problem, it is necessary to have enough background information and
knowledge about the subject matter of the research. You cand develop a research problem about a
particular topic that interests you by reading relevant literature and related studies written about the
subject matter. A well-formulated research question should state the different variables to be analyzed
in the study. When you formulate a research question, you must be able to determine the different
variables in the study and identify their relationship with one another.

TECHNIQUES IN DEVELOPING A RESEARCH TOPIC INTO A RESEARCH QUESTION

Neuman (2009, pp. 87-88) suggests several techniques that you can apply when developing a research
topic into a research question:

1. Examine available literature on the topic. By reading literature on the research topic, a research
question or problem can be proposed by doing any of the following:
a. Replicate a previous study by doing some modifications;
b. Explore unexpected results that were yielded from previous research;
c. Follow the recommendations or suggestions given by the author for his or her research;
d. Apply an existing theory or explanation to a setting; or
e. Challenge or refute the findings of any previous study.
2. Ask your teachers or some experts about your topic so that they can help you develop your
ideas into a clear research problem.
3. Talk to people that have different opinions about the topic because they can help develop
possible research questions as you exchange opinions with them.
4. When developing a research question, always ensure that the problem has a historical time
period, geographical location and subgroups or categories of people that will be studied.
5. Define the objective or desired outcome of the research. Is the research exploratory, descriptive
or explanatory? Is it basic or applied research?

Ardales (2001) gives important characteristics of a good research problem:

1. A research problem must be interesting to the researcher. He or she must be motivated to

answer the research question, otherwise, the research would be futile.
2. A research problem must be significant to society when formulating a research question, always
consider the relevance of the study to the different sectors of society. Applied research, for
example is undertaken to solve problems or address issues that can help change the condition
of the vulnerable sectors of society.

A research problem must be something innovative or pioneering. When you develop a research
problem, you have to consider what has been written so far about the topic. The research problem
should be something new. It has never been studied before, it could be about the same topic, though it
should focus on areas that are usually neglected in research.
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

In this section, the researcher should explain clearly the background or context of the research problem.
To describe the background of the study, the researcher MUST use data published in other works about
the subject. The background MUST clearly show that the issue or problem leads to the necessity of
conducting a study about the topic.

Creswell (2009) provides guide questions that can help researchers in describing the background of the
study or problem:

1. Why is it necessary to conduct a study about the topic?

2. What problem influences the need to conduct a study about the topic?
3. What is the context or background of the topic?

Below are more tips on providing the background of the study:

1. Develop an opening sentence that will attract the reader’s interests and at the same time
convey the issue or problem in such a way that the audience can relate.
2. Refrain from using idiomatic expressions because they convey vague or unclear messages.
3. Use statistical data or numerical figures because they create a good impact. Using such
information suggests that the researcher has a good background of the topic before conducting
the research.
4. Clearly identify the research problem or issue that leads to the study. You should be able to
explain the research problem of the study clearly in the background.
5. State the reasons why the research problem is importantly by providing a number of references
to justify the necessity of studying the problem.

Another important component of the background of the study is the establishment of the research gap.
A research gap is an issue that has not been fully addressed by previous studies. Doing this helps you
show where your research stands in the academic field. Here are some components to consider in
establishing the research gap of your paper:

1. The current state of the field. Explain that the general field in which your current study is
situated remains to be a significant area of research up to the present. Point out that it
continues to interest many researchers and practitioners.
2. The current and conventional practices in addressing the issue. Discuss the current practices
being used by researchers, practitioners or authorities within the particular field of study your
are investigating. Make sure to explain the merits of these practices and their contribution to
your field of study.
3. The research gap. Explain that there are other aspects under the topic which may not have been
addressed by your current practices and conventions in your field of study. It may be also
possible that these established practices have failed to provide conclusive findings in
 investigating your chosen topic. Additionally, you may state that there are very few studies that
have explored the area of your current research. Make sure that the research gap you have
identified remains relevant and has not been addressed yet; otherwise, you will fail to provide a
convincing justification for conducting your research.
4. The contribution of the present study in addressing the research gap. Discuss how your own
study will help fill in the research gap you have identified. Filling the gap may be in the form of a
new methodology or approach or the development of a new perspective theory.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

After describing the background of a study, the researcher must state the problem. The statement of
the problem is basically composed of the different questions that the entire study will answer. One of
the two main parts of the statement is the general or main question of the study, which indicates the
main problem of the study. The other part is the specific questions, which are detailed questions that
the study will answer.

IDENTIFYING AND STATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

After selecting your topic, the next thing is to identify your research problem. This refers to the
particular issue which you will address in your study as well as the specific area of concern of the
research. The research problem states what is to be investigated, identifies the variables, and discusses
their relationships. Here are some steps that you can follow in identifying your research problem.

1. Conduct preliminary research using all available resources in identifying your research problem.
You may visit your school library or use online resources. You may also use other print
resources, such as, newspaper, and magazines.
2. Based on your preliminary research, prepare a concept map to generate and synthesize your
ideas. Write your general topic inside a circle in the middle of the paper. Let this circle branch
out into smaller circles. These smaller circles will contain second level ideas related to your
general topic. Further branch off these second-level circles until you end up with cluster or
groups of concepts.
3. Identify your general research problem from these cluster. You can also think of other specific
research problem based on this general research problem.

After identifying your research problem, you now have to state it and establish its place in your study.
This is the function of the problem statement. The problem statement formally points out the issue that
your study wants to address. A good problem statement does not only identify the problem in the study
but also answer the question “Why is the problem worthy of being investigated?”

It includes the following components:

1. A clear explanation of the problem as well as its causes

2. Evidence that supports the existence of the identified problem
 3. Definition of concepts relevant to the problem

FORMULATING THE RESEARCH QUESTION

Research questions are important components of your research which help define the research
problem of your study. They indicate specific concerns related to your research problem that your study
also intends to answer. They are classified into general and specific types. The general research
question is derived from the main problem of the study. It must contain words related to quantitative
research, such as effects or relationship. The words who, when, or where shall not be placed in the
general research question as these elicit factual questions that may not require extensive investigation
and discussion.

Specific research questions are anchored on the general question. They are helpful in developing tolls
for collecting data, gathering related references, organizing your paper, and drawing valid conclusions
from findings. How you write your specific research questions depends on the type of quantitative
research you are doing. However, they must always include the significant variables in the study and the
subject being analyzed.

Related to the specific research questions are the research objectives or the goals that your research
aims to achieve. Another important component related to the research questions and the research
problem is the thesis statement, which serves as a one-sentence summary of the arguments that you
are presenting in your study.

What is the format?

A persuasive problem statement consists of three parts:

1. The ideal: describes a desired goal or ideal situation; explains how things should be.
2. The reality: describe a condition that prevents the goal, state, or value in part. A from being
achieved or realized at this time; explains how the current situation falls short of the goal or ideal.
3. The consequences: identifies the way you propose to improve the current situation and move it
closer to the goal or ideal.

How to write the Statement of the Problem

1. (Statement 1) Construct statement 1 by describing a goal or desired state of a given situation,

phenomenon etc. This will build the ideal situation.
2. (Statement 2) Describe a condition that prevents the goal, state or value discussed in step 1 from
being achieved or realized at the present time. This will be the reality, the situation as it is and
establish a gap between what ought to be and what is.
3. Connects steps 1 and 2 using a term such as “but”, “however”, “unfortunately”, “in spite of”.
4. (Statement 3) Using specific details show how the situation in step 2 contains little promise of
improvement unless something is done. Then emphasize the benefits of the research by
projecting the consequences of possible solutions as well.
 CONCEPTUAL/THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The conceptual framework guides the researcher by making the direction of the research of the clearer.
It is a written or visual presentation that explains the main things to be studied, the key factors, concepts
or variables and the presumed relationship about it.
• Example of Conceptual Framework

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Factors Affecting the Behavioral Problems

Behavior of Pupils in the Within the Public School
Public School Setting Setting

• Family • Internalizing
• Community Behavior
• Teachers - Inattentiveness
• Learning - Uncooperative
Environment - Inactive
• Externalizing
Behavior
- Aggression
- Disobedience
- Impulsiveness

The Input-Output (IPO) Model is a functional graph that identifies the inputs, outputs, and required
processing tasks required to transform inputs into outputs. The model is sometimes configured to
include any storage that might happen in the process as well. The inputs represent the flow of data and
materials into the process from the outside. The processing step includes all tasks required to effect a
transformation of the inputs. The outputs are the data and materials flowing out of the transformation
process.

The theoretical framework is the structure showing the research design and methodology or the entire
process of research using a theory or theories for developing a hypothesis or testing another one or
more theories intended learning outcomes.

• Example of Theoretical Framework

 ANALYSIS OF BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS OF PUPILS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS SETTING
The matrix presents a summary of the theories relevant to the study:
Theorist(s) Explanation of the theory

Theory of The theory of constructing constructivism emphasizes the

Constructivism by learners’ social interaction with knowledgeable members of
Jean Piaget (1920) the society.

Theory of Behaviorism is concerned with the behaviors that are

Behaviorism by associated with feelings and thinking, imagining or desiring
John B. Watson
(1913)

Psycho-Social The theory states that successful completion of each stage

Theory by Erik results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic
Erickson (1994) virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the
ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.

STRATEGIES IN DEVELOPING THE FRAMEWORK

1. Examine your research title and research problem.

2. Brainstorm on what you considered to be the key variables in your research.

3. Review related literature

4. List the constructs and variables

5. Review the key science theories

6. Discuss the assumptions or propositions

STRUCTURE AND WRITING STYLE

1. The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory, in which case, you are expected
to test the validity of an existing theory in relation to specific events, issues or phenomena.

2. You may not always ask to test a theory in your study, but to develop your own framework from
which your analysis of the research problem is derived.

- What is the research problem/question?

- Why is your approach a feasible solution?

Remember!!!

In writing this part, keep in mind the following:

 • Clearly describe the framework, concepts, models or specific theories that underpin your study.

• Position your framework within a border of context of related frameworks, concepts, models or
theories.

• The present tense is used when writing about the theory.

• You should NOT make your theoretical assumption as explicit as possible.

• Don’t just take what the theory says as a given.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION

Scope and delimitation of study are two elements of a research paper that inform the reader what
information is included in the research and explain why the author chose that information. Although scope
and delimitation explain the way a study is limited, this information adds credibility to research.

• SCOPE
The scope of study is a section of a research paper that explains what information or subject is being
analyzed.
For example, the scope of a historical research paper includes a scope section that explains what time
period the writer is analyzing. Since it is impossible to study every aspect of every subject, the scope
of study tells the reader which aspects of a subject the writer has chosen to analyze.
Most research is limited in scope by sample size, time and geographic area. The scope of study is usually
followed by an explanation of the limitations of the research.
• DELIMITATION OF STUDY
The delimitation of study is the explanation of the scope of the scope of study. This section allows
the writer to explain why certain aspects of a subject were chosen and why others are excluded. It
also explains why certain theories were applied to the data.
o Difference between LIMITATIONS and DELIMITATION
▪ LIMITATIONS
- identify potential weakness of the study;
- influence that the researcher cannot control.
▪ DELIMITATIONS
- address how a study will be narrowed in scope;
- explain the things that you are not doing and why you have chosen not to do them.
• How to write the “Scope and Delimitation”
1. Start with any of these sample phrases that express the scope of the study:
a. The coverage of this study…
b. The study consists of…
c. The study covers the…
d. The study is focused on…
 2. Explain what information or subject is being studied or analyzed.
3. Explain the limitations of the research like sample size, time frame, geographics area, subjects,
objectives, facilities and the issues to which the research is focused.
4. Start with any of these sample phrases that express the delimitation of the study:
a. The study does not cover the…
b. The researcher limits this research to…
c. This study is limited to…
5. Describe the scope of the study.
6. Explain why definite aspects of a subject were chosen and why others were excluded.
7. Mention the research method used as well as the certain theories that applied to the data.
8. Explain why you are delimiting the research to a specific geographic location, age, sex,
population trait, population size, and other similar consideration.

Identify the constraints or weaknesses of your research which are not withing the control of the
researcher.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This section details the contribution or benefit that your study provides to different people and
organizations, including the academe and other sectors of the society. The significance of the study can
be written topically or in an enumeration format.

The topical arrangement is done in paragraphs and based on the weight of the individual contributions.
It can be also based on how you sequence your specific research question. If you will use this format,
there should be one paragraph corresponding to each of the contributions or research questions.

When using enumeration format, the details must be arranged according to the beneficiaries.

• Field of the study

• Government agencies

• Private organization

• Organization or company involved in the study

• Staff, heads, and administration of a specific organization

• Population the participants belong to

• Other researchers

Some useful phrase that you can use when writing this section:

• The findings of this study will be useful to the following entities:

 • The study will contribute to…

• This study will benefit the following groups or individuals:

RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

In this section, the researcher defines the testable relationship you expect to see from examining the
variables in your research. From the hypothesis, you can predict what will happen in your research.

TWO TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

• Null Hypothesis. There is no relationship, effect, or difference between variables

• Alternative Hypothesis. There is a relationship, effect, or difference between variables.

DIRECTION OF HYPOTHESIS

• Directional. If variable have positive or negative relationship with each other.

• Non-directional. If the hypothesis does not specify a particular direction.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Definition of terms is basically setting the parameters or boundaries how certain “TERMS” are going to
be used in the research or study. It is important to include a definition of terms in your research in order
to understand the key terms being used in the study. This term should be clearly defined according to
how they are used in the study in order to make easy understanding of the problem and avoid
ambiguous meaning to terms.

A formal definition consists of three parts.

1. The term (word or phrase)

2. The class of object or concept to which the term belongs.
3. The differentiating characteristics that distinguish it from all other of its class.

Two Ways of Defining Terms

• Conceptual Definition. The meaning is given by a thesaurus or a dictionary which is generally

understood by people.

• Operational Definition. The meaning of the words is appropriate to the given context or
situation.

For Example of Conceptual Definition:

Comic books (term) are sequential and narrative publications (class) consisting of illustrations,
caption, dialogue balloons, and often focus on super powered heroes (differentiating
characteristics).

For example of Operational Definition: The investigator will use the term kinship relationship to the
grandchild in the study. It will be used in the study to refer to whether the grand parents are
maternal grandparents or paternal grand parents. Previous research (e.g. Cherlin and Furtsenberg,
1986) suggests that maternal grandparents tend to be closer to their grand children.

• How to write the Definition of Terms

1. Identify the terms to define. Make a list of this terms.
2. Select the terms of your thesis statement: adjective + noun such as:
o Illegal immigration
o school uniform
o campus romance
3. Select the terms of your thesis statements: verbs such as:
o Influence
o Affect
o Determine
4. Select the terms of your thesis statement: verb + adjective such as:
o is more effective
 o are bigger
o can be detrimental
5. Select the terms of your thesis statement: adverb + verb such as:
o negatively influence
o positively affect
6. Use the following format:
In this research, the term (term 1) is used to mean “your own meaning
inside the quotation marks.”
In this paper, the term (term 2) is used to mean “your own meaning
inside the quotation marks.”
7. You can write in paragraph format. Use one paragraph for each term, including
dictionary definition and your own definition.
Example: The dictionary definition of the term illegal immigration is “the
migration of people across national borders in a way that violates the
immigration laws of a destined country” (Merriam-Webster’s, 1993). In this
paper, the term illegal immigration is used to mean “nonresidents who enter a
country without an acceptable passport or visa” (Cabrera, 2013).
8. You can write in list form. The term being defined as in italics.
Term A – Definition
Term B – Definition
Example:
Troll – According to Webster (2001), the term troll is a noun that means “insert
definition here.” In this paper, the term troll is a verb that means “to
collect” as in “to troll the internet for quotes.”
9. The definition of terms can be placed after the paragraph that describes the
purpose of the study.
• Reminders on Defining Terms:
1. Always observe the three components in a definition: term, class, differentiating
characteristics.
2. Avoid defining with “X is when” and “X is where” statements. This introductory
adverb phrases should be avoided. Define a noun with a noun, a verb with a
verb and so forth.
3. Do not define a word by mere repetition or merely restating the word.
Example (Wrong)
Rhyming poetry consists of lines that contain end rhymes.
Example (Right)
Rhyming poetry is an art form consisting of lines whose final words consistently
contain identical, final stressed vowel sounds.
4. Define a word in simple and familiar terms.
5. Keep the class portion of your definition small but adequate.
 Pasig Catholic College

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

School Year 2021-2022
PCC@109: Missio et Evangelizatio

MODULE 5: CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Overview

A review of related literature or literature review is a written summary of published research studies
and relevant works about a particular subject that is related to the researcher’s main topic. To produce
the review, the researcher examines the central issues and problems discussed in previous studies as
well as the findings and the quantitative (or qualitative) methods used.

Why is it important? (Neuman, 2009)

A literature review helps the researcher to understand the different studies done on his or her chosen
topic. Through RRL, the researcher learns:

1. what other researchers have already studied about the topic;

2. the researcher methodology and theory used in previous studies; and

3. the gaps in the existing studies about the topic.

Finding Sources of Information

Sources Examples

Periodicals Newspapers, popular social science magazines, professional

publications (e.g. National Geographic and Psychology Today), internet
news summaries, opinion magazines, editorials, and mass market
publications (e.g. Time, Newsweek, The Economist).

Scholarly Journals - Peer-reviewed or abstracted refereed journals containing research

results of social scientists and other researchers.

- Article or book reviews that contain literature review essays that

provide journal article or book commentary and evaluation.

- Scholarly journals that can be accessed online

- E-journals or internet only scholarly journals that publishes online

peer-reviewed researches.
 Books Books that contain original research result or a compilation of research
articles.

Thesis and Dissertation These are written by graduate students. Some are published into books
but some are unpublished and can be accessed in the university
libraries.

Government documents Documents published by the national government, local government

units, government agencies and international agencies.

Policy reports and These are published by government and private research institutes and
conferences papers policy centers. Professional organizations hold annual conferences and
scholarly papers are presented in them.

Steps in Conducting a Literature Review

STEP 1. Define and delimit the topic. The literature that you are going to review should be related to
your research topic and problem. Therefore, you should already have a clear and well-defined topic
before starting the review. The topic must not be too specific or too broad, and the question should be
researchable so that it will not be difficult for you to find relevant literature.

STEP 2. Design your literature search. In designing your literature search, you have to consider the type
of resources that you will be reviewing, the extent of the review, the time to be devoted for the review,
the number of works to be reviewed and the libraries where to find those works. The researcher must
also decide on the way how he or she will record the relevant information from the different sources.

STEP 3. Locate research reports.

STEP 4. Take down notes. It is important that you take down notes and record all important information
from a source. You must record the following:

1. Complete details about the work

2. Abstract of the study (for journal articles)
3. Hypothesis of the study
4. Methodology used in the study
5. Major findings, results and conclusion
6. Research design of the study
7. Recommendations given by the author of the study
8. Errors observed in the study
9. Strengths and weaknesses of the literature in relation to your research topic

STEP 5. Organize your notes. After gathering all the sources needed for the literature review, you have
to organize the note cards and develop a mental map on how you will put together the information you
have gathered. One way is to group together sources that are related to a particular topic or theme.
Also, you can make a literature map that will group together all works about a particular topic.

STEP 6. Write the literature review. Once you have organized your notes, it is now time to start writing
the literature review. Writing the review needs organizing and good writing skills. Like an essay, it has
three vital parts, namely, the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. When you write, always
consider the purpose of the review. The review is not simply a list of research reports with a summary of
major findings. A good review must be able to organize common research results or arguments
together. It must be able to connect the statements and research results logically. It should discuss the
strengths and weaknesses of the literature reviewed in relation to the research. The review must cite all
the sources of information use. Your teacher will determine the citation format that you will use for
your research paper.

Characteristics of a Good Literature Review

1. A literature review must explain the body of knowledge in area including the major issues about
the topic.

2. A good review of literature can increase the reader’s confidence with regard to the competence,
ability, and academic preparation of the researcher.

3. A good literature review must be able to sketch the direction of the research. It should be able
to contextualize the research project properly.

4. A good literature review must be able to produce a good integration and synthesis of the
different research findings.

5. A good literature review identifies unstudied areas and proposes hypotheses that other
researchers can study as well.
 Pasig Catholic College

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

School Year 2021-2022
PCC@109: Missio et Evangelizatio

MODULE 6: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Overview

In this Chapter, the researcher specifies the procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process
and analyze information about the topic. In a research paper, the methodology sections allow the
reader to critically evaluate a study’s validity and reliability.

The methodology answers two main questions:

1. How was the data collected or generated?

2. How was it (the data) analyzed?

Research Design

To decide on the most appropriate research design is the next important step that a researcher must do
after conducting a review of literature that ais related and relevant to his or her research topic and
problem. A research design refers to the action plan and research procedures developed by the
researcher in order to successfully answer the research problem. In developing the research design, the
researcher must consider the research questions and objectives, the readers, the geographical location
and distribution of the population under study and other factors like his or her personal experiences,
time and financial resources. One important part of the research design is the methodology that the
researcher will use for data collection and analysis. The design also includes the choice of the research
strategy or inquiry to be used in the research (Ceswell, 2009; Ardales, 2001).

Classification of Research Design

A. Experimental Research
• True Experimental Research
o The researcher has control over the variables, treatment or intervention,
and the subjects.
o There is an experimental and a control group
o Subjects are assigned to groups.
Types of True Experimental Research

1. Pretest-Posttest Controlled Group

 Features:
• Subjects are assigned to groups.
• Pretest is given to both groups.
• Experimental group receives the treatment.
• Control group does not receive the treatment.
• Posttest is given to both groups.

2. Posttest Only Controlled Group

Features:

• Subjects are assigned to groups.

• Experimental group receives the treatment.

• Control group does not receive the treatment.

• Posttest is given to both groups.

3. Solomon Four Group

Features:

• Subjects are assigned to one or four groups

• Prettest is given to two groups

• The other two groups receive the treatment.

• Posttest is given to all groups

• Quasi Experimental
o In this design, it is either no control group or the subject is not randomly
assigned to groups

Types of Quasi-Experimental

1. Non-Equivalent Controlled Group

Experimental Group

➢ Prettest

➢ With Intervention

➢ Posttest

Control Group
 ➢ Prettest

➢ Without Intervention

➢ Posttest

2. Time Series Design. The research periodically observes or measures the

subjects.

Prettest

➢ Multiple Observations

Posttest

➢ Multiple Observations

• Pre-Experimental Research. Types of Pre-Experimental

1. Once-Case Shot Study. A single group is exposed to an experimental treatment,
then observed.
2. One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design. Provides a comparative description of a
group of subjects before and after the experimental treatment.

B. Non-Experimental Research
• Descriptive Research. This is a research method that describes the characteristics of
the population or phenomenon studied. It primarily focuses on the nature of the
demographic segment; focuses more on the “WHAT” of the research subject. It
cannot describe what caused a situation, it can’t be used for causal relationship,
where one variable affects the others.
Example Questions:
➢ What is the level of satisfaction of the customers?
➢ What is the behavior of the class students in an online class?
➢ How does the consumers think?
➢ What is the perception of the buyers on a certain brand?

Sampling Method and Technique

In this section, the researcher identifies the sample respondents or participants from the population
who will answer the research question(s).

Population. According to Merriam-Webster (2021), it is the total of individuals occupying an area or

making up a whole.

Sample. It is the selected research respondents or participants to represent the population (Taherdoost,
2020)
How to Select Sample?

A. Slovin’s Formula

n = sample size
N = population size
e = margin of error (acceptable: 4%<MOE<8%)

B. Probability Sampling. In probability sampling, every member of the population has the chance of
being selected. It involves randomization or chance.

Four Basic Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling. All individuals in a given population have an equal chance of
being selected. It is considered as the best way to obtain representative sample. One
technique that you can use in simple random sampling is the fishbowl technique where in
you select participants by drawing out names from a transparent glass bowl.
2. Systematic Random sampling. Participants are selected from a list based on their order in
the population or on a predetermined interval. This interval is obtained by dividing the
population size by the sample size for the study.
3. Stratified Sampling. The population is divided into subgroups (or strata). The samples are
then selected from these subgroups and not from the population as a whole.
4. Cluster sampling. The population is divided into subgroups (or cluster). However, these
clusters are not created based on specific traits or characteristics; thus, they are
heterogenous.
C. Non-Probability Sampling. In non-probability sampling, not every member of the population has
the equal chance of being selected. It can rely on the subjective judgement of the researcher.

Four Basic Types of Non-Probability Sampling

1. Convenience Sampling. Selecting a sample based on the availability of the member and/or
proximity to the researcher. Also known as accidental, opportunity or grab sampling. This is
used when researcher has limited time/resources.
2. Purposive Sampling. Samples are chosen based on the goals of the study. They may be
chosen based on their knowledge of the study being conducted or if they satisfy the traits or
conditions set by the researcher.
3. Quota Sampling. Proportion of the groups in the population were considered in the number
and selection of the respondents.
4. Snowball Sampling. Participants in the study were tasked to recruit other members for the
study.
Research Locale

In this section, the researcher specifies area where the research is being conducted.

For example:

This study was conducted at Marinduque National High School, a DepEd managed partially
urban secondary public school and a mother school of all secondary public school in Marinduque. This
school comprises Senior High School and offers two tracks, which are Academic and Technical
Vocational Tracks. Under Academic Track are General Academic Strand (GAS) and Science, Technology,
Engineering and Mathematics Strand (STEM). It is located at Isok-1, Boac, Marinduque and the write up
was done at Pili, Boac, Marinduque.

Instruments and Techniques

In this section, the researcher specifies the tool(s) used to collect, measure, and analyze data related to
your research interest.

Data Collection Methods and Techniques

1. In-person Interviews
Pros: In-depth and a high degree of confidence in data
Cons: Time consuming, expensive and can be dismissed as anecdotal
2. Mail Survey
Pros: Can reach anyone and everyone – no barrier
Cons: Expensive, data collection errors, lag time
3. Phone Survey
Pros: High-degree of confidence in data collected, reach almost anyone
Cons: Expensive, cannot self-administer, need to hire an agency
4. Online Survey/Interview
Pros: Cheap, can self-administer, very low probability of data errors
Cons: Not all respondents can access, they may be wary of divulging information online

Most Frequently Used Data Collection Techniques

1. Interview
2. Observation
3. Questionnaire
4. Documentary Analysis
5. Physiological Measures
6. Psychological Measures

Take note: In making your questionnaire, questions should anchor on the following parts of your
research:
 • Research Problem

• Research Paradigm

• Research Methodology

• Review of Related Literature. The RRL must have sufficient information and data to enable the
researcher understand the variables being investigated in the study. It is used to make sure that
the content of the questionnaire is valid.

Types of Questions

1. Yes-or-No Question
2. Recognition Type
3. Completion Type
4. Coding Type
5. Subjective Type

Wordings of Question

1. Questions are stated in affirmative manner.

2. Avoid ambiguous questions.

3. Avoid double negative questions

4. Avoid double-barreled questions (2 questions in one statement)

Scales Commonly Used in Research Instrument

1. Likert Scale

2. Semantic Differential

Characteristics of a Good Research Instrument

1. Concise but able to elicit needed data.

2. Seeks information that cannot be obtained from other sources.

 3. Questions are arranged in sequence (simplest>>>>hardest)

4. Questions are arranged according to SOP

5. Should pass the Validity and Reliability

6. Response can easily be tabulated and interpreted.

Adopting and Adapting Research Instrument

Adopting Research Instrument should be in VERBATIM.

Adapting Research Instrument is altering or changing the instrument.

• Whenever possible, it is best for an instrument to be adopted.

• When it is not possible, next best option is to adapt an instrument.

• If there is no other instrument available, last option is to develop an instrument.

• Adopting or adapting an instrument, ask permission.

• When adopting an instrument, describe it appropriately in the Instrument section of Chapter 3.

In the description, it includes the following:

- who developed the instrument

- who validated the instrument

- other studies that have used the instrument

* When adapting an instrument, describe the changes made to the instrument and why.

Parts of Questionnaire

1. General Information
a. Introduction of the Researchers
b. Purpose of the Research
c. Confidentiality Statement
d. Voluntary Participation
e. How to Submit?
2. Personal Information
3. Body (Main Questions)
Validity and Reliability of the Questionnaire

VALIDITY refers how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure.

Example: If the thermometer shows different temperatures each time, even though you have carefully
controlled conditions to ensure the sample’s temperature stays the same, the thermometer is probably
malfunctioning, and therefore its measurements are not valid.

Types of Validity Test

1. Construct Validity. The adherence of a measure to existing theory and knowledge of the
concept being measured.
Example: A self-esteem questionnaire could be assessed by measuring other traits known or
assumed to be related to the concept of self-esteem (such as social skills and optimism). Strong
correlation between the scores for self-esteem and associated traits would indicate high
construct validity.

2. Content Validity. The extent to which the measurement covers all aspects of the concept being
measured.
Example: A test that aims to measure a class of students’ level of Spanish contains reading,
writing and speaking components, but no listening component. Experts agree that listening
comprehension is an essential aspect of language ability, so the test lacks content validity for
measuring the overall level of ability in Spanish.

3. Criterion Validity. The extent to which the result of a measure corresponds to other valid
measures of the same concept.
Example: A survey is conducted to measure the political opinions of voters in a region. If the
results accurately predict the later outcome of an election in that region, this indicates that the
survey has high criterion validity.

RELIABILITY refers to how consistently a method measures a something.

Example: You measure the temperature of a liquid sample several times under identical conditions. The
thermometer displays the same temperature every time, so the results are reliable.

Validity is harder to assess than reliability, but it is even more important. To obtain useful results, the
methods you use to collect your data must be valid: the research must be measuring what it claims to
measure. This ensures that your discussion of the data and the conclusions you draw are also valid.

Types of Reliability Test

1. Test-Retest. The consistency of a measure across time: do you get the same results when you
repeat the measurement?
 Example: A group of participants complete a questionnaire designed to measure personality
traits. If they repeat the questionnaire days, weeks or months apart and give the same answers,
this indicates high test-retest reliability.

2. Interrater. The consistency of a measure across raters or observers: do you get the same results
when different people conduct the same measurement?
Example: Based on an assessment criteria checklist, five examiners submit substantially different
results for the same student project. This indicates that the assessment checklist has low inter-
rater reliability (for example, because the criteria are too subjective).

3. Internal Consistency. The consistency of the measurement itself: do you get the same results
from different parts of a test that are designed to measure the same thing?
Example: You design a questionnaire to measure self-esteem. If you randomly split the results
into two halves, there should be a strong correlation between the two sets of results. If the two
results are very different, this indicates low internal consistency.

How to Ensure the Validity and Reliability in your Research?

The reliability and validity of your results depends on creating a strong research design, choosing
appropriate methods and samples, and conducting the research carefully and consistently.

For Validity:

1. Choose the appropriate method of measurement. Ensure that your method and measurement
technique are high quality and targeted to measure exactly what you want to know. They should
be thoroughly researched and based on existing knowledge.
For example, to collect data on a personality trait, you could use a standardized
questionnaire that is considered reliable and valid. If you develop your own questionnaire, it
should be based on established theory or findings of previous studies, and the questions should
be carefully and precisely worded.

2. Use the appropriate sampling methods to select your subjects. To produce valid generalizable
results, clearly define the population you are researching (e.g. people from a specific age range,
geographical location, or profession). Ensure that you have enough participants and that they
are representative of the population.

For Reliability:

1. Apply your methods consistently. Plan your method carefully to make sure you carry out the
same steps in the same way for each measurement. This is especially important if multiple
researchers are involved.
For example, if you are conducting interviews or observations, clearly define how specific
behaviors or responses will be counted, and make sure questions are phrased the same way
each time.
 2. Standardize the conditions of your research. When you collect your data, keep the
circumstances as consistent as possible to reduce the influence of external factors that might
create variation in the results.
For example, in an experimental setup, make sure all participants are given the same
information and tested under the same conditions.

Data Analysis

In this section, the researcher describes how he/she will analyze the data that will be collected from the
respondents.

Types of Quantitative Analysis

1. Descriptive Analysis. It helps researchers to find absolute numbers to summarize individual

variables and find pattern.
a. Mean: Numerical average
b. Midian: Midpoint
c. Mode: Most common value
d. Percentage: Ratio as fraction of 100
e. Frequency: Number of occurrences
f. Range: Highest and lowest value
2. Inferential Analysis: These complex analysis shows relationship between multiple variables to
generalize results and make prediction.
a. Correlation: Describes relationship between 2 variables
- Pearson’s Correlation, T-Test, Chi-Square Test, One Sample Hypothesis Test
b. Regression: shows or predicts the relationship between 2 variables.
- Bi-variate Regression, Multi-variate Regression
c. Analysis of Variance (ANoVa): test the extent to which 2+ groups differ.