56

CHAPTER 4: STATISTICS AND DATA MANAGEMENT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Define Statistics and Describe the range of applications of statistics.

2. Determine and assess the different types of Descriptive Statistics.
3. Define Data and Data Management
4. Construct and Organize data using graphs and charts and evaluate data using the different
types of statistical tools.

4.1 STATISTICS
➢ Statistics is the science of collecting, describing, interpreting data and making decisions
based on data.

• For instance, collecting numerical facts and figures about the number of people
tested positive for Corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19), then describing the
possibility of how they got infected, tracing other people who may be exposed to
them and may also be infected and in the end would come up with list of recoveries,
deaths and those that needs to be quarantined. Statistics showed that a pandemic
of respiratory disease is spreading from person to person caused by novel corona
virus.

• Statistics is so indispensable that bankers used it to estimate the number of clients

who will be making deposits as compared to the number of clients requesting for
loans, businesses rely on census data to determine the population in a given area,
ages, income, educational attainment, occupations, etc. of possible customers.

• It is a professional tool to systematically organize data, to reveal and quantify

hidden patters from chaos, to summarize or to categorize variations from
population, to investigate complicated human behaviors, to make prediction based
on existing knowledge, to review and to assess existing technologies and methods
and to conceptualize new ideas which may lead to improvements.

• Statistics is a branch of applied mathematics its applications can also be found in

integration, differentiation, and algebra.

4.2 BRANCHES OF STATISTICS

1. Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics is the term given to the analysis of data that helps describe, show,
or summarize data in a meaningful and useful way. For example, the GPA of students in a class
can be listed from highest to lowest for every subject and the students can be categorized
accordingly.
The process of descriptive statistics can be carried out using the measures of central
tendency and measures of spread. In this process it is useful to summarize group of data using
tables, graphs, and statistical analysis.

2. Inferential Statistic
Inferential statistics is used to make predictions or comparisons about a larger group
(population) using information gathered about a small part of population. It is produced through
complex mathematical calculations that scientist used to infer.
 57

Inferential statistics is generally used when the user needs to make a conclusion about
the whole population at hand, and this is done using the various types of tests such as Linear
Regression Analysis, Analysis of Variance, Analysis of Co-variance, Statistical Significance (T-
Test) and Correlation Analysis.

4.3 DATA MANAGEMENT

Data refers to information coming from observations, counts, measurements, or responses. They
are collection of facts and figures and individual pieces of information recorded and used for the
purpose of analysis. Data are raw information from which statistics are created.
Example 1: Information from the profile of students like age, course, gender, year level, income
of parents, etc. Another example are consumers preferences such as their soap, shampoo,
toothpaste, lotion, etc.
Data management is a process that includes acquiring, validating, storing, protecting, and
processing required data to ensure the accessibility, reliability, and timeliness of the data for its
users.
Example when making business decisions, commercial and industrial companies rely on big data
to gain deep insights into customer behavior, trends, and opportunities for creating extraordinary
customer experiences.
4.4 DATA COLLECTION
Data collection is defined as the procedure of collecting, measuring, and analyzing
accurate insights for research using standard validated techniques.
The objective of data collection is to ensure that the information collected are of quality
and reliable and can be subjected to statistical analysis.

4.5 SOURCES OF DATA

I. Primary Data
These are raw data which has just been collected from the source and has not gone in
any kind of statistical treatment like sorting and tabulation. It may be referred to as firsthand
information.
The important sources of primary data are primary units such as individuals, households,
published sources (data that are available in print or in electronic including those found on internet
web sites), basic experimental units.
Methods used to collect primary data can be any of the following:
1. Survey – most used to assess thoughts, opinions and feelings. It is often used in social
sciences, management, marketing and psychology to some extent. Some ways to conduct a
survey are as follows:
a. Questionnaire – Interviewing involves asking questions and getting answers
from participants in a study. It can be face-to-face interviews and face-to-face group interviewing.
Questions may consist of open-ended or close ended questions. It can be conducted via
telephone, mail, personal appearance, e-mail or through fax.
b. Interview – face to face conversation with the respondent.
2. Experiments – most suitable for medicine, psychological studies, and nutrition.

3. Observations – can be done in natural settings as well as in artificially created environment.

II. Secondary Data
These are data which has already been collected, sorted, tabulated, and has undergone
a statistical treatment and is available in either published or unpublished form. For instance, those
data that can be found from the review of literature, from books, biographies, archives. They are
called fabricated or tailored data.
 58

The following are sources of secondary data:

1. Government Offices and Semi government offices
2. Teaching and research organizations, (NSO, PSA etc)
3. Books, Biographies, Research journals, articles, and newspapers
4. Internet and websites
5. Libraries, data bases, etc.

4.6 TWO BROAD CATEGORIES OF DATA

I. QUALITATIVE DATA, (Categorical)
Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptive or nominal in nature.
They may be observed and described by words, pictures, and symbols but not numbers, because
they cannot be expressed in numerical form and therefore cannot be calculated or computed.
Often (not always) such data captures feelings, emotions, or subjective perceptions of something.
Example 2: Hair color, Gender, ethnic groups, nationality, educational qualification, intelligence,
honesty, marital status and other attributes of the population.
II. QUANTITATIVE DATA, (Numerical)
Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be mathematically computed. It
answers key questions “how many”, “how much” and “how often”.

Quantitative data are easily amenable to statistical manipulation and can be represented
by a wide variety of statistical types of graphs and charts such as line, bar graph, scatter plot, etc.

Example 3: Number of enrollees in your course this school year, height and weight of children,
distance travelled from home to office, scores in an examination, prices of commodities, salaries
of workers, etc.
Table 4.0: Types of data based on their mathematical properties

Based on their Mathematical Properties Examples

Gender (Male, Female)
TYPES OF DATA Marital Status (Single, Married, Widowed,
NOMINAL
Separated)
Ordered with their Nationality (Filipino, Chinese, Korean)
increasing Rank in competition (First, Second, Third)
➢ Accuracy ORDINAL Rating (Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor)
➢ Powerfulness of Economic Status (Low, Medium, High)
measurement Temperature in degree Celsius
➢ Preciseness INTERVAL Standardized Examination Scores
➢ Wide
Weighing Scales showing equal intervals
application of
statistical Weight of Toddlers
techniques RATIO Heights of growing children
Age of human

Nominal Data
Nominal data represents discrete units and are used to label variables that have no
quantitative value. It is used for classification purposes. Numbers or letters may be used to
represent nominal measurements.
Nominal scales are said to be the least powerful in measurement with no arithmetic origin,
order, direction, or distance relationship, reason why it has limited or restricted use.
 59

Ordinal Data
This type of data represents discrete and ordered units. The order of the values is what is
important and significant, but the differences between each one is not really known.

Ordinal scales are typically the measure of non-numeric concepts like satisfaction,
happiness, discomfort, etc., and because they only show sequence, arithmetic cannot be done
with it.

Interval (Score/Mark Data)

These are set of numerical measurements in which the distance between numbers are
known, constant size or equal. But they do not have a “true zero”.

Interval scales are great, but ratios cannot be calculated. Interval data are more powerful
than ordinal scale due to equality of intervals.
Ratio Data
Ratio data is defined as quantitative data, having the same properties as interval and
definitive ratio between each data and absolute “zero” being treated as a point of origin, which
means there can be no negative numerical value in ratio data.
The most precise data and allow for application of all statistical techniques.

Summarizing the types of data: Nominal variables are used to “name” or label a series of
values, ordinal data provide good information about order of choices, such as customer
satisfaction survey. Interval scales give us the order of values and the ability to quantify the
difference between each one. And ratio scales provide the order, interval values plus the ability
to calculate ratio since a “true zero” can be defined.

DISCRETE DATA AND CONTINUOUS DATA

Discrete Data
Discrete data has values that are distinct and separate. It represents items that can be
counted and only involves integers. It should be converted to continuous data when possible to
obtain a high level of information and details.
Example 4: The number of students in a Mathematics class, number of days in a year, number
of players in a volleyball team, number of passengers in LRT 1 during rush hours, etc.

Continuous Data
Continuous data represents measurements in which values cannot be counted but they
can be measured. It is more precise, more informative and can remove estimation and rounding
of measurements, but it is often more time consuming to obtain.

Example: Heights and weights of students, number of seconds after the start of a race

Note: A good great rule for defining if a data is continuous or discrete is that if the point of
measurement can be reduced in half and still make sense, the data is continuous.

4.7 FREQUENCY
The number of times a data point occurs in the set of data or the numerical count of data
in each class interval.

Frequency Distribution
A table that list each data point and its frequency. It shows the frequency, or number of
occurrences, in each of several categories. Frequency distributions are used to summarize large
volumes of data values.
 60

Relative Frequency
Relative frequency is the frequency of a data point expressed as a percentage of the total
number of data points. It can be written as fractions, percent or decimals.
Cumulative Frequency
Cumulative frequency is the accumulation of the previous relative frequencies. To obtain
the current frequencies just add all the previous relative frequencies.
Raw Data
Raw data is data that is not usually summarized or organized in any meaningful way. Often
it is data as it is collected or recorded without any particular order except time of observation or
sequence of observation.
Class interval
Class intervals are one way of categorizing raw data according to numerical constant
intervals.
ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙)𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝑊 = =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

Number of Classes
It is a common practice to keep the number of classes between 5 and 20 classes.
However, in deciding the approximate number of classes, H.A. Sturges suggests the following
formula:
K = 1 + 3.322 log N
Where: K - represents the number of classes
log N – logarithm of the total number of classes
Example: If the total number of observations is 50, the number of classes would be

Solution: K = 1 + 3.322 log N

K = 1 + 3.322 log 50 = 6.644
Therefore, the approximate number of classes is 7.
Example 5: Determine Frequency, relative frequency, frequency distribution of the following data:
1, 3, 6, 4, 5, 6, 3, 4, 6, 3, 6, 5, 5, 3
Solution: The Frequency, relative frequency, frequency distribution of the above data may
be presented in Table 4.1, where x column represents the data.
Table 4.1: Frequency Table

Frequency, Relative Cumulative Relative

x
f Frequency, rf Frequency
1
1 1 = 0.07 0.07
14
4
3 4 = 0.29 0.07+ 0.29 = 0.36
14
2
4 2 = 0.14 0.36 + 0.14 = 0.5
14
3
5 3 = 0.21 0.5 + 0.21 = 0.71
14
4
6 4 = 0.29 0.71 + 0.29 = 1.00
14
14

4.8 CLASSIFICATION OF DATA

1. Ungrouped data
Ungrouped data are list of numbers that has not been organized into classes, or categories
or into groups.
 61

Example 6: Given the following ungrouped data, prepare the frequency distribution.
3, 1, 0, 2, 4, 3, 4, 0, 3, 2, 4, 1, 0, 4, 2, 1, 5, 3, 2, 2, 0, 4, 3,
1, 2, 1, 4, 2, 5, 1, 2, 4, 1, 2, 2, 4, 2, 4, 1, 1, 3, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3
Solution: The given data can be arranged as shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2

No. Frequency
0 4
1 9
2 14
3 8
4 9
5 2
Total = 46

2. Grouped data
Grouped data are list of numbers that has been organized and arranged into classes
and categories and some data analysis has been done.
Example 7: Frequency Distribution of Heights of Freshmen

Table 4.3: Heights of Freshmen

Number of Students
Height (cm)
(Frequency)
140-150 78
151-160 172
161-170 39
171-180 11
Total = 300

Example 7a: A record of 30 cars speed of a particular street are as follows with accuracy of 1
km/hr. Construct a frequency distribution for the given data.
62 58 58 52 48 53 54 63 69 63
57 56 46 48 53 56 57 59 58 53
52 56 57 52 52 53 54 58 61 63
(Source: http://www.uobabylon.edu.iq/eprints/publication_1_326_638.pdf
Solution: The following are suggested steps for the construction of frequency distribution.
Step 1: Find the range
Highest value = 69
Lowest value = 46
Range = 69 – 46 = 23
Step 2: Find the number of class intervals using Sturges formula where N = 30
K = 1 + 3.322 log 30 = 1 + 3.322 (1.477) = 1 + 4.9066 = 5.9066
Therefore, the number of classes = 6
23
Step 3: Width of class interval, W = = 3.833 ≈ 𝟒
6

Step 4: The class limits and all frequencies belong to each class interval maybe
computed as follows:
First class: Lower limit = 46
 62

Upper limit = 46 + 4 -1 = 49
Second class: Lower limit = 49 + 1 = 50
Upper limit = 50 + 4 – 1 = 53
Third Class: Lower limit = 53 + 1 = 54
Upper limit = 54 + 4 – 1 = 57
Step 5: Preparing the frequency table.

Class
Interval Frequency
46 - 49 3
50 - 53 8
54 - 57 8
58 - 61 6
62 - 65 4
66 - 69 1
Note: Tally sheet is omitted
4.9 METHODS OF DATA PRESENTATION
Table 4.4 Methods of Data Presentation

TEXTUAL METHOD TABULAR METHOD GRAPHICAL METHOD

• Frequency distribution • Bar Graph
• Relative Frequency • Histogram
• Data are arranged from
distribution • Frequency polygon
lowest to highest.
• Cumulative Frequency • Pie Chart
• Stem-and-Leaf Plot
distribution • Less than or greater
• Contingency table than Ogive

I. Textual Presentation of Data

Data can be presented using paragraphs or sentences. It lists and identifies
characteristics, significant figures, and important features of data.

Example 8: Scores in Quiz 1 of MMW class (40 students),

33 44 43 29 50 35 43 25
35 48 28 50 33 44 25 29
43 33 25 20 35 20 20 25
37 37 40 30 45 43 29 25
20 48 37 29 33 25 20 20

Solution: Rearranging the given scores from lowest to highest,

20 20 25 29 33 37 43 45
20 25 25 29 33 37 43 48
20 25 28 30 35 37 43 48
20 25 29 33 35 40 44 50
20 25 29 33 35 43 44 50

Its textual form can be expressed as follows:

In the MMW class of 40 students, 2 students got a perfect score, 34 students got a
passing score of 25 points and above while 6 students got the lowest score of 20.
Generally, 85% (34/40) of the total number of students passed Quiz 1.
 63

Stem-and-leaf Plot
Stem-and-leaf plot is a table which sorts data according to a certain pattern. It consists of
separating a number into two parts. For a two-digit number, the stem consists of the first digit and
the leaf consists of the second digit. For three-digit number, the stem consists of the first two
digits, and the leaf consists of the last digit. For a one-digit number, the stem is zero.

Example 9: Shown in Table 4.5 is a table of Steam-and-leaf of the previous problem.

Solution: First order the data, then separate the data by the first digit and last use the first digit
as the stem and trailing digit as a leaf, as shown in Table 4.5

Table 4.5

Stem Leaves
2 0,0,0,0,0,0,5,5,5,5,5,5,8,9,9,9,9
3 0,3,3,3,3,5,5,7,7,7
4 0,3,3,3,3,4,4,5,8,8
5 0,0

In the above Stem-and-leaf plot, there are 11 top scorer: 50, 50, 48, 48, 45, 44, 44,
43, 43, 43, 43 while the lowest 12 scores are 20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 20, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25, 25.

II. Tabular Presentation of Data

Tabulation can be in the form of simple tables or frequency distribution table.
1. Frequency Distribution Table
It is a table which shows data that are arranged into different categories or classes and
their corresponding number of cases.
Frequency Distribution of Ungrouped Data
Example 10: Table 4.6 shows frequency distribution for the number of hours that 50 graduating
high school students spend on social media sites per day

Table 4.6

Frequency Distribution
Graduating High School Students
No. of Hours Frequency
1 6
2 15
3 22
4 4
5 3
Total = 50
 64

Frequency Distribution of Grouped Data

Table 4.7

Raw Scores, Quiz 1 in MMW Class

Cumulative
Mark Frequency
Frequency
1 - 10 3 3
11 - 20 5 8
21 - 30 11 19
31 - 40 12 31
41 - 50 19 50
51 - 60 11 61
61 - 70 7 68
71 - 80 2 70

Figure 4.9
Contingency Table
A contingency table, sometimes called a two-way frequency table, is a tabular mechanism with at
least two rows and two columns used in statistics to present categorical data in terms of frequency
counts. The intersection of a row and a column of a contingency table is called a cell.
Example: The contingency table shown has two rows and five columns (not counting header
rows/columns) and shows the results of a random sample of 2,200 adults classified by two
variables, namely gender and favorite way to eat ice cream.

Gender Cup Cone Sundae Sandwich Other

Male 592 300 204 24 80
Female 410 335 180 20 55
Source: https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ContingencyTable.html

One benefit of having data presented in a contingency table is that it allows one to perform basic
probability calculations more easily, a feat made easier still by augmenting a summary row and
column to the table as shown below:

Gender Cup Cone Sundae Sandwich Other Total

Male 592 300 204 24 80 1200
Female 410 335 180 20 55 1000
Total 1002 635 384 44 135 2200

4.10 GRAPHICAL METHOD

1. Bar Graph
The set of numbers (data) are illustrated using set of rectangular bars. It can be plotted
vertically or horizontally, and it can be simple, multiple, or component type.

Example: Shown in figure 4.1 and figure 4.2 are Birth weights of newly born babies.
 65

BIRTH WEIGHT Birth Weights

12.00 Rica
10.00
Maiko
8.00
Pounds

6.00 Mheric
4.00
2.00 Emmanuel
0.00 Mary… Dennise

Mheric

Maiko

Rica
Eiji
Emmanuel

Lorenze
Owen
Dennise

0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00

Pounds

Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2

2. Histogram
It is a pictorial diagram of frequency distribution. The class intervals are reflected along the x-axis,
and the frequencies along the y-axis using series of bars. It looks like a bar chart but there are
important differences between them.

Example: The Psychology test given to 642 students consist of 197 items, each graded as
"correct" or "incorrect” with the students' scores ranged from 46 to 167. The test scores arranged
in a simple frequency in Table 4.8. for the purpose of creating a Histogram.

Table 4.8
Grouped Frequency Distribution
of Psychology Test Scores
Lower Upper Class
Limit Limit Frequency
39.5 49.5 3
49.5 59.5 10
59.5 69.5 53
69.5 79.5 107
79.5 89.5 147
89.5 99.5 130
99.5 109.5 78
109.5 119.5 59
119.5 129.5 36
129.5 139.5 11
139.5 149.5 6
149.5 159.5 1
159.5 169.5 1

Table 4.8 shows the first interval is from 39.5 to 49.5, the second from 49.5 to 59.5,
etc.There are three scores in the first interval, 10 in the second, etc. Class intervals of width 10
provide enough detail about the distribution to be revealing without making the graph too
"choppy." Placing the limits of the class intervals midway between two numbers (e.g., 49.5)
ensures that every score will fall in an interval rather than on the boundary between intervals.

Figure 4.3
 66

Source: http://onlinestatbook.com/2/graphing_distributions/histograms.html

In the above histogram, the class frequencies are represented by bars and the height of
each bar corresponds to its class frequency.

3. Cumulative Frequency Graph, (Ogive)

A cumulative frequency graph, also known as Ogive, is a curve showing the cumulative
frequency for a given set of data. In Figure 4.4, the cumulative frequency is plotted along the y-
axis and the data is plotted along the x-axis.

Figure 4.4

Source:http://static3.mbtfiles.co.uk/media/docs/newdocs/gcse/maths/data_handling/height_and_weight_of_pupils_and_other_mayfi
eld_high_school_investigations/34766/html/images/image01.png

4. Frequency polygon
It is a graph obtained by joining the mid-points of histogram blocks using line segments.
Table 4.8 shows the scores in Quiz 1 of 3 sections in MMW and its equivalent frequency polygon
in Figure 4.5
 67

Table 2.8: SCORES IN QUIZ 1, MMW

Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
80 80 70
79 80 74
67 75 75
95 75 68
98 78 67
100 78 91
75 69 93
66 72 95
75 75 94
75 88 88
78 95 89
86 95 87
86 96 86
85 91 88
70 88 85
Figure 4.5 79 88 84
74 86 72
98 87 75
86 82 73
88 77 73
77 77 75

5. Pie Charts
It is a chart in circular form that uses “pie slices” to illustrate the relative sizes of data. The
chart is divided into sectors of circle where each sector shows the relative size of each data. In
figure 4.6 shows is an example of a pie chart
Figure 4.6

6. Pictogram / Pictograph A chart that uses pictures to represent data. Pictograms are illustrated
in the same way as bar charts, but instead of bars they use columns of pictures to show the
numbers involved.
Example: The following pictograph shows the number of students using the different types of
transportation to go to school.
Walking
Tricycle
Bus
Private Car
LRT/MRT

- represents 10 students
 68

a.) How many students go to school by private car?

b.) If the total number of students involved in the survey is 400, how many symbols must be
drawn for the students walking to school?
c.) What is the percentage of students who cycle to school?
Solution:
a.) 4.5 x 10 = 45 students go to school by private car.
b.) Calculating for the total number of students using the different types of transportation,

Total = Walking + Tricycle + Bus + Private Car + LRT/MRT

400 = Walking + (7 x 10) + (9.5 x 10) + (4.5 x 10) + (13.5 x 10)
Walking = 400 – 70 – 95 – 45 – 135 = 55 students
Therefore, the number of symbols that must be drawn for students who walk to school is
shown below:

Walking
Tricycle
Bus
Private Car
LRT/MRT

- represents 10 students

70
c.) The percentage of students who cycle to school = 𝑥 100 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟓%
400

Example: Shown below is the employee’s data of a certain company, where a pictograph was
created with the aid of MS Excel.

Figure 4.7
Source: https://excelchamps.com/blog/how-to-make-a-pictograph-in-excel/

7. Scatter Plot
It uses dots to represent values for two different variables. Scatter plots are used to
observe relationships between variables and shows patterns when data are taken as a whole.
 69

Example 11: What your car says about your salary?

Table 4.8

X(Salary) Y, (Car Price)

1 2,138,150 972,750
2 9,769,350 4,698,250
3 1,833,600 1,042,900
4 10,881,850 5,358,200
5 3,736,700 1,701,800
6 6,527,500 4,390,300
7 2,148,800 896,350
8 7,556,600 4,575,900
9 2,746,800 1,473,950
10 1,910,000 855,900
11 2,450,745 999,999
12 3,465,700 3,335,450
13 2,790,300 1,799,000
14 3,800,000 1,325,750

Figure 4.9
 70

Review Exercises 4.0

Name ___________________________________ Score ___________ Date ______________
Course, Year & Section _______________Student no. __________ Professor______________

Solve the following problems as indicated.

1. The heights of 400 engineering students are given in the table 4.10, construct a frequency
polygon.
Table 4.10

Number of
Heights, cm
Students
140 - 150 75
150 - 160 156
160 - 170 128
170 - 180 41
Total 400

2. Table 4.11 represents the heights, in inches, of a sample of 100 male basketball players in
NCR. Construct the cumulative frequency curve.
Table 4.11

Frequency Table of Soccer Player Height

Heights, inches Number of Students
59.95 – 61.95 3
61.95 – 63.95 9
63.95 – 65.95 10
65.95 – 67.95 33
67.95 – 69.95 15
69.95 – 71.95 10
71.95 – 73.95 5
73.95 – 75.95 15
Total 100

3. Twenty people were asked the number of kilometers they commute to work every day.

2 5 7 3 2 10 15 20 7 10
18 5 12 13 12 4 5 10 18 4

With the above data, the following table was produced:

Table 4.12
Frequency of Commuting Distances

Relative Cumulative
Data Frequency
Frequency Relative Frequency
2 2 4/19 0.2105
3 3 3/19 0.1579
4 1 1/19 0.2105
5 3 3/19 0.1579
7 2 2/19 0.2632
10 3 4/19 0.4737
12 2 2/19 0.7895
13 1 1/19 0.8421
15 1 1/19 0.8948
18 1 1/19 0.9474
20 1 1/19 1.000
 71

Problem:
a. Is the table correct? If it is not correct, what is wrong?
b. True or False: Three percent of the people surveyed commute 3 kilometers. If the statement is
not correct, what should it be? If the table is incorrect, make the corrections.
c. What fraction of the people surveyed commute 5 or 7 kilometers?
d. What fraction of the people surveyed commute 12 kilometers or more? Less than 12
kilometers? Between 5 and 13 kilometers, (does not include 5 and 13 miles)?
4. Draw the Ogive graph for the following set of data:
2, 7, 16, 21, 31, 3, 8, 17, 21, 55, 3, 13, 22,
55, 4, 14, 19, 25, 57, 6, 15, 20, 29, 58, 18

5. An insurance company requested a police report about color of cars that encountered accident
during first quarter of the year. The report is shown in the table below:

Color of Car Red Blue White Black Gray Brown

Frequency of
26 55 43 38 41 25
Car Accident

Construct a bar graph for the above police report. Also create its pie-chart.
6. Consider the following data on annual wages of 20 Security Guards assigned to different
establishments in Metro Manila Area.
Annual Wages of Security Guards in Hundred Thousand of Pesos

168 162 216 210 162 180 180 210 204 156
210 204 168 216 216 202 162 204 168 180

Determine Frequency, relative frequency, frequency distribution.

7. The temperature, °C in Baguio for the month of March 2020 is shown in Table 4.13
Table 4.13
BAGUIO TEMPERATURE, °C MARCH 2020
SUNDAY MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY SATURDAY

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

33° 33° 32° 31° 34° 33° 35°

8 9 10 11 12 13 14

35° 36° 34° 34° 33° 35° 35°

15 16 17 18 19 20 21

33° 31° 32° 34° 34° 35° 35°

22 23 24 25 26 27 28

36° 35° 34° 34° 34° 34° 36°

29 30 31

36° 34° 34°

Source: https://www.accuweather.com/en/ph/baguio-city/262309/march-weather/262309?year=2020

Prepare a stem-and-leaf plot table for the above data.

8. Consider the table 4.14 that displays a selection of variables from a study data set and answer
the questions that follow:
 72

Table 4.14

Number
Blood Feeling Social
ID AGE GENDER HEIGHT LDL of Smoke?
Group Happy? Class
Children
1 25 F 1.62 B 150 Agree 0 No I
Strongly
2 35 F 1.58 O 123 1 Yes II
Agree
3 44 M 1.35 A 178 Disagree 3 Yes I
4 28 F 1.54 AB 205 Disagree 0 No III
5 3 M 1.35 O 229 Indifferent 2 Yes I
6 42 M 1.21 B 215 Agree 2 Yes IV
Strongly
7 36 F 1.76 A 130 1 No IV
Disagree
8 38 M 1.57 A 175 Disagree 1 Yes V
9 30 M 1.47 AB 240 Indifferent 0 No III
Strongly
10 40 F 1.18 B 167 6 No I
agree
*LDL – Low Density Lipoprotein
Source: https://www.slideshare.net/WinonaEselBernardo/presentation-of-data-10958540

Which of the above variable(s) are classified as quantitative variable(s)?

a. ID b. Age
c. Gender d. Height
e. Blood group f. LDL
g. Feeling Happy? h. Number of children
i. Smoke? J. Social Class
k. None of the above
9. Consider Table 2.14, which variable(s) are classified as qualitative variable(s)?
a. ID b. Age
c. Gender d. Height
e. Blood group f. LDL
g. Feeling Happy? h. Number of children
i. Smoke? J. Social Class
k. None of the above
10. Which of the above variable(s) are classified as ordinal variable(s)?
a. ID b. Age
c. Gender d. Height
e. Blood group f. LDL
g. Feeling Happy? h. Number of children
i. Smoke? J. Social Class
k. None of the above
 73

4.11 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
The measures of central tendency are ways of describing the central position of a set of
data. They are sometimes called measures of central location or summary statistics.
The mean, median and mode are all valid measures of central tendency, but under
different conditions, some measures of central tendency become more appropriate to use than
others.
I. Mean
It is the sum of all measurements divided by the total number of measurements in the
given data. It is the most used measure of central position, the point on which a distribution would
be balance.
̅
Mean for Ungrouped Data, 𝒙
∑𝑥
𝑥̅ =
𝑛
The above formula is also called arithmetic mean, simple mean or average.
Where, 𝑥̅ – the mean of the measurements, x
∑ 𝑥 – the summation of all measurements

n – the total number of measurements

Example 11: The scores in a short quiz of 30 students in Mathematics are as follows, find the
mean score of the class.
37, 33, 33, 32, 29, 28, 23, 22, 22, 22, 21, 21, 21, 20, 20,
19, 19, 18, 18, 18, 18, 16, 15, 14, 14, 14, 12, 12, 9, 6
∑𝑥
Solution: Substitute the given scores to the formula 𝑥̅ = , where n = 30
𝑛

37 + 33 + 33 + 32 + 29 + 28 + 23 + 22 + 22 + 22 + 21 + 21 + 21 … + 6
𝑥̅ =
30
606
𝑥̅ = = 20.2
30
Therefore, the mean score of the class, 𝑥̅ = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟐
The Weighted Mean
Weighted mean is a mean that is calculated with extra weight given to the sample data.
∑ 𝑤𝑥
𝑥̅ =
∑𝑤
Where w – the weight of the given data
Example 12: The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 have weights 0.1, 0.25, 0.3, 0.15 and 0.2, respectively.
Calculate its weighted mean?
Solution: Substitute the given numbers with their corresponding weights as follows:
∑ 𝑤𝑥 1(0.1) + 2(0.25) + 3(0.3) + 4(0.15) + 5(0.2)
𝑥̅ = =
∑𝑤 0.1 + 0.25 + 0.3 + 0.15 + 0.2

0.1 + 0.5 + 0.9 + 0.6 + 1

𝑥̅ = = 3.1
1
Therefore, the weighted mean, 𝑥̅ = 𝟑. 𝟏
 74

Mean for Grouped Data

The mean for grouped data can be solved by any of the following formula:

METHOD’S NAME GROUPED DATA

∑ 𝑓𝑥
Direct Method 𝑥̅ =
𝑛
Step-Deviation ∑ 𝑓𝑢
𝑥̅ = 𝐴 + (ℎ)
Method ∑𝑓

Where: 𝑥̅ – mean of grouped data

x – class mark or the midpoint of the upper and the lower limit of the class
n – total number of observations equals to ∑ 𝑓
f – indicates frequency of different groups/class
A – indicates assumed mean
𝑥−𝐴
𝑢=
ℎ
u – indicates step-deviation/unit code deviation
h – indicates size of class
∑ 𝑓𝑥 – summation of the product of the class marks and corresponding

frequencies.
Example 13: The following data shows the number of days that students were absent from school
due to sickness in the previous school year. Use the direct method to compute the mean.

No. of days absent

1-5 6 - 10 11 - 15 16 – 20 21 - 25
due to sickness
Frequency 12 11 10 4 3

Solution: First, prepare the table as follows,

No. of days absent

F midpoint, x fx
due to sickness
1-5 12 3 36
6 – 10 11 8 88
11 – 15 10 13 130
16 – 20 4 18 72
21 - 25 3 23 69
n = 40 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 395

∑ 𝑓𝑥 395
𝑥̅ = = = 9.875
𝑛 40

Therefore, the mean number of student’s absences due to illness is 9.875.

Example 14: The following data shows the distance traveled by 100 commuters from house to
work.

Distance in
1 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50
kilometers
No. of Commuters 10 17 42 18 13

Calculate the arithmetic mean by step-deviation method.

21+30
Solution: The given data can be tabulated as follow, where the assumed mean, A = = 25.5
2
 75

Number of 𝑥−𝐴
Mid points
Distance, km Commuters 𝑢= fu
x 10
f
1 – 10 10 5.5 -2 -20
11 – 20 17 15.5 -1 -17
21 – 30 42 25.5 0 0
31 – 40 18 35.5 1 18
41 - 50 13 45.5 2 26
Total ∑ 𝑓 = 100 ∑ 𝑓𝑢 = 7

∑ 𝑓𝑢
Solving for the arithmetic mean using the formula, 𝑥̅ = 𝐴 + ∑𝑓
(ℎ)

7
𝑥̅ = 25.5 + (10) = 26.2
100

Note: The mid-point is a multiple of 5 and the difference from mid-point to mid-point is 10, it is the
class size.

Example 15: Shown below is a table of scores of 50 students in MMW class. Find the arithmetic
mean by a.) direct method b.) step-deviation method.

Scores 20 - 29 30 - 39 40 - 49 50 - 59 60 - 69 70 - 79 80 - 89
Frequency 1 5 12 15 9 6 2

Solution: The frequency table can be prepared as follows:

Direct
Step-Deviation Method
Method

Marks f x fx fu

20 - 29 1 24.5 24.5 -3 -3
30 - 39 5 34.5 172.5 -2 -10
40 - 49 12 44.5 534 -1 -12
50 - 59 15 54.5 817.5 0 0
60 - 69 9 64.5 580.5 1 9
70 - 79 6 74.5 447 2 12
80 - 89 2 84.5 169 3 6
Total 50 2745 2

50+59
Where A = = 54.5 h = 10
2

a.) Direct Method

∑ 𝑓𝑥 2745
𝑥̅ = ∑𝑓
= = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟗
50

b.) Step-Deviation Method

∑ 𝑓𝑢
𝑥̅ = 𝐴 + 𝑥ℎ
∑𝑓

50+59
Where 𝐴 = = 54.5 and h = 10,
2

2
𝑥̅ = 54.5 + 𝑥 10 = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟗
50
 76

Advantages of Arithmetic mean

Arithmetic mean is based on observations and easy to calculate and determined for almost
every kind of data. It is only slightly affected by the unstable values of samples.

Disadvantages of Arithmetic mean

It is highly affected by utmost values. It is not the proper way of expressing averages into ratios
and percentages and for highly skewed distributions is not a proper way to compute its average.

II. MEDIAN for UNGROUPED DATA

Median is defined as the middle value of the data when the data is arranged in ascending
or descending order. When the number of observations is odd, the middle number is the median,
but when the number of observations is even, the median is the average of the two middle
numbers.

The formula is as follows:

𝑛+1
If the number of observations is odd: 𝑀𝑑 = 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ( ) 𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑎
2

𝑛 𝑛
( 2 )𝑡ℎ + ( 2 +1)𝑡ℎ
If the number of observations is even: 𝑀𝑑 =
2

Where Md – is the median of ungrouped data

n – is the total number of observations

Example 16: Find the median of the following data.

37, 25, 29, 43, 21, 17, 35

Solution: Arrange the data in ascending order.

17, 21, 25, 29, 35, 37, 43

There are 7 terms in the given, which is odd, therefore the median is the middle (4 th)
term which is 29 or Md = 29.

Note: The number of terms having values greater than or equal 29 is the same as the number of
terms having values less than or equal to it.

Example 17: Given the following data, find the median.

45, 55, 35, 65, 85, 75

Solution: Arrange the data in ascending order.

35, 45, 55, 65, 75, 85

The number of terms is 6 which is even, which means the 3rd and 4th are middle terms. Median is
the average value of these terms,

55 + 65 120
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = = = 𝟔𝟎
2 2

Hence, Md = 60.

Note: The number of terms having values greater than or equal to 60 is the same as the number
of terms having values less than or equal to it.
 77

MEDIAN OF GROUPED DATA

The formula for Median of grouped data is as follows:

𝑛
𝑖 ( − 𝑓 <)
𝑀𝑑 = 𝐿 + 2
𝑓

Where: L – lower limit of median class

i - class size of the distribution

n – number of observations

f < - less than cumulative frequency of the class below the median class

f – frequency of the median class

Example 18: Given the following frequency distribution, find the median.

Raw Score f
75 -79 3
70 - 74 1
65 - 69 7
60 -64 9
55 - 59 6
50 - 54 4

Solution: Add a third column for the less than cumulative frequency to the above table. The third
column is obtained by adding the frequencies of the class starting from the lowest class up to the
topmost class. The cumulative frequency of the topmost class must be equal to the number of
observations

Raw Score f f<

75 -79 3 30
70 - 74 1 27
65 - 69 7 26
60 -64 9 19
55 - 59 6 10
50 - 54 4 4
n = 30

For the median class, consider the class opposite the third column (f <) which is
𝑛 𝑛
immediately greater than . Since = 15, the entry in the third column that is immediately greater
2 2
than it is 19, and therefore the median class is 60 – 64. The lower limit of the median class is 60
and the exact lower limit of the median class is 60 – 0.5 = 59.5. The class size i = 5 and f < = 15,
then Md is as follows,

𝑛
𝑖 ( − 𝑓 <) 5(15 − 10)
𝑀𝑑 = 𝐿 + 2 = 59.5 +
𝑓 9

Hence, Md = 62.27

MODE OF UNGROUPED DATA

The mode is the number that appears most frequently in a data set. A set of data may
have one mode, (unimodal) two modes (bimodal), 3 modes (trimodal) or more (multimodal) or no
mode at all (zero mode).It is denoted by the symbol Mo and it can be obtained by inspection of
the given set of data.
 78

Example 19: Given the following sets of numbers, determine its mode.

a. 2, 3, 5, 9, 15, 15, 15, 26, 27, 39, 42

b. 80, 79, 91, 80, 85, 76, 79, 74, 91

c. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, 5

Solution:

a. The number that occur most frequently is 15, therefore the Mo = 15.

2, 3, 5, 9, 15, 15, 15, 26, 27, 39, 42

b. There are three numbers that occur most frequently, 79, 80 and 91 therefore the

Mo = 79, 80, 91. The mode of the given set of data is trimodal.

74, 76,79,79,80,80,85,91,91,93

c. There is no mode in the following set of data, Mo = 0

5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, 5

MODE OF GROUPED DATA

The mode of grouped data can be computed using the following formula:

𝑑1
𝑀𝑜 = 𝐿𝐵 + 𝑖 ( )
𝑑1 + 𝑑2

Note: This is a formula for Moments of Force Method.

Where Mo – mode of grouped data

LB – lower boundary of the modal class (also called exact lower limit of modal class)

i – class size

d1 – difference between frequency of the model class and the class below it.

d2 – difference between frequency of the modal class and the class above it.

Example 20: A record of Elite Coffee Shop shows the number of orders of Brewed Coffee made
by its customers per hour. Find the mode.

Number of
Frequency
Brewed Coffee
0-2 2 Image Source:
3-5 3 https://youronevoiceca
nmakeadifference.files.
6-8 6 wordpress.com/2012/0
9 - 11 7 6/cup-of-fresh-brewed-
12 - 14 5 coffee-photo-credit-
fanpop1.jpg
15 - 17 3
18 - 20 2
 79

Solution: Locate the modal class, as shown below the modal class is 9 – 11, having the highest
frequency of 7,

Number of
Frequency
Brewed Coffee
0-2 2
3-5 3
6-8 6
9 - 11 7
12 - 14 5
15 - 17 3
18 - 20 2

And the LB, lower boundary of the modal class = 9 – 0.5 = 8.5

d1 = 7 – 6 = 1

d2 = 7 – 5 = 2

i=3

𝑑1 1
𝑀𝑜 = 𝐿𝐵 + 𝑖 ( ) = 8.5 + 3 ( ) = 𝟗. 𝟓
𝑑1 + 𝑑2 2+1

Advantages of Mode

Mode is easy to understand and calculate and is useful for qualitative data. It is not
affected by extreme values. It is easy to identify in a data set and in a frequency distribution. It
can be computed in an open -ended frequency table and can be located in a graph.

Disadvantages of Mode

Mode is defined when there are no values repeated in a data set. It is not based on all
values. It unstable when data consist of a small number of values.

Example 21: Find the arithmetic mean, median and mode of the following set of data:

73, 78, 73, 74, 73, 76, 74, 81

Solution: Solving first the arithmetic mean,

∑ 𝑥 73 + 78 + 73 + 74 + 74 + 73 + 76 + 81
̅=
𝒙 = = 𝟕𝟓. 𝟐𝟓
𝑛 7

To solve for the median, arrange the given data in ascending order, there are 8 items in
the data which means the median is the average of the value 4th and 5th item in the sequence,

73, 73, 73, 74, 74, 76, 78, 81

74 + 74
𝑴𝒅 = = 𝟕𝟒
2

By inspection of the given data, 73 occurs most frequently, therefore Mo = 73

Note: In many cases, the modal value will differ from the average value in the data.
 80

Exercises 4.1

Name ___________________________________ Score ___________ Date ______________

Course, Year & Section ______________Student no. __________ Professor_______________

Solve the following problems.

1. Find the mean of the following data in the frequency table.

x f
10 6
23 13
27 15
30 17
35 12

2. Shown in the table below is the Age distribution of newly hired health workers to be deployed
to different hospitals in USA. Use the Step-Deviation Method to compute for mean deployment
rate of health workers.

Number of Health
Age Group
workers
25 – 29 18
30 – 34 21
35 – 39 35
40 – 44 40
45 – 49 36
50 – 54 29
55 – 59 15

3. The final grade of Emmanuel in every subject is indicated in his report card shown below, use
weighted mean to calculate for Emmanuel’s GPA.

No. of Final
Subjects
Units Grade
Oral Communication in Context 3 88
Komunikasyon at Pananaliksik sa Wika at Kulturang Pilipino 3 90
General Mathematics 3 85
Earth Science 3 89
Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person 3 92
Empowerment and Technologies 3 91
Pre-Calculus 3 87
Note: P.E. is not included in the computation of GPA.

4. Find the median of the following given data:

a. 13, 14, 15,1 3, 16, 17, 12. b. 42, 44, 45, 43, 48, 47, 44, 40.

5. During the 4 months community quarantine due to pandemic the Popular Electric company was
not able to do actual meter reading of electric consumption instead charged their customers based
on average household consumptions for the last 4 months. If a household electric consumption
for the last 4 months were 95kwh, 106.2 kwh, 98.9kwh and 101.3kwh. Find the number of kilowatt
hour that the Popular electric company charged to the customer on the 5 th month of pandemic.

6. The typing speeds of 25 secretaries in a big company are recorded below (in words per minute).
Find the mode.

35, 43, 39, 46, 43, 47, 38, 51, 43, 38, 40, 45
 81

7. The manager of a Burger House recorded the number of burgers sold per day in 2 weeks
(below). Which of the following statements is true?

132, 121, 119, 116, 130, 121, 131, 117, 119, 135, 121, 129, 119, 134

a. There is no mode. b. The mode is 119

c. The mode is 131 d. The modes are 119 and 121

8. Medric’s cumulative GPA for 3 semesters was 2.5 for 42 course units. His fourth semester was
3.0 for 15 course units. What is his cumulative GPA for all 4 semesters?

9. A Mathematics professor evaluates students on 5 quizzes, a project and final examination.

Each quiz is equivalent to 10% of course grade, the project is 20% and the final examination is
30% of the course grade. A student test scores are 75, 82, 77, 88 and 85, project score is 95 and
final examination of 82. Use weighted mean to compute for the student’s course average.

10. Find the mean, median and all the modes for the following frequency distribution.

Points scored in
Frequency
basketball game
3 5
4 6
5 5
8 3
11 2
15 1
20 1

11. Given the frequency distribution of scores in the final examination of 50 engineering students
in Calculus I. Compute the modal score in the final examination in Calculus 1.

Final Examination Number of

Scores Students
96 – 100 1
91 – 95 3
86 – 90 11
81 – 85 16
76 – 80 9
71 – 75 7
66 – 70 3

12. Organizers of the 5 kilometer Race recorded the participants running pace in minutes. Find
the mean, median and all the modes of the runners.

Time, minutes Number of Participants

80 - 89 10
70 - 79 13
60 - 69 21
50 - 59 26
40 - 49 19
30 - 39 7
20 - 29 4

13. The following data represent a sample of 10 scores on Statistics quiz:

16, 16, 16, 16, 16, 18, 18, 20, 20, 20

After the mean, median, mode, range and variance were calculated for the scores, it was
discovered that one of the scores of 20 should have been an 18. Which of the following will change
when the calculations are redone using the correct scores?
 82

a. Mean and range b. Median

c. Mean and Variance d. Variance and range

4.12 MEASURES OF DISPERSION

The measure of dispersion provides information on how scatter or spread are the given
set of data. It gives a clear idea about the distribution of the data. It shows how much of the data
vary from their average value. The measure of dispersion shows if the distribution of data is
homogeneous or heterogenous. It is also known as the measure of variability.

Some ways to measure dispersion are calculating the range, mean absolute deviation,
variance, and standard deviation.

The range and quartile deviation express the scattering of observation in terms of
distances while mean deviation and standard deviation expresses the variations in terms of the
average of deviations of observations.

4.13 RANGE OF UNGROUPED DATA

Range is the simplest measure of dispersion. It is the difference between two extreme
observations of the data set.

R=H–L

Where R – range

H – highest value in the set of data

L – lowest value in the set of data

Example 22: Compute range of the of the Final grades of 10 Male and 10 Female Grade 11
students in Statistics. Describe the result.

Male: 91, 98, 87, 76, 75, 82, 84, 78, 86, 83

Female: 92, 88, 83, 85, 82, 77, 91, 78, 82, 79

Solution: The highest final grade of Male students is 98 and the lowest grade is 75, while for
female the highest final grade is 92 and the lowest grade is 73, therefore the range are,

Male: R = 98 – 75 = 23

Female: R = 92 – 77 = 15

From the above computation the range of male is 23 while that of female is 15, this means
that the final grades of male students are more scattered while the final grades of female students
are closer. This also indicates that the final grades of female students are more homogeneous
than the final grades of male students.

RANGE OF GROUPED DATA

There are 2 ways to calculate the range of grouped data.

1. Range = Upper boundary of the highest class - Lower boundary of the lowest class

R = UH – LL

2. Range = midpoint of the highest class - midpoint the lowest class.

R = Mh - M L
 83

Example 23: Given the weights of Female students in a PE class, find its range and coefficient
of range.

Weight
100 - 104 105 - 109 110 - 114 115 – 119 120 - 124 125 - 129
(Pounds)
Number of 8 13 19 43 10 7
Students

Solution: Preparing the table as follows:

Weight Class No. of

Mid Value
(lbs) Boundaries Students
100 – 104 99.5 – 104.5 102 8
105 – 109 104.5 – 109.5 107 13
110 – 114 109.5 – 114.5 112 19
115 – 119 114.5 – 119.5 117 43
120 – 124 119.5 – 124.5 122 10
125 - 129 124.5 – 129.5 127 7

Method 1: R = UH – LL = 129.5 – 99.5 = 30 lbs.

Method 2: R = MH – ML = 127 – 102 = 25 lbs.

Note: Range is the simplest method and easily understood measure of dispersion, but it
is a poor measure of dispersion and does not give a good picture of the overall spread of
the observations with respect to the center of the observations.

MEAN ABSOLUTE DEVIATION

Mean deviation is the arithmetic mean of the absolute deviations of the observations
from a measure of central tendency.

∑|𝑥 − 𝑥̅ |
𝑀𝐴𝐷 =
𝑛
Where MAD – Mean absolute deviation
X – given value in the set of ungrouped data
𝑥̅ – mean of ungrouped data
n – total number of measurements
∑|𝑥 − 𝑥̅ | – summation of the absolute deviation of the values from the mean.

Example 23: The record of the 10 fastest participants of 5 Kilometer Fun Run in Manila are as
follows 50, 60, 75, 80, 90, 105, 125, 145, 165, 200 all in minutes. Find the mean absolute
deviation.

Solution: We first solve for 𝑥̅ ,

∑𝑥 50+60+75+80+90+105+125+145+165+200 1095
𝑥̅ = = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟓
𝑛 10 10

Now, solving for other items in the formula and presenting in tabulated form,
 84

X 𝒙 − 𝒙̅ |𝒙 − 𝒙 ̅|
50 -59.5 59.5
60 -49.5 49.5
75 -34.5 34.5
80 -29.5 29.5
90 -19.5 19.5
105 -4.5 4.5
125 15.5 15.5
145 35.5 35.5
165 55.5 55.5
200 90.5 90.5
n = 10 ∑|𝑥 − 𝑥̅ | = 394

Substituting to the MAD formula,

∑|𝑥 − 𝑥̅ | 394
𝑀𝐴𝐷 = = = 39.4
𝑛 10

The mean absolute deviation is 39.4

4.14 MEAN ABSOLUTE DEVIATION OF GROUPED DATA

The formula for mean absolute deviation is as follows,

∑ 𝑓|𝑥 − 𝑥̅ |
𝑀𝐴𝐷 =
𝑛

Where MAD – mean absolute deviation for grouped data

x – class mark
𝑥̅ – mean of grouped data
n – total number of measurements
f – frequency of the class
∑ 𝑓 |𝑥 − 𝑥̅ | – summation of the product of frequency and absolute deviation of the class
marks from the mean

Note: The class mark of the class is the average of the lower and upper boundary of the class.

Example 24: Consider the previous problem, where the weights of Female students in a PE class
are given, find its MAD.

Weight
100 - 104 105 - 109 110 - 114 115 – 119 120 - 124 125 - 129
(Pounds)
Number of
8 13 19 43 10 7
Students

Solution: We first solve for 𝑥̅ using the short cut method of mean of grouped data,

Weight, 𝑥 − 𝐴
F x 𝑢= fu 𝑓 |𝑥 − 𝑥̅ |
(lbs) 5 𝑥 − 𝑥̅
100 – 104 8 102 -3 -24 -14.55 116.4
105 – 109 13 107 -2 -26 -9.55 124.15
110 – 114 19 112 -1 -19 -4.55 86.45
115 – 119 43 117 0 0 0.45 19.35
120 – 124 10 122 1 10 5.45 54.5
125 - 129 7 127 2 14 10.45 73.15
-45 474

115 + 119
𝐴= = 117
2
 85

∑ 𝑓𝑢 (−45)
𝑥̅ = 𝐴 + ∑𝑓
= 117 + = 𝟏𝟏𝟔. 𝟓𝟓
100

Substitute 𝑥̅ to MAD,
∑ 𝑓 |𝑥 − 𝑥̅ | 474
𝑀𝐴𝐷 = = = 4.74
𝑛 100

Note: The merit of mean deviation is based on all observations, it provides minimum value when
the deviations are taken from the median and independent of change of origin. Its demerits, it is
not easily understandable, its calculation is time consuming, negative sign is useless for
mathematical treatment.

4.15 VARIANCE and STANDARD DEVIATION

Variance is another measure of dispersion. It is equal to the square of the standard

deviation of the given set of data.

Standard deviation is defined as the positive square root of the arithmetic mean of the
squares of the deviations of the given values from their arithmetic mean.

It is also referred to as root mean square deviation.

VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION FOR UNGROUPED DATA

∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑠2 = and 𝑠 =√
𝑛−1 𝑛−1

Where s2 - variance of ungrouped data

S – standard deviation of ungrouped data

𝑥 − 𝑥̅ – deviation of x values from the mean

n – number of measurements

∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 – summation of the squares of the deviations.

Example 25: The following numbers were obtained from the daily sales of pair of trendy school
shoes for two weeks in one of its stores.

Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

1 15 18 16 11 19 21 16
2 10 11 12 11 15 24 14

Calculate the variance of the above data.

Solution: We first solve for 𝑥,

15 + 18 + 16 + 11 + 19 + 21 + 16 + 10 + 11 + 12 + 11 + 15 + 24 + 14 213
𝑥̅ = =
14 14

𝑥̅ = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟐𝟏
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x 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
10 -5.21 27.1 ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 226.4
𝑠2 = = = 17.415
11 -4.21 17.7 𝑛−1 14 − 1
11 -4.21 17.7
11 -4.21 17.7
12 -3.21 10.3
14 -1.21 1.5
15 -0.21 0.0 Therefore, the variance of daily sales
15 -0.21 0.0 of trendy shoes is 17.415 and its
16 0.79 0.6 standard deviation is 4.17.
16 0.79 0.6
18 2.79 7.8
19 3.79 14.4
21 5.79 33.5
24 8.79 77.3
n = 14 226.4
VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION FOR GROUPED DATA

The formula for variance and standard deviation for grouped data is shown below:

∑ 𝑓(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2 ∑ 𝑓(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2
𝑠2 = and 𝑠=√
𝑛−1 𝑛−1

Where s2 – variance of grouped data

s - standard deviation of grouped data
f - frequency of the class
x - class mark
𝑥̅ – mean of the grouped data
n – total number of measurements
𝑥 − 𝑥̅ – deviation of the class mark from the mean of grouped data
∑ 𝑓 (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 – summation of the product of the deviation and corresponding
frequency of the class

Example 26: Consider the previous problem, the weights of Female students in a PE class are
given, calculate it variance and standard deviation.

Solution: Calculating for 𝑥̅ and tabulating other computations as follows:

∑ 𝑓𝑥 11,475
𝑥̅ = = = 114.75
𝑛 100

Weight, (lbs) f x fx 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 f(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2

100 – 104 8 102 816 -12.75 162.56 1300.5
105 – 109 13 107 1391 -7.75 60.06 780.8125
110 – 114 19 112 2128 -2.75 7.56 143.6875
115 – 119 43 117 5031 2.25 5.06 217.6875
120 – 124 10 122 1220 7.25 52.56 525.625
125 - 129 7 127 889 12.25 150.06 1050.438
11,475 8,037.5

∑ 𝑓(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2 8037.50 ∑ 𝑓(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2 8037.50

𝑠2 = = = 81.19 then 𝑠 = √ =√ = 9.01
𝑛−1 100−1 𝑛−1 99
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Review Exercises 4.2

Name _________________________________ Score ____________ Date _______________

Course, Year & Section _____________Student no. __________ Professor________________

Solve the following:

1. Find the standard deviation of the sample of the following numbers obtained by sampling
method.

a. 3, 5, 8, 13, 16, 20 b. 114, 121, 105, 129, 116, 126, 100, 98

2. The average number of hours spent by 20 neighbors in an exclusive subdivision watching

television last Sunday were as follows: Find the range.

2, 4, 7, 5, 12, 9, 7, 8, 2, 2, 11, 10, 7, 7, 4, 4, 2, 1, 2, 1

3. The table below shows the wages of Employees of Company A and B.

Company A Company B
Number of Employees 950 1,100
Average Daily Wage ₱ 680.00 ₱ 750.00
Variance in the distribution of Wages 100 145

a. Which company has a larger wage bill?

b. Calculate the average daily wage and the variance of the distribution of wages of all the
employees in the firms A and B taken together.

4. Some 15 Students in Chemistry were observed to spend more time doing their experiments
beyond their laboratory class time. The amount of time (minutes) spent by these students are as
follows:

15, 28, 25, 48, 22, 43, 49, 34, 22, 33, 27, 25, 22, 20, 39

a. Find the Range, Standard Deviation, and Variance for the above data.

b. What does this information tell you about the variability of student's length of time
doing their experiments beyond their laboratory class time? Is it homogeneous or
heterogeneous?

5. The final scores in 10 Pin Bowling obtained by 6 players are given below:

Players Score
Lorenze 81
Maiko 130
Eiji 80
Rica 109
Dennise 150
Owen 86

a. Find the Range, Standard Deviation, and Variance for the above data.

b. What does this information tell you about the variability of final scores in 10 Pin
Bowling of the players? Is it homogeneous or heterogeneous?

6. The table below shows the total number of man-days lost to sickness during one week’s
operation of a small chemical plant.
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Days Lost 1-3 4-6 7-9 10-12 13-15

Frequency 8 7 10 9 6

Calculate the variance and standard deviation of the number of lost days.
7. Use Step-deviation method to calculate the mean of the following data:

Quiz 1
11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60 61 - 70 71 - 80
Raw Scores
Number of
4 7 15 18 12 6 1
Students

8. The variance of a sample of 121 observations equals 441. Find its standard deviation.
9. In a farm, 50 hogs are raised. The caretaker observed the weight gain of pigs who are fed
with starter ration from weaning until two months of age are recorded in the table below:
Weight Gain, Kg Number of Pigs
3.0 – 3.9 1
4.0– 4.9 5
5.0 – 5.9 8
6.0 – 6.9 12
7.0 – 7.9 15
8.0 – 8.9 6
9.0 – 9.9 3

Compute the following:

a. Range b. Mean absolute deviation
c. Variance d. Standard deviation

10. The record of dental clinic inside the mall shows patients that availed of tooth restoration
during weekdays:

Day Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

No. of Patients 6 10 12 15 16

Compute the variance in the number of patients of dental clinic using two methods.