Does Apologizing Work?

An Empirical Test of the Conventional Wisdom

Richard Hanania

Abstract:

Politicians and other public figures often apologize after making controversial

statements. While it is assumed that they are wise to do so, this proposition has yet to be

tested empirically. There are reasons to believe that apologizing makes public figures

appear weak and risk averse, which may make them less attractive as people and lead

members of the public to want to punish them. This paper presents the results of an

experiment where respondents were given two versions of two real-life controversies

involving comments made by public figures. Approximately half of the participants read a

story that made it appear as if the person had apologized, while the rest were led to

believe that the individual stood firm. In the first experiment, involving Rand Paul and his

comments on the Civil Rights Act, hearing that he was apologetic did not change whether

respondents were less likely to vote for him. When presented with two versions of the

controversy surrounding Larry Summers and his comments about women scientists and

engineers, however, liberals and females were much more likely to say that he definitely

or probably should have faced negative consequences for his statement when presented

with his apology. The effects on other groups were smaller or neutral. Overall, the

evidence suggests that when a prominent figure apologizes for a controversial statement,

the public is either unaffected or becomes more likely to desire that the individual be

punished.

  1

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2654465

Republican primary polls. After each one of his seeming gaffes, pundits and other

observers wondered whether the “laws of political gravity” had finally “caught up” to the

businessman-turned-politician (e.g., Schreckinger & Glueck 2015; Gorenstein 2015).

Rather than apologizing for his remarks in nearly every one of a seemingly endless string

of controversies, Trump has gone on the offensive, defended the original comments,

doubled down, and portrayed each firestorm as a fabricated controversy cooked up by

“losers” (Bump 2015).

Yet if Trump’s failure to apologize for his statements confounds pundits, this

exact same quality is one of the things that endear him to many of his supporters, as the

following quotation demonstrates.

Your average Republican who steps in it–and, by the way, it's always the

media and the establishment that define whether somebody has stepped in it, not

the American people. If the media find what Trump said outrageous, that's all

you need, and if the establishment finds that it's outrageous, that's all you need.

And then you act like everybody thinks so. And then the perp apologizes,

begs forgiveness, and is never to be seen or heard from again. Trump didn't do

any of that. He doubled down. He doubled down on his criticism of McCain. He

tried to switch the focus of the issue from him and McCain to Veterans Affairs. In

doing so, the American people have seen something they haven't seen in a long

time, and that is a target stand up and refuse to go away, a target stand up and

refuse to apologize. (Rush Limbaugh Show 2015)

  2

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2654465

political life. A politician makes a controversial statement—usually regarding a sensitive

topic such as race, gender, or the military—and is attacked for it through the media.

Usually the individual apologizes, and the debate becomes not whether the statement hurt

the politician, but how much. Conventional wisdom holds that to limit the damage done

to the greatest extent possible, a public figure must show some kind of repentance. The

public apology is so common that linguists and communications specialists have even

studied it as a predictable “degradation ritual” in public life (Harris, Graigner, & Mullany

2006; Carey 2002; Bennett 1981).

While the assumption that apologies help politicians in the midst of controversies

is an implicit part of our political culture, it has rarely been tested. Although seeking

forgiveness may put one on the path to redemption, it is also possible that it can backfire.

Many see strength as an important component of leadership, and apologizing can be

perceived as a sign of weakness. This is especially true in cases where observers may feel

that the original infraction is “no big deal,” or a fake controversy stirred up by the media

or political opponents. Furthermore, social psychology literature suggests that under

certain circumstances social risk-taking and the breaking of taboos can be perceived as

attractive. A politician who apologizes is following a conventional and risk-averse path,

and this may increase the desire of others to punish the individual in question.

This paper is the first to test the common belief that it is smart to apologize in the

midst of a political controversy. The experiment involves the recent recruitment of a

sample from MTurk, where individuals read one of two versions of two different real-life

controversies involving public figures. In each case, they were told about certain

  3
statements by a public figure that caused a backlash. In one scenario, it was implied or

explicitly stated that the offender apologized. In the second version, the individual was

portrayed as not backing down and defending the comments in question. The ways in

which the background information and the original controversy were portrayed were

identical in each case, meaning that any differences in what percentage of people wanted

to punish an offender could only be the result of how the aftermath was presented.

Methods and Hypotheses

Participants in this survey were recruited through MTurk, which has been

increasingly used by social scientists and provides a pool of respondents that is in most

respects more representative of the population than most convenience samples (Mason &

Suri 2012; Buhrmester, Kwang, & Gosling 2011). Participants were taken to Survey

Monkey, where they read about two political controversies from the last ten years and

asked questions about them (n = 511).

The first text was about Rand Paul’s statement in 2010 expressing skepticism over

certain aspects of the Civil Rights Act. All participants were shown the following text:

In 2010, Rand Paul was running for Senate, and stirred up controversy

when he said that private businesses should be allowed to discriminate based on

race. In response to questioning, he said “What about freedom of speech? Should

we limit speech from people we find abhorrent? Should we limit racists from

speaking? . . . I don't want to be associated with those people, but I also don't

want to limit their speech in any way in the sense that we tolerate boorish and

uncivilized behavior because that's one of the things freedom requires." Likewise,

  4
 according to Paul, belief in freedom requires that we give racists the freedom to

discriminate, even when it comes to jobs or providing services.

In response to these comments, critics accused Paul of questioning a key

provision of the Civil Rights Act and argued that his statements were

unacceptable. Many said that he wanted to take the country back to a time of

segregated lunch counters and when African Americans were denied basic access

to jobs and the ability to access businesses that serve the public.

After this background information, about half of the participants were randomly

assigned to read a conclusion that made it sound as if Paul was apologetic about his

statements, and the rest read another that portrayed him as defiant.

Version 1 (Apologetic):

In response, Rand Paul quickly took an apologetic tone and backtracked,

saying he would never repeal the Civil Rights Act. In the years since, observers

argue that he has been bending over backwards to make up for his original

statements, particularly through minority outreach. He now says he does

not question any aspect of the Civil Rights Act. Paul won his Senate seat, and still

serves to this day.

Version 2 (Non-apologetic):

In the days after the controversy, Paul refused to explicitly apologize for

his statements. He went on the offensive, claiming that his opponents were

engaging in unfair political attacks. In response to one interviewer, he said

“What is going on here is an attempt to vilify us for partisan reasons. Where do

  5
 your talking points come from?” Paul won his Senate seat, and still serves to this

day.

Both of these accounts of Paul’s reaction contain factual information, but are spun

differently. Rand Paul never apologized for his statements, but began to deny that he ever

questioned the Civil Rights Act. His reaction to the controversy can be seen as

apologetic, in the sense that he changed his story and has been emphasizing his support

for civil rights. But it can also be seen as defiant, since he never offered a formal apology

and tends to attack his opponents when this issue comes up (Rosenberg 2014).

After being shown one of the two versions of the story, respondents were asked

“How offensive did you find Paul's comments when reading about them?” The answer

was provided on a five-point scale, with the choices being “not offensive at all,” “mostly

inoffensive,” “neither offensive nor inoffensive,” “somewhat offensive,” and “very

offensive.” They were then asked “How reasonable did you find the comments that

caused the controversy?” on a 5-point scale from “very unreasonable” to “very

reasonable.” Finally, respondents were asked whether the controversy made them less

likely to vote for Paul. The options were “definitely yes,” “maybe,” “no effect either

way,” “no,” and “it makes me more likely to vote for him.”

Next, participants were told to read a passage on controversial statements made

by Larry Summers about the reasons behind a lack of highly successful female scientists

and engineers (Dillon 2005; Hemel & Seward 2005).

In 2005 Larry Summers was the president of Harvard University. That

year, he participated in a panel on the underrepresentation of women among

science and engineering faculty at top universities. He cited certain research that

  6
 suggested that women were less likely to be among those with the “intrinsic

aptitude” for such positions. In other words, biological differences between men

and women explained part of the reason why males were overrepresented among

highly successful scientists and engineers.

In reaction, the Harvard community erupted in controversy. Members of

the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences passed a resolution condemning

Summers and many called on him to resign his position. It is believed that the

controversy over his statements led to him leaving Harvard a year later. Many

disputed the research Summers relied on, questioned the relevance of his

statements, and said that they discouraged females from pursuing jobs in science

and technology.

Participants were then presented with one of two variants of the conclusion to the

story. About half read what sounded like a defense, while the rest learned that Summers

apologized.

Variant 1 (Non-apologetic):

Summers defended himself by saying he believed that “raising questions,

discussing multiple factors that may explain a difficult problem, and seeking to

understand how they interrelate is vitally important.”

Version 2 (Apologetic):

Summers ended up apologizing for his statements.

“I deeply regret the impact of my comments and apologize for not having

weighed them more carefully,” Summers wrote in an open letter to the Harvard

community.

  7
 “I was wrong to have spoken in a way that has resulted in an unintended

signal of discouragement to talented girls and women. As a university president, I

consider nothing more important than helping to create an environment, at

Harvard and beyond, in which every one of us can pursue our intellectual

passions and realize our aspirations to the fullest possible extent.”

Once again, each of these conclusions includes information that is true. In the

immediate aftermath of the controversy, Summers stuck to his statement and only

apologized for any misunderstandings that he had caused. In only a few days, however,

his apologies became less equivocal and he began to indicate that he should never have

made the comments in question.

As in the Paul text, people indicated how reasonable and offensive they found the

comments by Summers. Participants were also asked “Should Summers should have

faced negative consequences for his statements?” The choices were “definitely yes,”

“probably,” “probably not,” “no,” and “I’m not sure.” Before the survey, participants

were asked to provide their partisan identification, sex, and ideological orientation on a

five-point scale, from “very conservative” to “moderate” to “very liberal.” Finally,

respondents were given two questions to test whether they had read and understood the

texts. Those whose answers indicated that they did not fully comprehend both

controversies were excluded from the survey.

This experiment tests three possible hypotheses.

H0: Apologizing after a controversial statement has no effect on whether

observers desire to punish the offender.

  8
 People often use heuristics to judge individuals and political candidates.

Statements are evaluated based on how information is presented, the party identification

of the speaker, and which reference groups support or oppose the individual in question

(Zaller 1992; Zaller & Feldman 1992; Huddy 1998; Campbell 1980). These factors may

overwhelm any effect of an apology. Once an individual hears a story that has ideological

content and can understand the appropriate reaction based on who is offended, a

judgment is made, and it remains constant regardless of whether the person making the

controversial statement decides to show remorse. An apology may have some effect

either way, but it can be overwhelmed by all other factors regarding the content of the

message and how it is presented. It may also be the case that apologies influence various

groups of people in different ways, and any effects cancel one another out.

H1: Apologizing after a controversial statement makes observers less likely to

want the offender punished.

Politicians often apologize in the midst of controversy, and the simplest

explanation as to why is that it is in their interest to do so. It is standard in the literature

on corporate crisis management to recommend a quick apology for any wrongdoing

(Timothy Coombs & Holladay 2006; Aschcroft 1997). Hearit (2006, 86–95) reviews

President Clinton’s behavior in the midst of the Monica Lewinsky scandal, and argues

that the American people became more forgiving as his apologies became more honest

and complete. Psychological research indicates that in personal relationships, apologies

can restore good will between two sides (Bennett & Dewberry 1994; Kim et al. 2004;

Schlenker & Darby 1981; Weiner, Graham, Peter, & Zmuidnas 1991). Under certain

circumstances, they can make individuals more likeable and increase compliance (Groei

  9
et al. 2007). Other studies show that after an individual is harmed, an apology can reduce

the desire to retaliate (Ohbucki, Kameda, & Agarie 1989).

This research, however, may not directly speak to the issue of controversies

involving public figures, as previous work theoretically and empirically pertains to

relationships between people and harm directly done to individuals. When observing a

public spectacle, people may apply a completely different set of standards. However, the

previous research is certainly suggestive, and indicates that apologizing might similarly

mitigate harm regardless of whether an individual is directly hurt by an action or simply

hears something that they consider offensive. Therefore, it is possible that the

conventional wisdom is correct, and that apologizing for gaffes makes observers less

likely to want to punish an individual.

H2: Apologizing after a controversial statement makes observers more likely to

want the offender punished.

Although this theory may appear counterintuitive, the social psychology literature

indicates that there are good reasons to believe that a person who backs down in a dispute

becomes less likeable to observers, who may in turn become more likely to want to

punish that individual. There is research suggesting that overconfidence, even to the point

of breaking rules, causes people to view an individual more positively, as does social

risk-taking (Van Kleef at al. 2011; Wilke et al. 2006; Kelly & Dunbar 2001; Farthing

2005; Lamba & Nityananda 2014). Males in particular who show social dominance and

control are judged more attractively as potential mates (Oesch & Miklousic 2011;

Sadalla, Kenrick, & Vershure 1987). An individual who does not back down in the face

of controversy shows confidence by not giving in to social pressure, and takes a risk by

  10
refusing to follow the conventional path. Anecdotal evidence suggests that part of Donald

Trump’s appeal lies in his refusal to apologize and his unwillingness to be “politically

correct.” While this may only be appealing to a subset of the electorate, research suggests

that it might also tap into something deeper in human psychology.

Results

Table-1 shows the percentage of respondents saying that they would “maybe” or

“definitely” be less likely to vote for Paul due to the controversy over his opinions on the

Civil Rights Act. Overall, it appears that apologizing has a slightly negative effect. When

the results are broken down by demographics, the results for liberals and females trend

towards significance (p < .13).

The results support H0. While there are large differences between ideologies and

less separation between the sexes, people’s attitudes are for the most part not affected by

whether they read about Paul taking an apologetic stance or holding firm to his position.

Rather, ideology is a much better predictor of how much influence the comments have.

  11
The only possible exceptions are for liberals and females, results that are more intriguing

when compared to the findings with regards to the Summers controversy.

Table-2 shows the percentage of respondents in each demographic saying that

Summers should have “probably” or “definitely” faced negative consequences for his

comments about the lack of female scientists and engineers. Here, the gender gap in

offense taken is much larger than in Table-1, which may be expected given the nature

of the comments in question. As before, the largest effects are on liberals and females.

Women who read the apologetic version of the story were 16.3% more likely to want to

see Summers punished. While 84.3% of liberals wanted to punish Summers when they

read about his apology, that number dropped to 70.5% when readers were led to believe

that he had held firm to his position. Overall, the results provide strong support for H2

with regards to women and liberals and support for H0 among males. There once again

appears to be no evidence for H1. While certain individuals may be less likely to want

to see a prominent figure punished after he or she shows remorse for a controversial

statement, there is no support for the idea that it helps to apologize in the aggregate.

  12
 Differences in reactions between those who read the two versions of each story

are almost completely driven by female respondents. The literature suggests that men

score high on “context independence” than women (Cross & Madson 1997; Gilligan

1982). Individuals low in this trait are more affected by the context in which they act,

being more likely to update their thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors based on influences

from the external environment (Markus & Wurf 1987). With regards to both

controversies, apologizing made women more supportive of punishment, without having

any affect on men. Interestingly, which version of the text they were given had no

discernable effect on the extent to which readers found the comments by Summers or

Paul “reasonable” or “offensive.” It remains unclear, therefore, the mechanisms through

which an apology makes individuals more likely to want to see an offender punished.

As the divergent results for the two cases imply, future research should

investigate the extent to which circumstances make it more or less helpful to apologize

for a controversial statement. It may be that the effect was greater in the Summers

example because Rand Paul is a well-known political figure. It also might be the case that

the key difference lies in the fact that Summers apologized for a statement expressing a

belief in a theory that can be tested empirically, while Paul had originally been criticized

for giving a normative opinion. Finally, Summers gave reasons for his defense, while

Paul went on the attack when questioned about his comments, perhaps unfairly implying

that the controversy was the result of a partisan witch-hunt. More research is needed

before conclusions can be drawn about when apologies have no effect, and when they

increase or reduce the desire on the part of observers to punish the embroiled figure.

  13
 The evidence presented here suggests that seeing a public figure apologize either

increases the desire to punish him or her, or has no effect at all. If this is the case, we may

wonder why politicians do in fact so often ask for forgiveness in the face of controversy.

It is possible that politicians apologize in order to receive better coverage from the media

or even make a story go away. Political punditry can apparently affect voters’

preferences. In one experiment, individuals judging performances in a presidential debate

were influenced by the nature of commentary they watched after the fact, when compared

to a control group not exposed to the opinions of pundits (Fridkin et al. 2007). Likewise,

if an individual apologizes for a comment that the media finds offensive, future coverage

of that individual may be better than it otherwise would be. Such an argument requires

the assumption that while members of the public are hostile or indifferent to those who

apologize, members of the media will provide better coverage of an individual who

shows repentance. Yet there is no reason to assume that this is the case, especially since

most of the media leans to the left (Groseclose 2011: Groseclose and Milyo 2005), and

liberals in this study appear to be those most likely to want to punish individuals for

apologizing.

Finally, we cannot discount the possibility that politicians apologize simply out of

habit, or because they are a following a script that has for the most part gone

unquestioned. While we should not ignore the possible wisdom that might be found in the

intuitions of those who run and participate in campaigns for a living, it does not appear

that there ever has been experimental support for the idea that apologizing is good for

public figures steeped in controversy. A belief can be held for a long time and still be

untrue if it is never subjected to close scrutiny. There are reasons to believe that it makes

  14
sense to apologize in the midst of a controversy, but there are also arguments to be made

that the effects of doing so are either neutral or negative. Only further research can tell us

when apologizing is a rational part of crisis management and whether it sometimes only

makes things worse.

Works Cited:

–Ashcroft, L. S. (1997). Crisis management-public relations. Journal of Managerial

Psychology, 12(5), 325–332.

–Bennett, W. L. (1981). Assessing presidential character: Degradation rituals in political

campaigns. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 67(3), 310–321.

–Bennett, M., & Dewberry, C. (1994). “I’ve said I’m sorry, haven’t I?” A study of the

identity implications and constraints that apologies create for their recipients. Current

Psychology, 13(1), 10–20.

–Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2011). Amazon's Mechanical Turk: A

new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality, data? Perspectives on psychological science,

6(1), 3–5.

–Bump, P. August 12, 2015. Losers: A list by Donald Trump. Washington Post.

Available at <http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/08/08/losers-a-list-

by-donald-trump/>.

–Campbell, A. (1980). The American voter. University of Chicago Press.

–Carey, J. (2002). Political ritual on television. In J. Curran & T. Liebes (eds.). Media,

ritual and identity (pp. 42–70). New York: Routledge.

–Cross, S. E., & Madson, L. (1997). Models of the self: self-construals and gender.

Psychological Bulletin, 122(1), 5–37.

  15
–Dillon, S. January 18, 2005. Harvard chief defends his talk on women. New York Times.

Avalaible at <http://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/18/us/harvard-chief-defends-his-talk-on-

women.html>.

–Farthing, G. W. (2005). Attitudes toward heroic and nonheroic physical risk takers as

mates and as friends. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26(2), 171-185.

–Fridkin, K. L., Kenney, P. J., Gershon, S. A., Shafer, K., & Woodall, G. S. (2007).

Capturing the power of a campaign event: The 2004 presidential debate in Tempe.

Journal of Politics, 69(3), 770-785.

–Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's

development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

–Goei, R., Roberto, A., Meyer, G., & Carlyle, K. (2007). The effects of favor and

apology on compliance. Communication Research, 34(6), 575–595.

–Gorenstein, C. August 12, 2015. Anderson Cooper is dumbfounded by The Donald:

“Trump defies all laws of political gravity.” Salon. Available at

<http://www.salon.com/2015/08/12/anderson_cooper_is_dumbfounded_by_the_donald_t

rump_defies_all_laws_of_political_gravity>.

–Groseclose, T. (2011). Left turn: How liberal media bias distorts the American mind.

New York: Macmillan.

–Groseclose, T., and Milyo, J. (2005). “A Measure of Media Bias.” Quarterly Journal of

Economics, 120(4), 1191–1223.

–Harris, S., Grainger, K., & Mullany, L. (2006). The pragmatics of political apologies.

Discourse & Society, 17(6), 715–737.

  16
–Hearit, K. M. (2006). Crisis management by apology: Corporate response to allegations

of wrongdoing. Routledge.

–Hemel, D. J. & Seward, Z. M. January 20, 2005. Summers: ‘I was wrong.’ Harvard

Crimson. Avalable at <http://www.thecrimson.com/article/2005/1/20/summers-i-was-

wrong-facing-mounting/>.

–Huddy, L. (1998, September). The social nature of political identity: Feminist image and

feminist identity. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science

Association, Boston, MA September 3-6, 1998.

–Kelly, S., & Dunbar R. I. M. (2001). Who dares, wins: Heroism versus altruism in

women’s mate choice. Human Nature, 12(2), 89–105.

–Kim, P. H., Ferrin, D. L., Cooper, C. D., & Dirks, K. T. (2004). Removing the shadow

of suspicion: The effects of apology versus denial for repairing competence- versus

integrity-based trust violations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(1), 104–118.

–Lamba, S. & Nityananda, V. (2014). Self-deceived individuals are better at deceiving

others. PLoS ONE, 9(8): e104562. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0104562.

–Markus, H. & Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept: A social psychological

perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 299–337.

–Mason, W. & Suri, S. (2012). Conducting behavioral research on Amazon’s Mechanical

Turk. Behavior research methods, 44(1), 1–23.

–Oesch, N. & Miklousic, I. (2011). The dating mind: evolutionary psychology and the

emerging science of human courtship. Evolutionary Psychology, 10(5), 899–909.

  17
–Ohbuchi, K., Kameda, M., & Agarie, N. (1989). Apology as aggression control: Its role

in mediating appraisal of and response to harm. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 56(2), 219–227.

–Rosenberg, P. July 12, 2014. Rand Paul’s twisted race lies: His new views on civil

rights are as phony as the old ones. Salon. Available at

<http://www.salon.com/2014/07/12/rand_pauls_twisted_race_lies_his_new_views_on_ci

vil_rights_are_as_phony_as_the_old_ones/>.

–Rush Limbaugh Show, Transcript. July 21, 2015. Available at

<http://www.rushlimbaugh.com/daily/2015/07/21/the_drive_bys_missed_my_point_on_t

rump>.

–Sadalla, E. K., Kenrick, D. T., & Vershure, B. (1987). Dominance and heterosexual

attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(4), 730–738.

–Schlenker, B. R., & Darby, B. W. (1981). The use of apologies in social predicaments.

Social Psychology Quarterly, 44(3), 271–278.

–Schreckinger, B. & Glueck, K. August 8, 2015. Trump camp in crisis. Politico.

Available at <http://www.politico.com/story/2015/08/donald-trump-camp-in-crisis-

121180.html>.

–Timothy Coombs, W., & Holladay, S. J. (2006). Unpacking the halo effect: reputation

and crisis management. Journal of Communication Management, 10(2), 123–137.

–Van Kleef, G. A., Homan, A. C., Finkenauer, C., Gündemir, S., & Stamkou, E. (2011).

Breaking the rules to rise to power how norm violators gain power in the eyes of others.

Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(5), 500–507.

  18
– Weiner, B., Graham, S., Peter, O., & Zmuidnas, M. (1991). Public confession and

forgiveness. Journal of Personality, 59(2), 281–312.

–Wilke, A., Hutchinson, J. M. C., Todd, P. M., and Kruger, D. J. (2006). Is risk-taking

used as a cue in mate choice? Evolutionary Psychology, 4, 367–397.

–Zaller, J. R. (1992). The nature and origins of mass opinion New York: Cambridge

University Press.

–Zaller, J. R., & Feldman, S. (1992). A simple theory of the survey response: Answering

questions versus revealing preferences. American Journal of Political Science, 36(3),

579–616.

  19