Reference Guide for

Process Performance Engineer

Holcim Cement Excellence Manufacturing
Version 15, January 2022

© 2012 Holcim Group Support Ltd

 Version 15, January 2022

Holcim
Cement Excellence Manufacturing

Edition 15
January 2022

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 Version 15, January 2022

Table of Content

Pages

Tools and Documents for Download (iCIF)…………..………. 4

Thermal Technology …………………….………………… 5 - 92

Materials Technology ………………………………..…... 93 - 121

Mechanical Technology …………………………….. 122 - 194

Conversion Tables & Notes …………………………….. 195 - 202

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Tools and Documents for Download (iCIF)

Go to the ICIF Dashboard

“Specific Processes” select “Process Optimization” to access all
available Tools, Policies and Standards, Good practices and
Recommendations

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Reference Guide for

Thermal Technology

Back to Content
page
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Content Thermal Technology

Holcim Performance Indicators ………………………………………………………………… 8

Combustion Engineering ………………………………………………………………………. 10

False Air……………………………………………………………………………………………. 13

Net and Gross Calorific Value of Fuels ……………………………………………………… 15

Gas Conversion, Density, Barometric Pressure …………………………………………… 17

Rotary Kiln ………………………………………………………………………………………… 19

Long Wet Kiln Systems ………………………………………………………………………… 23

Grate Cooler ……………………………………………………………………………………… 24

Planetary Cooler …………………………………………………………………………………. 34

Clinker Granulometry …………………………………………………………………………… 36

Suspension Preheater ………………………………………………………………………….. 37

Precalciner ………………………………………………………………………………………... 42

Process Fans …………………………………………………………………………………….. 44

Main Burner ………………………………………………………………………………………. 47

Coal and Petcoke: Fineness, Transport and Injection Velocity …………………………. 50

Petcoke Guidelines………………………………………………………………………………. 51

Alkali / Sulfur / Chlorine Balance ……………………………………………………………... 54

Chlorine Limit …………………………………………………………………………………….. 56

AFR …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 57

Liquid AFR Handling ……………………………………………………………………………. 61

Solid AFR Handling ……………………………………………………………………………… 63

Sludge AFR Handling …………………………………………………………………………… 69

Bag Filter ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 72

Environment ……………………………………………………………………………………… 74

Selective Non Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) …………………………………………………. 76

Emission Concentration Conversions ………………………………………………………. 77

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Content Thermal Technology

Kiln Control Set-points and Control Variables ……………………………………………... 79

Refractory …………………………………………………………………………………………. 81

Measuring Points and Flow Measurement ………………………………………………….. 86

Flow Rate Measurement of Fresh Air Fans …………………………………………………. 87

Gas, Materials and Fuels Properties ………………………………………………………... 88

Own Formulas and Notes …………………………………………………………………….. 91

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Holcim Performance Indicators

Gross / Net Availability Index
Operating time [h]
Gross Availability Index % = ∙ 100
Calendar time [h]

Operating time [h] + Idle time [h]

Net Availability Index % = ∙ 100
Calendar time [h]
Calendar time = Operating time + Idle time + Other downtime
= Total time in that period
Operating time = Equipment is operating
Idle Time = Equipment is not operating but is in a condition for
immediate startup
Other downtime = Equipment is not operating and not in a condition for
immediate startup
Production Rate Index

Production Rate [t/d]

Production Rate Index % = ∙ 100
BDP [t/d]

BDP (Best demonstrated practice): The best historical production rate (t/d)
achieved during the last 24 months before the budget phase.

Gross / Net Overall Equipment Efficiency (OEE)

Gross Availability Index [%] ∙ Production Rate Index % ∙ Quality Index −
Gross OEE % =
100

Net Availability Index [%] ∙ Production Rate Index % ∙ Quality Index −

Net OEE % =
100
For the cement industry with an insignificant level of final product rejects, the Quality
Index in the OEE calculation is set to 1.

Standard Clinker Capacity

Standard Clinker Capacity t/a = BDP [t/d] ∙ 365 ∙ 85%

The Standard Clinker Capacity corresponds to the quantity of clinker that can be
produced with a standard target OEE of 85%

Above definitions are based on the HARP (Holcim Accounting and Reporting Principles)
Manual. For the most current definition check the HARP Manual on Connect.

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Holcim Performance Indicators

Thermal Substitution Rate (TSR)

Alternative Thermal Energy Consumption Kiln System [MJ]

TSR % = ∙ 100
Thermal Energy Consumption Kiln System [MJ]

The Thermal Substitution Rate is the degree of substitution of traditional by

alternative fuels, based on thermal energy consumption in the kiln system.

Thermal Economic Equivalent (TEE)

Actual Cost of Thermal Energy [RC] ∙ 1 −TSR [−]

TEE % = 1 − ∙ 100
Actual Cost of Traditional Thermal Energy [RC]

The Thermal Economic Equivalent (TEE) corresponds to the economic benefit

derived from using alternative fuel by showing the relationship between the fuel
costs and the theoretical fuel costs if no alternative fuels were used.

Above definitions are based on the HARP (Holcim Accounting and Reporting Principles)
Manual. For the most current definition check the HARP Manual on Connect.

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Combustion Engineering

Stoichiometric Combustion Air

A min [Nm3 /MJ]  0.26

or
Amin [Nm3/kgcli] = 0.26 · q [MJ/kgcli] q = Kiln heat consumption [MJ/kgcli]
Amin [Nm3/h] = 0.26 · P [MJ/h] P = Fuel input [MJ/h]
Amin [Nm3/kgfuel] = 0.26 · NCV [MJ/kgfuel] NCV = Net calorific value [MJ/kgfuel]

Kiln Exhaust Gas

Fuel, raw meal and air contribute to total cement kiln exhaust gas:
Vkiln gas  Vmin + Vraw meal + Vexcess air

→ See next page for the calculation of the components in the schematic.

Stoichiometric Combustion Gas

For most fuels: Vmin,wet [Nm3 / MJ] = 0.28
Vmin,dry [Nm3 / MJ] = 0.25

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Combustion Engineering
Gas from raw meal
Vraw meal = VH2O + VCO2

→ Gas from raw meal decarbonation

VCO2 [Nm3 / kgcli ]  0.27

→ Gas from water content in raw meal / slurry

For dry kiln systems only (dry kiln feed):
VH2O [Nm3 / kgcli ]  0.01
For wet, semi-wet and semi-dry kiln systems (slurry, granules, cake):
%feed moisture
VH2O [Nm3 / kgcli ]  1.24  KF 
100 − %feed moisture
KF [-] = dry kiln feed/clinker factor (kgkiln feed,dry/kgclinker)
%feed moisture [%] = % moisture in wet kiln feed

Excess Air (including False Air)

 %O2,dry 
Vexcess air = ( Vmin,dry + VCO2 )   
 21 − %O 
 2,dry 

→ same units for Vexcess air, Vmin,dry, and VCO2

%O2,dry [%] = measured O2 concentration in dry gas

Gas flow at preheater exit (dry kiln)

Total wet kiln exhaust gas (i.e. after full decarbonation) for a measured O2 con-
centration %O2,dry and specific heat consumption q.

 Nm3   %O2,dry 
VKi ln gas,wet   = (0 . 28 + 0 . 28  q ) + (0 . 27 + 0 . 25  q )  



 kgcli   21 − %O2,dry 
from from excess air
combustion
raw meal (based on dry O2 measurement)
q [MJ/kgcli] = specific heat consumption of kiln system

%O2,dry [%] = measured O2 concentration in dry gas

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Combustion Engineering
Gas flow at kiln inlet (dry kiln)
At kiln inlet, a fraction of the raw meal is already calcined (%decarb) and only the
fuel from the main firing is contributing to the gas flow.

 Nm3   %decarb   %PC 

VKi ln inlet gas,wet   = 0.27  1 −  + 0.28  q  1 − +
 cli 
kg  100   100 
  %decarb   %PC   %O2,dry 
+ 0.27  1 −  + 0.25  q  1 −   
  100   100   21 − %O2,dry 
%decarb [%] = decarbonation (= calcination) degree of hot meal at kiln inlet

%PC [%] = thermal energy input at pre-calciner

q [MJ/kgcli] = specific heat consumption of kiln system

%O2,dry [%] = measured O2 concentration (dry) at kiln inlet

Secondary Air
The Secondary Air is calculated by subtraction of primary air, transport air and false
air at kiln outlet from the total combustion air (= Amin + excess air, evaluated by O2
measurement at a position without influence of false air from kiln inlet).

Vsecondary air = VAmin, kiln + Vexcess air, kiln − Vprimary air,kiln − Vtransport air,kiln − Vfalse air, kiln outlet
→ same units for all V

Tertiary Air
The Tertiary Air is calculated by subtraction of calciner primary and transport air, and
the total kiln excess air (= excess air kiln + false air kiln inlet) from the total calciner
combustion air (= Amin + excess air calciner, evaluated by O2 measurement at
calciner exit).
Vtertiary air = VAmin, calciner + Vexcess air, calciner − Vprimary air, calciner
for ILC
− Vtransport air, calciner − Vexcess air, kiln − Vfalse air, kiln inlet
→ V false air, kiln inlet is typically 0.02 – 0.05 Nm3/kgcli

Obviously, for a SLC, the total excess air from the kiln must be omitted.
Vtertiary air = VAmin, calciner + Vexcess air, calciner −
Vprimary air, calciner − Vtransport air, calciner for SLC

→ same units for all V

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False Air

False Air intake based on Oxygen measurement

The False Air intake across some equipment (e.g. filter, cyclone, …) can be
evaluated by oxygen measurement in the gas flow before and after the equipment.

False Air, 20 %
Gas,in,dry Gas,out,dry
100 % 120 %

%O2,in %O2,out

 %O2,out − %O2,in 
FA% =
VFA intake
 100 =    100

VGas,in,dry  21 − %O2,out 
FA [%] = additional false air as fraction of flow before false air intake

VFA intake [Nm3/h] = false air intake

VGas,in,dry [Nm3/h] = gas flow (dry) before false air intake

%O2,in [%] = measured O2 concentration (dry) before intake

%O2,out [%] = measured O2 concentration (dry) after intake

Important!
If it is not possible to measure the oxygen before and after the intake at the same
time, the two measurements have to be corrected for the O2 variation in the gas
flow, e.g. by comparison to the O2 signal at PH exit.

Typical values for False Air intake

Location False Air

(% of flow before intake)

Bag filter <5

Electrostatic precipitator < 10
Conditioning tower <5
Expansion joint 0!
Fan <2

Damper (butterfly, jalousie, guillotine) <2

Preheater cyclone <2

Kiln inlet seal <1

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False Air
False Air intake based on cross section area of opening
The False Air entering through openings (e.g. hole in a duct, missing top cover, etc.)
can be calculated by means of the Bernoulli equation.

0.75 A
VFA intake  2  p  ρair
ρair,N
VFA intake [Nm3/s] = False Air intake
A [m2] = cross section area of opening
ρair,N [kg/Nm3] = air density at normal conditions = 1.29 kg/Nm 3
ρAir [kg/m3] = air density at aperture = air density at ambient condition
Δp [Pa] = pressure difference measured over aperture

False Air intake based on temperature drop

The False Air intake between two gas flow temperature measurements (inlet
and outlet) can be calculated by a simplified heat balance (dust in process
gas is neglected).

T − TGas,out − Tloss
FA% =
VFA int ake
 100  Gas,in  100
VGas,wet TGas,out − Tair
VFA intake [Nm3/s] = False Air intake
VGas,wet [Nm3/s] = gas flow at inlet
TGas,in, TGas,out [°C] = inlet and outlet gas temperature
Tair [°C] = temperature of air intake  ambient temperature
Tloss [°C] = gas temperature drop due to surface area
convection and radiation heat loss
Q A  a  (T − Tamb )
Tloss = RC
= surface tot surface
VGas,wet  c p,Gas,wet VGas,wet  c p,Gas,wet
QC [kW] = total heat loss by convection and radiation
cp,Gas,wet [kJ/Nm3/°C] = specific average heat capacity of gas flow
→ see graph in page 90 for cp-values of gases
Asurface [m2] = heat loss surface area
Tsurface [°C] = surface temperature
Tambient [°C] = ambient temperature
atot [kW/m2/°C] = total heat transfer coefficient
→ approximation: a tot = (10 + 2  v wind ) 1000
vwind [m/s] = wind speed

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Net and Gross Calorific Value of Fuels

Net and Gross Calorific Value are related as follows (ASTM D 2015)

For the conversions for GCV to NCV the following formulas should be applied if the
determination of the total hydrogen content is possible:

If measure as dry, then it is also required to convert the NCV dry into NCV as-fired:

or origin from GCV leading to:

NCV net calorific value [kJ/kg]

GCV gross calorific value [kJ/kg]
af as fired
d dry
H Hydrogen [%]
M Moisture content [%]

Sample shall be taken just before the firing in "kiln" & "calciner"
LH group /ASTM methodology shall be adopted to handle the sample from the sample
point till GCV (as fired) estimation
For those plants without Hydrogen analyzer, it is recommended to use the "neighboring"
LH plant facility or samples analyzed by external agencies. However, the samples
should be preserved in the desiccator to avoid any infiltration of moisture etc.
Samples shall be analyzed at least once a month and when fuel is changed

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Net and Gross Calorific Value of Fuels

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Gas Conversion, Density, Barometric Pressure

Gas flow and density conversion from normal to actual
The formula below is used to convert ideal gas from normal conditions
(0°C, 1'013 mbar) to actual conditions (T, p).
 1013   T(C) + 273 
Vact = Vnorm      
 x
p (mbar)   273 
 273   p x (mbar) 
ρact = ρN      
 T(C) + 273   1013 
Vact = Gas flow at actual conditions (m3/s)
Vnorm = Gas flow at normal conditions (Nm3/s)
px = absolute pressure at actual conditions (mbar) = pmeasured,relative+ pambient
pmeasured,relative = measured pressure (mbar)
pambient = ambient pressure (mbar)
T = temperature at actual conditions (°C)
N = density at normal conditions (kg/Nm3)
(for air = 1.29 kg/Nm3, moisture content can be neglected)
Density of kiln gas based on CO2, O2, and H2O content
%O2,dry %CO2,dry  %O2,dry %CO2,dry 
ρN,dry =  1.429 +  1.964 + 1 - -   1.257
100 100  100 100 
%H2O %H2O
ρN,wet = ρN,dry  (1- )+  0.804
100 100
N,dry , N,wet = gas density (dry, wet) at normal conditions (kg/Nm3)
%O2,dry , %CO,dry = O2, CO concentration in dry gas (%vol)
%H2O = H2O concentration in wet gas (%vol)
Approximation: Kiln exhaust gas (5% O2, 20% CO2, 10% H2O): N,dry = 1.4, N,wet = 1.35
Barometric Pressure
The average barometric pressure at a plant altitude (above sea level) can
be calculated using the following approximation formula.
5.25
 Altitude (m) 
p(mbar ) = 1013  1 − 
 44300 
p = average barometric pressure (mbar)
Altitude = altitude above sea level (m)

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Gas, Materials and Fuels Properties

Density of Kiln Exhaust Gas (approx. Calculation)

[kg/Nm3] - Ideal gas at normal conditions

%O2,dry %CO2,dry  %O2,dry %CO2,dry 

ρN,dry =  1.429 +  1.964 + 1 - -   1.257
100 100  100 100 
%H2O %H2O
ρN,wet = ρN,dry  (1- )+  0.804
100 100
N,dry , N,wet = gas density (dry, wet) at normal conditions (kg/Nm3)
%O2,dry , %CO,dry = O2, CO concentration in dry gas (%vol)
%H2O = H2O concentration in wet gas (%vol)
Approximation: Kiln exhaust gas (5% O2, 20% CO2, 10% H2O): N,dry = 1.4, N,wet = 1.35

Typical Kiln Exhaust Gas Composition

Other components „Typical Value“

▪ NOx 0.04 %
▪ SO2 0.01 %
▪ VOC2 0.004 %
▪ CO 0.04 %
▪ HCl 0.0006 %
+ Dust

% CO2 = f(fuel, raw mat,…..)

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Rotary Kiln

Key Figures

Specific kiln volume load: < 2.2 t/d m3 Suspension preheater kilns
< 5.5 t/d m3 Precalciner kilns
Calculation: Daily clinker production (t/d) divided by kiln volume inside refractory (m3)

Specific burning zone < 180 t/d m2 Suspension preheater kilns

area load: < 350 t/d m2 Precalciner kilns
Calculation: Daily clinker production (t/d) divided by kiln cross section area at the burning zone
inside refractory (m2)

Specific thermal < 6 MW/m2

burning zone load:
Calculation: Total thermal energy input by the kiln burner (MW) divided by kiln cross
section area at the burning zone inside refractory (m2)

Gas velocity inside kiln: < 8 m/s for new plants (at 5% O2 at kiln inlet)
< 12 m/s for existing plants (at actual O2)
Calculation: Total gas volume flow at kiln inlet (actual m3/s) divided by the kiln cross section
area inside refractory (m2)

Material residence time 35 - 60 min Suspension preheater kilns

in kiln: 20 - 35 min Precalciner kilns
Material filling degree 4–8% typical value
in kiln:
Calculation: Volume of material in kiln (m3) divided by the kiln volume inside refractory (m3)

Specific nosering > 0.33 m3/m s

cooling air:
Nosering cooling air pressure at nozzle inlet: > 20mbar
Calculation: Nosering cooling airflow (m3/s) divided by the circumferential length of the
kiln shell (m)
Nozzles shall be arranged evenly around 360° of the kiln circumference.

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Rotary Kiln

Material Residence Time in Rotary Kiln

The residence time of the material in a dry rotary kiln can be determined with the
formula from Duda Cement Data Book:

1.77  L  
t = F
ν  (D − 2  Lining )  rpm
t = Material residence time [min]
L = Length of kiln [m]
 = Angle of repose of material [°], (here 35-40°)
 = Slope of kiln in degrees [°], (normally 1.7-2.0°)
D = Kiln shell diameter [m]
Lining = Refractory thickness [m]
rpm = Number of kiln revolutions per minute [rpm]
F = Factor, which equals 1, if the kiln has a constant diameter [-]

Typical Values 35 - 60 min Suspension preheater kilns

20 - 35 min Precalciner kilns

For L/dinside lining = 16

200

180

160 3 % kiln slope

140 3.5 % kiln slope
Residence time [min]

120 4 % kiln slope

100

80
SP kilns
60
PC kilns
40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Kiln speed [rpm]

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Rotary Kiln

Kiln Inclination Conversion

The kiln inclination can be indicated both in degrees and in percent. The following
formula can be used for conversion:

 Inclination [%] 
Inclination [] = arctan  
 100 
Inclination [%] = 100  tan (Inclination [])

With: Inclinations in Degrees and in Percent and mathematical functions

arctan: Arctangent, tan: Tangent

Kiln Inclination Conversion Table

Percent [%] 2.00 2.18 2.50 2.62 3.00 3.06 3.50 4.00

Degrees [°] 1.15 1.25 1.43 1.50 1.72 1.75 2.00 2.29

Material Filling Degree in Kiln

Pr oduction  t
FD = K
Vki ln  24

FD = Filling degree [%]

K = 1.5 [(d*m3)/(t*min)]
Production = Clinker production [t/d]
Vkiln = Kiln volume inside refractory [m3]
t = Material residence time [min]

Typical value 4–8%

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Rotary Kiln

Required Kiln Drive Power

The required kiln drive power to be installed is:

PMotor (
= n  L  0.0237  (D − 2  Lining)
3
+ 5.79  10 −5  D  (25  D + 750 ))

Pmotor = Kiln drive power [kW]

n = Maximum kiln speed [rpm]
L = Kiln length [m]
D = Kiln shell diameter [m]
Lining = Refractory thickness [m]

Note: For a kiln of not constant diameter, the above formula is

applied to each section and the results added up to the result
for the entire kiln.

D = Shell diameter D=6m

Kiln drive power to be installed [kW]

2000
L/D referred to shell diameter
1750
Case: L/D=15
1500
D = 5.5 m
1250

1000
D=5m
750
D = 4.5 m
500
D=4m
250

0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Installed kiln speed [rpm]

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Long Wet Kiln Systems

Wet Kiln Chain Systems

Length of chain system: 6 – 10 x kiln diameter

Total chain weight: 9 – 12 % weight of daily for < 1000 t/d

11 – 20 % clinker production (t) for > 1000 t/d

Fraction of heat ~ 15 % of total chain weight

resistant chains:

Chain density: 5 – 15 m2/m3 (depending on zone, see “Chain Layout”

(specific surface) below)
Calculation: Surface area of chains (m2) divided by volume of chain section (m3)

Calculation Sheets and Information Available on iCIF Documents

Inventory.

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Grate Cooler
Key Figures
Specific grate area load: < 45 t/d m2
Calculation: Daily clinker production (t/d) divided by total active grate surface area (m2).
Note: High grate area load increases the required specific aeration, especially after the
recuperation zone.
Specific grate width load: 930 [t/d m] + clinker prod [t/d] x 0.08 m-1 (+/- 150 [t/d m])
Calculation: Daily clinker production (t/d) divided by grate width (m)
Note: High grate width load results in high grate speed. Low values can result in clinker distribution
problems at cooler inlet.

Grate speed: 10 - 15 str/min

Typical grate speed in strokes / minute for traditional reciprocating grate coolers
(higher speed means higher grate wear)

Installed specific cooling > 2.0 Nm3/kg cli For modern coolers
air volume requirement: > 2.3 Nm3/kg cli For old type coolers
Calculation: Installed cooling air volume (Nm3/h) divided by hourly clinker production (kg/h)

Specific cooling 1.7 – 1.9 Nm3/kg cli For modern coolers

air volume (operation): 2.0 – 2.3 Nm3/kg cli For old type coolers
Calculation: Cooling air volume (Nm3/h) divided by hourly clinker production (kg/h)
Note: If clinker end temperature is excessive or problematic, even higher values required.

Typical specific aeration: 1.3 – 1.8 m3/m2 s For fixed inlet section
(Operation), modern coolers 0.8 – 1.4 m3/m2 s For recuperation zone
0.4 – 1.0 m3/m2 s For after cooling zone
Typical specific aeration: 1.5 – 3.0 m3/m2 s For inlet section
(Operation), old type coolers 0.8 – 1.4 m3/m2 s For recuperation zone
0.4 – 1.0 m3/m2 s For after cooling zone
Calculation: Actual cooling air flow (m3/s) per respective area of grate / compartment (m2).
Note: Low values are preferred with regard to heat exchange, but require a low specific grate area
load.

Recuperation Efficiency: 70 – 75 % For modern coolers

(normalized) 55 – 70 % For old type coolers

Calculation: Actual recuperation efficiency normalized to 0.8 Nm3/kg clinker.

Note: Efficiency depends on the condition and design of the cooler, on clinker granulometry and
operating conditions.

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Grate Cooler

Kiln hood velocity: < 5 m/s For new installations

< 6 m/s For existing installations
Calculation: Secondary air (and tertiary air) volume at actual temperature (m3/s) divided by the
horizontal cross section (m2) at the cooler roof level.

Tertiary air take off velocity < 5 m/s For new installations
(only if cooler roof extraction): < 6 m/s For existing installations
Calculation: Tertiary air volume at actual temperature (m3/s) divided by the cross section
area of the tertiary air duct (m2) at take off point.

Waste air take off velocity: < 5 m/s For new installations
< 6 m/s For existing installations
Calculation: Waste air volume at actual temperature (m3/s) divided by the cross section
area of the waste air duct (m2) at take off.
Tunnel velocity < 8 m/s
(horizontal air velocity
above the clinker bed)

The tunnel velocity is the horizontal velocity of the air above the clinker bed towards the air
extraction locations. It is highest at the location just before the air is extracted via kiln hood,
tertiary air duct, waste air duct or middle air duct. Exact calculation of the tunnel velocity is
difficult. Rough estimations can be made using cooling air distribution together with cooler
drawings and an estimation of air temperature at the respective location (actual m3/h divided
by the cross section of the cooler housing inside refractory above the clinker bed).

Normal range of grate cooler process parameter:

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 Version 15, January 2022

Grate Cooler

Cooler Recuperation Efficiency Assessment

100%

90%

80%
Cooler Efficiency [%]

70%

60%

50%
Ideal (counter current)
40%
For advanced,
30% Ideal (counter current)
modern coolers
Advanced
20% For old type,
Cross Current
10% conventional coolers

0%
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Recuperation air [Nm3/kg cli]
Recuperation Air Volume [Nm3/kg cli]

Clinker Cooler Recuperation Efficiency

The Clinker Cooler Recuperation Efficiency characterizes the fraction of heat
from the hot clinker reintroduced to the kiln system via secondary and tertiary air.

qSecondary Air + qTertiary Air + qDust Out − qDust In

η=
qClinker Hot

η: Recuperation Efficiency %

qSecondary Air : Specific Heat Secondary Air kJ/kg clinker 

qTertiary Air : Specific Heat Tertiary Air kJ/kg clinker 

qDust Out : Specific Heat Clinker Dust at Secondary Air Temperatur e kJ/kg clinker 

qDust In : Specific Heat Clinker Dust at Temperatur e of Clinker from the

Kiln (1450 C) kJ/kg clinker 

qClinker Hot : Specific Heat Hot Clinker from the Kiln (1 kg) kJ/kg clinker 

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Grate Cooler

Clinker Cooler Normalized Recuperation Efficiency

In order to be able to compare the performances of different coolers by one
number, the efficiency is normalized with regard to the amount of air recuperated of
0.8 Nm3/kg clinker (typical value for a modern kiln system).

0.744
η0.8  η 
 v  v 
1 − EXP− * 1 + 
 0.77  2.57 

η0.8 : Normalized recuperation efficiency %

η: Recuperation efficiency according to above formula %
v: Specific recuperation air volume Nm3/kg clinker

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Grate Cooler
Grate Cooler Air Distribution for Old Type, Conventional
Cooler without Fixed Inlet
The recommended air profile shows a descending pattern from the cooler
inlet towards the cooler outlet

Grate Cooler Air Distribution for Advanced, Modern Cooler

with Fixed Inlet
The recommended air profile shows a descending pattern from the cooler
inlet towards the cooler outlet
]

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Grate Cooler

Clinker Temperature at Cooler Exit

For coolers with moderate efficiency, the achievable clinker temperature at the
cooler exit with a given cooling air volume VAir can be calculated with the following
formula. However, this temperature depends strongly on the cooler efficiency.
With advanced, modern coolers the temperature is lower compared to the
formula; with old type coolers the temperature is higher (see chart below).

TCli,out − TAmb  V 
= exp − Air 
TCli,in − TAmb  0.77 

TCli,out = Temperature of clinker at cooler outlet [°C]

TCli, in = Temperature of clinker at cooler inlet [°C], typically around 1400 °C for
grate coolers
TAmb = Ambient temperature [°C]
VAir = Specific cooling air [Nm3/kg cli]

Clinker End Temperature at Different Cooling Air Flows

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Grate Cooler
Energy flows in a grate cooler (modern cooler)

Cooling Air

Transport Efficiency of Grate Cooler

The transport efficiency for reciprocating coolers can be calculated as follows:

1
Production 
Cooler Width  Bed Height
ηTransport =
1 1
Cli  24  3600  Number of Strokes   Stroke Length 
60 1000

Note: This formula cannot be applied for modern fixed grate coolers such as
ETA, Polytrack …

Transport = Transport efficiency of grate [%]

Production = Clinker production [t/d]
Cli = Bulk density of clinker [t/m3], (set to 1.4 t/m3 as a standard)
Cooler Width = Width of grate [m]
Stroke Length = Length of grate stroke [mm] (e.g. 200 mm Polysius, 105 mm IKN)
Bed Height = Height of clinker bed on grate [m] (typically 0.4 - 0.7 m)
Grate Speed = Grate strokes per minute [str/min] (typically 10 -15 str/min)

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Grate Cooler

Effect of Clinker Properties on Cooler Efficiency

Effect of literweight on
Effect of clinker granulometry on
clinker exit temperature
clinker exit temperature
35 120

30
100

Temperature increase [°C]

Temperature increase [°C]

25
80
20
60
15
40
10

20
5

0 0
1050 1070 1090 1110 1130 1150 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Literweight [g/l] Increase of statistical average grain size [mm]

(Information by courtesy of Claudius Peters)

Effect of Low Clinker Bed on Temperatures

Clinker and air temperatures along the cooler grate

T secondary + tertiary air

1300 @ bed height 800 mm

T secondary + tertiary air

1100 @ bed height 200 mm
Temperature [°C]

900

700 T waste air

T Cli @ bed height 200 mm
@ bed height 200 mm
500
T Cli
@ bed height 800 mm
300
T waste air
@ bed height 800 mm
100
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Longitudinal Position at Cooler Grate [0: Inlet, 1: Outlet]

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Grate Cooler

Effect of Low Clinker Bed on Cooler Efficiency

76

74
Recuperation efficiency [%]

72

70

68

66
Practical range for
64
reciprocating coolers
62

60
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Bed height [m]

Effect of Cooler Efficiency on Kiln Heat Consumption

300
Difference in specific kiln heat consumption [kJ/kg cli]

250

1 % increase of cooler efficiency

results in ~ 23 kJ/kgcli decrease of
200
specific kiln heat consumption

150

100

50

0
62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74
Cooler efficiency [%]

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Grate Cooler

Tertiary Air Extraction from Kiln Hood vs.

Extraction from Cooler Roof

(typical example with modern cooler)

Secondary
Secondary air temperature
(TA extraction at cooler roof)
temperature
roof extraction
Secondary air and TA temperature
(TA extraction from kiln hood)

TA temperature
(TA extraction at cooler roof)

0 0.5 1

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 Version 15, January 2022

Planetary Cooler
Key Figures

Specific cooler surface load: < 2 t/m2 d

Calculation: Daily clinker production (t/d) divided by total surface area of all cooler tubes (m2)
Note: Use nominal tube length and diameter

Specific cross section load: < 75 t/m2 d

Calculation: Daily clinker production (t/d) divided by total cross section area of all cooler tubes (m2)
Note: Use nominal tube diameter

Specific volume load: < 4.4 t/m3 d

Calculation: Daily clinker production (t/d) divided by total volume of all cooler tubes (m2)
Note: Use nominal tube length and diameter

Air velocity through cooler tubes at < 4.5 m/s

cooler inlet (close to elbow):
Calculation: Secondary air volume (m3/s) at calculated secondary air temperature (°C) divided
by total inner (inside lining) cross section area of all cooler tubes (m2)

Velocity of air entering to kiln < 25 m/s

through inlet openings (at elbows):
Calculation: Secondary air volume (m3/s) at calculated secondary air temperature (°C) divided
by total open cross section area of all inlet openings in kiln (m2)

Recuperation efficiency: 55 – 65 % For cooler tube only

(normalized) 60 – 70 % For cooler tube including kiln
internal cooling zone
Calculation: Actual recuperation efficiency normalized to 0.8 Nm3/kg clinker (equivalent to the
normalization for grate coolers).
Note: Efficiency depends on the condition and design of the cooler and its internals and on the
design of the kiln internal cooling zone.

Secondary air temperature: ~ 730°C at 3500 kJ/kg cli

~ 600°C at 5000 kJ/kg cli

Specific cooling air: 0,9 Nm3/kg cli at 3500 kJ/kg cli

1,3 Nm3/kg cli at 5000 kJ/kg cli

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Planetary Cooler

Energy Flows in a Planetary Cooler

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 Version 15, January 2022

Clinker Granulometry

Clinker Granulometry

Common Pitfall:
Sampling is critical - no sampling from the top of the conveyor (sample not
representative because of segregation).
Good sampling points: Transfer points or chutes.

Guideline for quick check (sieve residue on 1mm)

• Normal clinker: Passing 1mm = 10 – 15%
• Fine / very fine clinker: Passing 1mm > 25%

Guideline for differentiation between fine and coarse clinker

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 Version 15, January 2022

Suspension Preheater
Typical Figures
Gas velocities in riser ducts and 10 - 15 m/s new installations
cyclone dip tubes: < 20 m/s existing installations
Calculation: Kiln gas at operating conditions (m3/s) divided by inner cross section area of
riser duct or dip tube (m2). Note: 10 m/s allowed only in case of perfectly working splash boxes

Preheater exit gas temperatures: 350 - 380 °C 4 stage SP

310 - 340 °C 5 stage SP
290 - 320 °C 6 stage SP
Typical exit gas temperatures for modern suspension preheater (SP) kilns. For precalciner kilns
(PC) exit temperatures are approx. 10°C higher. For more details refer to the “Preheater
Assessment Tool”
Thermal energy consumption 3'200 4 stage SP or PC
[kJ/kg cli]: 3'100 5 stage SP or PC
3'050 6 stage SP or PC
Guide values for suspension preheater and precalciner kilns at 95% production rate index.
Target values in many cases higher mainly due to AFR usage, bypass, Holcim refractory
concept and/or lower production.

Oxygen concentration at 2.5 – 3.5 % O2 (dry)

preheater exit:
An airlift or unstable energy dosing will add up to 1% O2

Oxygen concentration at kiln inlet: 2.0 – 3.0 % O2 (dry)

Pressure drop across cyclone 9 - 14 mbar Top stage

stage: 7 - 10 mbar Lower stages

Typical pressure drop over 30 - 45 mbar 4 stage SP

preheater: 37 - 55 mbar 5 stage SP
44 - 65 mbar 6 stage SP

Pressure drop for preheater from inlet to bottom cyclone to outlet of top cyclone. Pressure
drop of kiln inlet and calciner NOT included.

Typical separation efficiency of top stage cyclone: 90 – 95 %

Calculation: Dust loss weigh out relative to the material feed to the top stage.

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Suspension Preheater

Typical Indicators of a 5 Stage Preheater with Precalciner

TGas O2 Press
PC5 Q=3100 MJ/tcli [°C] [%] [mbar]
305
320 3.6%
3.6 - 55
Stage 1 Gas

475
520 3.1%
3.1 - 43
Stage 2

625
660 2.6%
2.6 - 36
Stage 3 Meal

750
780 2.3%
2.3 - 29
Stage 4

860
880 2.0%
2.0 - 22
Stage 5

0 500 1000 °C 2.5%

2.5 - 5

Note: Check Preheater Tool for more specific guide lines

Typical Indicators of a 4 Stage Preheater without Precalciner

Q=3200 MJ/tcli TGas O2 Press

SP4 [°C] [%] [mbar]

350 3.4%
3.4 - 45
Stage 1

545
550 3.0%
3.0 - 31
Stage 2

690
710 2.6%
2.6 - 23
Stage 3

800
840 2.4%
2.4 - 16
Stage 4

0 500 1000 °C 2.5%

2.5 - 9

Note: Check Preheater Tool for more specific guide lines

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Suspension Preheater

Effect of Number of Stages

Control Parameter units 4 ➔ 5 stages 5 ➔ 6 stages

Heat consumption kJ/kg cli -80 -50
Exhaust gas temp °C -40 -20
Exhaus gas flow Nm3/kg cli -0.03 -0.015
SP exit pressure mbar + 5 to 8 + 5 to 8
Drying capacity in raw mill % H2O -1.5 -1.0

Effect of Reduced Cyclone Separation Efficiency

Specific heat consumption

60
Increase heat consumption [kJ/kg Cli]

50
stage 1, base: 93.5 %
40 stage 2, base: 83 %
stage 3, base: 77 %
30 stage 4, base: 72 %

20

10

0
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
-10

-20
Change of separation efficiency of respective stage [% sep. eff.]

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 Version 15, January 2022

Suspension Preheater

Effect of false air on preheater outlet temperature

Location of leak
12

PC5
Temp. difference at preheater outlet [°C]

10
8 stage 4

6
stage 5
4
2 stage 3
0
-2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

-4
-6 stage 2
-8
-10 stage 1
-12
Additional false air to respective stage [% false air]

Effect of false air on preheater outlet temperature

Location of leak
20
Temp. difference at preheater outlet [°C]

15 stage 4

10
SP4
5 stage 3

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-5
stage 2
-10
stage 1
-15
Additional false air to respective stage [% false air]

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Suspension Preheater

Effect of False Air in Preheater on Heat Consumption

Location of leak
80
Increase heat cons. kiln [kJ/kg Cli]

70

60 PC5 stage 5

50 stage 4

40

30 stage 3

20 stage 2

10 stage 1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Additional false air to respective stage [% false air]

Effect of False Air in Preheater on Heat Consumption

Location of leak
100
Increase heat consumption kiln [kJ/kg Cli]

90

80 SP4 stage 4
70

60

50 stage 3

40

30 stage 2

20
stage 1
10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Additional false air to respective stage [% false air]

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Precalciner
Key Figures
Gas residence time 5 Seconds gas residence time at least for new
in precalciner (inline): installations (increased AFR use).
Existing kilns with < 5 seconds residence
time have reduced AFR potential.

Calculation: Volume of precalciner inside lining until inlet of bottom stage cyclone (m3) divided
by gas volume flow through precalciner (m3/s) at the calciner exit temperature and pressure.
The gas volume at the calciner exit (including all the CO2 released in the calciner) is used.
This leads to a smaller retention time number (conservative calculation).

Gas velocity at > 25 m/s without coarse AFR in PC

calciner orifice: 35 – 40 m/s with coarse AFR in PC
(depending on particle size of AFR)

Note: At normal fuel split calciner / kiln. Sufficient gas velocity to prevent falling through of meal
and solid fuels (e.g. AFR) to kiln inlet.

Air velocity in
Tertiary air duct: > 30 m/s new installation
> 25 m/s existing installation

Fuel ratio : 60 - 70% for 2-3 stage PC kiln

55 – 65% for  4 stage PC kiln

Typical
calcination
curve:

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 Version 15, January 2022

Precalciner
 LOIhot meal  (100 − LOIfeed ) 
Apparent calcination degree of hot meal [%] = 1−  100
 LOIfeed  (100 − LOIhot meal ) 

or (transformation of formula above):

LOIfeed − LOIhotmeal
Apparent calcination degree of hot meal [%] =  100
LOIfeed  (1 − LOIhotmeal / 100)

LOIfeed: Loss on ignition of kiln feed (%)

LOIhot meal: Loss on ignition of hot meal (%)

Calcination degree of 88 - 94 %* for PC systems

the hot meal (apparent): 30 - 60 % for PH systems with secondary firing
10 - 40 % for PH systems without secondary firing
*Set-point of circulation degree depending on required kiln stability and tolerable level of
temperature peaks (high calcination degree → more stable kiln operation; low calcination degree
→ less overshooting of calciner temperature).
In case of high TSR in calciner: Calcination degree in lower range to limit temperature peeks.
In case of stable kiln without AFR: Calcination degree up to 94-95% to maximize kiln production.

Apparent and True Calcination Degree

Note: With high dust cycles at kiln inlet the measured apparent decarbonation degree can be
much higher than the true decarbonation degree.

100

90
Apparent Calc. Degree [%]

80

70

60
1.0
50

40 0.5

30
0.2
20

10 0.0

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
True Calc. Degree [%]

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 Version 15, January 2022

Process Fans
Typical Characteristic Fan Curve (for VSD Fan)

Pressure increase, power consumption and efficiency in function of gas flow at

different fan speed.

System resistance curve

Differential pressure in function of gas flow at different fan speed

Absorbed power in function of gas flow at different fan speed

Fan efficiency

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 Version 15, January 2022

Process Fans

Power Requirement at Fan Shaft (dust laden gas)

The required mechanical power can be calculated as:

.
p V  C 
P =  1 + dust 
10    gas 
 

P = Power requirement at fan shaft (kW)

p: = Static pressure increase across the fan (mbar)
V = Volume flow at fan inlet (m3/sec)
 = Fan efficiency (%)
Cdust = Dust concentration in the gas stream (kg/m3)
gas = Gas density (kg/m3)

Total Pressure Increase (rough estimation)

The total pressure increase p of a fan can be calculated as:

0.6    n 2  d 2   2
p =
3600

p = Pressure increase (Pa)

 = Gas density (kg/m3)
n = Fan speed (rpm)
d = Impeller diameter (m)

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Process Fans

Influence of Fan Speed on Volume-flow, Static Pressure and

Power Requirement

The volume flow depends on the fan speed as:

n2
V2 =  V1
n1

V1, V2 = Quantity of gas at speed 1 and speed 2 (m3/s)

n1, n2 = Fan speed 1 and fan speed 2 (rpm)

The static pressure depends on the fan speed as:

2
 n2 
p st ,2 =    p st ,1
 n1 

pst,1, pst,2 = Static pressure at speed 1 and speed 2 (mbar)

n1, n2 = Fan speed 1 and fan speed 2 (rpm)

The power requirement at shaft depends on the fan speed as:

3
 n2 
P2 =    P1
 n1 

P1, P2 = Power requirement at speed 1 and speed 2 (kW)

n1, n2 = Fan speed 1 and fan speed 2 (rpm)

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 Version 15, January 2022

Main Burner

Burner Key Figures (Multi-channel Burner)

Typical specific burner impulsion*: 8 – 11 N/MW Petcoke / Anthracite
6 – 8 N/MW Coal
4 – 5 N/MW Gas (without Natural Gas)

* excluding transport air and fuel mass flow

calculation spreadsheet “Burner Design Evaluation Tool” → on iCIF Documents Inventory.
Primary air fan pressure:
In general high primary air pressures are preferred to reduce the amount of primary air. But the
electrical power consumption and requested impulsion needs be considered. Typical range for
fans is 250 – 350 mbar. For higher pressures blowers have to be provided.

Primary air percentage (typical maximum installed percentage of minimum combustion air):
with fan 13 – 15 %
with blower 9 – 14 %

Fuel injection at burner tip:

The velocity defines the ignition distance of the fuel and is defined by their Volatiles (VM).
A black plume of 0.2m – 0.4m is desirable to avoid damage of the burner tip.
20 - 25 m/s Petcoke, Anthracite
~ 30 m/s Coal
30 - 40 m/s Lignite / brown coal
30 - 45 m/s Solid AFR
Calculation: Volume of transport air [m3/s] at burner tip (pressure of kiln hood and T= 50°C)
divided by the area of the solid fuel injection channel at the burner tip.

Procedure for Specifying a new Burner

Step 1: Definition of ‘Design Thermal Power’ of burner:
- Design Thermal Power = BDP * Real heat cons. * Real main burner fuel ratio

Step 2: Specification: Cleary specify in tender documents and supplier

discussions:
- Design thermal Power [MW]
- Primary air fan flow rate [m3/h] at defined inlet conditions T and p]
- Primary air fan pressure [mbar] + 10% reserve - Plant altitude

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 Version 15, January 2022

Main Burner
Burner Adjustment
Measurements to assess the effect of burner adjustments:
Changes and effects should be documented systematically.
Check-list for kiln parameters: “Combustion Check”
Parameters: Kiln shell temperature profile, hot meal SO3 and LOI, clinker
quality (CaOfree, SO3 in cli, Microscopy), O2/CO/NOx at kiln
inlet, granulometry of clinker, color of broken clinker cores,
Magotteaux test for reducing conditions, back-end temperature.
Timeframe:
Wait at least 1 day after each change for stabilization of coating in kiln

Burner position on kiln:

Position burner tip (hot kiln) between +0.5m inside and -0.4m outside of rotary kiln;
depends on kiln-L/D and temperature profile;
Note: In kilns with planetary coolers, the position of the burner is typically around one
kiln diameter inside from the elbow inlet openings to avoid damage and blockage by too
hot clinker.
Retraction of burner*: - Shortening of flame
- Increase risk of snowman formation
- Risk of increase of nose ring temperature
Pushing burner into the kiln: - Lengthening of flame
- Risk of increase of back-end temperature
- Higher tendency for build-ups on burner pipe
(„Rhino“)
* Note: Planetary cooler kilns need longer internal cooling zone

Alignment of burner position:

Parallel to kiln axis, in centre of kiln cross-section. Check burner centered by adjusting
to same distance from refractory at different points of circumference. You can use a long
rod in combination with meter tape.
Alignment can be checked with an inclinometer or by placing a laser in the burner (e.g.
AFR channel) and detection of the laser point upwards of the kiln (target is center of kiln
inlet section).

Air channel adjustment:

Goal: Hot, short and compact flame. No impingement of the flame on refractory and material
bed.
Axial Air: Ensures mixing of fuel with secondary air. More Axial air/ Higher
Pressure will improve mixing → shorter flame
Radial Air: More radial air will widen and shorten the flame. Also risk of refractory damage if
flame is too wide. Too wide flame with different fuels (high and low reactive) will
create 2 flames and elongate the total flame length (similar effect with reduced
axial air).
Central Air: Stabilization of flame, cooling of central channel and avoiding of build up
formation on burner tip.

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Main Burner

Thermal Power from kiln production and Heat Consumption:

Production  q
Pthermal =  % Main firing
24  3600
Pthermal = Thermal burner power [MW]
Production = Actual clinker production [t/d]
q = Specific heat consumption [kJ/kgcli]
%Main firing = Percentage of heat at main burner

Thermal Power from Fuels (alternative calculation):

n

 (M
Fuel = 1
Fuel  NCVFuel )
Pthermal =
3600
Pthermal = Thermal burner power [MW]
Mfuel = Fuel mass flow [t/h or Nm3/h], for the fuels 1 to n
NCVFuel = Net calorific value of the fuel [kJ/kg fuel or MJ/Nm3 fuel] for fuels 1 to n

Specific Burner Impulsion:

 (m i  vi )
G = i

Pthermal

G = Specific impulsion [N/MW]

mi = Mass flow of air flow i [kg/s]
vi = Velocity of air flow i [m/s] calculated with Bernoulli equation (see below)
Pthermal = Thermal burner power [MW]

2  ptip ,i (only approximation)

vi  (NOT for coal or AF channels)

vi = Velocity at burner tip [m/s]
Ptip,i = Pressure at burner tip = approx. pressure before burner -5% [Pa]
 = Air density at burner tip at 50°C [kg/m3] (see below)
kg PA 273.15 K
ρ = 1.29  
m 1013 mbar TA + 273.15 K
3

PA = Pressure in kiln hood + Ambient Pressure [mbar]

TA = defined: 50°C [K]

Approximation of Burner Impulsion:

PA  v
G = Specific axial impulsion [N/MW] G 
PA = Primary air ratio [%] 300
v = Velocity of primary air calculated with Bernoulli equation [m/s]

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 Version 15, January 2022

Coal and Petcoke: Fineness, Dosing, Transport

Coal and Petcoke Fineness

Coal: R90 m ≤ 0.5 * (% volatiles)
R200 m ≤ 2%

Petcoke: R90 m ≤ 5%, better ≤ 3%

R200 m ≤ 1%

Anthracite: R90 m ≤ 4%, better ≤ 2%

R200 m ≤ 0.5%

Fuel mix: Residue on 90 m 

(%Coal * 0.5 *VM ) + (% Petcoke * 5)
100
Example Coal:
Coal with 35% volatiles results in R90m of 0.5 * 35% = 17.5% R90m
Example Fuel Mix:
20% coal, 80% petcoke (mass fraction); coal with 35% volatiles.
R90m upper limit is → [(20*0.5*35) + (80*5)]/100 = 7.5%

Uniformity of Fineness: CoV (R90μ) < 5%

Fine Coal Dosing (Details ref to Standard Design Criteria)

Short term fluctuations <±1 % within 10s average
Accuracy (long term) < ± 0.5 % based on set point

Pneumatic Transport
A reduced fuel load enhances the ignition but leads to higher Nox. The shown fuel loads are
depending on the fuel volatiles.
Solid fuel load in transport duct: 5 - 7 kg/m3 Lignite, Coal (VM > 12%)
3 - 5 kg/m 3 Petcoke (VM 8-12 %)
1.5-2 kg/m3 Anthracite (VM < 8%)
2 - 4 kg/m3 Solid AFR
Calculation: Feed rate of solid fuel [kg/s] divided by the transport air flow rate [m3/s]

Transport velocity: 28 - 35 m/s (>24 m/s at feeder)

Calculation: Volume flow of transport air [m3/s] divided by the cross sectional area of the
transport duct [m2]

Transport line:
• Length: as short as possible max 80 m
• Only horizontal and vertical section (no inclining or declining sections)
• Elbow design: Diversion pots preferred over bends
(Except: First directional change after the dosing should be a normal bend)
• Performance check: Pressure fluctuation near burner < 5 mbar and < 10% of average
(see details in pressure fluctuation tool)

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 Version 15, January 2022

Petcoke Guidelines (1/3)

What is different to coal?
Grinding: Higher fineness (less volatiles) affects mill capacity (different grindability)
Determine mill output by trial (HGI can be misleading, greasing effect)
Burning: Low ash and high CV
Delayed ignition (low reactivity)
High sulfur causes more plugging (kiln inlet, preheater)
Stable and controlled kiln process necessary to minimize sulfur cycles
Clinker quality:More SO3 in clinker (better early strength, reduced gypsum addition)
What are the limitations ?
On SP/PC kilns, 2.5% SO3 input and 0.4 A/S have been achieved through an aggressive
approach. However, certain factors act against high sulfur incorporation e.g. lump fuel (AFR) or
less alkali.
For a first “conservative” approach, go for the SO3 in clinker < 1.5%, and Molar A/S > 0.8
Petcoke supply:
Choose quality that fits into the given restrictions for sulfur input and grinding capacity. A more
aggressive approach towards petcoke (6-7% S, <40 HGI) provides higher savings.
Raw coal/petcoke preparation:
Controlled mixing from two feed hoppers or preblending
Kiln feed Burnability:
Good burnability helps (if there is a low-cost possibility to improve it). Mineralizers (F) help to
incorporate SO3. However mineralizers so far have been used with simultaneous increase of
LSF to improve the clinker quality. Experience at constant LSF is rare.
Assessment methods: Holcim Burnability Model (by HTEC/CM-QPC)
Combinability Temperature (guide value for 100% high sulfur
petcoke ) 1450°C, max. 1500°C)

CT Combinability temperature, °C
AIR90μKF Acid insoluble residue on 90μ of kiln feed, %
LSFcli LSF of clinker, -
R150μKF Residue on 150μm of kiln feed,
%ARcli Alumina ratio of clinker, -
Fcli Fluorine content of clinker, %
SO3cli SO3 content of clinker, %

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Petcoke Guidelines (2/3)

Kiln Burner & flame Use high momentum burner up to 11 N/MW for compact and
short flame. For a given burner / PA fan (with limited operating
range), adjust burner for most compact and shortest flame i.e.
max. primary air quantity and pressure, max. radial air. In
particular retracting burner on grate cooler kilns can have a strong
positive impact. For example, one plant retracted the burner by
1.1 m out of the kiln which increased SO3 in clinker from 0.6% to
1.3%. But, retracting a burner can result in hotter kiln outlet and
formation of snowman in the cooler.
Cooler Stable and high secondary air temperature for stable ignition
(cooler optimization)
O2/CO Gas analysis at kiln inlet mandatory (ILC)
Kiln inlet O2 = 2-3 %, CO < 0.05% (< 500 ppm)
(in case of ILC kiln, higher O2 of 4-5% is acceptable; however
disadvantage could be lower flame temperature and higher kiln
inlet temperature)
Monitoring Monitor free lime
Monitor kiln shell temperature profile (flame shape)
Granulometry As a consequence of higher SO3, clinker tends to be finer. If
necessary, adjust clinker SR/AR to alleviate finer clinker.
Precalciner Hot flame core for stable ignition ("Hot Spot")
Combustion in pure air better than with kiln gas (precombustion
chamber, SLC )
Retention time The following gas retention time guidelines could be used (if not
possible, increase petcoke fineness):
Fuel ILC [s] SLC, PCC [s]
Petcoke 4 3
Bituminous coal 3 2
Lignite 3.5 2.5

Burn out After calciner, O2 = 2-3%, CO < 0.05 % (< 500 ppm); after PH, 1%
higher O2 due to false air). Check out hot meal for combustibles (sparkling)
Dust curtain Dust curtain kiln inlet: <20-30% meal from 2nd lowest stage to kiln inlet
(splash box!). If no precalciner, dust curtain in riser duct by lowering
meal entry points.

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Petcoke Guidelines (3/3)

Hot meal analysis Adequate frequency, usually once/shift (LOI, SO3,

K2O). SO3 < 5% (if chlorine < 0.5%)
Bypass An existing bypass alleviates the sulfur cycles, but
installation of a new bypass can hardly be justified by the use of
petcoke. Fight SO3 cycles by enhanced preheater cleaning.

Preheater cleaning Add poke holes and install air cannons (could be up to 60)
where coatings occur. Removal of heavy blockages can also be
done with CARDOX blasting on demand. Special attention
required for calciner orifice (restriction); if restricted by build-ups,
the problem will selfaccelerate rapidly due to lack of
O 2.
Recommendation: Use coating-repellent SiC refractory in
the riser duct.
How to proceed? Stepwise increments of petcoke use, based on process and
quality data. Depending on results, further stretch the
preliminary limits for SO3 input and Alk/SO3 ratio.

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Alkali / Sulfur / Chlorine Balance

1. Actual Sulfur in Clinker:

The maximum input of sulfur is limited due to process reasons. The limit
depends on the kiln type.
HTEC guide values for maximum sulfur input:

Max. sulfur input Min. A/S ratio

Kiln System [%SO3 in cli] [-]
Long wet kilns (WL) 1.0 0.8
Long dry kilns (DL) 1.2 0.8
Grate preheater kilns 1.0 0.8
(GP)
Suspension preheater 1.7 0.5
kilns (SP)
Precalciner kilns (PC) 2.0 0.4

2. Alkali / Sulfur - Ratio:

Balance of sulfur and alkalis
Calculation:

K O Na O Cl
2 + 2 −
Alk − Cl 94 62 71
=
SO SO
3 3
80
Calculation based on clinker concentrations [%]
%SO3 = 2.5  %S

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Alkali / Sulfur / Chlorine Balance

3. Sulfur Volatility:
The volatility expresses the amount of sulfur circulation vs. sulfur in clinker.
Calculation:

 SO3 Cli 
 (100 − LOICli ) 
Volatility  = 1 − 
 SO3 HM 
 (100 − LOIHM ) 

SO 3 Cli
Simplified formula for LOI~ <2%: Volatility  = 1 −
SO 3 HM

SO3 cli = SO3 in clinker [%]

SO3 HM = SO3 in Hot meal [%]
LOI Cli / HM = Loss on ignition in clinker / hot meal [%]

Limits: Volatility Criteria

< 0.7 ok
> 0.7 combustion problem
> 0.9 serious combustion problem

4. Hot Meal:
Applicable to SP and PC kilns only.
Limits: according to graph
% Cl

2.0 Fre
que
nt blo
cka
Zon ges
e of
1.4 incr
eas
ing
enc
rust
1.0 atio
n pr
oble
0.8 ms
No e
ncrus
tation
s

% SO3
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
2.5 3.75

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 Version 15, January 2022

Chlorine Limit
Kiln Cl extraction method Maximum Remarks
system relevant
Cl input
[g Cl/ t cli]
Any kiln without Cl-extraction 300
system (“closed loop”)
4/5 stage discarding filter dust 300- 400 dep. on available
SP during direct operation time for direct op.
2 stage SP same as above 450 same as above
LEPOL discarding intermediate 600
grate dust
SP 5-10 % Bypass 300+100 x applicable for
%Bypass 5-10% bypass
Long discarding max. kiln 5000(1) unusual, needs
wet/dry dust (unlimited CKD) extra CKD outlet
(1) 800 – 1000 g Cl/ t cli is the maximum to get all the dust in the cement

100 gCl t cli = 100 ppm = 0.01%

Consequences of exceeding the Cl Limit

Kiln system Short term [hours] Long term Impact on HCl emission
consequences consequences
Suspension preheater blockages corrosion, none
preheater / → production loss refractory (without bypass)
precalciner damage
Grate high pressure drop in corrosion medium
preheater nodule bed → prod. loss

Long wet / ring formation / material HCl emission and risk of

long dry kiln blockage dioxin / furan formation

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AFR
LGF Categories Characteristics Examples

AFR Families Lump fuel incl. whole tires (all 3-

dimens. solids >50mm and 2-
Heavy material; can not be
carried by kiln gases;
Whole tires, coarse
shredded tires and
dimens. foils >200mm) burns at kiln inlet plastics
Coarse Solids <50mm (3-dimens.) Can be carried by kiln Tire chips,
incl. foils <200mm (2-dimens.) gases (suited for shredded plastics
precalciner) and textiles
Fine Solids < 5mm (3-dimens.) Can be carried easily by Plastics,
incl. foils <50mm (2-dimens.) kiln gases (suited for main impregnated saw
firing) dust, animal meal
Sludges * Pumpable with piston Petroleum sludges
pump type PUTZMEISTER
Liquids Can be atomized with Waste oil, solvents
compressed air (solid
particles in liquid <2-4mm)

Combustion Limits / Maximum Substitution Rates

“Combustion limits” = max. TSR that would be achievable if the burning of the AFR type is limited only
by combustion (fuel burn-out) and not by any other factor such as for example chlorine input, flame
temperature reduction (main burner only), quality parameters, P2O5 input etc.

▪ Liquid AFR: Not limited by combustion limits

▪ Solid AFR:

 see LGF-Study

The following PPE Tools help you with the assessment of the current
combustion performance and determination of AFR potentials/bottlenecks:
- Combustion Check
- Summary of AFR Potentials and Bottlenecks

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AFR
AFR Impact Calculation
Impact factors of AFR according to LGF Study (Low Grade Fuel):

Impact on heat
consumption Impact on kiln capacity (tons lost)

Influence SP/PC
Unit All kilns Unit Grate PH Long wet
factor kiln
t cli
Water GJ/t H2O 2.15* 2.0 1.6 0.8
/t H2O
t cli
Ash GJ/t ash 1.1 0.26 0.22 0.11
/t ash
Additiona
l transp. t cli
GJ/kNm3 1 (0.7)** 0.24 0.2 0.07
air (false /kNm3
air)
Oxygen % q per % cap
1.8 5.7*** 5*** 4.4***
level % O2 per %O2

Note: For proper application of above factors consult definitions/explanations in the LGF study
SP: Suspension Preheater, PC: Precalciner Kiln
* When H2O included in NCV calculation of fuel, when injecting pure water 4.6 GJ/tH2O
** 0.7 GJ/kNm3 applies for Wet kilns only
*** Increase in % of heat consumption / Decrease in % of capacity per increase (%) of Oxygen
after last fuel addition. An Increase of the oxygen level in the kiln is often necessary when coarse
solid AFR are burned which cause combustion problems or if petcoke is used compared to Coal.
A detailed explanation and further details can be found in LFG study on Geocycle Portal.

Please refer to FuelMix tool for low grade fuel impact calculations.

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AFR
Homogeneity / Fluctuation of AFR
The required homogeneity and maximum fluctuation of each AFR stream to
the kiln depends on the following factors:
1. Fluctuation of the calorific value in the AFR - short term [minutes]
2. Fluctuation of the mass flow of the AFR into the kiln,
given by the quality of the AFR dosing system - short term [minutes]
3. Substitution rate

Homogeneity / Uniformity Rule (to avoid negative impacts on kiln capacity):

The following “Homogeneity / Uniformity Rule” expresses the required homogeneity and
feed-rate stability of a given AFR stream in function of the TSR of that same stream:

Note: This formula does not apply for whole tires and other slow burning lump fuels

Example of Homogeneity / Uniformity Rule:

The heat value of a given AFR stream is fluctuating between 12 - 13 MJ/kg (= 4% fluctuation) and
the feed rate is fluctuating between 3.0 - 3.2 t/h (= 3% fluctuation).
→ Uniformity (fluctuation of heat input) = 4% + 3% = 7%
→ The maximum TSR without impacting production rate is = 100% / 7% = 14% TSR

How to interpret and apply this rule?

As long as the uniformity rule is respected there will be no sensible negative
impacts on kiln operation. If the uniformity is worse it is still possible to operate the
kiln but the impacts will become sensible. An increase of O2 is required to avoid CO
peaks.

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AFR
Heavy Metals

Holcim has no official limits or guidelines for HM in AFR.

The following table gives some “Reasonable Limits / Guidelines”:
Metals Hg Tl Cd Be Cr As Sb Sn Co Pb Ni Cu V
Limits / guidelines
[mg/kg] [ppm] 5 50 50 50 250 400 500 500 500 800 1000 1000 1000

As a general guideline, the level of HM in clinker should not be increased

significantly by the use of AFR.

Most important and critical elements:

• Mercury (Hg): Volatile (emission)
• Thallium (Tl): Volatile (enrichment in the outer dust cycle)
• Cadmium (Cd): Volatile (enrichment in the outer dust cycle)
• Chromium (Cr): Cr VI in cement (health problems handling wet / fresh concrete)

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Liquid AFR Handling

Standard Flow Diagram Liquid AF
For further details refer to Technical AFR Handling Manual (Part A)

optional for oil-based liquids

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Liquid AFR Handling

Intake Filter Screen selection The filter screen size depends on the smallest cross
section in the pipe system (normally injection nozzle)

• Filter Screen Opening: 1/3 of the injection nozzle‘s smallest sectional area
• Basket filter size: > 30 l (use of automatic cleaning filter preferred

Pipe System

• Product velocity: > 1 m/s

Pump selection:

• Unloading pump: Centrifugal pump with open wheel,

Capacity > 40 m3/h
• Dosing pump for solvents: Double diaphragm pump with
PTFE diaphragm
• Dosing pump for other: Eccentric screw pole pump
applications

Twin fluid atomizing nozzle :

• Liquid pressure at nozzle: 2 – 5 bar

• Compressed air at nozzle: 3 – 6 bar
• Air/Fuel ratio 0.08 – 0.12 kg air/kg liquid

Safety

Liquids with flash point < 55°C require special safety measures !

For further details refer to documents available on the Geocycle Portal:

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 Version 15, January 2022

Solid AFR Handling

Standard Flow Diagrams

Main burner firing

Silo concept

Multiple silo concept for FLUFF

optional

Lump breaker

Storage Box concept (Top Reclaiming)

63
64
optional for additional fire safety
Standard Flow Diagrams
Solid AFR Handling

Precalciner / Secondary firing

optional

«Police screen concept»

Option I: Oversize removal (screen)

Option II: Oversize removal (screen)
and 2D screen rejects recovery (air
separator)
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 Version 15, January 2022

Solid AFR Handling

Extraction Systems (Bulk density < 1 t/m3, product low to medium abrasive)

Storage size< 4000m3 Storage size< 300m3

Extraction screw for flat bottom silos Push floor hopper with extraction screw

Dosing System (Bulk density < 1 t/m3, product low to medium abrasive)

Storage size< 300m3

Coarse AFR Fine AFR (< 50 mm, no longish strips)
2

3 1

2
1 Extraction
2 Volumetric dosing
3 Gravimetric dosing 3

Inclined chain belt conveyor with stripping roll Push floor with double-screw conveyor

Storage size< 20 m3 Storage size < 20 m3

Inclined apron feeder with stripping roll supported

on loads cells
“Multiflex” feeder (Make:SCHENCK

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Solid AFR Handling

Product Sizing Systems

Disc screen (conventional design)

Disc screen with static spacers

Star screen

Trommel screen

Screen type selection guidelines

• Trommel screen: Suitable for CSS and other granular

material / no longish strips
Cut size < 25mm possible

• Disc screen: Suitable for FLUFF (e.g. police screen), with static
spacers suitable for longish strips
Cut size > 25 mm

• Star screen Suitable for fine FLUFF (e.g. police screen)

Cut size guidelines

• Main burner FLUFF: 40 mm

CSS: 15 mm (impregnated saw dust)

• Calciner FLUFF/CSS: 100 -150 mm

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Solid AFR Handling

Rotary valve selection criteria

• Blow through valve preferred for sticky material → standard solution

paddle wheel compartment volume according to transport pipe diameter
• Drop-through valve is preferred for very abrasive material.
• Drop-through valve size shall be 3-times than design volumetric flow rate
• Blow-trough valve size shall be 1.5-times the design volumetric flow rate
• Rotor speed: < 0.4 m/s (VFD recommended for adjusting motor speed)
• Inlet opening: > 0.1 m2
• Pressure resistance: 10 bar

Flap valve selection criteria

• Actuated double or triple flap valve

• Minimum inlet opening::
a) particle size nominal < 50 mm: 500 x 500 mm
b) particle size nominal < 200 mm: 800 x 800 mm
c) whole tyres: 1'400 x 500 mm
• Automatic safety shut off gate for flap valve, fail-safe closing
• Heat resistant materials to the prevailing temperature

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Solid AFR Handling

Pneumatic Conveying System Design Criteria

• Pipeline shall be straight and conveying distance shall be as short as possible

• Pipe size shall be constant
• Number of bends in the system should be kept as low as possible as they
contribute to overall pressure drop and maintenance requirements (erosive wear).
• Bends shall have long radius (r/D ratio: 10 -15)
• Bend shall have liners.
• The first straight section following a bend shall have wear liners too.
• Loading factor (kg of product / kg of air) should be not
more than 4 with
FLUFF: 2-4
CSS: 1-2 (Impregnated saw dust)
AM: 1 (Animal meal)
• Ejector design pressure loss: 150 mbar

Safety

• Equipment grounding
• Operation speed mechanical equipment < 1m/s (sparks !)
• Bearings not in contact with material (e.g. screw conveyor)
• Automatic safety shut-off gate for flap valve, fail-safe closing
• Fire detection and sprinkler system

68
69
Feed concepts

• Low viscous liquids:

Pneumatic atomizing nozzles
• High viscous liquids:
Mechanical sludge rotor with shut-off valve (as shown)
Sludge AFR Handling

Screen (Opening 50 mm)

Sludge reception hopper with

pump

(Make: Putzmeister)
Standard Flow Diagram ready-to-burn Sludge AF
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 Version 15, January 2022

Sludge AFR Handling

Sludge Handling Concept
Hopper concept
Storage size : 40 -100 m3

Silo concept
Storage size > 100 m3§

Typical sludge pump specifications

• Pressure: up to 100 bar (short term pressure peaks up to 130 bar)

• Flow rate: 0.2 – 500 m3/h (Holcim standard applications: < 30 m3/h)
• Heavy duty design valves
• Boundary injection system (oil) in order to reduce friction between
internal pipe surface and material conveyed

Valve types

Slide gate valve (Solid Pumps) Rock valves (Make: Schwing) S-transfer tube (Make: Putzmeister)

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Sludge AFR Handling

Typical Sludge AFR specifications

Material Properties Typical Values

approx >1’000 up to 1Mill mm2/s pumpable

Viscosity at 20°C
by piston pump

Dry matter content 20 – 80 %

Solids size after preparation < 75 mm

> 55°C (oil based)

Flashpoint
> -20°C (solvent based)

4 – 9 (standard)
pH value
1 – 4 (acid tar)

Note:

▪ AFR sludges can have a wide range of properties. They can show both solid

and liquid-like behaviour.

▪ As a rule of thumb all hand-kneadable product is pumpable even though
moisture content is very low (e.g. contaminated soil).
▪ Tests may be required to determine pumpability.

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 Version 15, January 2022

Bag Filter

Reverse Gas Filter Pulse Jet Filter

p

Filtration Cleaning Filtration Cleaning

Air-to-cloth ratio
Vact
A /C =
A bags,net
A/C air-to-cloth ratio (specific filter load) [m/min]

Vact gas volume at actual conditions [Am3/min]

Abags,net active bag area (not counting shut compartments) [m2]

= n •  • dbag • Lbag
n number of bags (active)
dbag bag diameter [m]
Lbag bag length [m]

Reverse air filters

A/C < 0.6 m/min no problems expected for existing filters

Pulse jet filters

A/C < 1.0 m/min no problems expected i.e. design criteria
for new process filters in normal operation
A/C > 1.2 m/min increased differential pressure expected
e.g. for process filter in upset conditions
up to 1.5 m/min allowed
A/C > 1.5 m/min inefficient cleaning expected

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Bag Filter

Differential Pressure
𝜓
𝑣𝐹
∆𝑝 ≈ ∆𝑝0 ∙
𝑣𝐹,0

p bag filter differential pressure (across tube sheet) e.g. for

increased flow in future operation [mbar]
Reverse air filters

p < 20.0 mbar normal operation

Pulse jet filters

p < ~5 mbar probably overcleaning and low bag life

p > ~12 mbar probably high A/C-ratio, high dust load,
sticky dust or old bags
p > ~20 mbar cleaning is inefficient, bags can
collapse
p0 reference diff. pressure e.g. today operation [mbar]
vF air-to-cloth ratio (specific filter load) e.g. due to increased
flow in future operation [m/min]
vF,0 reference air-to-cloth ratio e.g. today operation [m/min]
y differential pressure exponent e.g. of today's bags or new bags
in future [-]
y < 1.2 new bags, high permeability
y > 1.6 old bags, low permeability
y > 2.0 can velocity problem

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Environment

Water Dew Point

The water dew point temperature in a gas stream can be calculated as

 
 
 336 .48 
TDP =  − 179 
 5.3362 − 17 .045 + ln %W  p  
  100 1000  
 

TDP = dew point temperature (°C)

%W = gas humidity (Vol %)
p = pmeasurement,relative + pambient (mbar)

Acid Dew Point

The acid dew point temperature for SO2 / SO3 in a gas stream can be
calculated as:

 1000 
TAcid =  − 273 
 1.7842 + 0.0269  L W − 0.1029  LS + 0.0329  L W  LS 
Tacid = Acid dew point temperature (°C)

LW (
= log %W  p 10 −5 )
%W = water content (Vol-%)
p = p measurement, relative + p ambient (mbar)

 ConcSO3 
LS = log   p 10 −9 
 ρ N,SO3 

ConcSO3 = Sulfur trioxide concentration in gas (mg/Nm3 dry),

approx. 1-3% from measured SO2
N,SO3 = Normalized gas density of SO3 (= 3.57 kg/Nm3 dry)
p = p measurement, relative + p ambient (mbar)

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Environment

Cooling Water Injection for Gas Cooling

The required amount of cooling water for gas cooling can be estimated as
(Rule of thumb):

MW = 0.6  VN,wet  T

MW = Amount of cooling water (g/h)

VN,wet = Wet gas volume at normal conditions (Nm3/h)
T = Inlet minus outlet gas temperature (°C)

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Selective Non Catalytic Reduction (SNCR)

NOx Reduction Rate [%]

CNOx(Ø) = NOx concentration raw gas
before injection location (upstream) or at
C NOx(Ø) − C NOx
NOx Re duction =  100 stack w/o injection
C NOx(Ø) CNOx = NOx concentration with SNCR
injection after injection location
(downstream)

Molar Ratio (referred to raw gas NOx) [mol/mol]

mol NHy = moles of reaction relevant component NHy of
mol
Molar Ratio =
NHy injected reagent (1mol of urea contains 2 moles of NHy)
mol NO X (Ø) mol NOx(Ø) = moles of NOx in raw gas before injection
location (upstream) or at stack w/o injection

SNCR (reagent) Efficiency [%]

NOx Reduction Rate mol NOx mol ΔNOx

Efficiency = =  100 moles of NOx reduced
Molar Ratio mol NH Y by injected reagent

SNCR typical performances

100
100% efficiency 50% efficiency
90 Urea

80 Ammonia
70
Reduction [%]

60
50
40
20% efficiency
30
20
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Molar ratio NHy/NO_raw [mol/mol]

Guide values

• Efficiency ~ 55% at Molar Ratio of 1-1,2 (Ammonia)

~ 30% at Molar Ratio of 1-1,2 (Urea)
• Molar Ratios < 1.2 : NH3 slip not expected

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Emission Concentration Conversions

Measured Conversion mg
Compound in
compound in
c [ppm] x f = c [mg/Nm3] [mg/Nm3] wet(1)
ppm

Conversion dry
(2) −1
 w 
c(dry ) = c( wet )1 − 
 100 

O2 correction
Compound in [mg/Nm3] Compound in
(21− y)
dry @ y% O2 c( y) = c(eff ) [mg/Nm3] dry
(21−O2 dry (eff ))

c Concentration
w Water content of gas (Vol %)
(1) Wet according to measurement principle (in situ, hot extractive,…)
(2) If measured on dry basis

Factor f
NOx emissions are normally indicated as normal conditions
mg NO2 / Nm3 dry, even though at the stack 95 -98% of 0oC /1013mbar
the NOx is in form of NO ( → use f = 2.05).
NH3 0.76
VOC emissions are usually expressed as carbon (mgC /
Nm3) (table: propane calibration → f = 1.61) H2O 0.80
CO 1.25
See next page for the calculation of the factor f
NO 1.34
NO2 2.05
SO2 2.86
HCl 1.63
VOC 1.61
SO3 3.57

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 Version 15, January 2022

Emission Concentration Conversions

wet → dry
−1 c (dry): dry concentration mg/Nm3
 w 
c(dry ) = c( wet )1 −  c (wet): wet concentration mg/Nm3
 100  w: water content of gas Vol%

Oxygen reference x% → 10%

 21 − 10 
C10 = C x   
C10: concentration mg/Nm3 @ 10% Oxygen
 21 − x  Cx: concentration mg/Nm3 @ X% Oxygen

ppm → mg/Nm3
 kg 
MW kmol  MW: molecular weight
 mg 
c  3  = f • c ppm with f= (see periodic table)
 Nm   Nm 3  N → Norm conditions:
22.41  
 kmol  0°C, 1013 mbar

H He
1.01
1
Periodic Table 4.00
2
Li
6.94
Be
9.01
of Elements B C N O F Ne
10.82 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl A
22.99 24.32 26.98 28.09 30.98 32.07 35.46 39.94
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.90 50.95 52.01 54.94 55.85 58.94 58.71 63.54 65.38 69.72 72.60 74.91 78.96 79.92 83.80
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.48 87.63 88.92 91.22 92.91 95.95 99.00 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.6 175.0 178.5 181.0 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 210.0 (210) (222)
55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Fr Ra Lw Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg
(223) 226.1 (260) (261) (262) (263) (262) (265) (266) (269) (272)
87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.3 145.0 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.4
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
227.0 232.1 231.0 238.1 237.0 242.0 243.0 245.0 249.0 249.0 255.0 255.0 256.0 253.0
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

For further explanations and emission plausibility checks see EMR Manual and
Guidelines.

78
 Version 15, January 2022

PC Kiln Operation and Control Set-points

Stable kiln operation is key to protect personnel and equipment at

all times and to minimize production costs by means of:
• Reduction of kiln heat consumption
• Maximization of production rate
• Reduction of unplanned stops
• Stabilization of clinker quality*

The key prerequisites to achieve a stable and efficient kiln operation

are:
• Stable kiln feed properties and feed rate
• Stable fuel properties and feed rate
• Stable gas flow rate trough the system
• Optimization of the kiln control parameters

Stabilization:

Parameter How Target

O2 @ PC exit Minimize the number and magnitude of Depends by fuel mix
(or PH exit): disturbances of the ID fan flow (e.g. raw
meal start and stops, cooling water flow)
Precalciner Reducing gas flow fluctuations STD < 5 °C good
temperature Tune PID controller STD < 2°C excellent
Reduce fluctuation in fuel properties/rate
Under Grate Tune PID controller STD of Secondary Air
Pressure (UGP) Use p under fix inlet as UGP Temperature < 25 °C
good (SAT measured
at ToKH)
Kiln feed rate Use as last choice to control the Constant
process (unless ID fan at
Take care of your feeders max)
Kiln speed Adapt to Burning zone conditions To use as additional
support to control BZ
* Make use of it in cement grinding department

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 Version 15, January 2022

PC Kiln Operation and Control Set-points

Optimization of the kiln control parameters:

Parameter Action Limit / Constraint

Kiln inlet O2 Find optimum SO3 in hot meal,
NOx formation (flame temp.)
PC utilization
Reduced number of cyclone
blockages.
O2 @ PC exit: Reduce 500 ppm < CO < 1000 ppm
Different legal requirements
Kiln inlet O2 for CO < 500 ppm
Gas speed in riser ducts
Under Grate Pressure Increase Consistent secondary air T
increase
Stability of operation
Design limitations
Precalciner temperature Reduce Burning zone stability
Clinker quality

Calcination degree (apparent) in hot meal vs. calciner temperature

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 Version 15, January 2022

Refractory
Holcim Objectives regarding Refractories in Rotary Part
 Specific refractory consumption according or below best practice:
< 400 g / t cli for PC kilns
< 800 g / t cli for PH kilns
< 1200 g / t cli for long kilns

 Kiln lining may not impact availability, not being the cause for any unplanned kiln
stop
▪ Standard Refractory Layout for Rotary Part

Lining Pattern for Rotary Part

No Al
n -a ign
lig ed
gs ne gs joi
Rin d Rin nts
joi
nts

w w
Ro Ro

Staggered lining preferred Straight lining acceptable

Note: More details on iCIF Documents Inventory. : “Refractory Manual 1 – 5”

81
 Version 15, January 2022

Refractory
Usage of Mortar in Rotary Part
 in kiln tyre areas (0.5 – 1.0 x Dkiln up - / downhill of tyre) for increased mechanical
flexibility
 in the keying area to avoid usage of metal shims
 in areas of high kiln shell corrosion to achieve a more gastight lining
 in deformed kiln shell sections to increase mechanical flexibility of lining
 different mortars should be used for basic and alumina bricks

max. 8mm
max. 8mm

Mortar joint Filled

max. 1-1,5mm with mortar Mortar joint Filled
max. 1-1,5mm with mortar

 in the area of welding seams (if welding seams are more than 8 mm high, the brick
should be cut additionally) than 8mm
Less

kiln shell

to be filled with mortar

to be filled with mortar

than 8mm
More

Kiln shell

to be cut on installation

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 Version 15, January 2022

Refractory
Main Dimensional Tolerances for Bricks in Rotary Part

Holcim standards
Dimension
(for basic and non-basic bricks)

Length (l) ± 1.5 mm

Brick width (a,b) ± 1.5 mm
Brick height (h) ± 1.0 %

Tapering (a-b) ± 1.0 mm

Deviation of symmetry |x - y| ≤ 1 mm

Warpage ≤ 1 mm

Stack Test (10 Bricks) max. +6 mm, min -4 mm

Brick Dimensions Deviation of Symmetry Warpage

Difference between IA (hot face) minus OA (cold face) should

not be more than -4 mm or +6 mm of the theoretical taper of
that size of brick

Example (ISO brick 822):

● One brick face side a = 103 mm, side b = 97.3 mm
● Ten stacked bricks would measure; side a (OA) = 1030 mm,
side b (IA) = 973 mm
●The allowance of the difference 1030 mm – 973 mm = 57
Stack test of 10 bricks mm should not be more than -4/+6 mm, i.e. allowable is 53-63
mm

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 Version 15, January 2022

Refractory
Typical guide values for admissible Bricks Damages in Rotary Part
4 Broken edges
If
E ≥ 8 mm and
L ≤ 30 mm and
a+b ≤ 20 mm and
≤ 4 numbers of defects (2 on hot- and 2 on
cold-face) then

4 Cracks => brick can be accepted

If
W ≤ 0.2 mm and
L or (L1+L2) ≤ 20.0 mm and
≤ 2 number of defects then

=> brick can be accepted

4 Broken corners

If
a + b + c ≤ 45 mm and
≤ 2 number of defects (1 on hot- and 1 on cold-
face) then

• Fusion cavities => brick can be accepted

If
d ≤ 5 mm and
t ≤ 5 mm and
≤ 3 number of defects per surface then

=> brick can be accepted

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 Version 15, January 2022

Refractory

Requirements on Refractory for Main Burner

Anchoring
• Anchor design:
• Helical or V-form round steel, 6-8 mm diameter, 50-80 mm length
(according to refractory thickness)
• Expansion of the anchorage has to be allowed by plastic caps fitted on the
tip
• Distance between the anchors in the range of in the range of 50-90 mm.
• Anchor material:
• EN 1.4845 (AISI 310 H) – standard choice
• EN 1.4862 (INCOLOY alloy DS) – choice for elevated temperatures
• EN 2.4851 (AISI 601, INCONEL 601) or HAYNES HR-160 for very critical
applications (corrosion, temperature)
Castable at burner tip
• Castable design:
• Lining thickness generally 80 mm, however for new burner installations
nowadays castable thickness of 100 mm
• Expansion joints thickness in the range of 6-10 mm, provided by ceramic
felt or paper.
• 3-5 axial expansion joints over burner pipe circumference to be used (no
expansion joint @ 6 o'clock position)
• radial expansion joint every 270 -350 mm on the first meter from the burner
tip and every 500 - 800 mm afterwards
• Vertical burner pipe position is preferred during casting procedure
• Pre-tempering of the new cast burner pipe is mandatory

• Castable material:
• high Al2O3-containing (> 90 % Al2O3) low cement castables with low
porosity (in case of alkali-attack: < 90 % Al2O3 with Zr2O or SiC)
• examples of proven qualities: Refratechnik: Refracorund 95 LCC /
Harbison-Walker: Ultra-Green SR / Calderys: Pliflow T90 / RHI: Comprit
180 H / Resco: Sureflow 93 LC / Höganäs Bjuf: Victor Korund ES QF

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 Version 15, January 2022

Measuring Points and Flow Measurement

Pitot-tube (Prandtl-tube) measurement L and S type:

13
3 ca 15
15
pstat ptot
14
4 5 ca100
Markierungslöcher
von 1...6
Dicht verschweisst

L type
1.5 mm Durchm.
80.2 500
2 80
11 B 10 4 Löcher
9
5
5.5
4

3 10

50 10
12 B

pstat
In den Löchern anheften
100

ptot = pdyn+ pstat = /2*v2 + pstat

1

S type
Die Rohre Pos.10 müssen
leichtgängig in Pos. 9
Bohrung 3mm
50 17 15
6 6
gesteckt werden können
(ca 0.05 bis 0.1 mm Spiel)
15
500

12 Druckrohre  5 x 1 x ca 478 17 St 4301

6°

6
5

2 Schlauchtüllen  6 x 3 x 50 16 St 4301
14 Verschraubung Serto 15 St 4301 SO51021-5
Rillen ca 4 r, 0.5 tief
DETAILS POS 1...8 S. ZEICHNUNG 2 1 Rohr  4 x 1 x 200 14 St 4301

pmeasured = ptot - pstat = /2*v2

20
1 Rohr  4 x 1 x 240 13 St 4301
12 Nocken  5 x 5 12 St 4301
16 12 Flachfeder 1,5 x 6 x 50 11 St 4301
6 Rohr  23 x 1,5 x 100 10 St 4301
6 Rohr  25 x 1 x 500 9 St 4301
12 9 10 2 Nocken  3 x 5 8 St 4301
1 Bolzen  5 x 32 7 St 4301
11 5 45° 1 Bügel 6 x 3 x 220 (gestr.) 6 St 4301
1 Hülse  25 x 1 x 94 5 St 4301
1

12 Bogen 90° 12 x 1 x ca 62

2.6

1 4 St 4301
1.5

Uebergang 25 x 16
11 1 3 St 4301
5.0

3
1 Deckel 25 x 10 2 St 4301
1 Bolzen  25 x 90 1 St 4301
6

5.5

Anz. Bezeichnung Pos Werkstoff Bemerkungen

2
"Holderbank"
5

ptot
50 3
Management & Beratung AG
Pitot-Rohre 25 mm

v = K*(2*p/)0.5
M4:1
Datum Name Masstab
Schnitt B - B (M 2 : 1) Gezeichnet 9.3.00 Ny. 1:1 Zeichnung 1

K: Calibration factor based on tube design. Typical K-factor: L type: 1, S-type: 0.84 (KIMO)

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 Version 15, January 2022

Flow Rate Measurement of Fresh Air Fans

Calibration of flow rate measurement for fresh air fans (e.g.

cooler fans or primary air fans)

Pressure measurement (dp) used for

on-line calculation of flow-rate

Measuring points for flow-rate

calibration (determination of factor “a”)
Factor “a” should be determined by
measuring (the normal range of the
nozzle coefficient a for curved inlets
is 0.89 – 0.98. In modern designs a
typical nozzle coefficient a is 0.95. )

2  dp
V = A a 


V = Flow rate [m3/s]

A = Cross section of suction tube [m2]
dp = Pressure difference ‘suction tube’ to ‘ambient’ [Pa]
 = Gas density [kg/m3]
a = Correction factor of suction tube [-]

Note: More details on iCIF Documents Inventory. : “Air Flow Measurement by

Means of the Piezo Ring at the Fan Inlet”

87
 Version 15, January 2022

Gas, Materials and Fuels Properties

Density of Kiln Exhaust Gas (Approx. Calculation)

[kg/Nm3] - Ideal gas at normal conditions

%O2,dry %CO2,dry  %O2,dry %CO2,dry 

ρn,dry =  1,429 +  1,964 + 1 − −   1,257

100 100  100 100 

 %H2O  %H2O
ρn, wet = ρn,dry  1 − +  0,804
 100  100

Typical Kiln Exhaust Gas Composition

Other components „Typical Value“

▪ NOx 0.04 %
▪ SO2 0.01 %
▪ VOC2 0.004 %
▪ CO 0.04 %
▪ HCl 0.0006 %
+ Dust

% CO2 = f(fuel, raw mat,…..)

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 Version 15, January 2022

Gas, Materials and Fuels Properties

Sensible Heat cp of Solids, Liquids and Gases

The following specific heats are average values between the temperature T and
the reference temperature of 20°C. The calculation of the sensible heat
difference between two temperatures is as follows:
Example: T1 = 200°C , T2 = 100°C , m = Mass [kg]
(
ΔH(200C - 100C) = m  cp, avg (at 200C)  (200C − 20C) − c p, avg (at 100C)  (100C − 20C) )

Average Sensible Heat cp of Solids [kJ/kg °C]

1.50
Ref. 20°C
1.40 MgCO 3

1.30
°C]K]
[kJ/kg

Kaolin MgO
1.20
[kJ/kg

SiO2
CaCO3 Raw Meal
value

1.10
value

Metakaolin Clinker
cpcp

1.00
RM
CaO
0.90

0.80

0.70
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Temperature [°C]

Cp of liquid water
Sensible Heat of (liquid) Water 0°C 4,22 kJ/kg °C
50°C 4,18 kJ/kg °C
100°C 4,22 kJ/kg °C

 kJ 
Heat of Evaporation of Water (h) h[kJ] = 2450    m kg
 kg H2O 

89
 Version 15, January 2022

Gas, Materials and Fuels Properties

Average Sensible Heat cp of Gases [kJ/Nm3 °C]

2.4
Ref. 20°C
2.3

2.2

2.1

2.0
[kJ/Nm3 °C]

1.9

1.8

1.7

1.6

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2
100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900

Temperature [°C]

Average Sensible Heat cp of Fuels [kJ/Nm3 K]

2.7

2.5
Ref. 20°C

2.3

2.1

1.9
[kJ/kg °C]

1.7

1.5

1.3

1.1

0.9

0.7
0 50 100 150 200

Temperature [°C]

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 Version 15, January 2022

Own Formulas and Notes

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 Version 15, January 2022

Own Formulas and Notes

92
 Version 15, January 2022

Reference Guide for

Materials Technology

Back to Content
page
93
 Version 15, January 2022

Content Materials Technology

Moduli and Quality Parameter ………………………………………………………………… 95

Holcim Burnability Test ………………………………………………………………………... 99

Basic Raw Material Mineralogy ………………………………………………………………..100

Clinker Liquid Phase & Coating Behavior ………………………………………………….. 101

Clinker Minerals …………………………………………………………………………………. 102

Significance of Minerals for Cement Properties

And ASTM Cement Types ……………………………………………………………………... 105

Effect of clinker/cement composition in paste and mortar properties………………….106

PQM Quality Indicators ………………………………………………………………………… 107

Uniformity ………………………………………………………………………………………… 108

Uniformity Indicators – Targets for Excellence…………………………………………… 109

Mineralization ……………………………………………………………………………………. 110

Alternative Raw Materials (AR) ……………………………………………………………….. 111

Fuels: Conversion of CV and Basis ……………………………………………………………112

Physics …………………………………………………………………………………………….113

Statistics ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 114

Own Formulas and Notes ……………………………………………………………………… 120

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 Version 15, January 2022

Moduli and Quality Parameter

Lime Saturation (LS)

CaO*100
LS =
2.8*SiO2 + 1.18*Al2O3 + 0.65*Fe2O3

Modified for 100*(CaO + 0.75*MgO)

MgO content < 2.0% LS =
2.8*SiO2 + 1.18*Al2O3 + 0.65*Fe2O3

Modified for 100*(CaO + 1.5)

MgO content ≥ 2.0% LS =
2.8*SiO2 + 1.18*Al2O3 + 0.65*Fe2O3

Silica Ratio (SR)

SiO2
SR =
Al2O3+ Fe2O3

Alumina Ratio (AR)

Al2O3
AR =
Fe2O3

Total Alkali

Na 2O - equivalent = Na 2O + 0.658 * K 2O
Requirement for „low alkali“ cement ≤ 0.60%

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 Version 15, January 2022

Moduli and Quality Parameter

Molar alkali/sulfur ratio

K 2O Na2O Cl
+ − Typical range : 0.8 - 1.7 (Holcim Clinker 2011)
Alkali/sulfur = 94 62 71 Operational Limits: see “Alk/SO3/CL-Balance” in
SO3 Thermal Technology Part
80

The reciprocal value of the molar alkali/sulfur ratio is known as “Sulfatization degree“:

𝑆𝑂3
𝑆𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 % = 80 ∙ 100
𝐾2 𝑂 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂
+
94 62

Quality aspects of unbalanced alkali/sulfur ratio:

A/S >> 1: Formation of orthorhombic (reactive) C3A, disturbed setting behaviour

A/S << 1: Reduction of Alite content due to

• Stabilization of belite by SO3
• Formation of (Ca, SO4) minerals, reducing CaO available for Alite
formation

Degree of precalcination
𝑃2 (100 − 𝑃1 )
% 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 1− 100
𝑃1 (100 − 𝑃2 )

P1 = L.o.i. of raw meal P2 = L.o.i. of hot meal

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 Version 15, January 2022

Moduli and Quality Parameter

Alkalis and SO3 in Holcim Clinker (ATR 2009)

1.6

1.4
Alkalis Excess
1.2

1.0
% Na2O eq

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
Sulfur Excess
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
% SO3

Red line represents molar Alkali / Sulfur ratio = 1

Typical Moduli of Holcim Clinker (ATR 2009)

Lower Upper Median

Quartile Quartile
- ATR 2009
LS 93.9 - 97.6 96.1
SR 2.37 - 2.65 2.48
AR 1.32 - 1.76 1.50

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 Version 15, January 2022

Moduli and Quality Parameter

LS and SR Moduli (ATR 2009)
105
Alumina Ratio
RA
103 TCTC 0.5 to 1

AC
1 to 1.5
OZ
101 MP
OZ YO 1.5 to 2
GU
OB ER
TC
AR
PL HN
PL 2 to 2.5
YE
99 TC YE
DN AP SM > 2.5 SW
LN AP PE
CSLPCS
OJ GV SG
OJ BO DF
Lime Saturation

SH
TN
NO
BE LDLO PR OZ HA
LO CG NP ME
LUAL OZ
97 RF CH DOSA MS
MG MCLD RN
MP ANML PAJE GDCP
DF
TE
ME WP
N2
CA
MI
C2
DN CT ML
PD
KO P1 AE
HH N1GATH DV EC
S2S3 CK
S3 PD P2
RL
HV UL WP
LA HN WP
KN
95 LA
GS
N1PV
CT CA HE
FEZE HT UV KN
BL PO
VC VC
W2 WX DS AD JO TR
WX SM
93 AM G2
G1 TRJO
PO
B1 MT DL HS
W1
W1 JP KY
KY
NO
RB GG BG JO
JL
91 MKJL HS YCYC
EN
JL
LK
XY XF
HF XF
ZT CB
HS
89

87
JO
85
1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6
Silica Ratio

AR and SR Moduli (ATR 2009)

2.9 Lime
MI JO Saturation
85 to 90
MC
LO HV
90 to 95
2.4 JE
GA
95 to 100
ME
JLJLAR
JL PEAC 100 to 105
Alumina Ratio

KO BG ME WP
LP GU WP
WP
1.9 TC OZ AP P1
TC DV TE
AP CSSM
RA PR DN SA NP LDP2
MP
DF
DF
TN OJOJ JP BO
OZ
ZE SG JO
PLC2 DO
HA YO
N2
PL FE ER
N1 MG
S2
ECKY PA CP RN AE
BLS3
S3 CG
CBWXMS UV
GSB1AL
LU MK CTGG
GV
ML
XY
HN
KY HE
PDWX CK XF HT
RB LN
BE TH LK
YE HN
ML PDPOXFYC
1.4 W2 RF
AM
NO YC AD TR KN
SHCHMT HF
OB W1
HHW1 G1 DL
G2 KN RL EN UL
LA HS
GD PO TR
AN
ZT HS
TC DS
TC
JO
VC PV
0.9 LO CA OZ
VC NO MP
CT OZHS
CA CS
N1 DN SMJO

LA LD
YE
0.4
1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6
Silica Ratio

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 Version 15, January 2022

Holcim Burnability Test

o
The test is based on the isothermal burning for 15 min. at 1400 C of raw meal nodules
It allows the determination of the relative influence of the various material parameter to be
ascertained, free from the influence of process technological disturbances

Evaluation % Free Lime

Very Good 0-2
Good 2-4
Moderate 4-6
Poor 6-8
Very Poor >8

Physico-chemical Burnability Model

This model allows the calculation of the CaO-free content as expected to result from the burnability
test - provided that the lime saturation (LS), the silica ratio (SR), the percentage of coarse calcite (Cc)
larger than 90m, and quartz (Q) lager than 32m have been previously determined - according to the
formula :

CaOf = 0.561·Q>32m + 0.166·Cc>90m + 0.356·LS + 0.804·SR - 33.886

Example for Physico-chemical Burnability Model

Raw Meal Burnability

test Quartz > 32 m Calcite > 90 m LS + SR
10

Very Poor 2002 Kiln Feed 2003 Kiln Feed

9 (91'479/U) (92'530/M)
LS = 96.88 LS = 95.67
SR = 3.11 SR = 2.85
8
AR = 1.81 AR = 1.79
R90 m = 13.8% R90m = 12.7%
7 Poor
% free lime

5 Moderate

3 Good

1
Very Good

Rating 2002 Test 2002 Model 2003 Test 2003 Model

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 Version 15, January 2022

Basic Raw Material Mineralogy

Classification of Raw Mix Components:

% CaCO3 Clay Designation Petrographic Design

95 - 100 High-grade Limestone Limestone, Marble, Chalk,
Coral Limestone
85 -95 Limestone Lime Sand, Shell Deposit
75 - 85 Marly Limestone Marly Limestone
65 - 75 25 - 35 Calcareous Marl Calcareous Marl
35 - 65 35 - 65 Marl Marl
25 - 35 65 - 75 Clayey Marl Clayey Marl
15 - 25 75 - 85 Marly Clay Clay, Loess
5 - 15 85 - 95 Clay Claystone, Mudstone
0-5 95 - 100 High Grade Clay Siltstone, Shale

Mineral Composition of Raw Mixes:

Carbonates: Calcite CaCO3
Aragonite CaCO3 (polymorph to Calcite)
Dolomite CaMg(CO2)3
Magnesite MgCO3
Siderite FeCO3 (MgCO3 and FeCO3 have the same structure)
Silicates: Quartz SiO2
Feldspars e.g. (K,Na)AlSi3O8
Micas e.g. K2Al4[Si6Al2O20](OH,F)4
Clay Minerals e.g. Al4[Si4O10](OH)8
Amphiboles e.g. Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2
Pyroxenes e.g. Ca2[SiO6]
Olivines e.g. (Mg,Fe)2[SiO4]
Oxide Hematite Fe2O3
Magnetite Fe3O4
Hydroxides Gibbsite Al(OH)3
Goethite FeOOH
Sulfides Pyrite FeS2
Sulphates Gypsum CaSO4*2 H2O
Anhydrite CaSO4

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 Version 15, January 2022

Clinker Liquid Phase & Coating Behavior

Liquid Phase (LP)

1 338 °C AR < 1.38 LP = 8.5*Al2O3-5.22*Fe2O3+MgO+K2O+Na2O

AR > 1.38 LP = 6.1*Fe2O3+MgO+K2O+Na2O

1 400 °C MgO < 2 % LP = 2.95*Al2O3+2.2*Fe2O3+MgO+K2O+Na2O

Guide values:
- 23-27% = normal range
- <23% = low amount of liquid phase
- >27% = high amount of liquid phase

1 450 °C MgO < 2 % LP = 3.0*Al2O3+2.25*Fe2O3+MgO+K2O+Na2O

Calculated according to Lea & Parker (on clinker basis)

Correlation of Quantity of Liquid Phase with Silica Ratio

(Data from Holcim industrial clinkers, Product Handbook)

35.0

33.0

31.0
Liquid Phase 1400 °C

29.0

27.0

25.0

23.0

21.0

19.0

17.0

15.0
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00

Coating Silica Ratio

Coating Behaviour
AR
thick coating clinker very thin coating
ball or sinter ring dusty clinker
- 1.9 formation (plenty of (little of viscous melt
viscous melt phase) phase)
NORMAL
- 1.6
COATING

thin coating thin coating

- 1.3 refractories attack
(plenty of fluid melt (little of fluid melt phase)
phase)
2.2 2.5 2.8 SR

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Clinker Minerals

Typical Ranges of Clinker Phases

Content in clinker (%)

Mineral Chemical Simplified
Name formula formula Normal Mineralized
OPC clinker clinker

Alite Ca3SiO5 C3S 60 – 70 70 – 80

Belite Ca2SiO4 C2S 10 – 20 0 – 10

Aluminate Ca3Al2O6 C3A 7 – 10 7 – 10

Ferrite Ca4Al2Fe2O10 C4AF 7 – 10 7 – 10

Free lime CaO CaOf 0.5 – 1.5 0.5 – 1.5

Periclase MgO M 0.6 – 1.2 0.6 – 1.2

Alkali sulfates K2SO4 0.6 – 1.2 0.6 – 1.2

Bogue Calculation of Clinker Phase Composition (AR > 0.64)

C3S = 4.071*CaO – 7.60*SiO2 – 6.718*Al2O3 – 1.430*Fe2O3
C2S = 8.60*SiO2 + 5.068*Al2O3 + 1.079*Fe2O3 – 3.071*CaO
= 2.867*SiO2 – 0.754*C3S
C3A = 2.650*Al2O3 – 1.692*Fe2O3
C4AF = 3.043*Fe2O3

Corrections:CaO = CaOtot – CaOfree For clinker

CaO = CaOtot – 0.7*SO3 For OPC, acc. to ASTM

Clinker phases can analytically be quantified by

• Microscopy (point counting)

• X-Ray Diffraction (Rietveld quantification)

Compared to these methods, the Bogue calculation shows in general

• Lower values for C3S

• Higher values for C2S

• No clear trend for C3A and C4AF

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Clinker Minerals
Correlation between clinker moduli and main clinker phases

80 80 80
% SR = 2.5, AR = 1.5 % LS = 95, AR = 1.5 C3S % LS = 95, SR = 2.5

C3S
C3S
60 60 60

40 40 40

C2S

20
C2S
20 C2S 20
C4AF
C4AF

C3A C3A C3A C4AF

0 0 0
85 90 95 100 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
LS SR AR

Correlation with LS Correlation with SR Correlation with AR

Compressive strength development of main clinker minerals

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Quasi Quantitative Variation of Minerals with Temperature
Clinker Minerals
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Significance of Clinker Minerals for Cement

Properties and ASTM Cement Types

Significance of Clinker Minerals for Cement Properties:

▪ C3S Contributes to early and late strength (1 d - …)
Increases heat of hydration
▪ C2S Contributes to late strength (28 d - …)
▪ C3A Contributes to early strength (1 – 3 d)
Increases heat of hydration
Impairs resistance to sulphate attack
▪ C4AF Little effect

Significance of Clinker Minerals for ASTM Cement Types:

▪ Type I Portland no restrictions regarding clinker

minerals
▪ Type II Portland with moderate sulphate resistance
(and moderate heat of hydration)
C3A max. 8 %
(C3S + C3A max. 58% for moderate heat of hydration)
▪ Type III Portland with high early strength
C3A max. 15%
(C3A max. 8% for moderate sulphate resist)
(C3A max. 5% for high sulphate resist.)
▪ Type IV Portland with low heat of hydration
C3S max. 35%
C2S min. 40%
C3A max. 7%
▪ Type V Portland with high sulphate resistance
C3A max. 5.0 %
C4AF + 2 C3A max. 25% or C4AF + 2 C2F max. 25%

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Effect of clinker/cement composition in paste

and mortar properties

Clinker Early Final Setting Water Soundness

phase strength strength time demand
Alite ↑ ↑ - - -
Belite ↓ ↑ - - -
Aluminate ↑ ↓ ↓ ↑ -
Ferrite (↓) (↑) - (↓) -
Free lime - - ↓ - negative
Alkali sulfates ↑ ↓ (see below) ↑ -
Periclase - - - - negative

Minor Early Final Setting Water Soundness

elements strength strength time demand
P2O5 ↓ - (↑) - -
F ↑ ↑ ↑ - -
Cl ↑ ↓ ↓ ↑ -

▪ Effects from Alkali and Sulfur on Cement Properties

Na2O-Eq SO3 Low Early Late Setting Efflore-

A/S
[%] [%] alkali strength strength time scence
>1 ~ ~ ↓
< 0.60 < 2.0 ~1 Yes ~
↑ ↓ ↑
<1
>1 ~ ~ ↓
0.6 – 1.0 < 2.0 ~1 No ~
↑ ↓ ↑
<1
>1 ~ ~ ↓
1.0 – 1.3 < 2.0 ~1 No ~
↑ ↓ ↑
<1
>1
< 1.3 > 2.0 ~1 ~ ~ ↓? ~ ↑
<1

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PQM Quality Indicators

5 quality indicators are used for performance monitoring and

calculation of the Product Quality Index

Index Indicator Target

Customer complaints related to Company or plant specific
1
product quality issues Ratio actual over target < 1
Product performance Company or plant specific
2
benchmarking ≥ 95% of market reference
Product Compliance to internal product Group standard
3
Quality specifications ≥ 95%
Index
Product uniformity (Coefficient of Group standard
4 variation 2d or 3d strength) ≤ 7% (2d CoV);
≤ 5% (3d CoV)
Compliance to clinker specifications Group standard
5
≥ 90%

Responsible: Marketing Manufacturing

• Compliance to internal product specifications:

• Product specifications are established for each product between marketing
and manufacturing. They contain product relevant parameters such as
strength, setting time, Cl content, etc.
• The compliance is the percentage of samples (over one month) that comply
with the internal product specifications.
• Product uniformity:
• Coefficient of variation of early strength (2d or 3d) per product over one
month. Aggregation over products: Average weighted with production volumes.
• Preferably based on production samples ex cement mill.
• Compliance to clinker specifications:
• Percentage of samples (or clinker volume) over one month that comply with
the clinker specifications
• Based on individual clinker samples (frequency: at least every 4h).
• Mandatory specifications for free lime (minimum: target -0.5%, maximum:
target + 1%) and LS ( target ± 2.5). Further specifications, e.g. for C3A or alkali,
to be added if relevant to meet special product requirements.
Details: See Product Quality Management Manual on the Portal

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Uniformity
Holcim Uniformity Targets

Short term Long term

Avg of daily stdev; Impact Stdev of daily avg; Impact on
on Kiln performance product quality

LS < 1.2 < 1.0

Kiln feed
SR < 0.04 < 0.03
(or clinker)
AR < 0.04 < 0.03
Raw meal
LS < 3.6 (*) < 1.0
(tentative)
(*) For plants with pre-blending systems

▪ Example: Calculation of uniformity

Clinker Lime Saturation

Date Hour LS Stdev* Avg** * Standard deviation of all daily samples
01.01.10 02:00 99.1 ** Average of all daily samples
06:00 98.2
10:00 99.1
14:00 98.6
18:00 98.1
22:00 100.3 0.81 98.89
02.01.10 02:00 99.2
06:00 100.5
10:00 100.5
14:00 99.6
18:00 99.2
22:00 99.8 0.60 99.79
03.01.10 : : 0.70 97.09
04.01.10 : : 0.99 98.05
05.01.10 : : 0.86 97.72 Average of all daily stdev:
: : : : : Compare with Short term
29.01.10 : : 0.89 97.37 uniformity target
30.01.10 : : 0.98 98.63
31.01.10 : : 1.08 97.59 Stdev of all daily averages:
Compare with Long term
Avg 1.18 - uniformity target
Stdev - 0.74

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Uniformity Indicators – Targets for Excellence

Targets for Excellence

Material Parameter
% CoV 2) stdev 3) stdev 4)
Compliance to product specifications ≥ 95 1)
2 day compressive strength ≤7%
3 day compressive strength ≤5%
Cement
28 day compressive strength ≤3%
Residue on 45 m ≤ 10 %
Blaine ≤3%
Compliance to clinker specifications ≥ 90 1)
Lime saturation (LS) ≤ 1.2 ≤ 1.0
Silica Ratio (SR) ≤ 0.4 ≤ 0.3
Clinker Alumina Ratio (AR) ≤ 0.4 ≤ 0.3
Free lime range (Max - Min) 1.5
SO3 ≤ 10 %
K2O ≤ 10 %
Lime saturation (LS) ≤ 1.2 ≤ 1.0
Kiln feed Silica Ratio (SR) ≤ 0.4 ≤ 0.3
Alumina Ratio (AR) ≤ 0.4 ≤ 0.3
Lime saturation (LS) ≤ 3.6 ≤ 1.0
Raw meal
Residue on 90 m ≤5%

1) 3)
% of total production vol ume Short term (a vg of da i l y s tdev)
2) 4)
Indi vi dua l va l ues over one month Long term (s tdev of da i l y a vg)

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Mineralization

“Guide for Clinker Mineralization” can be found on iCIF Documents Inventory.

Mineralization means the addition of fluoride in the raw mix to achieve a level of approx.
0.25% F in clinker. It enables to produce high C3S clinker (LS approx. 103) under normal
burning condition.

Benefits of mineralization:
The main benefit of mineralization is the ability to produce higher performance clinker by
increasing the LSF and hence the alite content for:
▪ Increasing the amount of MIC in composite cements (increase of cement volume and
financial revenue)
▪ Production of higher performance cement

▪ In addition if may offer the possibility to increase the use of high sulfur fuels (petcoke)
and raw materials.

Cost of mineralization :
▪ Increase of clinker cost by mineralization with fluorspar: Roughly +1 $/tcli (assuming
fluorspar at 200€/t). If an alternative fluoride source is available the cost will be lower
(example Ternate and Dotternhausen).
▪ If the MIC have a lower cost than clinker, the cost of cement with mineralized clinker
can be lower compared to composite cement with OPC clinker and a higher clinker
factor.
▪ CAPEX for the installation for storage and dosing is roughly 500’000 USD

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Alternative Raw Materials (AR)

AFR Manuals & Guidelines can be found on Geocycle portal.

Definition:
▪ Traditional raw materials are the materials gained from quarries or purchased from primary material
supplying industries
▪ All fuels and raw materials, which are not traditional, are alternative

▪ Practical interpretation: Alternative raw materials are raw materials that have undergone any kind of
previous industrial processing.

Overview of impact of critical properties:

Health and Plant Product

Properties Environment
Safety Operation Quality
Physical properties
(granulometry, moisture, X
heterogeneity)
Minor elements
X X
(Cl, F, SO3, alk, MgO etc)
Trace and heavy
X X (X)
metals 1)
Organics
X X X
(TOC, toxic components)
Mineralogy
X X
(quartz, mullite etc)

1)Chromium issue: soluble chromium in cement limited to 2 ppm in Europe; controlled with Fe(II)-sulfate; no regulations
in USA. Significant intake of Cr with AR should be avoided.

DO’S:
▪ Perform expulsion testing before using AR, which have a risk of contamination with volatile organics
(risk of critical VOC and dioxin/furan emission)
▪ Use specially designed equipment for storage, dosing and handling of AR:
AR often can not be handled with the same equipment as the traditional raw materials
→ Other type of equipment is required
▪ Watch out for innovative solutions to improve co-processing (e.g. drill cuttings dryer in Macuspana)
DONT’S:
▪ Using of AR at the cold end of the kiln (raw mill, kiln feed), if containing volatile organics (emission)
▪ Using coarse (un-ground) AR in high amounts directly in the hot end of the kiln
▪ AR entering the plant without rigorous quality control

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Fuels: Conversion of CV and Basis

▪ Converting from “Air-Dry Basis” to “As Received Basis”

▪ Moisture:

Mar = Moisture content as received

Mad = Moisture content air dry basis
ADL = Air dry loss

▪ Converting Coal and Coke Analyses:

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Physics

▪ Electromagnetic Spectrum

▪ Electromagnetic Radiation
E: Energy of photon [J]
c hc
Basic formulas: E = h and = thus E= h: Planck‘s constant [Js]
  c: speed of light [m/s]
: frequency [Hz = s-1]
: wavelength [m]
min of X-ray tube
hc 1240 min: [nm]
e: Electron charge [C]
operating at min = =
voltage V: eV V

K, : Constants
1
Moseley‘s law: = K(Z -  ) 
Z: Atomic number
(XRF)
 : wavelength of the
characteristic X-ray photon

Principle of
diffraction:
n  = 2 d sin
: wavelength incoming
Bragg's law:
photon
d: spacing of crystal planes
: Reflection angle

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Statistics (1)
Frequency table
Class Center value Number of Relativ e Cumulativ e
samples frequency frequency
(MPa) (MPa) (%) (%)
18.75 21.25 20.0 1 1.1 1.1
21.25 23.75 22.5 4 4.5 5.6
23.75 26.25 25.0 6 6.7 12.4
26.25 28.75 27.5 9 10.1 22.5
28.75 31.25 30.0 10 11.2 33.7
31.25 33.75 32.5 19 21.3 55.1
33.75 36.25 35.0 16 18.0 73.0
36.25 38.75 37.5 11 12.4 85.4
38.75 41.25 40.0 7 7.9 93.3
41.25 43.75 42.5 2 2.2 95.5
43.75 46.25 45.0 3 3.4 98.9
46.25 48.75 47.5 0 0.0 98.9
48.75 51.25 50.0 1 1.1 100.0

Total 89 100.0

Histogram
20

18
Frequency (number of samples)

16

14

12

10

0
20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.5 35.0 37.5 40.0 42.5 45.0 47.5 50.0
Class (center value) (Mpa)

Cumulative frequency curve

100.0

90.0

80.0
Cumulative frequency (%)

70.0

60.0

50.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.5 35.0 37.5 40.0 42.5 45.0 47.5 50.0
Center value (MPa)

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Statistics (2)
Measure of location
x1 + x2 + x3 + ...xn
Mean x= = 33.2
Median, minimum and maximum
n
i 1 ... 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 ... 89
xi 20.9 ... 32.5 32.8 32.8 33.0 33.3 33.3 33.4 33.5 33.6 ... 48.9

minimum median maximum

Mean vs. median: Mean is sensitive to outliers

60
Median = 2700
50
Number of persons (%)

40
Mean = 4280
30

20

10

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 <
Income (Money units)

Measure of variability

n
Standard deviation =
square root (Variance)
 (x i − x) 2
s= i =1
= 5.6
n −1

Range Range = maximum – minimum = 28.0

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Statistics (3)
0.5
Significance of
0.4
standard
0.4 deviation for data
following a
Relative frequency

0.3 normal
distribution
0.3

0.2 68.3 %
0.2

0.1
95.5 %
0.1
99.7 %
0.0

-3σ -2σ -1σ μ +1σ +2σ +3σ

Coefficient of variation
s
C.o.V . =  100% = 16.7%
x

Criteria for normal distribution

Criteria: Example
1 mean  median 33.2  33.3
2 Coefficient of variation < 30 % 16.7 % < 30 %
3 Kurtosis: p = 3  14.7/ n p = 2.96
4 Skewness: p = 0  7.35/ n p = 0.18

Kurtosis

tailed pointed p=
 ( x − x)
i
4

s x4 (n − 1)
14.7
normal : p = 3 
n
14.7
pointed : p  3 +
n
14.7
tailed / flat : p  3 −
flat n
x

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Statistics (4)
Skewness

p=
x i − x) 3 positive negative
s (n − 1)
3
x

7.35
normal : p = 0 
n
7.35
positive : p 
n
7.35
negative : p 
n

x
Standardised normal distribution (Z)
0.5

0.4

x−
0.4
Z=

Relative frequency

0.3

0.3

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.0

-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
Z

Significance of Z

Example:
Current level and variability of cement mortar strength: Mean: x = 33.2
Standard deviation: s = 5.6
Questions:
How many samples are below the target of 28 MPa?
Which is the target for the mean, that must be set that 95% of the samples are above target?

One-sided Z-test (Z  P) Z = (x - ) / s = (28.0 – 33.2) / 5.6 = - 0.93

Z-Table (one sided, positive)  P (Z = 0.93) P (0.93) = 0.8238

Conclusion: 17.6% of the samples are < 28 MPa.

One-sided Z-test (P  Z) Z (P = 0.95) = 1.64
Z-Table (one sided, positive)  Z = -1.64  = x - s  Z = 28.0 - 5.6  (-1.64) = 37.2 MPa
Conclusion: The target for the mean should be 37.2 MPa.

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Statistics (5)
Standard normal (Z) table
Find probabilities associated with the normal distribution

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Statistics (6)
T-Distribution table
Find probabilities associated with the student’s t-distribution
(one-sided, df = degrees of freedom)

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Own Formulas and Notes

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Own Formulas and Notes

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Reference Guide for

Mechanical Process

Back to Content
page
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Content Mechanical Process

Raw Material Preparation

Overview ………………………………………….………………………………………. 125

Material Properties ....…………………………………………………………………… 126

Crushing ………………………………………………………………………………….. 128

Preblending ………………………………………………………………………………. 132

Feed Bins …………………………………………………………………………………. 133

Grinding

Holcim Performance Indicators ………………………………………………………..135

Mill Sizing …………………………………………………………………………………..136

Dryers in Grinding Systems ……………………………………………….………… 138

Mill Feed Properties...………………………………………………………….…………139

Ball Mill Assessment………………………………………………………..…………. 141

Ball Mill Power…...………………………………………………………………..……….144

Ball Mill Ventilation & Cooling………………………………………………………… 148

VRM Assessment………………………………………………………………………….151

VRM Power……...………………………………………………………………………….152

VRM Ventilation & Cooling……...……………………………………………….……….154

Roller Press Assessment….....………………………………………………………….155

Separator Assessment..………………………………………………………………….157

Product Particle Size Distribution.…………………………..………………………….165

Heat Balance……………….…………………………………………………….………….167

Fineness Conversions and Corrections for Mills…………………………………….171

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Content Mechanical Process

Specific Electrical Energy Consumption Raw Grinding Systems………………. 172

Specific Electrical Energy Consumption Cement Grinding System…...………..173

Raw Meal Handling

Homogenizing………………...…………………………………….………………………174

Kiln Dust Management……..…………………………………………………………….179

Transport

Belt Conveyor…………………….…………………….………………………………….181

Bucket Elevator……………………………………………………….……………………187

Dedusting

Nuisance Dust Collection……………………………………………….………………..188

Dispatch

Roto Packer and Palletizing……………………………………………………………..194

Unit Conversion Tables............................................................................................195

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Raw Material Preparation – Overview

Size Reduction Process

Material size reduction from solid rock in the quarry to raw meal takes place in 3 main
steps: Mining (such as drilling & blasting), crushing and grinding. This process chain has to
be optimised with a holistic approach.

Mining Crushing Grinding

Homogenizing Process
Homogenizing of the chemical composition of raw material in order to reach the uniformity
targets of kiln feed consists of several steps, each with their time-frame and influencing
each other.

Quarry Crushing Preblending Dosing Grinding Homogenizing

Extraction Combination Raw mix Mixing & Kiln dust management
planning of different proportioning effect
qualities

Control of long term Control of short term

fluctuations (days) fluctuations (hours)

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Raw Material Preparation – Material Properties

Default material properties (to be confirmed by material tests)

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Raw Material Preparation – Material Properties

Bulk Density
The bulk density is defined to be the mass of a bulk material divided by the total bulk
volume (including void volume and porosity).

ρb =
msolid + m voids mtotal
Vsolid + Vvoids
=
Vtotal
kg/m 3   ρb = bulk density

Moisture
Moisture content is defined as the percentage of water in a product (wet base):

m wet − mdry mH2O

Moisture content =  100 %H2O =  100 %H2O
m wet m wet

mwet = mass wet [kg] mdry = mass dry [kg] mH2O = mass water [kg]

Bulk solid granulometry

Descriptive term Particle Size Range Example

ROM (Run of Mine) 0 - 800 mm limestone

coarse (crushed) solid 0 - 300 mm limestone
granular solid 0.3 - 5 mm sand
coarse powder 100 - 300 m separator grits
fine powder 10 - 100 m cement
superfine powder 1 - 10 m dust collector product
ultrafine powder < 1 m paint pigments

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Raw Material Preparation – Crushing

Reduction
%
ratio
100%
80%
Product Input
or output or
feed
Throughs

mm
Particle Size Y X
Reduction Ratio = X/Y
Reduction Ratio

80% passing Feed size

The reduction ratio =
80% passing Product size

Rock sizing
Edge length of rocks: Always use diagonal in 3 planes for crusher feed sizing .

Single side dimension

Diagonal in 2 planes

Diagonal in 3 planes

Example:
Single side 0.8m
Diagonal in 2 planes 1.1m
Diagonal in 3 planes 1.4m

Classification of Abrasiveness of Limestone according

Pennsylvania Abrasion Test
Low to Medium to
Very low Low High Very high
medium high
< 40 40 - 80 160 - 200 > 200
80 - 120 120 - 160

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Raw Material Preparation – Crushing

Crusher types

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Raw Material Preparation – Crushing

Crusher Settings & Wear Parts

Crusher Type Settings Wear Parts

Impact Crusher • Breaker plate position • Blow bars
• Grinding path (if any) • Breaker plates

Hammer Crusher • Grate opening • Hammers

• Grate basket position • Grate(s)
• Breaker plate position • Breaker plates
(single rotor type only) (single rotor type
only)
Jaw Crusher • Mobile jaw (close side • Jaw plates
setting) • Cheek plates

Gyratory / • Crushing shaft position • Mantle(s)

Hydrocone Crusher (open side setting) • Concaves or wear
bowl

Symons Type Cone • Bowl position (closed • Mantle

Crusher side setting) • Wear bowl

Double Roller • Roller position / gap • Teeth / roller shell

Crusher • Side walls
• Scrapers

Single Roller • Breaker wall position • Teeth

Crusher • Breaker wall

Mineral Sizer • Anvil position • Teeth

• Scrapers position • Scrapers

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Raw Material Preparation – Crushing

Decision Tree for Crusher Selection

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Material Preparation – Preblending

Number of layers
Target: Not less than 250
Longitudinal Circular

v st w * h v st v st (Do − Di )2 * tanα v st
n = A = * n= A = 
qst 2 qst qst 16 qst

n = number of layers [- ]
w = width of pile [m] Do = outer diameter [m]
h = high of pile [m] Di = inner diameter [m]
vst = stacker speed [m/min] a = reclaimer inclination (typically 38°)
qst = stacker capacity [m3/min]

End cone effect

Problem: Only few layers and mostly coarse material is reclaimed when cutting a new
pile.
Solution: Apply variable instead of fixed stacker reversing points (contact HTEC for
calculation).

Corrective layers
When applying corrective layers onto a longitudinal preblending pile, always add a batch
that is equivalent to one double layer (forth and back movement of stacker) to ensure
equal distribution.

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Material Preparation – Feed Bins

Design of Feed Bins

There are some general principles to be observed when designing bulk solid handling
systems:
Rule 1: Storage and process feed functions should be separated whenever possible.
Rule 2: Feed bins should be designed for the lowest possible volume and not be abused for
additional storage capacity.
Rule 3: Feed bins should be designed for mass-flow on principle.

All feed bins are designed according to material characteristics, the main influence
having flowability and abrasiveness.
Flowability differs between materials and is quantified with a set of shear tests.
Shear tests are determining the internal friction of a material as well as the wall friction
against different wall materials. These test should always reflect the worst case
situation, meaning the moisture content that results in highest internal and external
friction.

The internal friction values describe the tendency of a material to form bridges and thus
define the minimum required outlet opening of a feed bin.

The external friction values define the minimum required wall angles and the suitable
wall / lining material.
Typical wall / lining materials include mild steel, polished stainless steel and different
UHMW-PE materials.

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Material Preparation – Feed Bins

Feed Bin Extraction Design

Design of opening, wall angles and wall material (lining) are determined by shear tests.

The feed bin outlet has to allow for full activation of the material and thus has to widen
in direction of conveying. This can be achieved by an expanding outlet or a “tapered
box” design. The figures below are examples of such designs.

w
l flo
ia
ater 800
mm
M

3°
100
0m
m

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Grinding – Holcim Performance Indicators

Mill Net availability index:
(Actual Operating Time h + Idle Time h ) 100
Net Availability Index % =
Calendar Time h
Net Availability Index %  90%(guide value)

Idle Time = equipment is not operating but is in a condition for immediate start up
Calendar Time = actual operating time + idle time + other downtime

Mill Production rate index:

Actual Production Rate t/d 100
Production Rate Index % =
BDP t/d
Production Rate Index %  95%(guide value)

Best Demonstrated Practice (BDP) Mill: The BDP per type of product is the arithmetic
average of the five highest production rates (tons/hour) of at least 8 hours runs, achieved
during the last 24 months before the budget phase.
If there is a regular production of two or more cement types, the mill system BDP will be
an average BDP. It is determined by weighing the BDPs of each cement type with the
operating times of each cement type

Net OEE (Overall Equipment Efficiency):

OEEnet [%] = (Net Availabil ity Index  Production Rate Index) / 100
OEE = Overall Equipment Efficiency
OEEnet [%]  85% (guide value)

MTBF (Mean Time Between Failure):

Actual Operating Time [h]
MTBF [h] =
Failures [# ]
Guide value for MTBF [h] :
- Vertical Roller Mill, Roller Press, Horomill : 50 h
- Ball Mill : 125 h
Notes for MTBF calculation:
- Mill shutdowns to change material and/or product type are not to be considered as
failures
- Raw Mill shutdowns due to kiln failures are not to be considered as failures
- A maximum of 2 planned maintenance stops per month are excluded from the MTBF
calculation for raw and cement mill system
Above definitions are based on the HARP (Holcim Accounting and Reporting Principles) Manual
For the most current definition check the HARP Manual on the Holcim Portal.

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Grinding – Mill Sizing

Raw Mill
Kiln BDP t/d Clinker   Raw Meal / Clinker Factor -  Wear Factor -
Design Production Rate [t/h] =
24 h  OEEnet mill % / 100

OEEnet mill = Net Overall Equipment Efficiency mill > 85%

Wear factors: Vertical Roller Mill = 1.0-1.10 Ball Mill = 1.0-1.03 Roller Press = 1.0-1.05
Raw Meal / Clinker Factor: ~1.55 for normal applications (up to 1.8 if kiln bypass installed)

Coal Mill
Kiln BDP t/d Clinker   Heat Consumptio n MJ/t Clinker  Wear Factor -
Design Production Rate [t/h] =
24 h  OEEnet mill % / 100  NCV MJ/t coal

OEEnet mill = Net Overall Equipment Efficiency mill > 85%

Wear factors: Vertical Roller Mill = 1.0-1.10 Ball Mill = 1.0-1.03
NCV = Net Calorific Value (coal/petcoke) [MJ/tCoal]
Heat Consumption = specific thermal heat consumption of kiln system

Cement Mill
Average Cement Production t/h  Seasonalit y factor -  Wear Factor -
Design Production Rate [t/h] =
OEEnet mill % / 100

Seasonalit y factor =
Max monthly sales
-
Monthly average sales

Average Cement Production = weighted average of all cements produced (weighted with
the operating times of each cement type)
OEEnet mill = Net Overall Equipment Efficiency mill > 85%
Wear factors: Vertical Roller Mill = 1.0-1.10 Ball Mill = 1.0-1.03 Roller Press = 1.0-1.05

136
137
Type of mill Drying capacity Max. mill Max. mill Max. mill Max. hot gas Specific El. energy Suitability for Maintenance
(%) H2O feed size gas speed capacity temperature load consumption sticky materials requirement

5
10
15
20
(mm) (m/s) (t/h) (°C) (kg H2O/m3h)*

End- discharge ball mill 25-50 2 700 450 < 150 < 200 medium no low

Center-discharge ball mill 25-50 2 700 450 < 150 < 200 high suited low

Air-swept ball mill 25-50 6 350 450/8001 < 220 < 350 medium suited low

Vertical roller mill 40-100 6.5 1000 450/8001 low suited high

Roller press with separator 50 - 70 700 350 low no high

Hammer mill 200 100 450/8001 medium very suited medium

Autogenous mill 300 400 450 high very suited low

Grinding – Mill Sizing

1
hot gas section made of heat resistant steel and/or equipped with refractory

Legend: without drying comportment

with hot gases of max. 350°C hot gas (clinker cooler or preheater exhaust gas 4/5/6 stages)
with hot gases of more than 350°C (hot gas generator or preheater exhaust gas 2/3 stages)

Higher drying capacities can be achieved with pre-drying facilities (e.g. flash dryer)
Limitations of Mills in Raw Grinding Systems
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Grinding – Dryers in Grinding Systems

Limitations of Dryers

Type of Max. feed Drying Specific Max. hot

dryer size capacity load gas temp.
[mm] [% H2O] [kg H2O / m3h]* [°C]
Drum dryer
200 - 300 < 25 < 150 < 1200
(rotary)

Rapid dryer < 500

< 20 < 200 < 800
(soft material)
Crusher < 25 (air < 500 (air
< 150 (depends
dryer swept with swept with < 800
on crusher size)
flash dryer) flash dryer)

Flash dryer < 20 < 35 < 500 < 900

* m3 of free volume inside the dryer

Drum dryer Crusher dryer Flash dryer

Rapid dryer

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Grinding – Mill Feed Properties

VRM feed size (guide values)

Material feed size relating to roller diameter

• Raw materials, pozzolana, coal:

Feed size Material grindability

Max feed granulometry d95  3 [%] DRoller for > 5.5 [kWh/t] motor shaft
d95  5 [%] DRoller for  5.5 [kWh/t] motor shaft
d30  1 [mm] objective (  70 [%] R 1 [mm] - more fines
require lower table speeds)
100 [%]  100 [mm]
• Clinker, slag:
Feed size
Max feed granulometry d95  2.5 [%] DRoller
d30  1 [mm] objective, (  70 [%] R 1 [mm])
100 [%]  100 [mm]

Ball Mill feed size (guide values)

Max feed granulometry d95  30 [mm]

100 [%]  50 [mm]

Roller Press feed size (guide values)

Max feed granulometry d95* 3 [%] DRoller

*of at least 1 plane

d95 = sieve opening [mm] passing 95 [%] of particles ( 5 [%]  x [mm])

d30 = sieve opening [mm] passing 30 [%] of particles ( 70 [%]  x [mm])
DRoller = Diameter of roller [mm]

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Grinding – Mill Feed Properties

Grindability based on HTEC Laboratory Ball Mill

Grindability of slag (gbfs) and OPC → Grindability tests at mill shaft

Conversion of specific electrical energy consumption from laboratory mill (at mill shaft) to
industrial mill (at mill shaft):
- Open Ball Mill Circuit: IM = LM
IM: Industrial Mill
- Closed Ball Mill Circuit:
LM: Laboratory Mill
- 1st Generation Separator IM = 0.95 x LM
- 2nd Generation Separator IM = 0.90 x LM
- 3rd Generation Separator IM = 0.85 x LM
- Vertical Mill: IM = 0.5 x LM (cement and raw meal)
IM = 0.3 x LM (slag)
Grindability of raw material → Grindability tests at mill shaft
24
6 very good
5 good
Spec. electrrical energy [kWh/t]

4 good to medium
3 medium to poor
19
2 poor
1 very poor
1

14 2

4
9
5

4
5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
% R90

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Grinding – Ball Mill Assessment

Longitudinal sieving
0.5 1m 1m 1m 0.5 0.5 1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 1m 0.5

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7

Material level
1st Chamber 2nd Chamber

>> 50 [mm] bad

~ 50 [mm] good

< 50 [mm] bad

Residues & Blaine

Chamber 1 Chamber 2

Sample
point 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7

16
Guide
8 value:
4 <5%

2
Guide
Sieve [mm]

1 value:
15 – 25 % Guide
0.5 value:
0.2
<5%

0.12 Guide
value:
0.09
15 – 25 %
0.063

0.045 Guide value:

Blaine [cm2/g] ~50 % of product
Guide values valid for 3000 Blaine of cement product, closed circuit, without pre-grinder

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Grinding – Ball Mill Assessment

Ball charges – 1st Chamber

1.Compartment

Ø Ball [mm] Weight [ t ] Percent [% ]

90 25.0 25.0
80 35.0 35.0
Standard 70 25.0 25.0
60 15.0 15.0

Total 100.0 100

Average ball weight [g] 1667
Spec. media surface [m2 / t ] 10.2

1.Compartment

Ø Ball [mm] Weight [ t ] Percent [% ]

90 40.0 40.0
Coarse 80 30.0 30.0
70 20.0 20.0
60 10.0 10.0

Total 100.0 100

Average ball weight [g] 1873
Spec. media surface [m2 / t ] 9.8

1.Compartment

Ø Ball [mm] Weight [ t ] Percent [% ]

90 45.0 45.0
Very coarse* 80 30.0 30.0
70 25.0 25.0
60

Total 100.0 100

Average ball weight [g] 2114
Spec. media surface [m2 / t ] 9.5

* needs 60 mm balls in 2nd chamber

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Grinding – Ball Mill Assessment

Ball charges – 2nd Chamber

2.Compartment
Coarse
Ø Ball [mm] Weight [ t ] Percent [%]

e.g. OPC < 3200 cm2/g 50 8.0 8.0

40 10.0 10.0
30 24.0 24.0
25 29.0 29.0
20 29.0 29.0
17

Total 100.0 100

Average ball weight [g] 62

Spec. media surface [m2 / t] 29.4

2.Compartment
Fine
Ø Ball [mm] Weight [ t ] Percent [%]

e.g. OPC > 3200 cm2/g 50 10.0 10.0

40 10.0 10.0
30 16.0 16.0
25 16.0 16.0
20 21.0 21.0
17 27.0 27.0

Total 100.0 100

Average ball weight [g] 41

Spec. media surface [m2 / t] 32.8

2.Compartment
Very fine
Ø Ball [mm] Weight [ t ] Percent [%]

e.g. mono-chamber 40
mill after pregrinder 30
25 20.0 20.0
20 27.0 27.0
17 27.0 27.0
15 26.0 26.0

Total 100.0 100

Average ball weight [g] 23

Spec. media surface [m2 / t] 42.1

143
144
GEAR
Power transmission chain

This figure shows two

possible transmission
chains.
Grinding – Ball Mill Power

The one in full line is for a

mill with a central drive.
The one in doted line is for a
mill with a girth gear drive

1 ~ 0.97 2 ~ 0.97 3 ~ 0.99

Only if girth gear
P1 P2 P3
P2 = P3 = P4 =
P1 1 2 3
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Grinding – Ball Mill Power

Critical mill speed

2g s 1 42.3
ncrit =  60  =
2π min Di Di

Actual mill speed as percentage k of critical mill speed

k k 42.3
n=  ncrit =  n = actual mill speed [1/min]

100 100 Di ▪ (typically 72 – 78 %)

k = percentage of critical speed [%]

Absorbed power at mill shell ncrit = critical mill speed [1/min]

P = c ch  μ  Qch  Di  n
π
= c ch  μ   Di  L i  γ f  Di  n
2

4
P = mill net driving power at shell [kW]

cch = power consumption factor of chamber [-]

 = friction factor [-]

▪ (typically 0.9 – 1.0)

Qch = weight of grinding media in chamber

Di = internal mill diameter [m]

 = bulk density of grinding media [t/m3]:

▪ 1st chamber: 4.4 – 4.5 [t/m3] - 2nd chamber: 4.6 – 4.7 [t/m3]

f = filling degree [%]

Li = useful mill length [m]

Di= internal mill diameter [m]

n = mill speed [1/min]

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Grinding – Ball Mill Power

Filling degree f from free height above grinding media charge
h
Di
h
D
i

0,75

Di = Mill diameter
0,70 inside mill
liners

0,65

0,60 filling degree [%]

20 25 30 35

Factor c - depending on filling degree and ball size

0,26

0,25 big balls ( >40mm )

0,24
factor c [-]

0,23

small balls
0,22 (cylpebs)
(<40mm  )

0,21

0,20
20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
filling degree f [%]

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Grinding – Ball Mill Power

REs1 Calculation
Definition

1st Chamber Actual Spec. El. Energy Cons. E

REs1 = = S1
1st Chamber Theoretica l Spec. El. Energy Cons. EST
ES1 = Actual specific energy in the 1st mill chamber [kWh/t]
EST = Theoretical specific energy in the 1st mill chamber [kWh/t]
Calculation

Q1 Q2

L1 L2
Pabs = mill shell absorbed power [kW]
Pabs Q1
=
Q1 = weight of grinding media 1st chamber [t]
E S1 = q  q
m Q1 + Q2 Q2 = weight of grinding media 2nd chamber [t]
m = production rate mill [t/h]
q = weight ratio of grinding media 1st and 2nd
chamber [-]
EST – Calculation example (using grindability guide values)
Guide Example
Value
Material required required Ratio of compo- kWh/t per
[kWh/t] [kWh/t] nent in the mix compo-
@ counter @ counter [%] nent
Clinker + Gypum 9-11 10 90 9.0
EST

Limestone 4-7 5 5 0.3

Slag 2-5 5 5 0.3
Pozzolan 4-6
Fly ash, dust 0-2
Total EST 9.5

ES1 > 1.2 → excess of grinding in the first chamber

REs1 =
E ST < 1 → lack of grinding in the first chamber

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Grinding – Ball Mill Ventilation & Cooling

Water injection - systems

counter current no water

Product injection
1st 2nd Comp. temp. [°C]

130
counter
120
current
110
Air from Air from
blower 100 co-current
H2O blower H2O
co-current 90
(Double)
Rotary union 80
1st 2nd Comp.
Mill length

H2O 2nd Comp.

Guide value for amount of water
H2O 1st Comp.
1st chamber: < 1 %
2nd chamber: < 2 %

Water injection - devices

detail A detail B
Mill Inlet Mill trunnion

Material feed

A
B Nozzle

Water Air Operating Pressures

detail C min 3
Water
Mill Outlet Air [bar] normal 4-6
max 9
Mill Water
Nozzle Air blower
D > 50
[mbar]
C
rotary seal rotary union
detail D Compressed
air ~5
[bar]

Material discharge
Air Water

148
149
Compressed air Index
14 1 Water tank
15
Air blower 2 Floater valve
3 Shut-off valve
16
1st 2nd Comp. 4 Filter
17 5 Water pump
13
6 Contact pressure gauge
control 7 Pressure relieve valve

Water
12 loop
PI Mill 11 PI
setpoint 8 Pressure regulator
9 Flow control valve
FIC FIC
cement
10 10 Flow meter
Water injection - control

temperature/
mill exhaust 11 Pressure gauge
9 M
temperature 12 Solenoid valve
13 Injection nozzle
3 2 Water tank 7 8

1 14 Shut-off valve
15 Pressure regulator
3 4 M
Air

PIS 6 16 Solenoid valve

5
17 Check valve
Grinding – Ball Mill Ventilation & Cooling
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Grinding – Ball Mill Ventilation & Cooling

Mill Ventilation
Filter Fan

Static
separator
Gas velocities in free section of
intermediate diaphragm: v < 15 [m/s] Tgas >  + 30 [°C]
Tgas = temperature gas
@ mill fan inlet
 = due point of gas
@ mill fan inlet
Fresh
air Mill fan inlet temperature
must be kept always > 30
Ball Mill [°C] above the dew point
temperature () to avoid
condensation problems in
Gas velocities in free section of inlet and the filter.

outlet trunnion: v < 25 [m/s] Excessive false air can

favor condensation.

Dedusting system is
typically design for a
Gas velocities over ball charge (guide values)*
false air rate of ~15 %
between mill outlet and
Mill type [m/s] fan.

Open circuit mill ~1 With low false air intake

@ mill outlet,
Air swept mill 5–6 temperature of gas at mill
discharge is ~5 [°C]
Closed circuit raw mill 1–2 below cement
temperature
Closed circuit cement mill 1 – 1.5

* gas velocities based on mill outlet conditions

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Grinding – VRM Assessment

Roller force F consists of the roller and corresponding suspension weight GR and the
force F2 at roller exerted by the hydraulic cylinder. The force F2 at roller, which is
perpendicular to the table, must be calculated from the hydraulic force F1 at cylinder with
the lever arm ratio l1/l2.
F = Roller force [kN]

l1 GR = Roller and suspension weight [kN]

F = GR + F2 F2 =  F1 F1 = Force from hydraulic cylinder [kN]
l2 F2 = Force of hydraulic cylinder at roller [kN]

Guide value for lever arm ratio l1/l2

Polysius Dorol 0.9 – 1.0
Polysius Quadropol ~0.46
Loesche LM and Fuller FRM ~ 0.85
FLS OK 0.92 – 0.95
FLS Atox 0.9 – 1.0
Gebr. Pfeiffer MPS 1.0

Grinding pressure k is defined as the total roller force F divided by the projected roller
section DR x WR. Each mill type has its operating range. The necessary or achievable
grinding pressure is related to the operating conditions.
k = Grinding pressure [kN/m2]
F
k=
F = Roller force [kN]

DR  WR DR = Medium diameter of roller [m]

WR = Width of roller [m]

Table speed n is a function of DM for a constant centrifugal force of the material on the
grinding table. Typical speed constant c are given for each supplier. In certain cases,
lower speeds are used for fine and dry feed materials.

c
n=
DM
n = Table speed [min-1]
c = Speed constant [m1/2 min-1]
Dm = Medium diameter of the grinding track [m]

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Grinding – VRM Power

Friction factor µ is a coefficient which describes the ratio of the rolling resistance force
to the roller force applied. Typically the friction factor decreases with increasing roller
force.

Typical friction factors depending on mill type and material ground

Mill Raw meal Cement Slag

Polysius - 0.14 - 0.161
FLS 0.09 - 0.12 0.08 - 0.11 0.10 - 0.13
Pfeiffer 0.07 - 0.10 0.09 - 0.12
Loesche 0.10 - 0.15 0.10 - 0.15 0.16 - 0.18
1
only one case; Camden Slag Grinding Plant

D 2 π n
Absorbed mill power Pabs is the absorbed mechanical power at table for the grinding of
n
Pabs = M  ω = i  F  μ 
the material M
 = i  μ  k  DR  WR  DM  π 
2 60 60

Pabs = Power absorbed at table [kW]

M = Torque required to turn table [kNm]
 = Angular velocity [s-1]
i = Number of rollers [-]
F = Roller force [kN]
µ = friction factor [-]
Dm = Medium diameter of the grinding track [m]
n = Table speed [min-1]
k = Grinding pressure [kN/m2]
DR = Medium diameter of roller [m]
WR = Width of roller [m]

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Grinding – VRM Power

Power transmission chain

DM
Motor shaft power at
coupling (P2)
PMotor out = PGear in
P Measured Mechanical table
P power at coupling
(P4)
mill to gear (P1)
PGear out = PMill in

Rated power
at terminal box
power
box
PMotor in (P3)

1 = 0.98 (gearbox)
2 = 0.97 (motor)
3 2 1 3 = 0.99 (without VFD)
P4 P3 P2 P1 = Pabs 3 = 0.97 (with VFD)
P3 P2 P1
P4 = P3 = P2 =
3 2 1

P4
Es =  η1  η2  η3
m
Es = specific electrical energy consumption (SEEC) @ table (e.g. from grindability test) [kWh/t]

P1 = Pabs = absorbed mechanical power at table [kW]

P2 = mechanical power at motor shaft [kW]

P3 = electrical power at terminal box of motor [kW]

P4 = electrical power at counter [kW]

m = production rate mill [t/h]

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Grinding – VRM Ventilation & Cooling

Ventilation of VRMs (Holcim Standard)

Specific Gas Flow (@mill exit) for Raw Material, Coal and Pozzolana
Spec. Gas Flow [m3/kg product]

3.0
2.8 Spec. Gas Flow = Spec. Gas Flow =
2.6 1.6 [m3/kg ] ( kWh/t * 0.15) + 0.75 [m3/kg ]
2.4 (if SEEC < 5.5 kWh/t) (if SEEC > 5.5 kWh/t)
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
3

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Spec. Electrical Energy Consumption (SEEC) @ table [kWh/t]
Specific Gas Flow (@mill exit) for Cement Applications:

Specific Gas Flow ~ 3.2 [m3/kg] @ mill outlet (for 3500 Blaine)

Gas speed

The mill has to be sized to meet the following required gas speed ranges (all gas flows and
thus velocity calculations, including nozzle ring are based on the gas temperature at mill
outlet, but on prevailing pressure):

• Nozzle ring:  30 m/s only vertical velocity component used

(gas velocity = actual gas flow (@ T mill outlet and p mill inlet) / horizontal open area of
nozzle ring)

• Mill casing: < 6.0 m/s for vertical transport

• Separator: 4.5 – 6.0 m/s through the cage rotor (gross area)

False air calculation according page 150

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Grinding – Roller Press Assessment

Press throughput
m = Press throughput [t/h]
w  s  vu  ρG  3.6
 =
m
w = Roller width [mm]
s = Slab thickness [mm]
1000
vu = Circumferential speed [m/s]
 GClinker 2.4 – 2.5 [t/m3]
G = Slab density [t/m3]
 GLimestone ~2.3 [t/m3]

 GSlag ~2.3 [t/m3]

Grinding force
F = Grinding force [kN]

 d  
2
d = Diameter of hydraulic cylinder [mm]
F=    z  p  100 z = Number of hydraulic cylinders[-]
 1000  4 p = Hydraulic pressure [bar]

Grinding pressure
K = Grinding pressure [kN/m2]
F  10 6
K=
F = Grinding force [kN]

D w D = Diameter of roller [mm]

w = Roller width [mm]
K  6000 [kN/m2]

Absorbed motor power at counter

2 F β    vu P = Absorbed motor power [kW]

P= F = Grinding force [kN]

η  180 b = Attack angle [-]
vu = Circumferential speed [m/s]
b Clinker 2.3 – 2.85 [°]  = Efficiency of gear, motor and cable (~0.93 – 0.94) [-]
b Raw Material 2.85– 4.0 [°]

b Slag 1.7 – 2.3 [°]

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Grinding – Roller Press Assessment

Specific surface load

L = Specific surface load [N/mm2]

F  10 3  180 F = Press force [kN]

L= w = Roller width [mm]
D
w  α π D = Diameter of roller [mm]
2 a = Nip angle

a Clinker 6.9 – 9.2 [°]

a Raw Material 9.2– 12.6 [°]

a Slag 5.7 – 7.5 [°]

L   N/mm2]

Roller Presses – Guide Values for Circumferential speed vu

Note: only for Pre-grinding units
unstable Operation

pre-grinding with slab re-circulation

Stable operation

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Grinding – Separator Assessment

Static Separators (or static classifiers)
Cyclone

Nominal design gas flow through cyclones (rule of thumb)

V = Total airflow [m3/h]
d  n  π  2.6  3600
2
V= d = Nominal diameter cyclone [m]
4 n = Number of cyclones [ - ]

Operation: - pressure drop 10 - 15 [mbar], dedusting efficiency 80 - 95 [%]

Grit Separator

Nominal design gas flow through grit separator

V = total airflow [m3/h]
d2  1000
V=
d = nominal diameter [m]

0.1613
Operation: - pressure drop 10 - 15 [mbar], dedusting efficiency 80 - 95 [%]

- specific air load (feed): 500 - 1000 [g/m3]

V - Separator

Operational guide values for 1700 [cm2/g] product fineness in closed circuit with roller
press:

- specific air load ( feed) ~ 4 [kg/m3]

- specific separator load ~ 6 [m3/s] per [m2] projected open separating area

- maximum fineness 2000 – 2200 [cm2/g]

- pressure drop: 6 - 15 [mbar]

Designation: VS-459 -> 4.59 [m2] projected open separating area

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Grinding – Separator Assessment

Dynamic Separators (or dynamic classifiers)

1st Generation – Separators (Classifiers) with counter-blades and internal fan

Cement Fineness Specific separator load

[cm2/g] [t/h,m2]

~2500 2.2 - 3.6

~4500 1.0 - 1.5

finished product [t/h]

specific separator load =
nominal cross section area * [m 2 ]

* nominal cross section area based on inner diameter of cylindrical housing

2nd Generation - Separators (Classifiers) with counter-blades and external fan

Cement Fineness Specific separator load

[cm2/g] [t/h,m2]

2600 ~ 11

3000 ~8

finished product [t/h]

specific separator load =
nominal cross section area * [m 2 ]

* nominal cross section area based on inner diameter of cylindrical housing

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3rd Generation - Rotor Type Separator (Classifier)

Feed A
[t/h]

Separating air amount

[m3/h]
Specific air loads

Feed
 2.5 [kg/m3] Fines F
Air amount [t/h]

Fines
 0.75 [kg/m3]
Air amount

Rotor values Coarse R (t/h)

Circumferential speed
vu ~ 10 – 35 [m/s] for cement* Air speed
vu ~ 10 – 25 [m/s] for raw meal and coal through D
Air speed through rotor rotor v [m/s]
v ~ 4 [m/s] for cement*
v ~ 5 [m/s] for raw meal and coal
*PC 3000 [cm2/g]
H
Specific rotor load

Fines [t/h]
= ~ 10-12 [t/h,m2]
D [m] x π x H [m]
Circumferential
speed vu [m/s]
Specific Rotor
Load [t/h,m2]

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Symbols

Description Mass weight weight

flow fraction fraction >x1
< x µm and <x2 µm
[t/h]
[%] [%]

Separator feed A a a

Fine fraction F f f

Coarse fraction R r r

Definitions fineness

passing (%)

f
a
r
r

0
1 x 10 x x 100 1000
1 2
particle size ( um )

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Circulating Load
The circulating load u in closed-circuit grinding is defined as the mass flow of the
separator feed A divided by the mass flow of the fine fraction F, or:

A
u= eq. (1)
F

The actual value of the circulating load depends on various factors, such as mill &
separator design, grinding efficiency, product fineness and others.

Calculation of Circulating Load

If no weighing equipment for separator feed A or rejects R is installed, circulation load u is
calculated using particle size analysis data and formula (a) & (b).& eq. (1):

A =F+R (a) A a = F f + R r (b) u=

A
(eq 1)
F

a = weight fraction [%] in feed < x [µm]

u=
(f - r ) f = weight fraction [%] in fines < x [µm]
eq. (2)
(a - r ) r = weight fraction [%] in rejects < x [µm]

It is recommended to use the u-values calculated by this formula with caution, because
inevitable errors in the determination of the particle size distributions affect the result
considerably.
Therefore in Holcim for the calculation of the circulating load most frequently the sums of
all weight fractions between 0 and xi are used:

( f - r ) i ai = weight fraction in feed < xi (or > xi) [µm]

u=
(a - r )
i
fi = weight fraction in fines < xi (or > xi) [µm]
i i
ri = weight fraction in rejects < xi (or > xi) [µm]
xi = sieve size

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Tromp Curve (Classification Curve)

If we ask for the recovery of a feed size class with lower particle size limit x1 and
upper particle size limit x2 (x1 greater zero) into the coarse stream, we arrive at
the Tromp value for the coarse stream.

(R  Δr )  100 % Δr  1 
tr = tr =  1−   100 %
(A  Δa) or
Δa  u 
eq. (5) eq. (6)
If this ratio is obtained for a number of size classes and plotted against x, the result is
the classification curve (see Figure 1 – next page), which is also called the Tromp curve.

Features of the Tromp Curve (Classification Curve)

Cut Point
The cut point d50 corresponds to 50 [%] of the feed passing to the coarse stream (see
Figure 2 – next page). d50 is therefore that particle size, which has equal probability of
passing either to the coarse or the fine streams.

By-Pass Effect

Ideally, the Tromp curve is asymptotic to the abscissae at ordinate values of zero and
unity.
In practice, it is often the case that the lower asymptote occurs at ordinate values a'
greater than zero (see Figure 3 – next page), i.e. a portion of each size fraction bypasses
the classifying action. Expressed in an other way, part of the feed reports to the coarse
stream independently of its particle size.
Experience has shown that the bypass parameter a' varies with classifier feed rate, and
hence it is difficult to describe a single Tromp curve which is representative of the
classifier.

Sharpness of separation
The sharpness of separation k is defined as follows, where d 75 and d25 denote the particle
sizes with Tromp values of 75 [%] and 25 [%] (see Figure 2 – next page). For an ideal
separation k would be 1.

d75
k=
d25

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Features of the Tromp Curve (Classification Curve)

FIG. 1
% into fines % into coarses
0 [%] 100 [%]

fines coarses

100 [%] 0 [%]

0 x
particle size ( um )

FIG. 2 sharpness of separation k = d75 / d25

100 [%]
75 [%] cut point
50 [%]
25 [%]

0 d d d
25 50 75
particle size ( um )

FIG. 3
bypass a'

a'
0 particle size ( um )

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Typical circulating loads vs. product fineness of a High
Efficiency Separator (3rd Generation)

Typical bypass rates vs. circulation load of a High

Efficiency Separator (3rd Generation)

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Grinding – Product Particle Size Distribution

Particle Size Distribution (PSD) of Product: Rosin-Rammler-

Sperling-Bennet (RRSB)
The RRSB distribution is a double logarithmic illustration of the Gauss
distributions. The ideal Gauss curves (PSDs normally distributed – valid for
pure materials, like OPC, slag, limestone, etc.) convert into straight lines in
the double logarithmic illustration of the RRSB diagram. The slope n is a
measure for how narrow a particle size distribution is. The higher the slope n,
the narrower the particle size distribution and vice versa.
Bell-shaped Gauss Distribution Gauss Distribution in double
in linear coordinate plane logarithmic coordinate plane

n1
n2

n3

n1 > n2 > n3

Key parameters of the Rosin-Rammler-Sperling-Bennet diagram

Passing [%]

99.9
99 n = slope of the
95 straight line [-]
90
80
x’ = characteristic
63.2 diameter, that
50 63.2 % of all
40
30
particles pass
20 nn == 0.74
0.74
xx‘=
‘= 19.6 µm
19.6µm
10 Slope
Char. Diameter
5
4
3
2

1
1 1.5 2 3 4 6 8 12 16 24 32 48 64 96 128 200
Particle size [um]

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Typical slopes n in the RRSB diagram for different grinding

systems

Slope n (for OPC 3500 cm2/g)

1 Open circuit Ball Mill

2 Closed circuit Ball Mill with 1st & 2nd generation separator

3 Closed circuit Ball Mill with 3rd generation separator

4 Vertical Roller Mill / Ball Mill with pregrinding unit

(depending on separator)

5 Finish grinding system (e.g. Roller Press)

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167
Heat balance - system Heat balance Energy:
 Inputs =  Outputs
Grinding – Heat Balance
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Grinding – Heat Balance

Heat balance example

Fig. 11
Cement grinding system
System: Ball Mill with separator
Mill diameter 4.6 [m]
Mill length 15.5 [m]
Motor power 5000 [kW] abs.@ counter
Overall drive eff. 91 [%]
Operating data:
Production 180 [t/h] Pozzolana cement

Composition clinker 71 [%]

gypsum 4 [%] 4 [%] H2 O

pozzolana 25 [%] 8 [%] H2 O

Clinker temperature 150 [°C]

Ambient temperature 20 [°C]
Water temperature 15 [°C]
Hot gas temperature 450 [°C]
Mill inlet temperature ~200 [°C]
Mill discharge temp. (cement) 110 [°C]
Mill discharge temp. (gas) 105 [°C]
Finish product temperature 104 [°C]
3
Mill fan flow rate 33000 [Nm /h]

Index
G [t/h] mill production
u [-] circulation factor (feed/product)
t [°C] temperature
P abs. [kW] absorbed power (counter)
 [-] efficiency of drives
cp [kJ/kg] spec. heat value (related to reference temperature)
3
[kJ/Nm ]

W [l/h] water to be evaporated

index: in moisture in feed material (incl. water injected)
ev evaporated water
3
V [Nm /h] air/gas flow rate
index: g gas
a fresh air
ex exhaust air
s fresh air separator
2
k [kJ/m °C h] radiation/convection factor
2
A [m ] radiation surface
q [kJ/kg H 2 O] heat of evaporation

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Heat balance example

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cp values

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Grinding – Fineness Corrections

Fineness Conversions and Corrections for Mills

Fineness – Conversion of SEEC Mill Drive and Blaine

 Blaine2 - Blaine1 
 k 
kWh/t 2 = kWh/t 1 e  1000 

k = 0.49 for ordinary Portland cement

k = 0.43 for slag
k = 0.4 for limestone
(Formula valid for 3000 – 5000 Blaine)

Fineness – Conversion of SEEC Mill Drive and Residue

 2 - log 10 (R 2 ) 
kWh/t 2 = kWh/t 1   

 2 - log 10 (R1 ) 
R1 and R2 – residues [%] on 32 µm , 45 µm or 90 µm
(Formula valid for 2 – 25 % residue)

Fineness corrections for additives

Additive Additional Fineness

• 1 % Limestone 50 [cm2/g] Blaine

• 1 % Gypsum 125 [cm2/g] Blaine 1)

• 1 % Fly Ash 50 [cm2/g] Blaine

• 1 % Pozzolana 50 [cm2/g] Blaine

1)Only applicable, if gypsum content is > 5 %, then the fineness difference [cm 2/g] is
125 [cm2/g] x (% gypsum – 5 %)

OPC Blaine equivalent [cm2/g] = actual Blaine [cm2/g]

- % limestone x 50 [cm2/g]
- (% gypsum – 5 %) x 125 [cm2/g]
- % fly ash x 50 [cm2/g]
- % pozzolana x 50 [cm2/g]

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Grinding – SEEC Raw Grinding Systems

Specific electrical energy consumption Ball Mills

(Holcim Plants 1991)
35

30
Spec. Energy (kWh/t)

25

20

15
Systems
10
Mills only
5

0
10 15 20 25 30

Raw meal fineness (% R 90m)

Specific electrical energy consumption Vertical Roller Mills

35

30
Spec. Energy (kWh/t)

25

20

15
System
10
Mill + Fan
5
Mill motor
0
10 15 20 25 30

Raw meal fineness (% R 90m)

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Specific electrical energy consumption (SEEC)

VRM, RP, HRM

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Raw Meal Handling – Homogenizing

Homogenizing Homogenizing
silo
silos
Storage
silo

Design & operation Batch Continuous blending

guidelines homogenizing silo silo / Storage silo
Capacity (in relation to mill 10-12 h 1-3 d
operation)
Height/diameter ratio 1.2-1.5 : 1 Up to 4:1
Net aeration area (% of 50-65 35-50
floor area)
Active net aeration air rate 1.5-3 m3/(m2*min) 1-2 m3/(m2*min)

Active aeration air pressure 1.5-2.5 bar 0.6 bar

Passive net aeration air 0.5-1.5 m3/(m2*min) -

rate
Passive aeration air 0.6-0.8 bar -
pressure
Aeration sequence 8x10 min (shorter to 5-15 min (do not aerate
avoid segregation) sectors sequentially; jump)
Blending factor Up to 10:1 Up to 5:1

Segregation Factor Sf
The higher the segregation, the more attention is to be given to kiln dust handling and
materials handling (→ segregation inside silos).

Analysis of total sample: main elements → LSF

Analysis of < 32 m fraction : main elements → LSF

for greenfield plants for existing plants

Sf = LSF<32m / LSFtot Sf = LSF kiln dust / LSFkiln feed

range of not critical raw meals: 0.8 < Sf < 1.2 (LSF or SR using the same rules)
Based on the Sf the kiln dust handling concept is chosen → see section “Kiln Dust
Management”

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Uniformity targets
The targets used for MPR's are taken as given without any error correction:
Short term Long term
hourly samples over 24 h daily values over one month
s LSF < 1.2 < 1.0
Kiln feed
s SM
(or clinker) < 0.04 < 0.03
s AR
Raw meal s LSF < 3.6 < 1.0

s = Standard deviation

Characteristic Stdv. s
CaCO3 < 0.2
CaO < 0.11 Table can be used to correlate the LSF target to other
LSF < 1.0 characteristics:
SiO2 < 0.1 sLSF = 1% → sCaCO3 ~ 0.2% → sCaO ~ 0.11%
Al2O3 < 0.07
Fe2O3 < 0.04

Location Procedure Type of homogenized fluctuations Blending factor

Selective quarrying Blending Long-term to middle-term fluctuations 5:1
Preblending Blending Middle-term to long-term fluctuations 5:1
Proportioning Blending Long-term to middle-term fluctuations 2:1
Grinding Mixing Short-term fluctuations 2:1
Homogenizing Mixing / Blending Short-term to middle-term fluctuations
1) Blending silos 5:1
2) Homosilos 10:1

Short-term fluctuations: min - hours

Middle-term fluctuations: 1 - 5 days
Long-term fluctuations: 5 - 7 days

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Testing procedure
Sampling frequency adapted to achieve the 30 samples
▪ Only spot samples
▪ Period for batch homogenizing silo: should contain 3 batches (e.g. 3 time 8h = 24 h
again every 30 min. one sample). Discharge of homogenizing silo even up to every 5 min.
▪ Period for continuous homogenizing silo: 24 h (e.g. every 30 min. one sample = 48
samples).
▪ Discharge of silo (kiln feed) normally every 30 minutes

Minimum sample size

The minimum sample size depends on the granulation and uniformity.
The formula given is a simplification used within Holcim.
m = sample quantity [kg]
m = 0.1 * x 1.5
x = max grain size x90 [mm]

Location X90 [mm] m [kg]

Example for sample size depending on material
after mill / raw meal 0.1 (0.1) In general the sample size for raw meal is about 100 g
before ball mill 30 16 and differs to the calculation because of the sampling
before roller mill 80 70 error.

Number of samples / sample frequency

The minimum number of samples can be calculated depending the required accuracy:

2
Z 
n number of samples
n  1 + 0.5 *  α  Za probability factor

 ε  accuracy (of the stdv)

Example:
For a trust interval of 95% the probability factor Za = 2. Therefore the minimum number of
samples n is 30 to allow an accuracy of the standard deviation of < 25% .
The preferred number of even 50 samples is asked for performances test with suppliers
mainly. 2
 2 
1+ 0.5 *   = 33
 0.25 

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Standard deviation
The standard deviation can be roughly estimated by dividing the differences of the min and
max values by 6. (Formula for stdv. given in chapter MT)

(x − x )
s  max min
S – standard deviation
xmax – max. value
6 xmin – min. value

Outlier test acc. GRUBB

The outlier test is used to determine samples witch are outside our expectations
(confidence). For reasons like sampling and analysis errors

(x - x ) / s  G
min x – average
xmax – max. value

(x )
xmin – min. value

max -x / sG G - critical value acc. GRUBB’s

Critical Values for outlier test acc. GRUBB

G
n significance level
Alpha = 1%
20 2,884
22 2,934
24 2,984
26 3,028
28 3,065 n = number of samples
30 3,103
32 3,133
34 3,163
36 3,190
38 3,215
40 3,240

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Error evaluation
The error determinations done by double sampling

2
π1 
serr = 
4 n  di 
 s meas = stdv measured
s err = stdv error
s cor = stdv corrected
di = (x1a-x1b) differences
between the double
samples
scor = smeas
2
− s2err n = number of double
samples

Blending factor Bf
The blending factor Bf is the ratio of standard deviation before s in and after sout the
homogenizing process
Bf = sin/sout

Blending factor including error corrections

sin,corr s2in,measured − s2in, error

Bf = =
sout, corr sout, measured − s2out, error

sin = standard deviation of the not homogenized raw material

sout = standard deviation of the homogenized raw material

Shown is the not significant influence of the

LSF stdv s meas s err s cor
error due to sampling and analyzing based
Raw meal 5.5 1 5.4
on LSF (San Miguel plant - continuous
Kiln feed 1.3 0.4 1.27
blending silo)

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Raw Meal Handling – Kiln Dust Management

Option 1 – Sf not critical

standard arrangement
Compound Operation: Raw mix + kiln dust → blending silo

Direct Operation: kiln dust → kiln feed bin

Option 2 – Sf not critical

3 fan system / Filter dust must be similar
Compound Operation: kiln dust by-passing the blending silo

Direct Operation: kiln dust by-passing the blending silo

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Option 3 – Sf critical
Cl bypass optional
Compound Operation: Raw mix + kiln dust → blending silo

Direct Operation: Kiln dust → separate dust bin

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Transport – Belt Conveyor

Design Guidelines
For more information please see the TDS manual available on iCIF Documents Inventory
and the standard design criteria StDC 2018 Mechanical Equipment May 2018.
Belt speed
In general the maximum belt speed shall not exceed 2.0 m/s.
Conveyors handling dry fine material (i.e. raw meal, cement) or at hopper extraction,
shall not exceed 1.0 m/s.
Belt speed for conveyors less than 50 meters in length shall not exceed 1. m/s.
Conveyors longer than 500 m (overland) can operate faster than 2.0 m/s but shall not
exceed 5.5 m/s .

Belt width
Belt width shall not be less than 800 mm (1000 mm in case of AFR), for special
applications 650 mm belts may be used.
In packing plants 500 mm flat belts may be applicable.

Conveyor slopes, vertical radius

Slope:

1) Consideration should be given to maximize the horizontal section after the last feed
point thus allowing the cement to properly de-aerate and prevent back-flushing on
inclined section. Change from horizontal only after a distance equivalent to 60
seconds belt travel from the feed point is desirable. Steeper slopes can be accepted
depending on the usage of grinding aids and/or material bed thickness on the belt
etc.

2) Steeper slopes may be acceptable depending upon the application.

Vertical (concave) curves to be designed to avoid lifting of the belt from the
idlers under any conditions (minimum radius 300 m).

Example vertical curve

e
l curv
ertica
s of v

Belt
trave
l
Radiu

Tangent point

C B

Angle "A"

Working point
D P E

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Idler design
Trough angle shall not be less than 30°

Carrier and return idler diameter shall be designed according to DIN (15207-1 / 22107) or
CEMA (Class C) or equivalent

Belt Idler Idler

width diamet length
er

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Pulley design

The Minimum Recommended Pulley Diameters

The Table shows the recommended minimum pulley diameters to limit the stress in
the conveyor belting as the belt passes around the pulleys

Fabric Conveyor Belts Steel Cord Belting

Belt Class Driving and Tail/take-up Low Tension Belt Rating High Tension Pulleys, Low Tension Pulleys, Snubs
Head /H.T. Bends Snubs & Bends Drive, Discharge, etc Tail, Take-up, etc
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm]

EP 160 200 140 140 ST 500 600 500 400

EP 200 350 250 250 ST 630 700 550 450

EP 250 400 250 250 ST 800 700 550 450

EP 315 400 250 250 ST 1000 700 550 450

EP 400 450 300 300 ST 1250 750 600 500

EP 500 500 350 330 ST 1600 1050 900 750

EP 630 540 400 350 ST 2000 1050 900 750

EP 800 650 450 410 ST 2500 1050 900 750

EP 1000 800 570 510 ST 3150 1200 900 750
EP 1250 1000 700 640 ST 4000 1350 1050 900
EP 1600 1250 1000 1000 ST 5000 1500 1200 1050
EP 2000 1400 1000 1000

Pulley lagging
All drive pulleys shall have rubber lagging.
Tail and take-up pulleys: rubber lined or spiral wrapped wing pulleys. Wing type
pulleys without spiral are not acceptable

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Troughing Transition Distance A for Fabric Belt (Nylon, Polyester, Vinyilon)
Unit: m

Position of Pulley Face On same level as carrier 1/2 of depth of troughing

Troughing Angle 20° 30° 35° 45° 20° 30° 35° 45°
600 0.55 0.80 0.95 1.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
650 0.60 0.90 1.05 1.30 0.30 0.45 0.55 0.65
750 0.70 1.00 1.20 1.50 0.35 0.50 0.60 0.75
Belt Width

800 0.75 1.10 1.25 1.60 0.40 0.55 0.65 0.80

900 0.85 1.20 1.45 1.80 0.40 0.60 0.70 0.90
1000 0.95 1.35 1.60 2.00 0.45 0.70 0.80 1.00
1050 0.95 1.40 1.65 2.10 0.50 0.70 0.85 1.05
1200 1.10 1.60 1.90 2.40 0.55 0.80 0.95 1.20
1400 1.30 1.90 2.20 2.80 0.65 0.95 1.10 1.40
1600 1.45 2.15 2.55 3.20 0.75 1.10 1.25 1.60

Troughing Transition Distance A for Steel Cord Belt

Unit: m

Position of Pulley Face On same level as carrier 1/2 of depth of troughing

Troughing Angle 20° 30° 35° 45° 20° 30° 35° 45°
600 1.10 1.65 1.90 2.40 0.55 0.80 0.95 1.20
650 1.20 1.75 2.05 2.60 0.60 0.90 1.05 1.30
750 1.40 2.05 2.40 3.00 0.70 1.00 1.20 1.50
Belt Width

800 1.50 2.15 2.55 3.20 0.75 1.10 1.25 1.60

900 1.65 2.45 2.85 3.65 0.85 1.20 1.45 1.80
1000 1.85 2.70 3.15 4.05 0.95 1.35 1.60 2.00
1050 1.95 2.85 3.35 4.25 1.00 1.45 1.65 2.10
1200 2.20 3.25 3.80 4.85 1.10 1.65 1.90 2.40
1400 2.55 3.80 4.45 5.65 1.30 1.90 2.20 2.80
1600 2.95 4.30 5.05 6.45 1.45 2.15 2.55 3.20

On same Level as Carrier 1/2 of Depth of Troughing

Troughing Transition Distance

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Nominal volumetric belt capacity [m3/h]
α: Surcharge angle β: Belt troughing angle

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Transfer Chute Design
Chute design depends on material characteristics, especially flowability and
abrasiveness.
The following examples show general tendencies / concepts for typical materials and
shall serve as a guidance. However, the design always has to be adapted to the
specific material.
Always keep the material flow trajectory in mind (depending on belt speeds) and feed
into the centre of the receiving belt to avoid belt misalignment.
Sticky material Fine material
Build chutes as straight, steep and Flow guidance in direction of travel as
simple as possible to ensure material far as possible, to ensure smooth flow
flow without obstacles. If impact is not with creating as little dust as possible.
avoidable, prefer flexible structures
such as rubber curtains or chains.

Coarse material
Abrasive material Low impact on the equipment
As much as possible “self-protection”, meaning material falling on material rather
than chute structures. → Rock box design

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Transport – Bucket Elevator

Bucket Elevator Types
• Belt bucket elevator

• Central chain bucket elevator

• Round-link chain bucket elevator

Bucket Elevator Design & Maintenance

• There is a fixed speed for each bucket elevator that allows for proper material
discharge and should not be changed!
• Feed material mostly directly into buckets instead of scooping out the bucket elevator
boot.
• Maintain discharge lip gap not above 10-20 mm in order to ensure effective discharge
and thus capacity.

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Dedusting – Nuisance Dust Collection

Design Guidelines
More information you can find on iCIF Documents Inventory and the standard design
criteria StDC 2018 Mechanical Equipment May 2018.

Air-to-cloth ratio (A/C ratio)

1.2 m3/m2 min for cement, slag, fly ash, coal, kiln bypass and clinker dust
1.5 m3/m2 min for general nuisance dedusting
2.0 m3/m2 min for fluffy alternative fuel dust

Can velocity
Can (canyon) velocity (theoretical calculated vertical raw gas velocity between the filter
bags in the area of the bag bottom) shall be maximum 1.3 m/s for all applications and 0.8
m/s for dedusting fluffy alternative fuels

Amount of vent points per filter

No
. more than eight (8) venting points should be connected to one dust collector.

Ductwork
Up- and downward sloping ducts for dust-laden air shall have a slope of
- 300 for limestone, slag, and cement,
- 450 for clinker
- 20° for coal
to avoid dust accumulation (measured from vertical axis).
Horizontal ducts should be avoided!

min. 60° min. 70°

min. 45°

Limestone, Slag, Cement Clinker Coal

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Filter bag dimension
The filter bag dimension depends on the cleaning system efficiency and the geometrical
allocation of the filter bags. For standardization of bags (e.g., diameter of 140/160 mm)
most filters shall be matched in such a way that only one size (i.e. diameter, length) and
filter bag type is used for similar applications.

The following bag lengths should not be exceeded:

new installation conversion
reverse air 11.0 m 11.0 m
low pressure pulse-jet 6.0 m 8.0 m
high pressure pulse-jet 4.5 m 6.0 m
Distance between the bags
A minimum distance of 75 mm between bags and walls/internal stiffeners shall be provided.
A minimum distance of 48 mm between bags shall be provided with the design.

Number of bags per row

The maximum number of bags per row should not be more than 16 bags.

Filter cloth
The filter cloth specification and design data to be provided by the supplier has to be
carefully checked by the user.
• For general application (dry gas) up to 1200 C (long time operation): needle felt fabric
made from high quality Polyester fibers
• For an application in drying/grinding (humid gas) up to 1200 C (long time operation):
Polyacrylnitrile or similar fiber cloth
• Application for temperatures above 1200 C: Polyamide (Nomex), Polyphenylene, Glass-
fiber, Teflon/graphite coated or similar.

Pulse cycle
The cleaning cycle for pulse-jet collectors should be designed so that the pulse duration
produces a short, crisp pulse in order to create an effective shock wave in the bag. This
duration is generally set to fire for 0.10 to 0.15 second.
The frequency of pulse-jet cleaning is also vital for a proper dust cake retention. This
frequency can vary from 7 to 30 seconds or more and is adjusted by means of a
potentiometer on the timer panel. The frequency should be adjusted, so that the
differential pressure across the collector ranges from 75 - 150 mm WG.

To ensure proper cleaning frequency, an automatic "cleaning-on-demand" system

utilizing a pressure switch gauge can be installed. Good practice is to put the low set
point at about 10 mbar and the set point high at 12.5 mbar.

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Dedusting – Nuisance Dust Collection

Dedusting Air Quantities

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Dedusting – Nuisance Dust Collection

Dedusting Air Quantities
Machine unit Size 3 Remarks
m /h
Vibrating feeder 600 mm 900
800 mm 1'500
1'000 mm 2'400
1'200 mm 3'600
Screen
Classifing screen 50 Per t/h (open)
Vibratory screen 450 Per m2 (close)
Swing screen 600 Per m2 (close)
Pneumatic transport 1.5-times of the expanded compressed air
volume
Crusher
Roller crusher 15 - 20
Jaw crusher 8 - 15 Guide values per t (Depending on supplier,
Hammer crusher 30 - 50 and rpm)
Impact crusher 35 - 75
Gyratory crusher 30 - 60
Silo
Clinker silo 15’000 Per 30’000 m3 of silo volume
Clinker dome 40 - 60'000
All other silos 5'000 Net. Feeding arrangement dedusting to be
added on top.
Bin
Small bin 3 1'000 Mechanical feeding
< 50m
Medium bin < 500m3 3'000 Mechanical feeding
Large bin 3 5'000 Mechanical feeding
>500 m
Packing machine 1'000 Packing machine feed
6'000 6-spouts rotary packer
8'000 8-spouts rotary packer
10'000 12-spouts rotary packer
12'000 16-spouts rotary packer
2'500 Per spout in-line packer collecting funnel
1'500 Niagara-swing screen 1 x 2.5 m
2'000 Takeaway belt conveyor
2'500 Bag cleaning unit
Loading mobile 5'000 Air slide 400 mm
5'000 Screw 1630/1800
1'500 Hopper mobile
4'000 Double articulated (air slide or screw)
Loading head 900 Cement 300 m3/h
1'500 Cement 600 m3/h
10'000 Clinker 300 - 1000 m3/h
Tanker vehicles 540 - 660 Road 60 t/h at 2.5 bar
660 Rail 60 t/h at 2.5 bar

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Dedusting – Nuisance
Nuisance Dust Collection
Dust Collection
Venting Hood Design

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Dedusting – Nuisance Dust Collection

Duct Elbow, Joint and Branch Design

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Dispatch – Roto Packer and Palletizing

Packer capacity per spout (guide value)

Packer capacity per spout (design capacity)
(valid for cement fines < 4000 Blaine)
25 kg Bags 360 bags/spout
35 kg Bags 330 bags/spout
40 kg Bags 320 bags/spout
50 kg Bags 300 bags/spout

Packer machine capacity (guide value)

Packer machine capacity (design capacity)

(valid for cement fines < 4000 Blaine)
25 kg Bags 35 kg Bags 40 kg Bags 50 kg Bags
4 Spout packer 1440 1320 1280 1200
6 Spout packer 2160 1980 1920 1800
8 Spout packer 2880 2640 2560 2400
10 Spout packer 3600 3300 3200 3000
12 Spout packer 4320 3960 3840 3600
14 Spout packer 5040 4620 4480 4200
16 Spout packer 5760 5280 5120 4800

Holcim bench mark for packing / palletizing / loading systems

• OEE 70 -75% (Proven OEE in packing plant) if manual loading

• OEE 85 -90% (Proven OEE in packing plant) if automated loading

Valid for packing, palletizing and shrinking and packing/direct loading systems

Packer machine capacity reduction (guide value)

5000 Blaine: ~ 7% reduction of Packer machine capacity (guide value)

6000 Blaine: ~ 14% reduction of Packer machine capacity (guide value)
8000 Blaine: ~ 23% reduction of Packer machine capacity (guide value)

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Unit Conversion Table

Triangle: A = surface

Circle:

A = surface
u = circumference
r = radius
d = diameter

Back to Content
page
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Unit Conversion Table

Area
Unit name Symbol SI Equivalent
2 -4 2
square centimeter cm 1 · 10 m
2 2
square meter m 1 m
2 2
are are 1 · 10 m
4 2
hectare ha 1 · 10 m
2 6 2
square kilometer km 1 · 10 m
2 -4 2
square inch inch 6.4516 · 10 m
2 -2 2
square foot ft 9.2903 · 10 m
2 -1 2
square yard yard 8.36127 · 10 m
Density [Mass]
3 3
kilogram per cubic meter kg/m 1 kg/m
3 3 3
gram per cubic centimeter g/cm 1 · 10 kg/m
3 1 3
pound per cubic foot lb/ft 1.60185 · 10 kg/m
3 4 3
pound per cubic inch lb/inch 2.76799 · 10 kg/m
3 -3 3
grains per cubic foot grains/ft 2.28835 · 10 kg/m
Energy
joule J 1 N·m
Newton meter N·m 1 N·m
3
kilojoule kJ 1 · 10 N·m
calorie cal 4.1868 N·m
3
kilocalorie kcal 4.1868 · 10 N·m
3
British termal unit Btu 1.05506 · 10 N·m
6
kilowatt hour kW·h 3.6 · 10 N·m
6
horse power hour hp·h 2.6845 · 10 N·m
9
gigajoule GJ 1 · 10 N·m
Flowrate [Volume]
3 3
cubic meter per second m /s 1 m /s
3 -4 3
cubic meter per hour m /hr 2.77778 · 10 m /s
3 -5 3
cubic meter per day m /d 1.15741 · 10 m /s
3 -2 3
cubic foot per second ft /s 2.83168 · 10 m /s
3 -6 3
cubic foot per hour ft /hr 7.86579 · 10 m /s
3 -7 3
cubic foot per day ft /d 3.27741 · 10 m /s
-3 3
US gallon per second USgal/s 3.78541 · 10 m /s
-6 3
US gallon per hour USgal/hr 1.0515 · 10 m /s
-8 3
US gallon per day USgal/d 4.38126 · 10 m /s
-5 3
liter per minute l/min 1.66667 · 10 m /s
Force
Newton N 1 N
pound force lbf 4.44822 N
kilogram force kgf 9.80665 N
3
Kilo Newton kN 1 · 10 N
3
ton force US tnf US 8.89644 · 10 N
3
ton force UK tnf UK 9.96402 · 10 N
Length -10
Ångstrom Å 1 · 10 m
-6
micron µm 1 · 10 m
-3
millimeter mm 1 · 10 m
-2
centimeter cm 1 · 10 m
meter m 1 m
3
kilometer km 1 · 10 m
-2
inch " 2.54 · 10 m
-1
foot ft 3.048 · 10 m

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Unit Conversion Table

Mass
Unit name Symbol SI Equivalent
-6
milligram mg 1 · 10 kg
-4
Carat (Metric) carat 2 · 10 kg
-3
gram g 1 · 10 kg
kilogram kg 1 kg
2
quintal quintal 1 · 10 kg
3
ton (metric) t 1 · 10 kg
-27
Atomic unit mass u 1.66054 · 10 kg
-5
grain gr 6.47989 · 10 kg
-3
dram dram 1.77185 · 10 kg
-2
ounce oz 2.83495 · 10 kg
-1
pound lb 4.53592 · 10 kg
stone stone 6.35029 kg
1
Quarter Quarter 1.27006 · 10 kg
1
hundredweight US hundredweight US 4.53592 · 10 kg
1
Hundredweight UK Hundredweight UK 5.08023 · 10 kg
2
Uston Uston 9.07185 · 10 kg
3
Ukton Ukton 1.01605 · 10 kg

o
Plane angle o
degree 1
-2 o
minute min 1.66667 · 10
-4 o
second s 2.77778 · 10
1 o
radian rad 5.72958 · 10
Power
joule per second J/s 1 J/s
watt W 1 J/s
3
kilowatt kW 1 · 10 J/s
6
megawatt MW 1 · 10 J/s
-1
kilojoule per hour kJ/hr 2.77778 · 10 J/s
kilogram force meter per second kgf·m/s 9.80665 J/s
calorie per second cal/s 4.1868 J/s
-3
calorie per hour cal/hr 1.163 · 10 J/s
3
British thermal units per second BTU/s 1.05506 · 10 J/s
-1
British thermal units per hour BTU/hr 2.93072 · 10 J/s
3
tons Ton (RT) 3.51687 · 10 J/s
2
metric horse power pk (Metric hp) 7.35499 · 10 J/s
2
horse power hp 7.457 · 10 J/s
2
electric horse power ehp 7.46 · 10 J/s
Pressure
pascal Pa 1 Pa
3
kilopascal kPa 1 · 10 Pa
2
newton per square meter N/m 1 Pa
5
bar Bar 1 · 10 Pa
2
millibar mBar 1 · 10 Pa
2 4
kilogram force per square centimeter kgf/cm 9.80665 · 10 Pa
5
atmosphere atm 1.01325 · 10 Pa
3
pound per square inch psi 6.89476 · 10 Pa
o o 3
meter of water @ 4 C m H2O 4 C 9.80665 · 10 Pa
o o 1
centimeter of water @ 4 C cm H2O 4 C 9.80665 · 10 Pa
o o 3
foot of water @ 4 C ft H2O 4 C 2.98907 · 10 Pa
o o 2
inch of water @ 4 C inch H2O 4 C 2.49089 · 10 Pa
o o 2
millimeter of mecury @ 0 C mm Hg 0 C 1.33322 · 10 Pa
o o 3
inch of mercury @ 0 C inch Hg 0 C 3.38639 · 10 Pa

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Unit Conversion Table

Specific heat [Mass]
Unit name Symbol SI Equivalent
joule per kilogram per kelvin J/(kg·K) 1 J/(kg·K)
3
kilojoule per kilogram per kelvin kJ/(kg·K) 1 · 10 J/(kg·K)
o 3
calorie per gram per degree celcius cal/(g· C) 4.1868 · 10 J/(kg·K)
o
kilocalorie per gram per degree celcius kcal/(g· C) 4.1868 J/(kg·K)
British thermal unit per pound mass per o 3
Btu/(lbm· F) 4.1868 · 10 J/(kg·K)
degree farenheit
3
calorie per gram per kelvin cal/(g·K) 4.1868 · 10 J/(kg·K)
Temperature
Kelvin (K)
(K-273.15) = °C
(9/5)K-459.67 = °F

Celcius (°C)
(°C+273.15) = K
(9/5)°C+32 = °F

Fahrenheit (°F)
(5/9)(°F+459.67) = K
(5/9)(°F-32) = °C

Velocity -2
centimeter per second cm/s 1 · 10 m/s
meter per second m/s 1 m/s
3
kilometer per second km/s 1 · 10 m/s
-1
kilometer per hour km/hr 2.77778 · 10 m/s
-1
foot per second ft/s 3.048 · 10 m/s
-5
foot per hour ft/hr 8.46667 · 10 m/s
-2
inch per second inch/s 2.54 · 10 m/s
-1
mile per hour mph 4.4704 · 10 m/s
8
speed of light in vacuum (speed of light in vacuum) m/s 2.99792 · 10 m/s
2
Mach M 3.316 · 10 m/s
Angular velocity
o -4
degrees per minute /min 2.90888 · 10 rad/s
o -2
degrees per second /s 1.74533 · 10 rad/s
-2
radian per minute rad/minute 1.66667 · 10 rad/s
radian per second rad/s 1 rad/s
-1
revolutions per minute rpm 1.0472 · 10 rad/s
revolutions per second rps 6.28319 rad/s
Viscosity [Dynamic]
pascal second Pa·s 1 Pa·s
-3
millipascal second mPa·s 1 · 10 Pa·s
-3
centipoise cP 1 · 10 Pa·s
kilogram force second per square 2
kgf·s/m 9.80665 Pa·s
meter
2 1
pound force second per square foot lbf·s/ft 4.78803 · 10 Pa·s
pounf mass per foot second lbm/(ft·s) 1.48816 Pa·s
kilogram per (meter second) kg/(m·s) 1 Pa·s
-1
gram per (centimeter second) g/(cm·s) 1 · 10 Pa·s
-1
Poise P 1 · 10 Pa·s

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Unit Conversion Table

Viscosity [Kinematic]
Unit name Symbol SI Equivalent
-6 2
centistokes cSt 1 · 10 m /s
2 -4 2
square centimeter per second cm /s 1 · 10 m /s
2 -5 2
square foot per hour ft /hr 2.58064 · 10 m /s
2 -2 2
square foot per second ft /s 9.2903 · 10 m /s
2 -4 2
square meter per hour m /h 2.77778 · 10 m /s
2 2
square meter per hour m /s 1 m /s
-4 2
stokes St 1 · 10 m /s

3
Volume -6 3
cubic centimeter cm 1 · 10 m
3 -3 3
cubic decimeter dm 1 · 10 m
3 3
cubic meter m 1 m
-3 3
liter l 1 · 10 m
3 -5 3
cubic inch inch 1.63871 · 10 m
3 -2 3
cubic foot ft 2.83168 · 10 m
3 -1 3
cubic yard yard 7.64555 · 10 m
-3 3
US gallon US gal 3.78541 · 10 m
-3 3
UK gallon UK gal 4.54609 · 10 m
-1 3
barrel US petrol bbl US petrol 1.58987 · 10 m
-4 3
UK pint UK pint 5.68262 · 10 m

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Notes

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Notes

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Holcim
Cement Excellence Manufacturing

Edition 15
January 2022

202