EXPERIMENT # 3 ACTIVE FILTERS OBJECTIVES: To study the design and implementation of low-pass, high-pass and band-pass active filters. EQUIPMENT: Oscilloscope Function Generator LF 351 Op-Amps Capacitors Resistors BACKGROUND: Historically, the first filters were implemented using inductor-capacitor (LC) passive circuits. tion between cascaded These early filters were elaborate and expensive to design because of intera stages and the limited design freedom offered by the passive circuit. They were also difficult to ly made of wire wound tune. Another complication was the use of inductors that are ess around a core made of magnetic material. Low frequency filters required high inductance values and this made the inductors sometimes to be massive. In general, we try to avoid the use of inductors in electronic circuits because they are bulky, expensive etc. Active filters eliminate the use of induc:ors by simulating inductance using Op-Amps and resisiors/capacitors. Fiite:s become now compact and easy to design. However, active filters do not completely replace passive designs. An active filter operates only in the useful bandwidth of the Op-Amp used, and for most common Op-Amps this canbe from DC uptoseveral KHz or few MHz using faster Op-Ames. Thus, filters at RF frequencies remain passive, however, at these high frequencies inductors 2:2 small, sometimes few turns. Also, an active filter is a low power circuit and it cannot be used where large currents are needed. Such examples include cross-over networks used in multip! speaker enclosures, or RFT suppression filters in power supplies.Another difficulty with active filters is the difficulty of integration into IC form, mostly because large resistors and capacitors are more difficult to produce in integrated form. Modem technology has produced another generation of filters that do not use resistors at all. Instead, resistors are also simulated using a switching action between small capacitors. These filters are knownas switched capacitor filters, and they are always in IC form. In a switched capacitor filter, various filter parameters are controlled by simply changing the frequency of a clock. A filter design problem has two phases. In the first phase, a transfer function with the desired frequency response is derived. The second phase is the design of a circuit (active or passive) that implements the transfer function. The first phase of the problem (transfer function design) is beyond the scope of this experiment. As a very general background, we can say that among the various types of frequency response characteristics (transfer functions) the most popular are the Butterworth, Chebyshev, Bessel and Elliptic (also known as Cauer). Butterworth filters are also known as "maximally flat" because there are no ripples in the pass-band or the stop-band ofthe filter. Chebyshev filter have equal ripples in the pass-band and for this reason are sometimes refer to as "equal-ripple” filters. One characteristic of Chebyshev filters is that the designer can trade-off pass-band ripple with filter sharpness (roll-off rate), without changing the order of the filter. In general, Chebyshev filters are more sharp compared to Butterworth, however, Butter- worth are easier to design, Elliptic filters have ripples i both the pass-band and stop-band and offer the steepest response compared to the rest, but they are the most cumbersome to design. Bessel filters offer the least sharpness compared to the rest, but they have almost linear phase response, a feature that can be very useful to communication applications. For a more detailed description of the characteristics of these filters consult the references at the end. Transfer functions for these filters are tabulated for various orders. To keep the Tables short, only low-pass transfer functions with cut-off frequency normalized to 1 rad/sec are provided. The designer can denormalize the transfer function to the desired cut-off frequency and also convert the low-pass to a different filter if so desired. In this experiment, Tables for Butterworth and Chebyshev transfer functions are provided. Chebyshev Tables are provided for various levels. of pass-band ripple (in dB). Higher order trans second order terms so that a high order filter can be implemented in multiple stages. In general, ctions are provided in products of first and the higher the order of the filter, the sharper the frequency response, but more hardware is needed for the implementation. Therefore, the order (and the type; Butterworth, Chebyshev etc.) of the ust be carefully selected by the designer.There is a wide variety of active filter circuit implementations. These circuits essentially implement transfer functions of first, second, third, and sometimes fourth order. A very popular circuit for second order low-pass and high-pass transfer functions was developed by Sallen and Key and the low-pass version is shown in Figure 1. This implementation that uses a non-inverting amplifier is sometimes known as voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS) and has two main versions. In the form shown in Figure 1, the main resistors and capacitors have equal values, but the pass-band gain is not unity. In fact, with this circuit the pass-band gain is nota design opticn; we have to accept whatever gain results from the design. There is another version (not shown) where the pass-band gain is unity, but the resistors and capacitors are not equal. Since gain can always be corrected, the implementation of Figure 1 is usually preferred because is easier to design. The transfer function of the circuit in Figure 1 is given by: Awe Hs) = 3 a) S+ko,5 +O; where: : k=3-A,, A,=l & 2 On ae ka3-Ay An Le 2) Note that w, is not necessarily the cut-off frequency of the filter (itis for Butterworth filters). ‘The pass-band gain is A, which is the gain of the non-inverting amplifier. If the order of the filter to be designed is even, then we cascade of 2nd order prototypes as in Figure 1. If the order is odd, thea we use the same approach but we also use a circuit fora first order prototype. One such circuit is shown in Figure 2. The transfer function is: Ao, Als) @) 5#0, a whereagain w,=2, A,=1+= asin (2) above. A high-pass prototype can be obtained by simply interchanging the positions of R and C in Figures 1 and 2 (without changing the positions of R,,R;)- toDESIGN STEPS FOR LOW-PASS FILTER: A) Transfer function design. 1) Based on the specifications, choose the order (2nd, 3rd etc.) and the type (Butterworth, Chebyshev etc.) of the filter, and the desired cut-off frequency @,.. 2) From Tables obtain the normalized transfer function in products of first and second order terms. See provided Tables. 3) Denormalize the transfer function so that the cut-off frequency is the desired @,. This is done byreplacing s by & anddosome algebra to bring each product term in the form of Equations (1) and (3). B) Cireuit design. 4) For each 2nd order term in the transfer function, we have to design a circuit similar to Figure 1 of 2. Select component values so that the denominator coefficients of s in Equations (1) or (3) match the coefficients of the desired transfer function. A typical headache of the designer in step 4 is to find available component values. Usually there might be some trial and error in this step until component values close to standard values are found, HIGH-PASS FILTER DESIGN: We can simply design a low-pass filter with the same cut-off frequency, and then in each circuit we interchange the positions of R,C (see later example).BAND-PASS FILTER DESIGN: A band-pass filter has two cut-off frequencies f,, fy. Generally, a band-pass filter can be narrow-band or wide-band depending on how close the two cut-off frequencies are located. A measure which indicates the bandwidth of the filter is the so called "Quality factor” Q, defined as: ae ) oR RB where fe is the center frequency and B is the bandwidth of the filter. Ifthe filter bandwidth is narrow then f- is clearly defined. If the filter is wide-band, the we can define fe = Visfi~ A wide-band band-pass filter can be designed by cascading a low-pass and high-pass filter with properly selected cut-off frequencies. A narrow-band band-pass filter can be designed around a single Op-Amp using the active resonance circuit of Figure 3.2. This implementation is also known as the Delyiannis implementation. The frequency response is shown ia Figure 3.b. The gain at 2 fey Qrdg are: the center (resonance) frequency fe is Ap. The design equations fo Choose C,= C, = C = convenient value. 2 . Shee (6) Rs te - ; © 2nfeC(20?-Az) 2(20?-Ap) 2 @ 2ajeCAr 2 We note from eq. (6) that it must be Ar < 207, lysis equations are:Ap=s (8) f-— ) “2a VIR ARR) L Bea (10) Avunique characteristic of the Delyiannis circuit is that the center frequency ff can be changed to another frequency fic without chang the value of R, so that: fe gain or the bundwideh B of the filter by changing RR, {(®) (+R) -R (1) {ewe wanta tunable iter, thenwesimply make R, variable, However, there is practical limitation on the smallest value of R,, DESIGN EXAMPLES: LOW-PASS FILTER: Design a ath order Chebyshev low-pass Glter with cutoff fequency of 1 KHz and pass-band - ripple of 0.5 db. Solution: From the Tables at the end, we obtain the normalized transfer function 1 Hils)=— FF (9) Fr os8OT = LOSS T ORE +0 (12) Denormalize the transfer function so that the cut-off frequency is the desired o, by replacing s by +. After doing some algebra we obtai3.4x107 10" (5? + 2.2e10%s 4.18210) H(s) = H(s)H{s) = (13) 5.34x10"5 + 1.4210) Since the final transfer Function is the product of two 2nd order terms, we will use two Sallen-Key Sections to implement each term. Note that in the implementation step, only the denominator coefficients have to be designed. The constant terms on the numerator of each term do not have to be matched because they are just scaling factors and do not affect the shape of the frequency response. Resign of H,(s): Comparing the denominator terms in (1) with the terms in H(s), and by also using (2), we find that: © = 4.18110", kw,=2.2x10° and RC @ 154x107, A, = 2.66, 1.66 t Selecting C= O.01uF (standard value), we find R=15.4KQ, and if R,=1KQ, then Ry = 1.66KQ. Using standard values for the resistors we select: R=1SKQ, R,=1KQ, R,=1.6KQ Resign of H,(s): Comparing the denominator terms in (1) with the terms in Hs), and by also using (2), we find that: 3 = 142010", kw, =5.34x10° and RC #2. 5 R Selecting C = 0.022uF (standard value), we find R= 12KQ, and if R,=10K®, then Ry = 5.8KQ. Using standard values tor the resistors we select: =12KQ, Ry=5.6KQ, R,=10KQ The final design is shown in Figure 4. The overall DC gain with the selected standard values (= 12db). iS Ayelyy = 2.641 56HIGH-PASS FILTER: Design a 3rd order Butterworth high-pass filter with a cut-off frequency of 1 KHz. ‘Solution: We will first design a low-pass filterand then convertit into a high-pass by interchanging resistors and capacitors. From the Tables at the end, we obtain the normalized transfer function: 1 10) = erase a4) Denormalize the transfer function by replacing s by & After doing some algebra we obtain: ®, oF H(s)=H{s)H{s) = Grajeressay (15) where @, = 2010? (2 is the desired the cut-off freques Since the final transfer function is the product of a Ist anda 2nd order term, we will use one Sallen-Key section to implement the 2nd order term and the circuit of Figure 2 to implement the Ist order term . Note again that only the denominator coefficients have to be designed. Design of H.(s): Comparing the denominator terms in (1) with the tems in H,(3), and by also using (2), we find that: = 6.2810", k=1 and RC =1.59x10", A,= 1 BLP Selecting C= 0.015uF (standard value), we find R= 10,6KQ, and since R,=R; we can Select the standard values R,=R,=10KQ. For R we canuse the standard val 0KQ.Design of H,(s): Comparing the denominator terms in (3) with the terms in H(s) we see that we only have to set RC = =. Therefore, we can use the same values as in Hys), namely, R= 10KQ, C =0.015ur. Since the numerator constant in H(s) is irrelevant, tor convenience we select A,=1 (voltage follower). ‘The final low-pass design is shown in Figure 5. The overall DC gain is AuAc= 2 (6db). To obtain the high-pass filter we interchange R and C in each section. The resulting circuit is shown in Figure 6. The high frequency gain is 2 (6db). Note that Ry,Ry ace the same for both filters. BAND-PASS: Using a single Op-Amo design a band-pass filter with the following specifications fem 1KHz, Q=3 A,=10 Solution: Choose C= 0.01uF. From (5), (6) and (7) we get Ry=95.5KQ, Ry =5.97KQ, Ry = 4.77KQ ~ Using the closest standard values we can use: Ry 100KQ, Ry 6.2KQ. R= 4.7KQ The final design is shown in Figuee 7. By starting with a different value of C, other resistor values, possibly closer to available values can be found. Suppose that we now want to change the center frequency to 1.5 KH without change to the gain and bandwith. From (11) we find that we just have to change R, to 15K (Standard value) (see eqs. (8) and (10) ), the Note that even though the bandwidth and the gain do not chat quality factor Q does change. Why?PREPARATION: 1) Verity all the calculations of the Chebyshev low-pass filter design example. 2) Verify all the calculations of the Butterworth low-pass filter design example. 3) Verity all the calculations of the band-pass filter design example. 4) Change the center frequency of the band-pass filter example from 1 KHz to 3 KHz without changing the center frequency gain and the bandwidth. COMPUTER SIMULATION: Perform a PSpice simulation of all the filters of the examples and the preparation par. EXPERIMENT: The purpose of the experiment is to study the characteristics of the various active filters exper- imentally. A) LOW-PASS CHEBYSHEV 1) Build the Chebyshev low-pass filter (1 experimental frequency response (cut-o we 4) designed in the example and obtain the frequency and pass-band gain). B) HIGH-PASS BUTTERWORTH 1) Build the Butterworth 3rd order low-pass filter (Figure 5) designed in the example and obtain the experimental frequency response (cut-off frequency and pass-band gain). 2) Repeat for the Buttenvorth 3rd order higi ass filter (Figure 6). 32©) BAND-PASS 1) Build the band-pass filter (Figure 7) designed in the example and obtain the experimental frequency response (center frequency and bandwidth). 2) Let the input be a 1 KHz square or triangular wave and observe the output waveform. What do you see? How do you explain it. 3) Vary the frequency of the square or triangular wave from 90 Hz to 10 KHz and observe the output waveform. Make comments. 4) Change the center frequency to 2 KHz by changing the value of Ry (use eq. 11) and check the frequency response again, DESIGN: Design an active filter of your choice. If is low or high pass choose an order of at least 3. fs band-pass, you can use the single Op-Amp implementation. Specity the following: a) Type and order of the filter. b) Cut-off frequency or center frequency and bandwidth, Deliverables: a) Complete filter specifications. b) Summary of design steps. ©) Complete circuit design. 4) Computer simulation using LF 351 Op-Amps. e) Laboratory obtained experimental results. £) Summary and conclusions.REPORT: In your report present experimental results and compare them with the expected results. Discuss any discrepancies, make comments and write conclusions. REFERENCES: 1) "Microelectronic Circuits," Sedra/Smith, Thitd Edition. 2) Current textbook for EEL 4309. Normalized Low-Pass Butterworth Polynomials (Factored Form) (Characteristic Equation (Normalized) ee eee Gey Ge visen G+lit+e4) (2? + 0.765365 + 1s? + 1.84776 + 1) (s+ Dis? + 061805 + 1s? + LeLs0s = 1) 'd Low-Pass Chebyshev Polynomials (Factored Form) (0.25 08 Ripple) Characteristic Equation (Normalized) 10811) + 1.7967 + 2.1140) (5 + 076722)(5? + 0.76725 + 1.3386) (23 + 0.42505 + 1161952 + 1.0251 00s + 0.5364) (0.5 68 Fipple) Characteristic Equation (Normalized) Gs + 2.8628) (58 + 142565 + 1.5162 Go (= 05350: (036 0.22395 = Lo: (1.008 Ripple) Characteristic Equation (Normalized) 3 (53 + 027915 = 0.9865,3? ~ 0637s = 0.2794) (5 + 0289557 + 0.17895 = O.9883u57 = 0.46845 + 0.os HF a Figure 5 o.0ls HF 01s AF Lo = low 36NOTES.