Some definitions.

Element is a substance that contains atoms of only one type. Elements are chemically the simplest
substances so that they cannot be broken down using chemical reactions.

For example , neon is an element because it contains only neon atoms. Which have the symbol Ne. it
cannot be broken down into atoms of any other element. Water in not an element it substance with
contains hydrogen and oxygen.

Atoms are far too small to be seen with the human eye. An atom can be described as the smallest part
of an element that has the properties of that element.

Molecule is a particle made of two or more atoms. Bonded together.

If a molecule contains atoms of the same element. For example , a molecule that contains two atoms of
hydrogen joined together can be represented by the formula H2. This formula contains only one symbol
(H) , so it is the formula of an element.

For example a molecule that contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen joined together
can be represented by the formula H2O. The formula contains two different elements, so it is the
formula of a compound.

Compound is a substance containing atoms of different elements combined together. Some

compounds contain large number of atoms bonded together. Some compounds contain oppositely
charged ions .

Monoatomic elements

Elements that are made up of single atoms are described as monoatomic One example is helium.

Elements and compounds made up of two atoms joined together are described as diatomic.

N2, H2 and O2 are diatomic molecules.

P4 and S8 are polyatomic molecules

Classify each of these symbols and formulae as atoms, molecules or ions.

Ne CO2 H+ S8 Al3+

Atom molecule ion molecule ion

Which of the following formulae represent elements, compounds, or neither elements nor compounds?
Explain your answer.

Br2 H2O2 NO3- O3 CaO

Element compound ion molecule compound

Physical states

Solid (s)

Liquid (l)

Gas (g)

Aqueous (aq)

Write ionic equations

The following assumptions are made when ionic equations are written.

• Solids do not dissociate into ions.

• Water does not dissociate into ions.
• Gases do not dissociate into ions
1. AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3 (aq)
+ - + -
Ag (aq) +NO3 (aq) + Na (aq) +Cl (aq) → AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3-
-
Ag+(aq) + Cl (aq) → AgCl(s)
AgCl is a white solid ( precipitate)

2. AgNO3(aq) + NaBr(aq) → AgBr(s) + NaNO3 (aq)

Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+ (aq)+ Br-(aq) → AgBr(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

Ag+(aq) +Br-(aq)→ AgBr(s)(cream)

AgBr is a cream precipitate

3. AgNO3(aq) + NaI(aq) → AgI(s) + NaNO3 (aq)

+ - + -
Ag (aq) + NO3 (aq) + Na (aq) + I (aq)→ AgI(s) + Na+(aq) +NO3-

Ag+(aq) + I-(aq) → AgI(s)

AgI is a yellow precipitate

4. MgCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)→ Mg(OH)2 + 2NaCl(aq)

Mg2+ (aq) +2Cl-(aq) +2Na+(aq) +2 OH-(aq) → Mg(OH)2(s)+ 2Na+(aq) + 2C l-(aq)

Mg(OH)2 is a white precipitate

5. CaCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq)` → CaCO3(s) + 2NaC[(aq)

Ca2+(aq) +2Cl-(aq) +2Na+(aq) + CO32-(aq)→ CaCO3(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl-

Ca2+(aq)+ CO32 -→ CaCO3(s)

6. BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

a2+ - + 2-
B (aq) +2Cl (aq) +2Na (aq) +SO4 (aq) → BaSO4(s)+ 2Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
White precipitate

7. Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl → 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H20(l)

+ 2- + -
2Na (aq) + CO3 + 2H+ +2Cl-(aq) → 2Na (aq) +Cl (aq) +CO2(g) + H2O(l)
CO32- +2H+ → CO2(g) +H2O(l)

8. CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

CaCO3(s) + 2H+ +2Cl- → Ca2+ + 2Cl- + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+ (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

9. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Na+(aq) +OH-(aq) + H+(aq) +Cl-(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)

OH-(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l)

10. 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

+ -
2Na (aq) + 2OH (aq) +2H+ + SO4 → +
2Na (aq) +SO42-(aq) +
2H2O(l) Type equation here.
-
2OH (aq) +2H+(aq) → 2H2O(l)
- +
OH (aq) +H (aq) → H2O(l)
11. KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
K+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H+(aq) +Cl-(aq) → K+(aq) +Cl-(aq) +H2O(l)
OH-(aq) +H+(aq) → H2O(l)

12. FeCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Fe(OH)2 (s) + 2NaCl(aq)

Fe2+(aq) +2Cl-(aq) + 2Na+(aq) +2OH-(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s) + 2Na+(aq) +

2Cl-(aq)

Fe2+ +2OH- → Fe(OH)2(dirty green precipitate)

13. FeCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s) + 3NaCl(aq)

Fe3+ +3Cl- + 3Na+ + 3OH- → Fe(OH)3 + 3Na+ +3Cl-

Fe3+ + 3OH- → Fe(OH)3

14. Zn(s) +H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Zn(s) +2H+ + SO42- → Zn2+ 2-
+SO4 + H2
Zn +2H+ → 2+
Zn + H2

15. Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Mg + 2H+ → Mg2+ + H2

16. Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

2+ -
Ca (aq)+2OH (aq) +CO2(g) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
 17. CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) → Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) → Ca2+(aq)+2 HCO3-

18. 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

2Na +2H2O → 2Na+ +2OH- +H2g)

2Na + 2H2O → 2Na+ +2OH- +H2

19. Mg(s) + H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Mg + H2O → Mg2+(aq) -
+ 2OH + H2

20. Mg(OH)2(s) +2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H+ + → Mg2+ + + H2O

Isotopes

Elements which have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are isotopes.

Isotopes of hydrogen

Hydrogen(protium) Deuterium Tritium

Number of protons 1 1 1
Number of neutrons 0 1 2
Number of electrons 1 1 1
 1H 2D 3T
Symbol
1 1 1

Isotopes of carbon

12C 13C 14C

6 6 6

Number of protons 6 6 6
Number of electrons 6 6 6
Number of neutrons 6 7 8

Isotopes of chlorine
35Cl 37Cl
17 17

Number of protons 17 17
Number of electrons 17 17
Number of neutrons 18 20
Percentage of 35Cl is 75%

Percentage of 37Cl is 25%

Relative atomic mass of of chlorine = 35 x 75 + 37 x 25

100 100

= 35.5

Relative atomic mass(Ar):

The weighted mean mass(average mass of an atom compared to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of 12C.

Ar = mean mass of an atom of an element

1/12 of the mass of atom of 12C

Relative atomic mass does not have units.

Relative molecular mass (Mr)

Relative atomic masses are used for of elements. Relative molecular mass is used for molecules of both
elements and compounds.

Some substances do not exist as molecules they exist as ionic crystals For ionic substances we use the
term formula mass.

What is the molecular mass of carbon dioxide? CO2 Mr = 12.0 + 16 x 2 = 44.0

What is the molecular mass of H2SO4 ? 2 x1 + 32.1 + 16 x 4 = 98.1

What is the formula mass of CuSO4.5H2O 63.5 + 32.1 + 4 x 16 +5 (2 x 1 + 16 ) = 249.6

Molar mass

Relative atomic mass

Relative molecular

Relative formula mass can be collectively known as molar mass

Relative atomic mass of an element contains 1 mole of atoms.

Relative molecular mass of substance contains 1 mole of molecules.

Relative formula mass of substance contains 1 mole of units.

Amount in mol = mass of substance in g

Molar mass in g mol-1

Avogadro constant 6.02 x 1023

Mole: the amount of substances that contains the same number of particles as the number of
carbon atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C.

4.0 g of helium atoms contains 1mole of which contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms .

2.0 g of hydrogen (H2)contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules

How many H2O molecules are there in 180 g water?

Number of moles of water = 180/18 = 10 moles

Number of molecules of water = 10 x 6.02 x 1023 = 6.02 x 1024

How many molecules are there in 20 g of hydrogen?

Number of moles of hydrogen = 20/2 = 10 mol

Number of molecules of hydrogen = 10 x 6.02 x 1023

Number of molecules of hydrogen =6.02 x 1024

How many molecules of S8 are there in 642 g of sulfur?

Number of moles of S8 = 642/32.1 = 20 mol

Number of molecules = 20 x 6.02 x 1023 = 1.204 x 1025

How many atoms are there in 10g of H 2 ?

Number of moles of hydrogen in 10 g = 10/2 = 5 mol

Number of molecules of hydrogen = 5 x 6.02 x1023 = 3.01 x 1024

Number of atoms of hydrogen = 2 x 3.01 x 1024 = 6.02 x 1024

How many atoms are there in 64.2 g of S 8 ?

Number of moles of sulfur = 64.2/256.8 = 0.025 mol

Number of molecules of sulfur S8

= 0.025 x 6.02 x 1023 = 1.505 1022 molecules

Number of atoms of sulfur = 8 x 1.505 x 1022 = 1.204 x 1023 atoms

Calculate the mass in grams of material in the number of moles stated.

Mass = number of moles x molar mass

Calculate the mass of the following substances.(S =32.1 ,O = 16 , Cu = 63.5 , Mg = 24.3 , Fe = 56.8

a. 0.10 mol of SO2

Mass = 0.1 x 32.1 +16 x 2
= 6.41 g
 b. 0.5 mol of CuSO4.5H2O
Molar mass = 63.5 + 32.1 + 4 x 16 + 5 x 18 = 249.5
0.5 x 249.5 = 124.75 g
c. 10 mol of Na2CO3.10H2O
Mass = 10 x2 x 23 +12 + 16 x 3 + 10 x 18 = 2860 g

d. 0.1 mol of MgSO4.7H2O

mass = 0.1 x 24.3 + 32.1 + 16 x 4 + 7x 18 = 24.64 g

e 10 mol of (NH4)2SO4.FeSO4.6 H2O

mass = 10 x 14 x 2 + (8 )+( 32,1 )+ (16 x 4) + (55.8 0+ (32.1 )+ (16 x 4) +( 6 x 18) = 3920

Calculate the number of moles in the following substances.

Number of moles = mass

Molar mass

a. Calculate the number of moles in 24.95 g of CuSO4.5H2O.

Number of mols = 24.95

249.5

= 0.10 mol

b. Calculate the number of moles in 316 g of KMnO4.

Number of moles = 316
158
= 2 mol
c. Calculate the number of moles in 1519 g of FeSO4.
 Number of moles = 1519
151.9
= 10 mol
d. Calculate the number of moles in 2860 g of Na2CO3.10H2O.
Number of moles = 2860/286 = 10 mols

e. Calculate the number of moles of 90 g of C6H12O6 glucose.

Number of moles = 90/180 = 0.5 mol

Determination of the molar mass of a compound.

Molar mass = mass

Number of moles

a Element A contains 0.1 mols in 5.58 g. calculate the molar mass of A.

molar mass = 5.58

0.1

= 55.8g mol-1

b. Compound B contains 0-05 mol in 14.3 g . calculate the molar mass of B.

molar mass = 14.3/0.05 = 286 g mol-1

c Compound C contains 0.2 mols in 25 g . Calculate the molar mass of C.

= 25/0.2 = 125 g mol-1

Molar volume1 mole of any gas occupies 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure.

2g of H2 32 g of O2 71g of Cl2 17 g NH3 28 g of N2

24 dm3 24000 cm3

1 atmosphere / 1.01x 105 Pa / 25 C⁰ / 298 K 1 mole

44 g of CO2 30 g NO 28 g of CO 64.1 g of SO2 48 g of O3

1. Calculate the volume of 10 g of hydrogen at room temperature 25⁰ C and pressure 1 atm( 1.01 x
105 Pa)
Number of moles = 10/2 = 5 mol
Volume = number of moles x molar volume
= 5 x 24 = 120 dm3 .
2. Calculate the volume of 64 g of oxygen at room temperature and pressure.
Number of moles = 64/32 = 2 mol
Volume = number of moles x molar volume
= 2 x 24
= 48 dm3
3. Calculate the volume of 56 g of CO measured at room temperature and pressure.
Number of moles = 56/28 = 2 mol
= 2 x 24 =48 dm3

Calculate the number of moles of gas in a volume of that gas

Number of moles = volume

Molar volume

Calculate the number of moles of in a given volume of that gas measured at rtp.

a. 112 cm3 of carbon dioxide.

Number of moles = 120

24000

= 5 x 10-3

b. 500 cm3 of NH3

Number of moles = 500
24000
= 0.0208 mol
c. 480 cm3 of nitrogen.
Number of moles = 480
24000
= 0.02 mol

Calculate the relative formula mass of a gas from mass and volume data for the gas.

a. 0.373 g gas occupy 56 cm3

Number of moles = volume/ molar volume
= 56 / 24000 = 2.333 x 10-3
Molar mass = mass/number of moles
= 0.373/ 2.333 x 10-3 = 159.8 = 160 g mol-1
b. 0.747 g of a gas occupy 280 cm3.
Number of moles = 280/24000 = 0.01166
Molar mass = mass / number of moles
= 0.747/ 0.01166 = 45 g mol-1 .
C. 0.467 g occupy 140 cm3

Number of moles = 140/24000 = 5.833 x 10-3

d. 0.0833 g of gas occupy 1000 cm3.

e. 0.218 g of gas occupy 90 cm3.

f. 0.198 g occupy 280 cm3

Calculations form chemical equations

1. Calculate the mass of barium sulfate that is precipitated when a solution containing 5.55 g of
barium chloride is reacted with excess magnesium sulfate.
BaCl2(aq) + MgSO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + MgCl2(aq)

Number of moles of barium sulfate = 5.55/208.3 = 0.02664 mol

 BaCl2 : BaSO4
0.02664 : 0.02664 mol
Mass of BaSO4 = mol x molar mass
= 0.02664 x 233.4 = 6.22 g

2. Calculate the mass of sodium sulfate produced when 3.45 g of sodium hydroxide is neutralized
by excess sulfuric acid.
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)→ Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
 Number of moles sodium hydroxide =3.45/40 = 0.08625 mol

2NaOH : Na2SO4

0.08625 : ½ x 0.08625 = 0.04313 mol

Mass of Na2SO4 = mols x molar mass

= 0.04313 x 142.1

= 6.13 g

3. 200.2 g of calcium carbonate was heated until the decomposition is complete.

CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(i) Calculate the mass of calcium oxide formed.

Number of moles of calcium carbonate = mass/ molar mass

= 200.2/100.1 = 2 mol

CaCO3(s) : CaO(s)

2 mol 2 mol

Mass of CaO = mols x molar mass

= 2 x 56.1

= 112.2 g

(ii) Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide formed.

CaCO3 : CO2

2 mol : 2 mol

Mass of CO2 = 2 x 44 = 88 g

(iii) Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide formed at rtp.

Number of moles of carbon dioxide = 2 mols
Volume of carbon dioxide formed = mols x molar volume
= 2 x 24
= 48 dm3
(iv) KMnO4 decomposes on heating according to the following equation.

2KMnO4 → K2MnO4(s) + MnO2(s) + O2(g)

790 g of potassium manganate(VII) was heated .

 Calculate the mass of MnO2 formed.

Calculate the mass of oxygen formed.

Calculate the volume of oxygen formed at rtp.

(v) Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide produced when 2.68 g of calcium carbonate is
heated and decomposes according to the equation:
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Under the conditions of the experiment , 1 mol of gas occupies 24000 cm3.

Answer = 643 cm3.

(vi) Calculate the volume of oxygen needed to react with 123 cm3 of gaseous methane , CH4.
 Answer 246 cm3 .

(vii) Calculate the volume of oxygen gas needed to burn completely 200 cm3 of gaseous
butane.
2 C4H10(g) +13O2 → 8CO2(g) +10H2O(l)

Answer : 1300 cm3.

(viii) 5.3 g of sodium carbonate(Na2CO3) was reacted with excess dilute HCl.
Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Calculate the mass of sodium chloride formed.

Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide formed.

Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide formed at rtp.

Percentage yield calculations

Many reactions do not produce the same amount of product as that calculated from the chemical
equation. This is caused by the reaction being reversible or because of competing reactions. This is
especially true in organic chemistry.

Percentage yield is defined as :

Percentage yield = actual yield X 100

Theoretical yield

The actual is the measured mass of the product obtained in the experiment.

The theoretical yield is the mass that is calculated from the equation for the reaction , assuming that all
the reactant is converted into product.

Question

When 1000g of sulfur dioxide is reacted with excess oxygen, 1225 g of s=ulfur trioxide is produced.

2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

Calculate the percentage yield.

Theoretical yield

Number of moles of sulfur dioxide. = mass/molar mass = 1000g/64.1 g mol-1

= 15.6 mol

Number of moles of SO2 = number of moles of SO3

15.6mol = 15.6 mol

Theoretical mass of SO3 = 15.6mol x 80.1 g mol-1 =1250 g

Percentage yield = actual yield/theoretical yield x 100

= 1225/1250 x 100

= 98.0 %
A manufacturer uses this reaction to obtain methanol, from carbon monoxide and hydrogen.

CO +2H2 → CH3OH

The manufacturer obtained 4.07 tonnes of methanol starting from 4.32 tonnes of carbon monoxide.
What is the percentage yield?

Theoretical yield.

Number of moles of methanol 4.32 x 106/28 = 1.54 x 106 mol.

CO : CH3OH

1 : 1

1.54 x 106 : 1.54 106

Mass of methanol = 1.54 x 106 x 32 = 4.94 x 106 g

Percentage yield = 4.07 x 106 x100 = 82.4 %

4.94 x 106