Curriculum and instruction (6503)

Q. 1 Explain the specific principles applied to each instructional style. Compare

the cost effectiveness of different styles of instruction.

ANS
Instructional Methods
1. Problem solving method
We all know that education is through the life and for the life. In our life, we face many
good and bad times. There are problems in various situations. We learn solving them,
without which life is incomplete. We train and educate our learners how to deal with
situations, how to tackle and settle things in context to school learning We may define
problem solving as: "A manner of dealing with that, which is problematic. A method
involving clear definition of problems confronted, formation of hypothetical solutions,
hunch or suggestion, deliberate test of hypothesis until evidence warrants its
acceptance”. It may be defined as a planned attack upon a difficulty or perplexity for the
purpose of finding a satisfactory solution. So, it is a method in which the felt hurdle to
act in an educational situation is realized and an attempt is made in a conscious,
planned and purposeful way to find its solution.
Location Students should be directed to locate some problem and their interest in its
solution should be aroused. Questions and discussions are a very important tool at this
stage. They should take a problem as challenge and find a solution.
Explanation Either a teacher has to explain a problem or else pupils know of it, after
discussion Student's age level and their understanding are important in determining a
problem. Collection of data
After discussion, data is to be procured. Sources are to be given by teacher. Pupils
getting data, start evaluation.
Evaluation
Only pertinent data should be included in evaluation, which should be based on careful
analysis.
Tentative Solutions
All inferences are tentative in the beginning. Here a teacher's guidance is very important
and his patience is also tested. He should suggest inferences and solutions in the right
way without discouraging the pupils.
Verification of results
After the best conclusion has been drawn, it should be proved to be right, for
acceptance. This can be achieved as below:-
By using hypothesis in new contexts:
By further experimentation, and
By collecting new information data through study and
Investigation Methods
There are two methods of problem solving:
Inductive
Deductive
1. Inductive
In this method generalizations are drawn from particulars. Principles are framed from
observations and rules are made from instances or examples.
Sensing a problem
The pupils define their problem.
Analysis
: After analysis, relevant information is found out. Books help after study, pursuing
references and visits to places etc. are some of the ways.
Organization After collecting information, the pupils put it in order, under the guidance of
their teacher.
Making solutions
Pupils find out the probable solutions, while the teacher remains in background. Here
we may say that tentative solutions and its alternatives are developed and framed by
pupils independently.
Elimination
Learning the most probable solution, others are excluded.
Verification
Solutions are applied to the situation and results are checked. Repetition of this step is
carried out until correct solution is found out.
2. Deductive
In this process, rules, principles and conclusions are applied to particular cases.
Following steps are proceeded:
Understanding Problem
Pupils follow it. They define the problem and formulate it.
Collection of information
They gather information for study later.
Review
Principles and generalizations are reviewed to find as to which may be applicable to find
a suitable solution.
Drawing Inferences
Generalizations, principles or rules are applied to a case and inference is drawn that a
problem falls under a particular principle.
Verification
The principle is applied to a case, if it solves the problem; otherwise the method is
repeated to find the correct one.
Advantages
Problem solving method do possess benefits that are listed as below:
Pupils learn facts themselves. This is real education/ learning. Discovery takes place.
Acting in new situation is learnt. Confidence to face the problem is developed. Defining
the problem and verification of result is learnt. Curiosities of pupils are satisfied and
devices are found out. Ideas are born and originality is developed.
Project Method
We may define it as, "A problematic act carried out to its completion in its natural
setting".
This method builds a unit around an activity that is carried out in education setting,
might be formal or informal. Its main aim is to accomplish a useful task in-group setting,
whereby all work is done in a cooperative manner. In this method students are given
freedom to select their projects after careful thinking. Two important laws of a project
are:
Learning by Doing
Learning by Living
New we will look at the steps of a project.
Steps in a Project
Provision of a situation
A situation is identified or arranged in which some problems are available with
interesting ingredient for the pupils.
Selection of Objectives
A teacher guides and facilitates his pupils in this phase too, to select and find out aims
and objectives of the project being selected, keeping in mind real needs of pupils,
Planning
This is a very important step, so one must be careful in drawing a blueprint for a project.
Planning should include a few alternatives. A discussion to exchange group ideas and
views is very crucial. Suggestions must be critically examined and utilized.
Execution
Among group members are assigned duties in a way that all get activities of their choice
and capability. No doubt, it needs patience of contributors to make it a success. In one
project many activities can be developed. They all help in knowledge growth.
Evaluation
Work done on project must be evaluated by themselves (student group) and supervisor
(teacher) as well, to locate the follies. Self-criticism is worth training giving. In this step
objectives (pre-sct) of that project are the standard and performance is measured
against this standard.
Recording
Group/individuals must maintain a full record of various steps.
Planning, discussions, assignment of duties, criticisms and such like other points are
noted for future reference and guidance.
Qualities of a good Project
To make this method a fruitful and purposeful one it must possess following qualities:
• Clear and solid aim.
• Practicable.
• Interesting and relevant to pupilo' need.
• Knowledge based to bring some development
• Encouraging Ingredient and have pupils' level.
• Clear and well defined scope.
• cal terms of money and time,
• Time oriented neither too short nor too long.
• Challenging
• Attainable. (Availability of material, information, tools, etc. should be kept in mind
before starting
Work on a project
A Project Aims to Bring a Child out of Bewilderment. After looking at qualities, now we
will learn about merits and demerits of this method. Like other methods, it possesses
benefits and drawbacks. So keeping in mind these aspects we can use this method in
the best way.
Demerits
• Time consuming
• Teacher is overloaded with work.
• Teacher does forced correlation, which is much harmful.
• Syllabus of advance classes cannot be covered with this method, as it requires
greater time.
• Teacher is expected to have full knowledge of all subjects, which is ideal but not
practicable.
• Students gain outward ideas of subjects only.
• Text and reference materials are found with scarcity.
• Expensive, as well as fully equipped laboratory and library, is required.

Q.No.2 Explain the need of conceptual framework for curriculum design.

How can it help in foreseeing the problems of curriculum design?
ANS
Curriculum design is a term used to describe the purposeful, deliberate, and systematic
organization of curriculum (instructional blocks) within a class or course. In other words,
it is a way for teachers to plan instruction. When teachers design curriculum, they
identify what will be done, who will do it, and what schedule to follow.
Purpose of Curriculum Design
Teachers design each curriculum with a specific educational purpose in mind. The
ultimate goal is to improve student learning, but there are other reasons to employ
curriculum design as well. For example, designing a curriculum for middle school
students with both elementary and high school curricula in mind helps to make sure that
learning goals are aligned and complement each other from one stage to the next. If a
middle school curriculum is designed without taking prior knowledge from elementary
school or future learning in high school into account it can create real problems for the
students.
Types of Curriculum Design
There are three basic types of curriculum design:
Subject-centered design Learner-centered design
Problem-centered design Subject-Centered Curriculum Design
Subject-centered curriculum design
Revolves around a particular subject matter or discipline. For example, a subject-
centered curriculum may focus on math or biology. This type of curriculum design tends
to focus on the subject rather than the individual. It is the most common type of
curriculum used in K-12 public schools in states and local districts in the United States.
Subject-centered curriculum design describes what needs to be studied and how it
should be studied. Core curriculum is an example of a subject-centered design which
can be standardized across schools, states, and the country as a whole. In
standardized core curricula, teachers are provided a pre-determined list of things that
they need to teach their students, along with specific examples of how these things
should be taught. You can also find subject-centered designs in large college classes in
which teachers focus on a particular subject or discipline.
The primary drawback of subject-centered curriculum design is that it is not student-
centered. In particular, this form of curriculum design is constructed without taking into
account the specific learning styles of the students. This can cause problems with
student engagement and motivation and may even cause students to fall behind in
class. Learner-Centered Curriculum Design
In contrast, learner-centered curriculum design takes each individual’s needs, interests,
and goals into consideration. In other words, it acknowledges that students are not
uniform and adjusts to those student needs. Learner-centered curriculum design is
meant to empower learners and allow them to shape their education through choices.
Instructional plans in a learner-centered curriculum are differentiated, giving students
the opportunity to choose assignments, learning experiences or activities. This can
motivate students and help them stay engaged in the material that they are learning.
The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it is labor intensive. Developing
differentiated instruction puts pressure on the teacher to create instruction and/or find
materials that are conducive to each student’s learning needs. Teachers may not have
the time or may lack the experience or skills to create such a plan. Learner-centered
curriculum design also requires that teachers balance student wants and interests with
student needs and required outcomes, which is not an easy balance to obtain.
Problem-Centered Curriculum Design
Like learner-centered curriculum design, problem-centered curriculum design is also a
form of student-centered design. Problem-centered curricula focus on teaching students
how to look at a problem and come up with a solution to the problem. Students are thus
exposed to real-life issues, which helps them develop skills that are transferable to the
real world.
Problem-centered curriculum design increases the relevance of the curriculum and
allows students to be creative and innovate as they are learning. The drawback to this
form of curriculum design is that it does not always take learning styles into
consideration.
Curriculum Design Tips
The following curriculum design tips can help educators manage each stage of the
curriculum design process. Identify the needs of stakeholders (i.e., students) early on in
the curriculum design process. This can be done through needs analysis, which
involves the collection and analysis of data related to the learner. This data might
include what learners already know and what they need to know to be proficient in a
particular area or skill. It may also include information about learner perceptions,
strengths, and weaknesses.
Create a clear list of learning goals and outcomes. This will help you to focus on the
intended purpose of the curriculum and allow you to plan instruction that can achieve
the desired results. Learning goals are the things teachers want students to achieve in
the course. Learning outcomes are the measurable knowledge, skills, and attitudes that
students should have achieved in the course. Identify constraints that will impact your
curriculum design. For example, time is a common constraint that must be considered.
There are only so many hours, days, weeks or months in the term. If there isn’t enough
time to deliver all of the instruction that has been planned, it will impact learning
outcomes. Consider creating a curriculum map (also known as a curriculum matrix) so
that you can properly evaluate the sequence and coherence of instruction. Curriculum
mapping provides visual diagrams or indexes of a curriculum. Analyzing a visual
representation of the curriculum is a good way to quickly and easily identify potential
gaps, redundancies or alignment issues in the sequencing of instruction. Curriculum
maps can be created on paper or with software programs or online services designed
specifically for this purpose. Identify the instructional methods that will be used
throughout the course and consider how they will work with student learning styles. If
the instructional methods are not conducive to the curriculum, the instructional design or
the curriculum design will need to be altered accordingly. Establish evaluation methods
that will be used at the end and during the school year to assess learners, instructors,
and the curriculum. Evaluation will help you determine if the curriculum design is
working or if it is failing. Examples of things that should be evaluated include the
strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum and achievement rates related to learning
outcomes. The most effective evaluation is ongoing and summative. Remember that
curriculum design is not a one-step process; continuous improvement is a necessity.
The design of the curriculum should be assessed periodically and refined based on
assessment data. This may involve making alterations to the design part way through
the course to ensure that learning outcomes or a certain level of proficiency will be
achieved at the end of the course.
Q.No.3. Design strategies for the evaluation of specific educational
programmers and suggest means for their improvement.
ANS
Evaluation has been defined by Oarsman and Gambeson as “a process of making
judgments about student learning and achievement, clinical performance, employee
competence, and educational programs, based on assessment data”. Keating defined
evaluation as “a process by which information about an entity is gathered to determine
its worth” and involves making “value judgments about learners, as value is part of the
word evaluation”. Evaluation is used in various professional contexts on a daily basis in
order to make decisions for complex matters that require individuals or methods of
practice to be either certified, secured or improved. With regard to the educational
context, many of the terms, concepts, and theories of educational evaluation originated
from business models, and have been adapted to education, especially in light of an
increased emphasis on outcomes.
A variety of evaluation approaches have been developed throughout the relatively short
but plentiful life of evaluation. Evaluation in education has received both criticism and
approval from the scientific community. Many authors expressed their skepticism about
the application of evaluation in education, and have discussed the difficulties of
implementing evaluation theory in practice. From the early years of evaluation,
programmed evaluation was considered as a problematic issue for several reasons.
The impracticality of evaluation instruments, the lack of students’ involvement in the
evaluation process, the low response rate and poor commitment of faculty staff are
some of the issues that have thrown doubt on the practicality of programmed
evaluation. In the past, programmed evaluation was characterized as a time-consuming,
monotonous procedure, with doubtful results and struggling processes. Others
considered evaluation as a necessary but complex component of curriculum design,
development and implementation. Traditionally, the complexity of evaluation was
highlighted and, for this reason, evaluation was the least understood and the most
neglected element of curriculum design and development. In the same context,
however, programmed evaluation was considered as an important element of
programmed development, despite being neglected due to its complex nature and the
increased problems for policy makers and programmed planners.
Different views were presented in the past by various authors who revealed the
constructive nature of evaluation and claimed that evaluation is a vital component of
programmed development. Rolfe for example, who expressed concerns about the
practicality of educational evaluation, also emphasized that evaluation is an important
element of curriculum development and implementation. O’Neill stressed that evaluation
is one of the most significant facets of curriculum development, even if it is carried out
solely for the purpose of providing the faculty with a sense of security. In addition,
Shapiro and Grant-Haworth and Conrad, associate the notion of quality with evaluation
and consider evaluation as a prerequisite for developing and sustaining high–quality
educational programmers. The authors underscored that programmed quality and
programmed evaluation have been strongly emphasized in higher education, despite
the fact that evaluators and educators often conveyed criticism and divergent opinions.
Historically, these contrasting views highlight the value of educational evaluation as well
as its complexity and impracticality. These can be the reasons for poor and
unsuccessful implementation of evaluation in practice. Despite, however, the opposing
views on the utilization and usefulness of programmed evaluation, there is a general
agreement among authors of the earlier and later times that evaluation is an essential
part of the educational process. Perhaps this is the reason that successive attempts
have been made throughout the 20th century to evaluate educational programmers and
curricula. These attempts will be reviewed in chronological order.
The evaluation of educational programmers is considered as an important action for
educators in the field of nursing. Throughout the history of nursing education a variety of
methods and models of evaluation have been developed and used to evaluate
educational activities. Aim: The aim of this paper is to review the history of evaluation in
nursing education, and to highlight its contribution to modern evaluation thinking.
Methodology: A literature search of the electronic databases Proust, Google Scholar,
CINHAL+ and Pub Med was conducted, benchmarking texts on evaluation and
education as well as articles and documents describing evaluation theories and
methods in education. Findings: ? significant number of evaluation models were
developed and tested in real educational contexts. Their utilization in education had a
significant impact on course improvement and quality, but most of the evaluation
models were criticised for their multifaceted nature. Despite this, their contribution to the
development of modern evaluation approaches is evident. Conclusion: The history of
evaluation in education highlighted the contradictory attributes of educational
evaluation, its usefulness in different educational contexts, and its complexity in
implementation. These opposing characteristics led to the development of novel
evaluative activities focusing on flexibility and a synthesis of methods